Sharks of the North Atlantic 155

2.5.1 Family ODONTASPIDIDAE

Family: Family Odontaspides Müller and Henle, 1839, Syst. Beschr. Plagiost., pt. 2: 73. Emended to Family Odontaspididae
Müller and Henle, 1839. The corrected form Odontaspididae was placed on the Official List of Family–Group Names in
Zoology (Name no. 385) but Odontaspides was placed on the Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Family–Group Names
in Zoology (Name no. 414) by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1965, Opinion 723, Bull. Zool.
Nomencl., 22: 33, 34). Odontaspididae was given special endorsement by the International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature (1987, Opinion 1459.6, Bull. Zool. Nomencl., 44(3): 216) to take precedence over Carchariidae Müller and
Henle, 1838 when the two were synonymized.

Type genus: Odontaspis Agassiz, 1838.

Number of Recognized North Atlantic Genera: 2.

FAO Names: En – Sand tiger sharks; Fr – Requins de sable; Sp – Solrayos, Toros.

Field Marks: Large fusiform–shaped sharks, with a conical snout, large subterminal mouth, teeth large with slender cusps
and lateral cusplets, eyes small to moderately large without nictitating membranes, five moderately long paired gill slits
that do not extend onto the dorsal surface of head, two large spineless dorsal fins, an anal fin, upper precaudal pit present,
lower precaudal pit absent, caudal fin asymmetrical, upper margin less than one–third total length.

Diagnostic Features: Body fusiform, moderately stout, and firm. Head relatively short to moderately long; snout short
to moderately long, conical and pointed, not greatly elongated, or flattened. Eyes are small to moderately large, without
nictitating membranes, diameter length 1.4 to 4.1% precaudal length. Spiracles present, but very small. Gill openings
relatively long, but not extending onto dorsal surface of head; first gill opening 6.2 to 9.2% precaudal length; fifth gill
openings anterior to pectoral–fin bases; no internal gill rakers. Nostrils subterminal, entirely separate from mouth, no
nasoral grooves, and anterior margins without barbels. Mouth large, broadly arched, subterminal on head; jaws strongly
protrusible. Teeth large, awl–shaped, with lateral cusplets present; 2 to 3 rows of large anterior teeth on each side of jaw
followed by 1 to 5 rows of smaller intermediate teeth; tooth counts 34 to 56 upper jaw, 36 to 46 lower jaw. Caudal peduncle
not greatly compressed or laterally expanded; upper precaudal pit present, but without lower precaudal pit or precaudal
keels. Dermal denticles smooth and moderately large; crowns flattened and with small ridges and cusps; flank denticles
posteriorly directed. Pectoral fins broadly angular and moderately long, origin posterior to fifth gill opening. Pelvic fins
relatively large, similar in size to first dorsal fin. Dorsal fins large, angular, relatively high and erect; fin spines absent; first
dorsal fin originates over or posterior to pectoral–fin free rear tips. Second dorsal and anal fins size similar to or smaller
than first dorsal fin; second dorsal and anal fins with broad non–pivoting bases. Caudal fin asymmetrical, upper lobe
moderately long, less than one–third length of precaudal length, ventral lobe much shorter. Vertebral counts: total vertebral
counts 156 to 183, precaudal vertebral counts 80 to 95, diplospondylous caudal vertebral counts 71 to 88. Intestinal valve
with 28 to 34 turns. Size large with adults to at least 450 cm total length. Colour: light grey, grey–brown, to dark reddish
brown or black above; ventral surface lighter or similar to dorsal colour; spots present on some species.

Distribution: Wide–ranging, but patchily distributed, in most warm–temperate and tropical waters.

Habitat: Sand tiger sharks occur mostly in tropical to warm–temperate seas and depending on the species inhabit
nearshore coastal areas including bays and harbors, but also offshore, on outer continental shelves, upper slopes, and on
seamounts down to 1600 m. The bigeye sand tiger (Odontaspis noronhai) may be oceanic in the epipelagic and possibly
the mesopelagic zone. These are relatively slow moving, but active sharks.

Biology: Viviparous with oophagy, with litters of possibly only two very large young, but little else known about the
reproductive biology of this shark family. The diet of sand tiger sharks mostly consists of other elasmobranchs, bony fishes,
cephalopods, and crustaceans.

Interest to Fisheries and Human Impact: Most species within this family tend to occur in deeper water and have a very
scattered distribution, and as such are generally not important in fisheries other than being taken on occasion as bycatch.
Virtually nothing is known about the population trends for Odontaspis ferox or O. noronhai. However, Carcharias
taurus is an exception in that it occurs mostly in nearshore waters, may be quite common where it occurs, and has been
targeted by commercial and recreational fishers in some areas or has been subjected to eradication programs.

Despite their fearsome, toothy appearance and large size, these sharks are generally not aggressive towards swimmers
or divers and in fact C. taurus and O. ferox have become the popular subjects for ecotourism by divers in Australia,
Mediterranean Sea, South Africa, the east coast of the U.S.A. and in the eastern Pacific off Malpelo Island. There have
been a few incidents of people being bitten by C. taurus, but no reported incidents by either of the Odontaspis species.
Carcharhias taurus is also a common and popular species in public aquaria given their hardiness and longevity.

The conservation status for some of these sharks is considered Vulnerable since species have been experienced declines
due to overfishing.
156 FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 7

Local Names: Sand tigers, Nurse sharks, and Sand sharks.

Remarks: The family has two genera and three species of which two species occur in Areas 21 and 27. A third member of
this family (bigeye sand tiger, Odontaspis noronhai) is known from just south of the present areas, central Atlantic, but
may eventually be found to occur within Areas 21 and 27. The family account is modified after Compagno (2001).

A detailed discussion of the nomenclature for this family is given in Compagno (2001).

Literature: Garman (1913); Bigelow and Schroeder (1948); Compagno (1973, 1984, 1999, 2001); Quéro in Whitehead et
al. (1984a); Ebert (2003); Last and Stevens (2009).

Key to North Atlantic Genera:

1a. First dorsal fin similar in size to second dorsal

and anal fins, and closer to pelvic–fin bases
than pectoral–fin bases; snout short and slightly
depressed; three rows of large upper teeth on
each side of jaw symphysis (Fig. 170). . . . . . . . Carcharias
Fig. 170 Carcharias
1b. First dorsal fin much larger than second dorsal
and anal fins, and closer to pectoral–fin bases than
pelvic–fin bases; snout conical and long; two rows
of large upper teeth on each side of jaw symphysis
(Fig. 171). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odontaspis

Fig. 171 Odontaspis

Carcharias Rafinesque, 1810

Genus: Carcharias Rafinesque, 1810, Caratt. gen. sp. anim. piant. Sicilia, Palermo, pt. 1: 10. Placed on the Official
Index of Rejected and Invalid Generic Names in Zoology (name no. 1746) by the International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature (1965, Opinion 723.5a, Bull. Zool. Nomencl., 22(1): 33) following a proposal by White et al. (1961, Bull. Zool.
Nomencl., 18(4): 277–278). However, Compagno and Follet (1986, Bull. Zool. Nomencl., 43(1): 89–92) argued for the
reinstatement of Carcharias because its rejection on nomenclature grounds interfered with taxonomic work on the family.
This was accepted by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature with near–unanimity, and Carcharias
was placed on the Official List of Generic Names in Zoology (1987, Opinion 1459.2, Bull. Zool. Nomencl., 44(3): 216),
with the special endorsement that it is not to be given precedence over Odontaspis Agassiz, 1838, whenever the two are
considered synonyms.

Type species: Carcharias taurus Rafinesque, 1810, by monotypy (International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature,
1912, Opinion 47, Smithsonian Pub., 2060: 108).

Number of Recognized North Atlantic Species: 1.

Synonyms: Triglochis Müller and Henle, 1837a: 113. Placed on the Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Generic Names
in Zoology (Name no. 1747) by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1965, Opinion 723.5b: 33).
Genus Eugomphodus Gill, 1862a: 60 (name only, but without allocated species); Gill, 1864: 260 (description). Type
species, Eugomphodus griseus Gill, 1862, by monotypy, equals Carcharias griseus Storer, 1846 and C. griseus Ayres,
1843 and a junior synonym of Carcharias taurus Rafinesque, 1810. Subgenus Synodontaspis Whitley, 1931 (Genus
Odontaspis Agassiz, 1838): 51. Type species, Carcharias taurus Rafinesque, 1810 by original designation.

Field Marks: See species account below.

Diagnostic Features: Body fusiform–shaped, moderately stout. Head moderately flattened; snout short, somewhat
flattened and conical, but not bulbous; preoral length 3.2 to 4.7% of total length and 0.3 to 0.5 times mouth width. Eyes
dorsolateral on head, with prominent lateral head ridges ventrally, relatively small and rounded, diameter about 0.9 to 1.4%
of total length. Spiracles very small, about level with upper eye margin and posterior by a distance about equal to upper
eye margin length. Gill openings relatively large, but not extending onto dorsal head surface; fourth opening largest, fifth
shortest. Nostrils transverse, with small rounded flap on inner anterior margin. Mouth broadly rounded, subterminal on
head. Labial furrow prominent on lower jaw, but indistinct (especially when mouth closed) on upper. Teeth awl–shaped
with long central cusp, flanked on either side by a smaller cusplet, shape similar in both jaws; upper jaw without medial
teeth, but anterior teeth with three rows of large, stout, broad–tipped cusps, flanked by short, strongly hook–shaped
Sharks of the North Atlantic 157

cusplets; lateral teeth compressed, blade–like, with flattened cusps; posterior teeth molariform, with cusps and cusplets
greatly reduced or absent, and strongly differentiated from lateral teeth. Tooth counts 36 to 54 upper jaw, 32 to 46 lower
jaw. Caudal peduncle with well–defined upper precaudal pit, but without lower precaudal pit; without lateral keels. Dermal
denticles somewhat broad and loosely spaced, with 3 ridges, the medial ridge very prominent. Pectoral fins relatively large,
length nearly as broad as width, anterior margin nearly straight; apices rounded. Pelvic fins about as large as first dorsal
fin, with origin slightly posterior to first dorsal–fin base. First dorsal fin originates closer to pelvic–fin bases than pectoral–fin
bases. Second dorsal fin nearly as large as first. Anal fin similar in size to dorsal fins, origin about under midpoint of second
dorsal–fin base. Vertebral counts: total vertebral counts 156 to 186, precaudal vertebral counts 80 to 97, caudal vertebral
counts 71 to 85. Spiral valve turn count 29 to 30. A large shark with adults to 320 cm or more in length. Colour: light brown
to bronzy above, lighter below, often with dark reddish or brown spots scattered on body; irises of eyes light green.

Local Names: See species account below.

Carcharias taurus Rafinesque, 1810

Carcharias taurus Rafinesque, 1810, Caratt. gen. sp. anim. piant. Sicilia, Palermo, pt. 1: 10, pl. 14, fig. 1. Holotype
unknown; type locality, Sicily, Mediterranean Sea. Placed on the Official list of Specific names in Zoology by the International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 91987, Opinion 1459.4, Bull. Zool. Nomencl., 44(3): 216.

Synonyms: Squalus americanus Mitchell, 1815: 483. No types known according to Eschmeyer (1998). Type locality,
New York. Not Squalus americanus Gmelin, 1788, = Dalatias licha (Bonnaterre, 1788). Squalus macrodous Mitchell,
1818: 328. Replacement name for S. americanus Mitchell, 1815. Squalus littoralis Lesueur, 1818: 224. Holotype: 91
cm specimen, New York, possibly not extant. Squalus littoralis Mitchell, 1818: 328. Types unknown. Apparently a junior
homonym of S. littoralis Lesueur, 1818 according to Eschmeyer (1998). Carcharias griseus Ayres, 1842: 58–59 (nomen
nudum); Ayres, 1843a: 288 (no distinguishing features), Ayres, 1843b: 293, pl. 12, fig. 4. Type locality, Long Island, New
York. No types according to Eschmeyer (1998). Odontaspis americanus Abbott, 1861: 400 (new combination validates
name?).

Other Combinations: Eugomphodus taurus (Rafinesque, 1810), Odontaspis taurus (Rafinesque, 1810), Triglochis
taurus (Rafinesque, 1810), Synodontaspis taurus (Rafinesque, 1810), Carcharias littoralis (Le Sueuer, 1818),
Odontaspis griseus (Ayres, 1843), Eugomphodus griseus (Ayres, 1843), Odontaspis littoralis (Le Sueuer, 1818),
Eugomphodus littoralis (Lesueur, 1818), Carcharias americanus (Mitchell, 1815).

FAO Names: En – Sand tiger shark; Fr – Requin taureau; Sp – Toro bacota.

UNDERSIDE OF HEAD UPPER AND LOWER TEETH

Fig. 172 Carcharias taurus

158 FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 7

Field Marks: A large stout bodied shark with a short, slightly flattened snout, mouth long with large distinctly prominent
teeth, similar sized dorsal and anal fins, first dorsal fin is closer to pelvic fins than pectoral fins, upper precaudal pit present,
lateral keels absent, and an asymmetrical caudal fin. Dorsal surface colour light brown to bronzy, sometimes with scattered
small brown or reddish spots; ventral surface lighter.

Diagnostic Features: See genus Carcharias above.

Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: unknown

from Area 27, but does occur in the
Mediterranean Sea, off the Canary
Islands, Morocco, Western Sahara,
Mauritania, Sao Tome and Principe,
and the Cape Verde Islands, and south
to Namibia and South Africa. Western
Atlantic: off New Brunswick, Canada
and the Gulf of Maine southwards to
Florida and the Gulf of Mexico and from
southern Brazil to Argentina. Elsewhere,
found scattered throughout the Indo–
Western Pacific, but not in the central or
eastern Pacific.

Habitat: A common nearshore, coastal

shark of warm temperate and tropical
seas where it occurs. It occurs in bays
and estuaries, on sandy or muddy areas,
and on rocky or coral reefs. These
sharks may occur quite close inshore,
in water less than one meter deep or
offshore down to at least 191 m, but they
appear to be most common between 15
and 25 m depth. Although these sharks
are usually seen in association with reefs Fig. 173 Carcharias taurus
they occasionally make excursions into Known distribution
the midwater or to the surface.

Biology: Reproductive mode is oophagous, but is unique among lamnoids in exhibiting adelphophagy; a form of
oophagy in which the largest developing embryo in each uterus consumes all the smaller embryos and then relies on
maternal production of unfertilized eggs for the remainder of their development. This results in a single very large embryo,
approximately 100 cm in length, developing within each uterus. The reproductive cycle is thought to be two years in
the Western North Atlantic, but some studies have suggested it may only be one year. Courtship and mating has been
observed. In North American waters mating is believed to occur between late March and April, with birth occurring after a
9 to 12 month gestation period and from about December to March. Nursery areas are not well defined along the Atlantic
coast of North America, but juveniles appear to be abundant in Delaware Bay, and other estuaries, from March–April
through October, with peak abundance in June.
Age at maturity has been estimated at 9 to 10 years for females and 6 to 7 years for males, with females and males
reaching a maximum estimated age of 17 and 15 years, respectively. However, captive sand tigers have been found to live
for more than 30 years in some public aquaria.
Sand tiger sharks have a broad diet consisting mostly of smaller sharks, batoids, teleosts, and invertebrates including
cephalopods and crustaceans. A sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus) was once found to have bite marks from a
sand tiger, and sand tigers have been observed to bear the scars from white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) encounter.
On rare occasions they have been found to have pinniped remains and wounds from this shark have been observed on
dolphins. These sharks may form small groups and have been observed to feeding cooperatively on schooling fishes by
herding them into a tight group and then consuming them.
Sand tiger sharks are often observed in small to moderate sized groups of up to 80 individuals. They are frequently
observed in gullies, at the mouths of rocky caves, or on rocky reefs usually hovering motionlessly or slowly moving just
above the bottom. These sharks are highly migratory, making seasonal movements to higher latitudes during the summer,
but retreating to lower latitudes during the fall and winter. Sexual segregation seems to be pronounced with adult males
and females forming separate aggregations along the coast.

Size: Maximum total length about 320 cm, with unconfirmed reports to 430 cm; males mature at 190 to 195 cm with
maximum length of at least 257 cm; females mature at 220 to 230 cm and exceeding 300 cm or more in maximum length.
Size at birth 85 to 105 cm total length.
Sharks of the North Atlantic 159

Interest to Fisheries and Human Impact: Sand tiger sharks were once abundant in the coastal waters of Massachusetts,
U.S.A. and supported a fishery in the early 1900’s in Nantucket Sound, but they were fished out and none of these
sharks has been caught since 1989 in this area. Furthermore, along the U.S. east coast these sharks experienced sharp
declines in abundance due to increased exploitation during the 1980s and 1990s with some estimates suggesting that their
abundance had declined by 90% from virgin stocks. However, a recent status report (Carlson et al., 2009) concluded that
although previous estimates of declines were not as severe as once thought, the sand tiger shark should remain a species
of concern due to their low productivity and inconclusive trends in abundance. The sand tiger shark is presently listed as
a “Species of Concern” in North American waters. They are protected and managed in U.S. waters, since 1997, under the
Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (FMP) whereby it is illegal to land this species or any parts of it either
by commercial or recreational fishers.
Sand tiger sharks are a popular display species in public aquaria given their large size and fearsome appearance. Also
these are relatively docile sharks that keep well in captivity as exhibited by individuals that have been maintained in large
aquariums for over 30 years. Adults have been observed to mate and subsequently give birth in captivity.

The conservation status of the sand tiger shark is considered Vulnerable due to significant declines in its abundance in
North American waters and elsewhere, especially in Australian waters. Its populations have been severely depleted in
several locations due to fishing activities, both commercial and recreational, from spearfishing, and by protective beach
netting. These various activities have lead to management restrictions limiting the capture and retention of this species.

Local Names: Sand shark, Sand tiger (USA); Lamio, Verdoun, Odontaspide taureau, Requin sable (France); Pez toro
(Spain); Grauer Sandhai, Schnauzenhai, Stierhai (Germany); Sarda (Canaries).

Literature: Garman (1913); Bigelow and Schroeder (1948); Gilmore, Dodrill, and Linley (1983); Compagno (1984, 2001);
Quéro in Whitehead et al. (1984a); Gilmore (1986, 1990, 1993); Governder, Kistnasamy, and van der Elst (1991); Gilmore
(1993); Gordon (1993); Musick, Branstetter, and Colvocoresses (1993); Branstetter and Musick (1994); Gelsleichter,
Musick, and Nichols (1999); Collette and Klein–MacPhee (2002); Musick and Ellis (2005); Goldman, Branstetter, and
Musick (2006); Skomal (2007); Carlson et al. (2009); Last and Stevens (2009).

Odontaspis Agassiz, 1838

Genus: Odontaspis Agassiz, 1838, Recher. Poiss. Foss., 3: 86, 87. Placed on the Official List of Generic Names in
Zoology (name no. 1659) by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1965, Opinion 723.3c, Bull. Zool.
Nomencl., 22(1): 33).

Type species: Carcharias ferox Risso, 1826, by monotypy, equals Squalus ferox Risso, 1810. This genus takes
precedence over Carcharias Rafinesque, 1810 when the two are considered synonyms, by special endorsement of the
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1987, Opinion 1459.3, Bull. Zool. Nomencl., 44(3): 216).

Number of Recognized North Atlantic Species: 1.

Synonyms: None.

Field Marks: Large stout–bodied sharks with conical, bulbous snout, first dorsal fin closer to pectoral fins than to pelvic fins,
and much larger than second dorsal and anal fins, caudal peduncle with precaudal pit present, lateral keels absent, and
caudal fin asymmetrical but with a strong ventral lobe. Colour greyish brown, dark brown or blackish above, and depending
on species ventral surface may be lighter; scattered dark brown to reddish spots may be present on some species.

Diagnostic Features: Body fusiform and stout, with head slightly to strongly depressed. Snout moderately long, conical,
preoral length 0.8 to 1.2 times mouth width, 4.4 to 7.8% total length. Eyes small to moderately large, less than 3 to more
than 4 times snout length, and about 1.6 to 2.8% total length. Teeth similar in both jaws; awl–shaped, with a long central
cusp, flanked by 2 to 3 lateral cusplets. Tooth counts 34 to 56 upper jaw, 36 to 48 lower jaw. First dorsal fin closer to
pectoral–fin bases than to pelvic fins. Second dorsal fin about one–half size of first dorsal fin. Anal fin smaller than second
dorsal fin, origin over or posterior to second dorsal–fin origin. Vertebral counts: total vertebral counts 177 to 183, precaudal
vertebral counts 95 to 98, caudal vertebral counts 71 to 85. Spiral valve turn counts 30 to 34. Large sharks with adults to
450 cm in length. Colour: dorsal surface light grey, greyish–brown to dark brown or black; ventral may be lighter or same
colour as dorsal surface; depending on species, scattered dark brown or reddish spots may be present and posterior edges
of fins may be darker. Iris of eyes dark brown or black with lighter tones.

Local Names: Deepwater sand tigers.

Remarks: The genus as restricted here consists of two species, one of which occurs in the North Atlantic (FAO Areas 21
and 27), but the bigeye sandtiger shark (Odontaspis noronhai) is confirmed from the eastern and western Central Atlantic
and may eventually be found to occur within these areas.
160 FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 7

Odontaspis ferox (Risso, 1810)

Squalus ferox Risso, 1810, Ichthyol. Nice, Paris: 38. Holotype unknown; type locality off Nice, France, in the Mediterranean
Sea. Also, Carcharias ferox Risso, 1826, Hist. nat. Princip. Prod. Europe Méred., Paris, Poissons, 3: 122. Description
virtually verbatim that of Squalus ferox Risso, 1810, and quite evidently a generic translocation, not a new species name.
Placed on the Official List of Specific Names in Zoology (Name no. 2057) by the International Commission on Zoological
Nomenlcature (1965, Opinion 723.4.c: 33).

Synonyms: None.

Other Combinations: None.

FAO Names: En – Smalltooth sandtiger; Fr – Requin féroce; Sp – Solrayo.

UNDERSIDE OF HEAD UPPER AND LOWER TEETH

Fig. 174 Odontaspis ferox

Field Marks: A large, stout–bodied shark with a conical to slightly flattened snout, a long mouth extending past the eyes,
a first dorsal fin that originates over the pectoral–fin free rear tips, and is much larger than the second dorsal and anal fins.
Teeth are prominent, long and narrow with a central cusp flanked by two or three smaller cusplets on each side. Coloration
is grey, brownish grey or olive above, lighter below; some specimens have dark reddish spots scattered over their body.

Diagnostic Features: Head flattened, snout conical and relatively long. Eyes small, without nictitating membrane. Teeth
awl–shaped, with long central cusp, flanked by two to three smaller cusplets on each side, similar in both jaws; upper
intermediate two to five tooth rows much smaller than anterior or posterior tooth rows; tooth counts 46 to 56 upper jaw, 36 to
48 lower jaw. Dorsal fins subangular, weakly falcate; first dorsal fin much larger than second dorsal and anal fins. Anal–fin
posterior margin strongly concave, height 4.6 to 6.0% total length. Caudal fin asymmetrical, with slight bump posterior to
upper precaudal pit; ventral caudal lobe short, stout. Vertebral counts: total vertebral counts 177 to 183, precaudal vertebral
counts 95 to 98, caudal vertebral counts 71 to 85. Spiral valve turn count 32 to 34. A large shark with adults to 450 cm total
length. Colour: light grey to grey brown above, lighter below, sometimes with dark reddish or brown spots scattered on the
body; fin tips in young juveniles darker with black edges. A piebald colored specimen has been reported.

Distribution: Circumglobal, but patchily distributed in most temperate and tropical seas. Eastern North Atlantic records
includes the Azores, Bay of Biscay, northern Spain and France, with the French specimen the most northern verified record
at approximately 46°N, 04°W. In 2012, a dead Odontaspis sp., presumably this species, was washed ashore on the coast
of Normandy (western English Channel), but no living individuals have been reported this far north. More common in the
Mediterranean Sea and off North Africa. Western North Atlantic not recorded from Area 21, but there is a record of this
species from just south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (34° 51’N, 75° 26’W).

Habitat: A large, wide ranging shark found in most warm–temperate and tropical seas on continental and insular shelves
Sharks of the North Atlantic 161

and upper slopes. A survey of known

records by Fergusson, Graham, and
Compagno (2008) found smalltooth sand
tiger sharks range from 10 to 883 m, but
with most specimens being found at less
than 300 m deep. There appears to be
some segregation by size and depth as
small juveniles, less than about 150 cm
total length mostly occur between 300
and 600 m deep, while those over about
350 cm in length also tended to occupy a
similar depth range. However, individuals
over 150 cm to about 350 cm appear to
be more common at shallower depths
of less than 150 m. Although usually
associated with mud, sand, or rocky
reef bottom habitats, smalltooth sand
tiger sharks appear to make excursions
into the water column as demonstrated
by individuals having been caught in
midwater trawls within 70 to 500 m of
the surface over water depths of 2000 to
4000 m. Water temperature where these
sharks have been caught show a broad
range from about 6 °C to more than 20 °C.
Fig. 175 Odontaspis ferox
Biology: Very little is known about their Known distribution Possible distribution
reproductive cycle or litter size, as few
mature females have been observed. Their diet includes elasmobranchs, including a 130 cm long Dalatias licha in a 290
cm individual, teleosts, cephalopods, and crustaceans. There are no known predators on smalltooth sand tiger sharks, but
an Isistius spp. bite wound was observed on one individual caught off the Canary Islands. Nothing is known about the
movements of these sharks, but Fergusson et al. (2008) speculated that these sharks might move over large distances by
following submarine ridges, adjacent island archipelagoes, or seamounts. Support for this comes from captures of these
sharks in mid–ocean waters on or adjacent to deepsea ridges and seamounts.

Size: Maximum length to 450 cm; males mature at 200 to 250 cm, with a maximum length of 344 cm; females mature at
300 to 350 cm, and have a maximum length of 450 cm. Size at birth about 100 cm.

Interest to Fisheries and Human Impact: Smalltooth sand tiger sharks are taken incidentally in longline and trawl
fisheries, but are too spottily distributed to be of interest for directed fisheries. However, with increasing deepwater fishing
efforts these sharks may become more susceptible fishing pressure than is currently assumed. Currently, there are no
estimates as to the numbers of these sharks that may be caught incidentally as bycatch.
Interestingly, in recent years smalltooth sand tiger shark aggregations in relatively shallow waters off Lebanon in the
Mediterranean, Malpelo Island in the Eastern Pacific, and elsewhere have enabled SCUBA divers to regularly encounter
these sharks.

The conservation status of this species is Vulnerable due to suspected declines in its population in the Mediterranean and
Eastern North Atlantic. However, given the patchy distribution and occurrence of this species, much still remains to learn
about its population structure.

Local Names: Bumpytail sandtiger shark; Ragged–tooth shark; Ragged–tooth sandtiger shark, Fierce shark (English);
Salroig, Surraig, Solraig (Spain); Smalltooth sand tiger, Ragged–tooth shark; Tubarão-areia (Azores, Portugal);
Schildzahnhai (Germany); Odontaspide féroce (France).

Remarks: Individuals of this species may or may not have dark scattered spots. This variation has lead to some authors
to consider those individuals with spots to be a different species, Odontaspis herbsti; however, the presence of spots
appears to reflect individual variation within a single species.

Literature: Garman (1913); Maul (1955); Compagno (1984, 2001); Quero in Whitehead et al. (1984); Santos, Porteiro, and
Barreiros (1997); Sheehan (1998); Ebert (2003); Pollard et al. (2007); Fergusson, Graham, and Compagno (2008); Gibson
et al. (2008); Last and Stevens (2009).