Crop

Improvement
 What is Crop Improvement

Synonymous with plant breeding

The art and science of improving the
genetic make- up of crops in order
to attain man’s needs
Involves hybridization and selection
When Crop Improvement Started

Selection – is the earliest form of plant breeding

Gregor Mendel – Agustinian monk working in the

garden of a monastery in Brunn, Bohemia.
Mendel’s work was first reported in 1865 but went
unnoticed until independent discovery was made
during 1900.

Since then, the Law of Inheritance of Mendel was

recognized and used as basis in crop improvement.
Objectives of Crop Improvement

1.Yield – the ultimate aim of crop

improvement
2. Development of new varieties adopted to
different growing conditions
3. Improve horticultural and agronomic
characteristics
4. Resistant to pest and diseases
5. Improvement of quality of the yield of
products.
 Gene Recombination in Crop
Improvement

Variation – the basis of plant breeding

Environmental Variation Versus Heritable Variations

Environmental Variations – are variations in the size, shape,
color, composition, or development among plants responding to
different intensities of environmental stress.

Hereditary Variations – are variations in size, shape, color,

composition, or development in a genetically mixed population
that results from heritable causes and are transmitted to the
progeny.
 How Heritable Variations
Originate in Nature

Gene Recombinations

Variations in chromosome number

Mutation
 The Mechanism of Mendelian
Heredity

 Law of Segregation (The "First Law")

The Law of Segregation states that every individual
possesses a pair of alleles (assuming diploidy) for any
particular trait and that each parent passes a
randomly selected copy (allele) of only one of these to
its offspring. The offspring then receives its own pair
of alleles for that trait. Whichever of the two alleles in
the offspring is dominant determines how the offspring
expresses that trait (e.g. the color of a plant, the color
of an animal's fur, the color of a person's eyes).
 The Mechanism of Mendelian
Heredity

 Law of Independent Assortment (The "Second

Law")
The Law of Independent Assortment, also known as
"Inheritance Law", states that separate genes for
separate traits are passed independently of one
another from parents to offspring. That is, the
biological selection of a particular gene in the gene pair
for one trait to be passed to the offspring has nothing
to do with the selection of the gene for any other trait.
More precisely, the law states that alleles of different
genes assort independently of one another during
gamete formation.
 Important Terms and Abbreviations
 Gene – the basic unit of heredity.
 A-Line – the male-sterile line in a cross to produce hybrid seed
 Anthesis – the process of dehiscence of the anther; the period
of pollen distribution.
 Autoploid – an organism with more than two sets of
chromosomes in the somatic cells
 B-line – the fertile counter part, or maintainer of A-line.
 Chromosome – a structural unit of nucleus , which carries the
genes in linear constant order.
 Genetic Variation- the primary basis of plant breeding
 Mutation- origin of natural genetic variability, a sudden
heritable change in an organism
 Germplasm – the sum total of hereditymaterial or genes
present in a species
 Genetics – the study of heredity and variation
 Germplasm collection / bank - collection of varieties
/species of crops that have identified, collected, characterized
and maintained in various places.
 Genotype – the nature of an individual plant is determined by
its constitution, the genetic constitution of the organisms.
 Phenotype – the character one sees is the sum effect of the
interaction between the genotype and the environment.
 Homologous chromosomes – chromosomes exists in pairs.
 Loci (locus) – genes located on specific places in a
chromosomes. Designated by letters.
 Homozygous – a population composed of individuals of the
same genotype or phenotype
 Heterozygous – when the alleles on gene are different.
 Dominant gene – a gene is dominant when it causes
certain characteristics to be expressed when the alleles
are homozygous (AA) or heterozygous (Aa)
 Recessive genes – recessive gene will cause a character
to be expressed if the alleles are double recessive. Ex.
(aa)
 Qualitative characters – variations in some plant
characters are discrete, easily identified even in variable
environments, and simply inherited
 Quantitative characters – characters with complex
inheritance.
 Combining Ability – the ability of the inbreed line to
transmit desirable performance to the hybrid progeny .
 Emasculation – the removal of anther from a bud or
flower before pollen is shed. It is a normal preliminary
step in crossing to prevent self fertilization.
 Gene Interactions

1.Complementary action – two nonallelic genes may

be required to produce a single effect.
2.Modifying action – one gene produces an effect
only in the presence of a second gene at another
locus.
3.Inhibiting action – One gene may act as an
inhibitor of the expression of another gene.
4.Masking action – One gene may hide the effect of
a second gene when both are present.
5. Duplicate action – Either two genes may
produce a similar effect; or the same effects is
produced by both of them together.
6. Additive effect – Two genes may produce the
same effect, but the effects are additive if both
are present.
7. Pleiotropic genes – A single gene may have
more than one effects. This type of gene may
control several expressions or traits.
 Types of Gene Action
1. Additive Effects – refers to the action of genes affecting
a genetic trait in such a fashion that each enhances the
expression of thetrait.
2. Dominance Effect –are deviations from additivity so
that the heterozygote is more like one parent than the
other.
3. Epistasis Effects – the result of the non-allelic gene
interaction , the interaction of genes at different loci.
4. Overdominance – occur when each allele contributes a
separate effects and the combined alleles contribute an
effect greater than of either allele separately.
 General methods in Crop
Improvement

Introduction
Selection
Hybridization
Introgression or introgressive
hybridization
 Mating System of Crops
Mating system – the scheme by which individuals are
assorted in pairs leading to sexual reproduction.

1. Top Cross – also known as inbred-variety cross; is made

by pollinating an inbred line or single-cross with pollen from
a genetically mixed population.
2. Polycross - an isolated group of plants or clones
arranged in some fashion to facilitate random
interpollination.
3. Backcross- is across of a hybrid to one of its parent. The
plant breeder makes a succession backcrosses to add a
gene that is more desirable from either parent.
4. Hybrid Cross – the crossing of two or more parents to
achieve heterosis.
 Multiple Cross – also called convergent cross, is
produced by crossing pairs of parents, and then
crossing pairs of F1 until all parents enter into a
common progeny.
 Polycross – is an isolated group of clonal lines
replicated in such a manner that each clone will be
pollinated by a random sample of pollen form all
of the other clones.
 Breeding Self-pollinated
Crops

Breeding Methods in Self-Pollinated Crops

 Assembly of Germplasm - The initial step in breeding
program. This is the assembly of a wide assortment germplasm
of desired species, always searching for accessions with genes
that will contribute to improved performance.
 Selection – identification of the desirable varieties to be
utilized in the breeding program.
 Mass selection – plants are chosen and harvested on the
basis of phenotype and the seeds composited without
progeny testing.
 Pure-line selection – is a progeny descent solely by self-
pollination from a single homozygous plant.
 Hybridization – is a breeding method that
utilizes cross-pollination beteween genetically
different parents to obtain gene recombination.
One of the goals is to come up with
transgressive segrregates.
 Selection Procedures
Following Hybridization
 Pedigree- selection – selection for plants with the desired
combination of characters is started in the F2 generation, and
continued in succeeding generations until genetic purity is
reached .
 Bulk-population - seeds harvested in F2 and succeeding
generations are bulked and grown, with selection delayed until
an advanced generation, commonly the F5 or the F6 atwhich
time the segregation will have virtually ceased.
 Single-seed-descent – the progenies of the F2 plants are
advanced rapidly through succeeding generations from single
seed.
 Double-Haploid – haploid plants are generated from the
anthers of the F1 plants, or by other means, and the
chromosome of the haploid plants are doubled with colchicine
to produce diploid plants.
 Breeding Cross-Pollinated Crops

Plant Features Promoting Cross-pollination

 Monoecy – the separation of pistillate and staminate flowers

on the same plant
 Dioecy – is the production of pistilate and staminate flowers
on different plants.
 Self-incompatibility – is the failure to become fertilized and
set seed following self-pollination.
 Male or Female Sterility – Male sterility, either genetic or
cytoplasmic, promotes outcrossing because male sterile plants
do not produce valuable pollen.
 Floral Devices - promote cross-pollination, such as failure of
male and female sexual organs to emerge and mature at the
same time.
 Breeding Seed Propagated Cross-
pollinated Crops

 Recurrent-selection Principle – is any

breedingsystem designed to increase the frequency
of desired alleles for particular quantitatively
inherited characters by repeated cycles of selection.
 Mass Selection - individual plants are chosen
visually for their desirable traits
- the seeds harvested from the selected plants are
bulked to grow the following generation without any
form of progeny evaluation.
 Half-sib selection with progeny test
- refers to a plant or family of plants with a
common parent or pollen source. A half-sib
selection procedure based on a progeny test differs
from mass selection because new population is
constituted.
 Half-sib Selection with Testcross- the
selection of the half-sib lines to composite is
based on testcross performance rather than
progeny performance.
 Full-sib- crosses are made between selected
pairs of plants in the source population, with the
crossed used for progeny tests and for
reconstituting the new population.
 Breeding for Vegetatively
Propagated Plants

 Mutation Breeding – One of the

techniques that is implored is tissue culture
technique. The plant is induce to mutate
using wide range of mutagenic materials
such as colchicine, X-ray and Gamma rays.
The plantlets exposed to mutagens well
then posses different distinct characteristics
because of the mutation that it undergone.
 Hybrid Vigor or Heterosis

Hybrid vigor- is the increase in size, vigor,

or productivity of a hybrid plant over the
average or mean of its parent.
- Hybrid vigor is a result from bringing
together an assortment of favorable
dominant genes.
Seed Production, Distribution
and Storage

Seed Propagation
 Usual sexual
 Easy and cheap method of multiplying
plants
 Undergoes genetic recombination
 Structure of the Seed

 Embryo
 Testa
 Radicle
 Plummule
 Hypocotyle
 Micropyle
 Seed Germination
Germnation – is the resumption of growth of the
embryo

Stages of Seed Germination

 Water Imbibition
 Enzyme activation and digestion of stored
food
 Translocation of metabolites
 Rapture of the seed coat
 Seedling emergence
 Seed Dormancy
A seed may not be able to germinate even under
the most favorable environmental conditions,
although it is viable.

Possible Reason of Seed Dormancy

1. Physical Causes
2. Physiological Causes
3. Environment
4. Embryo Dormancy
 Hastening Seed Germination

Scarification - is any treatment that removes the seed

coat or alters it, making it more permeable to water and
air. This can be done mechanically by rubbing into a
rough surface or the use of chemicals such as hydrogen
peroxide and muriatic acid.

Stratification – is the placement of seeds between

layers of either moist sand, soil, or sawdust at high or
low temperature so the action of water and high and
low temperature will soften the seed coat.
 Classes of Seeds

Breeder Seeds
 Seeds that are usually produce by breeders or acquired from
the breeder and has 100% purity
 The starting point of the subsequent classes of seeds.
 Has 1 white tag

Foundation seeds (Basic Seeds)

 The progeny of the breeder seed which is handled as to most
nearly maintaining genetic identity and purity
 The source for the production of registered seeds.
 Has a red tag
Registered Seed (the first generation seed)
 Produced from the foundation seeds or from registered
seeds that s properly produced or handled
 The source of certified seeds .
 Has a green tag

Certified Seeds (2nd generation seed)

 Produced from foundation seeds, registered seeds or
certified seeds that are properly handled.
 The most available seeds for distribution to farmers or
growers
 Seed Production
Features of Seed Production
 Isolation
 Presence of Pollinators
 Regular Field Inspection and Rouging
 Harvesting at the most mature stage of the seeds
 Selection of species or varieties for seed production
 Selection of seed sources
 From farms
 Mother plants
 Fruits or seeds
 nurseries
 Procedure in Producing Seeds

1. Application as seed grower

2. Field inspection by the seed inspector
3. Procurement of seeds
4. Growing
5. Roguing
6. Regular field inspection by the seed inspector
7. Harvesting
8. Threshing
9. Drying
10.Bagging
11.Storing
 Seed Testing
Purity Test
 Inert materials (weeds seeds, plant residue, etc) in the seed samples
are collected .
Varietal Test
 Seeds are carefully observed.
 Samples with several number of impurities (seeds of other varieties)
are discarded.
Seed Germination
 Ragdoll method
 Seedbox method
 Petri-dish method
 Tetrazolium Test
Seed Vigor Test
 Aims to determine the speed of seed germination