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LIVER:
The liver, an organ located in the right upper quadrant of

the abdomen
The liver is an accessory digestive gland that produces bile,
an alkaline compound.
The liver is a reddish-brown, wedge-shaped organ with
four lobes of unequal size and shape. includes the right ,left
, caudate and quadrate lobes
A human liver normally weighs approximately 1.5 kg , and has
a width of about 15 cm .
.
The whole surface of the liver except for the bare area, is
covered in a serous coat derived from the peritoneum, and this
firmly adheres to the inner Glisson's capsule .
bare area of the liver (nonperitoneal area) is a large
triangular area on the diaphragmatic surface of the liver, devoid
of peritoneal covering. It is attached directly to
the diaphragm by loose connective tissue
Glisson's capsule extends into the structure of the liver, by
accompanying the blood vessels (veins and arteries), ducts, and
nerves at the hepatic hilum
Microscopically, each liver lobe is seen to be made up of hepatic
lobules.
Lobules are the functional units of the liver. Each lobule is
made up of millions of hepatic cells (hepatocytes), which are the
basic metabolic cells .
The lobules are held together by a fine, dense, irregular,
fibroelastic connective tissue layer which extends from the
fibrous capsule covering the entire liver known as Glisson's
capsule.
The lobules are roughly hexagonal, and consist of plates of
hepatocytes radiating from a central vein.
The liver is connected to two large blood vessels:
Hepatic artery : carries oxygen-rich blood from the aorta
Portal vein : carries blood rich in digested nutrients from the
entire gastrointestinal tract
The central vein joins to the hepatic vein to carry blood out from
the liver.
Blood flow to the liver is unique in that it receives both
oxygenated and (partially) deoxygenated blood. Blood passes
from branches of the portal vein through cavities between
"plates" of hepatocytes called sinusoids. Blood also flows from
branches of the hepatic artery and mixes in the sinusoids to
supply the hepatocytes with oxygen. This
mixture percolates through the sinusoids and collects in a central
vein which drains into the hepatic vein. The hepatic vein
subsequently drains into the inferior vena cava.
The hepatic artery provides 30 to 40% of the oxygen to the
liver, while only accounting for 25% of the total liver blood
flow. The rest comes from the partially deoxygenated blood
from the portal vein.
A distinctive component of a lobule is the portal triad, which
can be found running along each of the lobule's corners.
The portal triad consists of five structures:
1-a branch of the hepatic artery
2-a branch of the hepatic portal vein
3- a bile duct
4- lymphatic vessels
5- branch of the vagus nerve.
These blood vessels subdivide into small capillaries known
as liver sinusoids
Between the hepatocyte plates are liver sinusoids, which are
enlarged capillaries through which blood from the hepatic portal
vein and hepatic artery enters via the portal triads, then drains to
the central vein.
Histology, the study of microscopic anatomy, shows two major
types of liver cell: parenchymal cells and nonparenchymal cells.
About 70–85% of the liver volume is occupied by parenchymal
hepatocytes.
Nonparenchymal cells constitute 40% of the total number of
liver cells but only 6.5% of its volume.
Hepatocyte
Hepatocyte is a cell of the main parenchymal tissue of the liver.
Hepatocytes make up 70-85% of the liver's mass. Hepatocytes
display an eosinophilic cytoplasm
It is organised into plates separated by vascular channels
(sinusoids), an arrangement supported by a reticulin network.
The hepatocyte plates are one cell thick.
Brown lipofuscin granules are observed in hepatocyte
They are made of cuboidal epithelial cells.
They have surfaces facing the sinusoids, (called sinusoidal
faces) and surfaces which contact other hepatocytes, (called
lateral faces).
Liver sinusoids
A liver sinusoid is a type of discontinuous capillary known as
a sinusoid capillary, that is similar to a fenestrated capillary.
The liver sinusoid has a larger caliber than other types of
capillaries
The liver sinusoids are lined with two types of cell:
a-Sinusoidal endothelial cells LSECs
b-Phagocytic Kupffer cells.
Sinusoidal endothelial cells LSECs
-The endothelial cells are flattened and fenestrated.
-The endothelial cells have no basement membrane and are
separated from the hepatocytes by the space of Disse, which
drains lymph into the portal tract lymphatics.
-The LSECs make up around half of the non-parenchymal cells
in the liver and.
- LSECs have many fenestrae that gives easy communication
between the sinusoidal lumen and the space of Disse.
-They play a part in filtration, endocytosis, and in the regulation
of blood flow in the sinusoids.
Kupffer cells : are scattered between endothelial cells; they are
part of the reticuloendothelial system and phagocytose
spent erythrocytes. The Kuppfer cells can take up and
destroy foreign material such as bacteria
Hepatic stellate cells are nonparenchymal cells found in

the perisinusoidal space (also known as perisinusoidal
cells or Ito cells ), between a sinusoid and a hepatocyte also
known as the space of Disse.
stellate cell are also distributed amongst endothelial cells but
are difficult to visualise by light microscopy
The stellate cell is :
- the major cell type involved in liver fibrosis by
producing extracellular matrix and collagen, which is the
formation of scar tissue in response to liver damage
- store vitamin A
Additionally, intrahepatic lymphocytes are often present in the

sinusoidal lumen.
.
Bile ducts
The biliary tract is derived from the branches of the bile ducts.
The biliary tract is the path by which bile is secreted by the liver
then transported to the first part of the small intestine,
the duodenum.
The bile produced in the liver is collected in bile canaliculi
Bile canaliculi are formed by grooves on some of the lateral
faces of these hepatocytes
The canaliculi radiate to the edge of the liver lobule, where they
merge to form bile ducts.
Within the liver, these ducts are termed intrahepatic bile ducts,
and once they exit the liver, they are considered extrahepatic.
The intrahepatic ducts eventually drain into the right and
left hepatic ducts, which exit the liver at the transverse fissure,
and merge to form the common hepatic duct.
The cystic duct from the gallbladder joins with the common
hepatic duct to form the common bile duct.
Bile either drains directly into the duodenum via the common
bile duct
Gallbladder :
Gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and
concentrated before it is released into the small intestine.
In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the right
lobe of the liver .
In adults, the gallbladder measures approximately 7 to 10
centimetres in length and 4 centimetres in diameter when fully
distended.
The gallbladder can be affected by gallstones, formed by
material that cannot be dissolved – cholesterol or bilirubin
-The gallbladder cosists of 3 parts :
Neck - Body - Funus
The gallbladder wall is composed of a number of layers.
Mucosa : The mucosa is curved and collected into tiny
outpouchings called rugae. The mucosa consists of
1-Epithelium : single layer of columnar cells with a brush
border of microvilli, very similar to intestinal absorptive cells
2-Lamina propria :Underneath the epithelium
Unlike elsewhere in the intestinal tract, the gallbladder does not
have a muscularis mucosae.
Muscular layer: muscular fibres are not arranged in distinct
layers.
Serosa: The outer layer of the fundus of gallbladder, and the
surfaces not in contact with the liver, are covered by a
thick serosa . The surfaces in contact with the liver are covered
in connective tissue
A distinctive feature of the gallbladder is the presence
of Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses, deep outpouchings of the
mucosa that can extend through the muscular layer, and which
indicate adenomyomatosis.

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LIVER:

The liver, an organ located in the right upper quadrant of

Hepatic stellate cells are nonparenchymal cells found in

Additionally, intrahepatic lymphocytes are often present in the

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