BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION

• SPIRIT LEVEL - INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND
HORIZONTAL LINE CHECK.
• PLUMB BOB - IT’S USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK.
• PLASTIC HOSE FILLED W/ WATER – A METHOD OF LEVELLING (HORIZONTAL)
BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT TRANSIT.
• 3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE – A MANUAL METHOD
OF SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING LINES IN BUILDING LAYOUT.
• SHEET PILLING – A BARRIER FORMED TO PREVENT THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL
TO STABILIZE FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONS

LAYOUT IS SOMETIMES CALLED “ STAKING OUT” WHICH MEANS THE

PROCESS OF RELOCATING THE POINT OF BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY LINE OF
THE SITE WHERE THE BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED.
IT INCLUDES CLEARING, STAKING, BATTER BOARDS AND ESTABLISHES THE
EXACT LOCATION OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION AND WALL LINE ON THE
GROUND.

• STAKE – ARE WOODEN STICKS USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE END

DRIVEN INTO THE GROUND TO SERVE AS BOUNDARIES OR SUPPORTS OF THE
BATTER BOARDS.
• BATTER BOARD – WOOD STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT THE
STAKE WHICH SERVE AS THE HORIZONTAL PLANE WHERE THE REFERENCE
POINT OF THE BUILDING MEASUREMENTS ARE ESTABLISHED.
• STRING – IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS THE
BATTER BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE OUTLINE OF THE BUILDING WALL
AND FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES

1. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS, SEE TO IT THAT A BUILDING PERMIT

IS FIRST SECURED FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES CONCERNED.
2. RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS
SUGGESTED THAT THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY LINE SHALL BE
DONE BY GEODETIC ENGINEER SPECIALLY FOR THOSE LOTS WITHOUT
EXISTING REFERENCE POINTS OR ADJOINING STRUCTURES.
3. CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY EXISTING STRUCTURE, TREES, AND OTHER
ELEMENTS THAT WILL OBSTRUCT THE CONSTRUCTION WORK.
4. CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR LABORERS’ QUARTERS,
CONSTRUCTION OFFICE, BODEGA FOR THE MATERIALS AND WORKING
TOOLS AND TEMPORARY WASTE DISPOSAL.
5. APPLY FOR A TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND WATER
SUPPLY. ELECTRIC CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE POWER NEEDS OF
THE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT AND IS NECESSARY ON OVERTIME
SCHEDULES ESPECIALLY IN THE TIME OF CONCRETING. WATER IS ALSO A
PRIME NEED IN CONSTRUCTION.
6. CONSTRUCT A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.

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7. VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES INDICATED
ARE FORM:
• CENTER TO CENTER
• OUTER TO CENTER
• OUTER TO OUTER
• INSIDE TO INSIDE
8. FIX THE BATTER BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE AID OF
LEVEL INSTRUMENT PREFERABLY PLASTIC HOSE WITH WATER.
9. AFTER ESTABLISHING THE REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE FOOTING,
TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING POINTS OF THE STRING ON THE GROUND
BY THE AID OF PLUMB BOB AND INDICATE THE SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE
EXCAVATED.

EXCAVATION

EXCAVATION WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED INTO

TWO TYPES: THE MINOR AND MAJOR EXCAVATION DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE
AND NATURE OF THE FOUNDATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED. EXCAVATION FOR A
SMALL CONSTRUCTION WITH INDEPENDENT WALL, OR COMBINED FOOTING IS
CLASSIFIED UNDER THE MINOR EXCAVATION, WHILE THE REST WHICH REQUIRES
SIZEABLES OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE EARTH FALL UNDER THE CATEGORY
OF MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.

MINOR EXCAVATION

EXCAVATION UNDER THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION HAVING

INDEPENDENT FOOTING AND HOLLOW BLOCK WALL FOOTING WHERE THE
DIGGING OF THE SOIL FOR THE FOOTING EXTEND TO A DEPTH FROM 1.00 TO 1.50
METER AND ABOUT HALF A METER DEPTH FOR THE WALL FOOTING.

MAJOR EXCAVATION

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE EXCAVATION OR TOTAL

EXTRACTION OF THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CATEGORIES DEPENDING
UPON THE CONDITION OR LOCATION OF THE SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE
CONSTRUCTION SITE IS BIG THAT THERE IS ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE
WORKING ACTIVITIES, STORING OF MATERIALS AND DUMPING GROUND FOR THE
EXCAVATED SOIL.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER WITH

ADJACENT EXISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED TO THE MOST COMPLICATED
AMONG THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE THIS REQUIRES CAREFUL
STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF THE RIGHT APPROACH.

PROBLEMS MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:

1. THE MANNER OF THE EXCAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED WHICH WILL NOT

AFFECT OR DAMAGED THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE.
2. THE KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND EXTRACTING THE
GROUND MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE PLACE WHERE TO STATION THE
EQUIPMENT DURING THE OPERATION.

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3. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE EXTRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE
EFFECTIVE MANNER OF MANEUVERING THE PAYLOAD AND DRUMPTRUCKS IN
HAULING WITHOUT OBSTRUCTING THE PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC
FLOW.
4. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY THE
WATER PUMP DURING THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION WHICH MIGHT
CAUSE MUDDY ROAD AND CREATE INCONVENIENCE TO TRAFFIC.
5. THE KIND OF SHEETING AND BRACING TO BE USED IN SHORING OR
UNDERSPINNING TO PROTECT THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE MUST BE
CONSIDERED.

FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

THE FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE
STRUCTURAL LOADS FROM A BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE GROUND.
ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS THE SOIL AROUND
BENEATH THEM ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS.
UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A
BUILDING, BUT A DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE
STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.

3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING:

• SUPERSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF THE
BUILDING.
• SUBSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND PORTION.
• FOUNDATION – WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING THAT
TRANSFER ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL.
3 TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES:
• SLAB ON FILL
• CRAWLSPACE
• BASEMENT

2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

• SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO
THE EARTH AT THE BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE
SUBSTRUCTURE.
• DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE
SUBSTRUCTURE.

FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT

CARRY OR SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING.

FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE

WHICH DIRECTLY TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL
OR ROCK, FOOTING IS THE LOWER PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION
STRUCTURE.
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 FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH
THE FOOTING.

PILE FOUNDATION – WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO

SUPPORT A RAFT FOOTING, THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A
SUITABLE MATERIALS WHERE TO TRANSFER THE EXCESS LOAD TO A
GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS THE ANSWER.

PILE – IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA

WITH REASONABLE LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF
HAMMERS OR VIBRATORY GENERATOR.
PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE
RATHER THAN DRILED & POURED.
PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS
CONTAINING FROM TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS LATER
JOINED AT THE TOP BY A REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.
PILE CAP – DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY
AMONG THE PILES.
CAISSONS – IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS
THE LOAD FROM A COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL.

• FOUNDATION WALL – THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION

WHICH FORMS THE PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE STRUCTURE
BELOW GRADE.

• GRADE BEAM – THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W/C SUPPORTS

THE EXTERIOR WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND BEARS DIRECTLY
ON THE COLUMN FOOTING.

• RETAINING WALL – A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED, THAT BEARS

AGAINST AN EARTH OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND RESISTS LATERAL
AND OTHER FORCES.

• CANTILEVER WALL – A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST

OVERTURNING BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER FOOTING.

• GRAVITY WALL – A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST

OVERTURNING BY VIRTUE OF IT’S OWN WEIGHT.

• BEARING WALL – A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED

LOAD.

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FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING – IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE WIDER THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD TO THE
SOIL.
A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO 0.2 TO 0.3% OF THE CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA OF CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON
UNUSUAL CASES.

COLUMN FOOTING – IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

1. ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING – IS A KIND OF FOOTING

REPRESENTS THE SIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL TYPE, IN THE
FORM OF:
• SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING
• SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING
• SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING

2. COMBINED FOOTING – IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE

SPACED CLOSELY TO EACH OTHER THAT THEIR FOOTING WILL ALMOST
OR COMPLETELY MERGE. IT’S EITHER :
• RECTANGULAR
• TRAPEZOIDAL

3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING – IS SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS WALL FOOTING

WHICH SUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW. IT’S EITHER:
• INVERTED SLAB FOOTING
• INVERTED TEE FOOTING

4. RAFT OR MAT FOOTING – IT’S OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH

THE STRUCTURE AND CARRY THE WALL AND THE COLUMN LOADS.
• UNIFORM SLAB
• THICKENED SLAB
• BEAM & GIRDER

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 CONCRETE
CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MIXTURE
OF CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN AS SOLID MASS
OR PLAIN CONCRETE. CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS
EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE TWO MATERIALS ACT
TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES IS CALLED REINFORCED CONCRETE.

• SLUMP TEST – A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY

OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE.

• DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT

RATIO.
• 0.68 lb. OF WATER / lb. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE
CAPABLE OF DEVELOPING 2,500 PSI IN 28 DAYS.
• LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE.
• MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH.

• ADMIXTURE – ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING.

• SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR :

• 40 kg. CEMENT – 300mm X 300mm X 300mm
• 50 kg. CEMENT - 320mm X 320mm X 330mm

• CONCRETE MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND GRAVEL

“AA” 1:11/2: 3 12 9.5 0.5 cu.m.
1.0 cu.m.
“A” 1:2:4 9 7 0.5
1.0
“B” 1:21/2:5 7.5 6 0.5
1.0
“C” 1:3:6 6 5 0.5
1.0

• MORTAR MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND

“A” 1:2 18 14.5 1.0 cu.m.
“B” 1:3 12 9.5 1.0
“C” 1:4 9 7 1.0
“D” 1:5 7.5 6 1.0

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 POST AND COLUMN
POST – REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL, SQUARE
OR OTHER GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED VERTICALLY TO
SUPPORT A BUILDING.

COLUMN – REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A

BUILDING MADE OF STONE, CONCRETE, STEEL OR COMBINATION OF THE
ABOVE MATERIALS.

STOREY – IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR

BETWEEN A FLOOR AND A ROOF ABOVE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

• SHORT COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT GREATER

THAN TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS
SECTION.

• LONG COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN TEN

TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.

TYPES OF COLUMNS ARE:

• TIED COLUMN – HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR

LONGITUDINAL BARS HELD IN POSITION BY LATERAL REINFORCEMENT
CALLED LATERAL TIES.

• SPIRAL COLUMN – IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR CONCRETE

CORE IN ENCLOSED BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL
BARS. THE VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED WITH EVENLY
SPACED CONTINUOUS SPIRAL HELD FIRMLY IN POSITION BY AT LEAST
THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.

• COMPOSITE COLUMN – WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS

EMBEDDED INTO THE CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL COLUMN.

• COMBINED COLUMN – WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ENCASED IN

CONCRETE OF AT LEAST 7 cm. THK. REINFORCED WITH WIRE MESS
SURROUNDING THE COLUMN AT A DISTANCE OF 3 cm. INSIDE THE
OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE COVERING.

• LALLY COLUMN – IS A FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A FLAT

STEEL BARS OR PLATE WHICH HOLD A GIRDER, GIRTS OR BEAM. THE
STEEL PIPE IS SOMETIMES FILLED WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE FOR
CORROSION.

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 METAL REINFORCEMENT
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE STRUCTURE ARE:
1. COMPRESSION STRESS
2. TENSION STRESS
3. SHEAR STRESS
4. TORSION STRESS

• REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE

AND NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF THE
STRUCTURE.

• REINFORCED CONCRETE – IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND STEEL.

• CONCRETE – IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK IN
RESISTING TENSION FORCES.

• STEEL – POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH COMPRESSION AND

TENSION.

• BALANCE BEAM – WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE JUST
ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND TENSION FORCES
SIMULTANEOUSLY.

• INFLECTION POINTS – REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE BENDING

MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.

• NO BENT BARS – WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL STRAIGHT

REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE
SUPPORTS EXTENDED TO THE REQUIRED LENGTH.

• BENT REINFORCING BARS – ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION

POINT AND ARE EXTENDED AT THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORT
TOWARDS THE ADJACENT SPAN.

• 4cm. – ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE

OUTSIDE OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.

• ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.

• BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE, THAT THE
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE EQUAL TO
.005 TIMES THE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH AND THE DEPTH
OF THE BEAM.

• USED LATERAL TIES –

10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 32mm SMALLER
12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER

• THREE FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES:

• SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LONGITUDINAL
OR MAIN REINFORCING BARS.
• SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LATERAL TIES.
• NOT MORE THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.
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 WOOD CONSTRUCTION

• SCAB – A SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED OR

SCREWED TO TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO SPLICE THEM TOGETHER.

• FISH PLATE – A WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER THE

ENDS OF TWO MEMBERS WITH NAILS OR BOLTS.

• SPLICE PLATE – A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING TWO OR MORE

MEMBER TOGETHER.

• COGGED JOINT – A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO UNEVEN TIMBERS, EACH OF

WHICH IS NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE THEY MEET.

• NOTCHING – JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING AT

RIGHT ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR BOTH PIECES.

• CROSSLAP JOINT – A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS WHICH

CROSS EACH OTHER, HALF THE THICKNESS OF EACH IS CUT SO THAT THE
THICKNESS WILL THE SAME AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER.

• SQUARE SPLICE–A TYPE OF HALF LAPPED USED TO RESIST TENSION.

• BRIDLE JOINT – A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES PROJECT FROM THE SIDES
OF THE TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES FIT INTO CORRESPONDING
SLOTS IN THE MORTISED MEMBER.

• TENON – THE PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER MATERIALS

WHICH IS REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO THAT IT MAY BE INSERTED IN A
CORRESPONDING CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN ORDER TO FORM A SECURE
JOINT.

• YACAL – LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE.

• BOARD FOOT – THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK, ONE
FOOT WIDE AND ONE FOOT LONG.

• BOLIDEN SALT – TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER.

• DAP – A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER.

• DADO – A RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF A PIECE

OF WOOD TO RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER PIECE.

• SOLIGNUM – TRADE NAME FOR ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION ON

WOOD.

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 FLOOR STRUCTURE

WOOD FLOOR SYSTEM

FLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING

SUSPENDED BY POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND BEAMS.
THE DESIGN OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE
FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS:

1. LIVE LOAD – REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED ON THE

FLOOR.

2. DEAD LOAD – REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE WEIGHT

OF THE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS WHICH GENERALLY CARRY THE
LIVE LOAD.

3. TYPES OF MATERIALS TO BE USED – THE CHOICE FROM THE

VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS SUCH AS LUMBER,
CONCRETE, AND STEEL.

4. THE SIZING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS –

DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE
LOAD AT A CERTAIN SPACING.

5. SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS – PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES BETWEEN

THE POSTS, COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING WALLS.
THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE
FOLLOWING TYPES:
A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE
B. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM
C. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE:

• GIRDER – IS A PRINCIPAL BEAM EXTENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF A

BUILDING SUPPORTING THE FLOOR JOISTS OF FLOOR BEAMS.

• SILL – THAT PART OF THE SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS HORIZONTALLY

UPON THE FOUNDATION.

• FLOOR JOISTS – ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED ON THE
GIRDERS WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE FASTENED.

• HEADER AND TRIMMER – HEADER IS A SHORT TRANSVERSE JOISTS THAT

SUPPORT THE END OF THE CUT-OFF JOIST AT A STAIR WELL HOLE. TRIMMER
IS A SUPPORTING JOIST WHICH CARRIES AN END PORTION OF A HEADER.
• FLOORING – THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS T
& G IS GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD FLOORING.

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• TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE – A SHORT BEAM, JOIST OR RAFTER WHICH IS
SUPPORTED BY A HEADER JOIST AT ONE END AND A WALL AT THE OTHER.

• LEDGER STRIP – A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE OF THE

BEAM, FORMING A SEAT FOR THE JOISTS.

• DRAFTSTOP PLATE – IS A PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE EDGE

OF THE JOISTS.

• SOLE PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR THE

STUDS IN A STUD PARTITION.

• SILL PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FRAME OF

AWOOD STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE FOUNDATION.

• TOP PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE STUDS

IN ASTUD PARTITION.

• CRIPPLE STUD – IN ABUILDING FRAME, A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT THAT IS

SHORTER THAN USUAL, AS A STUD ABOVE AND BELOW OPENING.

• BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING – SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FIXED

VERTICALLY BETWEEN FLOOR JOISTS TO STIFFEN THE JOISTS.

• CROSS BRIDGING – DIAGONAL BRACING IN PAIRS, BETWEEN ADJACENT

FLOOR JOISTS TO PREVENT THE JOISTS FROM TWISTING.

• HANGER OR STIRRUP – A METAL SEAT, ATTACHED TO A GIRDER TO RECEIVE

AND SUPPORT A JOIST.

• BALLOON FRAMING – CONSTRUCTION HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO ROOF

SUPPORTING SECOND FLOOR JOISTS.

• WESTERN FRAMING – THAT HAS SUBFLOOR EXTENDED TO THE OUTER EDGE

OF THE FRAME AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK SURFACE AT EACH FLOOR.

Page 11 of 60
 REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM

BEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE TRANSVERSE

LOAD WHICH USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END.

GIRDER – IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR

MORE SMALLER BEAM.

BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS :

A) SIMPLE BEAM
B) CONTINUOUS BEAM
C) SEMI – CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE BEAM – REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN

SUPPORTED AT ITS END WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS
IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.

RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE

SUPPORT.

CONTINUOUS BEAM – IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE

THAN TWO SUPPORTS.

SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM – REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR

WITHOUT RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS.

WEB REINFORCEMENT

WEB REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN THE

BEAM TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEB
REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND
PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT BUT ALSO SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION
AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION ON THE STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL
STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH
A DIAMETER NOT LESS THAN 5 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT ITS
END AND SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING OF THE MAIN
REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE

FOLLOWING TYPES:
1. ONE WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM.
2. TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM.
3. RIBBED FLOORS.
4. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED.

EACH TYPE OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN

APPLICATION DEPENDING UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:
1. SPACING OF THE COLUMNS.
2. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED
3. LENGTH OF THE SPAN
4. THE COST OF THE CONSTRUCTION
Page 12 of 60
 ONE WAY SLAB – ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE
DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS
COMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON
SHORT SPANS RANGING FROM 2.00 TO 3.50 METERS LONG. ALTHOUGH THE
REINFORCEMENTS ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB PARALLEL WITH THE BEAMS
PERPENDICULAR WITH THE MAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED “TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENTS”. USUALLY NO. 3 STEEL BAR IS USED TO COUNTERACT THE
EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE. IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES
POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF LOADS OVER A LARGER AREA.

TWO WAY SLAB – SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE
THE FLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY
THE TWO DIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH
EACH OTHER.
THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT BE LESS
THAN 4 INCHES OR 10 CM. NOR LESS THAN THE PERIMETER OF THE SLAB
DIVIDED BY 180. THE SPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE MORE
THAN 3 TIMES THE SLAB THICKNESS.

RIBBED FLOOR SLAB – IS AN ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR

CONSTRUCTION BUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT
OR MEDIUM LOAD.
A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN
THE OPEN SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY TILES, GYPSUM
TILES OR STEEL FORMS. THE TILES ARE GENERALLY 30 X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF
10 TO 40CM. O.C. PLACED @ 5CM. O.C. MAKING THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE.
THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES
FROM 5 TO 6.5 CM. THICK. THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM
CONSIST OF TWO BARS PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS
BENT AND THE OTHER REMAINED STRAIGHT, OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS
ARE PALCED AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE
EITHER NO. 2 BARS OR 6 MM. OR WIRE MESH WHICH RUNS AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH
THE RIBS.

FLAT SLAB – IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY

COLUMNS WITHOUT BEAMS OR GIRDERS. THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM IN
THICKNESS OR PROVIDED WITH SQUARE SYMMETRICAL AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE
THE COLUMN REINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS. THE
INCREASED AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN CALLED DROP PANEL OR
SIMPLY DROP. ON THE OTHER HAND, A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF A FLAT-SLAB FLOOR MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.
WHEN THE COLUMN DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS, A STRAIGHT
FLAT UNDERNEATH IS PROVIDED IN THE SLAB THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM,
WHICH IS CALLED FLAT PLATE CONSTRUCTION.

THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF MATERIALS AND

LABOR.

• CONSTRUCTION JOINT – A JOINT WHERE TWO SUCCESSIVE PLACEMENT OF

CONCRETE MEET.

• CONTRACTION JOINT OR EXPANSION JOINT – A JOINT BETWEEN ADJACENT

PARTS OF A STRUCTURE WHICH PERMITS MOVEMENT BETWEEN THEM.

Page 13 of 60
• CONTROL JOINTS – EMPLOYED TO REDUCE RESTRAINT BY ACCOMODATING
MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL.

• BLOCK OUT – IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION, A SPACE

WHERE CONCRETE IS NOT TO BE PLACED.

• COLD JOINT – A JOINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE HARDEN

BEFORE THE NEXT BATCH OF CONCRETE IS PLACED AGAINST.

• CREEP – PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A SUSTAIN LOAD.

• CAMBER – CONVEX CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS.

LAYING OUT OF STAIRS

THE METHOD OF LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE:

1. DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN METER.

ORDINARILY, THE RISE PER STEP IS 17 TO 18 CM AND THE MINIMUM TREAD
WIDTH IS 25 CM.

2. DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .17 OR .18 TO DETERMINE THE

NUMBER OF STEPS.

3. DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE IN METER BY .25 OR .30m.

4. IF THE RESULT, FOUND IN STEP THREE IS LESS THAN THE NUMBER FOUND
IN STEP TWO, THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE EXTENDED.

5. THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD THERE BE

FROM THE RESULT OF STEP TWO, ADJUST A FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN EQUAL
PROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF RISER HEIGHT, BUT IN NO CASE SHALL
THE RISE PER STEP BE GREATER THAN 19 CM OR LESS THAN 17 CM
OTHERWISE, THE STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL ONE.

IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A STAIR

BEFORE MAKING THE FINAL PLAN LAYOUT INDICATING THE NUMBER OF
STEPS TO AVOID ADJUSTMENTS OF THE RUN DURING THE ACTUAL
CONSTRUCTION.

TYPE OF STRINGERS
THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO
THE METHOD OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE TREADS.

1. CUT
2. CLEATED
3. BUILT-UP
4. RABBETED (HOUSE)

Page 14 of 60
• BALUSTER – ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS OFTEN
CIRCULAR IN SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.

• BALUSTRATE – AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL, VERTICAL

MEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL.

• BULL-NOSED STEP – A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT, HAVING ONE OR

BOTH ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND PROJECTION BEYOND THE
FACE OF THE STAIR STRING/S.

• BANISTER – HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.

• RISER – A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.

• KICKER PLATE – STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.

TYPES OF ROOF
THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY OF
SHAPES THAT ONE HAS TO BE FAMILIAR WITH:

SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST FORM OF

ROOF CONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.

GABLE OR PITCH ROOF- THE MOST COMMON TYPE AND ECONOMICAL

FORM OF ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR SECTIONS CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES
MEETING AT THE CENTER OF THE RIDGE FORMING A GABLE.

SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE INTO A

SERIES TO LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE BUILDING. THIS IS COMMONLY USED
ON FACTORIES WHERE EXTRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A
VERTICAL SIDE.

DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A HIP AND

VALLEY ROOF.

HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES HAVING

STRAIGHT SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING
TERMINATING AT THE RIDGE.

HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND AN

INTERESTING GABLE ROOF FORMING A T OR L SHAPED BUILDING. THIS TYPE OF
ROOF FORM HOWEVER, HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT
ILLUSTRATED.

PYRAMID ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE

FOUR STAIGHT SIDES ARE SLOPING TOWARDS THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A
POINT.
GAMBREL ROOF- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDE
HAVING TWO SLOPES.

Page 15 of 60
 BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT
THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING.

MANSARD ROOF- WHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROM
EACH SIDE OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS THE CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON
TOP.

FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE

MANZARD ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE CONCAVE.

DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON

OBNSERVATORIES.

CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR SECTION

THAT TAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL POINT.

TYPES OF ROOF FRAME

THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE:

1. RAFTERS TYPE
2. TRUSS TYPE
3. LAMINATED TYPE

THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE:

• COMMON RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES FROM THE

PLATE OR GIRTS T THE RIDGE.

• HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER OF A

PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

• VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR

GIRTS AT THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE EXTENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF.

• OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED

PLATE AT THE CENTRAL APEX OR RIDGE POLE.

• JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT EXTEND FROM THE PLATE
OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:

1. HIT JACKS
2. VALLEY JACKS
3. CRIPLE JACKS

JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP
JACKS. THE FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED
VALLEY JACKS, WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE VALLEY
RAFTERS ARE CALLED CRIPPLE JACKS.

Page 16 of 60
TRUSS – IS A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF
UNSUPPORTED BY INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS. TRUSS IS A
DESIGN OF A SERIES OF TRIANGLES USED TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD, STIFFEN THE
STRUCTURE AND FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR SPACING AS WELL AS
STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE:

LIGHT TRUSSES:

PITCHED HOWE

SCISSORS RAISED CHORD

SAWTOOTH 1 ½ STORY FRAME

FLAT UTILITY

BOWSTRING

HEAVY TRUSSES:

HOWE TRUSS BELGIAN

FINK PRATT

SCISSORS CAMBERED FINK

Page 17 of 60
WARREN FLAT HOWE

SAW TOOTH FLAT PRATT

PURLINS – THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER OR TOP

CHORD OF A TRUSS THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF SHEATING.

PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING:

SPAN: 2.00 SIZE: 50mm X 75mm

3.00 50mm X 100mm
3.50 50mm X 150mm
4.50 50mm X 200mm

ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING
THAT SERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FROM THE WEATHER.
ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED:
• FIBER
• WOOD
• METAL
• SLATE
• TILES
• REINFORCED CONCRETE
• PLASTICS
• FIBERGLASS

METAL ROOFING – IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION, THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
• GALVANIZED IRON
• ALUMINUM
• TIN
• TITANIUM COPPER ZINC
• COPPER
• STAINLESS STEEL
• LEAD

Page 18 of 60
 AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON SHEET IS
THE MOST COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT
OFFER.
GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE
THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF “GAUGE” FROM ga. 14 TO ga. 30. Gauge
26 IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ROOFING.
THE STANDARD COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH THAT
RANGES FROM 1.50 TO 3.60 m.
PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X 2.40m. IT’S
ALSO USED FOR ROOFING, GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND VALLEY ROLLS,
DOWNSPOUT, AND STRAP FOR RIVETING.

CORR. G.I.ROOFING FASTENERS:

• NAILING
• RIVETING

• PANTILE – A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF “S” LAID ON IT’S SIDE.
• MISSION TILE – A CLAY ROOFING TILE, APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN SHAPE
LAID IN COURSES WITH THE UNIT HAVING THEIR CONVEX SIDE ALTERNATELY
UP AND DOWN.
• ROMAN TILE – A CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING TILE.
• GALVANIZED – ZINC COATED MATERIALS.
• A FRAME – A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE SHAPE OF THE
UPRIGHT CAPITAL “A”.
• CHORD – A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A TRUSS.
• BATTEN – WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES.
• SPLIT RING – CHORD SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES.

FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

FORM IS A TEMPORARY BOARDING, SHEATING OR PANS USED TO
PRODUCE THE DESIRED SHAPE AND SIZE OF CONCRETE. FORMS ARE USED IN
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING ARE BUILT-
UP INTO ITS SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS BY THE USE OF FORMS THAT SERVES AS
MOULD FOR THE MIXED CONCRETE.
FORMS SHOULD BE WATERTIGHT, RIGID AND STRONG ENOUGH TO
SUSTAIN THE WEIGHT OF CONCRETE. IT SHOULD BE SIMPLE AND
ECONOMICALLY DESIGNED TO BE REMOVE EASILY AND REASSEMBLED WITHOUT
DAMAGE TO THEMSELVES OR TO THE CONCRETE.

FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF FORMS ARE:

• COST OF MATERIALS
• THE CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLING COST
• THE NUMBER OF TIMES IT COULD BE USED
• STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE TO PRESSURE AND THE TEAR & WEAR

Page 19 of 60
WOOD BOARD AND PLYWOOD FORMS

WOOD FORM IS THE MOST COMMON AND WIDELY USED FORMS IN MINOR
OR MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.
• PLYWOOD AS FORM IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND
MATERIALS.
• PLYWOOD HAS PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS.
• IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS, ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE SURFACE
WHICH IS NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS FORMS.
• THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE BOARD
STRONGER AND FREE FROM WARPING.
• PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON.
• PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE
OR NO PLASTERING AT ALL.

METAL FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE

OF THE VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL
FORMS ARE EXTENSIVELY USED ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE
GENERALLY MADE OUT OF G.I. SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY
FLAT AND ANGLE BARS DESIGNED TO BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF
CLAMP, BOLTS AND NUTS.

CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS
CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE
GUARDED AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE
PROCESS OF POURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE
FRAME AND RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE
SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM AND MASSIVE STRUCTURE.
• SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND BEAM
FOR ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN 6mm. THK. PLYWOOOD IS
SATIFACTORILY USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
• MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS, BEAMS, AND
CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm
OR 12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm
OR 50mm X 75mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
• MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF
VARIOUS THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 19mm THK. PLYWOOD
SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING:

• LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE
• PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE

TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS:

• SQUARE
• RECTANGULAR
• CIRCULAR

BEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS.

TYPES OF WALL FORMS:

• CONTINUOUS
• FULL UNIT
• LAYER UNIT

Page 20 of 60
GREASING OF FORMS
THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER
PROOF, THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH
CAUSES SWELLING AND WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF
CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF THE WOOD.

YOKE – IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A

COLUMN.

SCAFFOLDING – WORKER’S PLATFORM

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TERMS

ENGLISH VERNACULAR ENGLISH VERNACULAR
Adobe Anchor ---------------------Liyabe Earth Fill----------------- Escombro
Aligned -----------------------------Kaliniya Eave -------Alero,Barakilan,Sopo
Alignment --------------------------Asintada Electrician -------------- Elektrista
Alternate or staggered ----------Uno Sinotra Engineer ---------------- Inhenyero
Anchor ------------------------------Liyabe Exterior Siding --------- Tabike
Architect ----------------------------Arkitekto Faucet ------------------- Gripo
Astragal -----------------------------Batidura Fascia Board ---------- Senepa
Balusters ----------------------------Balustre,Barandilla Feet --------------------- Piye
Beam --------------------------------Biga Fill ------------------------ Tambak
Banisters ----------------------------Barandil Filler ----------------Tapal, Dagdag
Barrel Bolt -------------------------- Trankilya Floor Joist -------------- Soleras
Baseboard --------------------------Rodapis Fillet ---------------------- Batidur
Bath tub ----------------------------Baniera Flooring --------------Sahig, Suelo
Bolt -------------------------------- -Pierno Floor sill ----------------- Guililan
Bottom Chord ---------------------Tirante, Estunyo Flush --------------------- Alahado
Brace -------------------------------Pie de Gallo Foundation/Footings-Pundasyon
Brick ------------------------------- Landrillo Foreman------Kapatas,MaestroDe Obra
Canopy ---------------------------- Media Agua Framework -----------------------Balangkas
Cabinet Hinge --------------------Espolon Gable Roof ---------------------Dos Aguas
Carpenter ------------------------- Karpintero Girder ---------------------Guililan
Carpentry ------------------------- Karpinteria Girts or Girder -----------Sepo
Cast Iron -------------------------- Pundido Gravel ---------------------Graba
Ceiling ---------------------------- Kisame Good Grain ---------------Haspe
Ceiling Board -------------------- Kisame Groove --------------------Canal
Ceiling Joist ---------------------- Kostil Yahe Gutter ---------------------Alulod, canal
Cement --------------------------- Semento Hand rail -----------------Gabay
Cement Brick -------------------- Ladrilyo Head ----------------------Sombrero
Cement Tiles ---------------------Baldosa Hinge ---------------------Bisagra
Chain bolt ------------------------ Baral de Kadena Hip roof ----------------- -Kuatro Aguas
Collar ----------------------------- Sinturon Horizontal Stud -------- Trabe-Anzo
Column --------------------------- Kolumna,Haligue Inch -----------------------Pulgada
Concrete -------------------------- Konkreto Jamb ----------------------Hamba
Concrete Slab --------------------Larga Masa Joist -----------------------Suleras
Concrete Beam ------------------Biga Kingpost -----------------Pendolum
Conductor ------------------------ Alulod Laborer -------------------Piyon
Contractor ------------------------ Kontratista Landing -----------------Mesa Pahingahan
Corr. G.I. sheets -----------------Yiero Canalado Lavatory -------------Lababo Galbanisado
Closed Stringer ------------------Escalera Laying of CHB orAdobe Stone----Asinta
Crushed Stone -------------------Eskombro Lean to roof ------------ Sibe
Page 21 of 60
Diagonal Brace ------------------Sinturon Level --------------------- Lebel
Door ------------------------------- Pinto Machine Bolt ----------- Peirno Pasante
Door Fillet ------------------------ Batidora Mason ------------------- Kantero
Door Head ------------------------Sombrero (Pintuan) Masonry ----------------- Kanteria
Door Jamb ------------------------Hamba Pintuan Masonry Fill ------------ Lastilyas
Drawbore Pin or Drawpin ------Punsol Meter ---------------------Metro
Mitre or Miter -------------------- Canto Mesa Septic Tank -------------Poso Negro
Mixture of Sand & Gravel ------Lastilyas Shape ------------------- Korte
Mortar ----------------------------- Paupo Sheet ------------------Plantsa
Mortar Joists ----------------------Kostura Shower ------------------ Dutsha
Moulding -------------------------- Moldura Sidings -------------------Tabika
Nailers ----------------------------- Pamakuan Sink -----------------------Prigadero
Nail -------------------------------- Pako Sketch Plan --------------Krokis
Nail Setter ------------------------ Punsol Slab (rough) --------------Larga Masa
Newel Post ----------------------- Tukod Slope ----------------------Bahada
Nut --------------------------------- Tuerka Solder ---------------------Hinang
Nicolite Bar ----------------------- Estanyo Solder Bar ----------------Estaniyo
Oakum -----------------------------Estopa Spacing -------------------Biento
Open Stringer ---------------------Hardinera Split Knob -------------- Poleya
Over Hand or Projector ----------Bolada Stairs ----------------------Hagdanan
Painter ------------------------------Pintor Stake -------------------- Staka
Panel --------------------------------Bandeha Stringer (open) -------- Hardinera
Panellee Door ----------------------De Bandeha Stringer ----------Madre, Madrina
Pattern ------------------------------Plantilya Stucco ------------------- Palitada
Pea Gravel -------------------------Grabita Stud (vertical)---------- Pilarete
Pendulum (King Post) ------------Pendulon Stud (horizontal) ----Pabalagbag
Pickwork ---------------------------Piketa Temper (metal work)---Suban, Subuhan
Piglead ------------------------------Tingga, Estopa Thread ------------------- Roskas
Plain G.I. sheet -------------Yiero Liso Galbanisado Tinsmith -------------Latero
Plain G.I. Strap --------------------Lingueta Tinsmithing --------------Lateria
Plank Board ------------------------Senepa Top Chord ------------Kilo, Tahilan
Plaster -------------------------------Palitada Transom -----------------Espeho
Plastered Course -------------------Kusturada Tread ----------Baytang, Perdano
Plug ----------------------------------Tapon Trellise --------------------Pergola
Plumb Bob --------------------------Hulog Truss ------------------ Truss, Kilo
Plumber -----------------------------Tubero Varnished -----------------Varnisado
Plumb Line -------------------------Hulog Vertical Stud --------------Pilarete
Post ----------------------------------Poste, Haligue Wainscoating Tiles -------Asolehos
Projection ---------------------------Bolada Washer ---------------------Pitsa, Tsapa
Purlins -------------------------------Reostra Water Closet --------------Inidoro
Putty ---------------------------------Masilya Window -------------------Bintana
Quarter Round ----------------------Mediacana Window Grille -----------Rehas
Rabbet -------------------------------Vaciada Window Head -----Sombrero Bintana
Rafters -------------------------------Kilo Window Jamb -----Hamba Bintana
Reinforcing Bar --------------------Cabilla, Bakal Window Sill --------------Pasamano
Ridgeroll ----------------------------Caballete W.I. Strap --------------Planchuela
Riser ---------------------------------Senepa, Takip Wiring Knob -------------Poleya Silipan
Rivets -------------------------------Rimatse Wood Grain ------------Haspe
Roof -------------------------------- Atip, Bubong Wood Plank --------------Tabla
Sand --------------------------------Buhangin Wrought Iron Strap ---Plantsuela
Scaffolding ------------------------Andamiyo, Plancha Scratch Coat ---------------------Rebokada
Screw -------------------------------Turnilyo

Page 22 of 60
 PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION

THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WAS

BROUGHT ABOUT BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS CONSIDERABLY INCREASED
FASTER THAT MOST INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY THE LARGE
AMOUNT OF ON-SITE LABOR INVOLVED IN THE TRADITIONAL METHODS OF
CONSTRUCTION.

THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS ON ON-SITE BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION IS INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE SUPPLY. THE ANSWER TO
THERE PROBLEMS WERE BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF
CONSTRUCITON AND SUBSTITUTION OF SITE LABOR BY FACTORY PRODUCED
PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE WHICH HAS RAPIDLY DEVELOPED AND GAINED
IMPORTANCE.
THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT FORMS OF STEEL, CONCRETE,
GLASS-FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC.
THE WET CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS TO
ACHIEVE MAXIMUM DENSITY AND HIGHEST SURFACE QUALITY.
CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST IS USUALLY 5000 PSI, WHILE 270,000
PSI FOR STRENGTH OF STEEL.
PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED WITH THE
USE OF HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO ENABLE A PRECAST TO REMOVE IN
FORM IN 24 HOURS.
FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE 125
METERS TO EXTEND 250 METERS IN LENGTH.

TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURE

WALL PANELS – THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS NUMEROUS

DESIGNS DEPENDING UPON THE ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. THE
COMMON SHAPES PRODUCED FOR ONE TO FOUR STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES
ARE SECTIONS HAVING A WIDTH UP TO 2.40 m. THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN
WALLS ATTACHED TO COLUMNS AND BEAMS OR SOMETIMES AS BEARING WALLS.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE:

1. FLAT TYPE
2. DOUBLE TEE TYPE
3. RIBBED TYPE
4. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE

TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL INSULATION OF THE PANEL, FOAM GLASS,

GLASS FIBER OR EXPANDED PLASTIC IS INSERTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE ADEQUATELY BONDED INTERCONNECTING THE TWO
LAYERS TO ACT AS ONE UNIT. STRESSES IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE
MEMBER IS MORE THAN THAT OF THE FINISHED FILLED STRUCTURE, HENCE,
CONTROL OF CRACKING IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE.

Page 23 of 60
PRECAST COLUMN

PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A MULTI-
STOREY CONSTRUCTION, THE COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO FOUR
STORIES WHEREIN CORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR THE BEAM.
TEE COLUMN IS SOMETIMES USED TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR
MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF INTERMEDIATE MEMBERS.

PRECAST BEAMS

THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF

FRAMING. THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE:

• RECTANGULAR BEAM
• INVERTED TEE BEAM
• L –SHAPED BEAM
• AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE
HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS

• SOLID FLAT SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

• HOLLOW CORE SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

• DOUBLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

• SINGLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE

• ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 OF ITS SPAN.

DEPTH TYPICALLY RANGE FROM 90-200mm.
• AN 200mm PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN SPAN APPROXIMATELY 7.60M.,
250mm SLAB APPROX. 9.80M., AND A 300mm SLAB APPROX. 12.0M. SPAN.
• ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 1/28 OF
THEIR SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF DOUBLE TEES ARE
300,350,400,450,510,610, AND815mm.
• A PRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 928mm DEEP SPANS APPROXIMATELY
26.0M. AND 1142mm TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN.
• ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND GIRDERS AT 1/16
OF THEIR SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND 1/12 OF THEIR SPAN FOR HEAVY
LOADINGS. THESE RATIOS APPLY TO RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L-
SHAPED BEAMS. THE WIDTH OF A BEAM OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT ½ ITS
DEPTH. THE PROJECTING LEDGERS ON INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS
ARE USUALLY 150mm WIDE AND 300mm DEEP.
• TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP THE
TOTAL ROOF AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. A 250mm.
COLUMN CAN SUPPORT UP TO ABOUT 185 sq.m. OF AREA. A 300mm. COLUMN
FOR 240 sq.m. AREA. A 400mm. COLUMN FOR 370 sq.m. AREA. A 500mm.
COLUMN FOR 560 sq.m. AREA. A 600MM. COLUMN FOR 740 sq.m. AREA.

Page 24 of 60
JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

BOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN

THESE CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL CONNECTORS NOT COVERED BY
TOPPING ARE USUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING JOINED,
TO PROTECT THEM FROM FIRE AND CORROSION.
THE SIMPLEST JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE
THOSE THAT RELY UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF
ANOTHER, AS IS DONE WHERE SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR
BEAM, OR WHERE A BEAM RESTS ON THE CORBEL OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS
ARE USUALLY INSERTED BETWEEN THE CONCRETE MEMBERS AT BEARING
POINTS TO AVOID THE CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE
POINTS OF HIGH STRESS. BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION AND
CONTRACTION IN THE MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE SLABS THESE
PADS ARE STRIPS OF HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH HIGHER
POINT LOADING SUCH AS TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER
AREUSED.

PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE

THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED

FORCE TO A CONCRETE BEAM:

• PRECOMPRESSING METHOD – IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS REACTING

AGAINST ABUTMENT.

• SELF-CONTAINED METHOD – THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE JACK

BASE TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES LOCATED ON EACH SIDE OF THE
BEAM. USUALLY THE WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED THROUGH A HOLLOW
CONDUIT EMBEDDED IN THE CONCRETE BEAM. ONE END OF THE TENDON IS
ANCHORED AND FORCES ARE APPLIED AT THE OTHER END. AFTER
ATTAINING THE DESIRED PRESTRESS FORCE, THE TENDON IS THEN WEDGED
AGAINST THE CONCRETE, REMOVING THE JACK EQUIPMENT.

• BOND FRICTION – THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED BETWEEN

MASSIVE ABUTMENT PRIOR TO CASTING OF CONCRETE IN THE BEAM FORMS.
AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS GAINED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH, THE JACKS ARE
THEN RELEASED TRANSFERRING THE PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE
CONCRETE BY BOND AND FRICTION ALONG THE STRANDS.

THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS CAN
GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR POST-TENSIONING SYSTEM.
THESE METHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING SEVERAL
METERS LONG OF STRUCTURE AND CUTTING THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO
THE DESIRED LENGTH OUT FROM THE LONG CASTING.

• THERMAL PRESTRESSING – THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF

ELECTRIC POWER WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST THE OPPOSITE END OF
THE CONCRETE BEAM. THE COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES PRESTRESS
FORCE THROUGH RESTRAINED CONTRACTION.

Page 25 of 60
THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE:

1. SLIP AT ANCHORAGE
2. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE
3. CREEP OF CONCRETE
4. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
5. RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS
6. FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED
CURVATURE IN THE TENDONS.

CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSING

CONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS USED FOR
PRESTRESSED STRUCTURES. MOST OF THE PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION
SPECIFY A COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BETWEEN (4,000 to 6,000 psi)
280-422 kg/cm2 BECAUSE OF THE FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.

A) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A HIGHER MODULUS OF

ELASTICITY. IT MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF PRESTRESS LOSS.

B) INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE

MEETS THE PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING STRESSES AT THE ENDS
OF POST AND BEAM WHERE THE PRESTRESSING FORCE IS
TRANSFERRED FROM THE TENDON TO THE ANCHORAGE DOWELS
WHICH DIRECTLY BEARS AGAINST THE CONCRETE.

C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND

PRESTRESSES TO PRETENSIONING CONSTRUCTION.

D) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO PRECAST

CONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE

PRESTRESSING FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY:

1. MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.

2. EITHER BY CHECKING JACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED GAGE OR
LOAD CELL OR BY THE USED OF CALIBRATED DYNAMOMETER.

• POST TENSIONING – THE STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER

CONCRETE HAS CURED.

Page 26 of 60
 BUILDING MATERIALS
WOOD MATERIALS
WOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT ABILITY TO ABSORB
SHOCKS FROM SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN WEIGHT WHICH ADAPTABLE IN A
COUNTLESS VARIETY OF PURPOSES.

TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD:

• SOFTWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.

• HARDWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS, PANELLING,

FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD:
• HARDNESS – MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE
UNDERGOES WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.

• FLEXIBILITY – THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE BREAKING.

• STRENGTH – TO THE GRAIN.

• DURABILITY – THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.

DEFECTS OF LUMBER:
• DECAY – CAUSED BY THE ATTACKED OF FUNGI.

• CHECKS – CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS THE

ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH.

• KNOTS – IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY WHICH INTERRUPS

SMOOTH CURVE.

• PITCH POCKETS – WELL REFINED OPENINGS BETWEEN ANNUAL RINGS

CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH.

• WANE – IS THE LACK OF WOOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A PIECE.

TYPES OF WARPING:
• CUPPING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS
CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.

• BOWING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS

CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.

• TWISTING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER IS

RAISED.

Page 27 of 60
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
• STRIPS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 8” WIDE.

• BOARDS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND AT LEAST 8” WIDE.

• DIMENSION LUMBER – PIECES MORE THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 5”

IN ANY DIMENSION.

• TIMBER – PIECES 4” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

• LOG – PIECES 12” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

THREE CATEGORIES OF LUMBER:

• YARD LUMBER – USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION AND
FINISHING WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR FLOORING, PLANK SIDING,
TRIM AND MOULDING.

• SHOP LUMBER – IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLS

MAKING SASH, DOORS, AND CABINETS.

• STRUCTURAL LUMBER – IS INTENDED FOR USE IN HEAVY

CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD-BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT INTO
TIMBERS OF LARGER SIZE.

WOOD GRAIN:
• EDGE GRAIN – ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE
FACE.

• FLAT GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS

PARALLEL TO THE SURFACE.

• ANGLE GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45 DEG. TO

THE FACE.

SEASONING OF LUMBER:
• AIR DRYING – LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID
FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECE
WHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY.

• KILN-DRYING – MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR

MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIED
TO A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5 TO 10 PERCENT. THIS
IS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BY
STEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THE
CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT.

Page 28 of 60
MANUFACTURE BOARDS:

MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT APPEAR IN

THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BE CLASSIFIED
AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY-PRODUCT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
LUMBER. THE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO AN EXPANDED
FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS.
TYPES OF BOARDS:

• PLYWOOD – IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED

TOGETHER WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH
OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL CAN
BE DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.

THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD:

• SOFT PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE
• HARDWOOD PLYWOOD – ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND
FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD FINISHED.
• EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD – IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL USE.

• HARDBOARD – IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED

INTO FIBERS UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE. THE LINING IN THE
WOOD ITSELF BINDS PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR
ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES APPLIED. PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONG
IN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT VERY BRITTLE. ITS COLOR VARIES FROM LIGHT
TO DARK BROWN.

• PARTICLE BOARD – IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS,

FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC. BOUND TOGETHER
AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND OTHER MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLE
BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN ALL DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE AND CAN RESIST WARPING.

MASONRY
MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED AND
HARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING UNITS.

BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY:

• COURSE – IS A HORIZONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR OTHER MASONRY UNITS.

• BED JOINT – IS THE HORIZONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY COURSE.

• HEAD JOINT – IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.

• STRETCHER – IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL AND ITS
LONG DIMENSION HORIZONTAL.

• HEADER – IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND TWO WYTHES TOGETHER.

Page 29 of 60
• WYTHE – IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS, ONE UNIT THICK.

• SOLDIER – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE
WALL.

• ROWLOCK – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS END VISIBLE IN THE WALL
FACE.

STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:

• RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS.

• COMMON BOND HAS A HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE
• ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS.
• FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND STRETCHERS IN EACH COURSE.

JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR BRICKWORK:

WEATHERED JOINT CONCAVE JOINT VEE JOINT

FLUCH JOINT RAKED JOINT STRIPPED JOINT

STRUCK JOINT

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

A REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO WYTHES
OF BRICK 50 –100mm APART, PLACING THE REINFORCING STEEL IN THE CAVITY,
AND FILLING CAVITY WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A MIXTURE OF CEMENT,
AGGREGATES, AND WATER.

BRICK BOUNDS
• THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME
DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERN
BOND.

• THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE

ARE TIED TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING OR BY METAL TIES IS
KNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL BOND.

• THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT

USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THEM IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND.

Page 30 of 60
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS:
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND NON-
BEARING BLOCKS. LOAD BEARING BLOCKS ARE THOSE WHOSE THICKNESS
RANGES FROM 15 CM. TO 20 CM. AND ARE USED TO CARRY LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS
OWN WEIGHT. NON-BEARING BLOCKS ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH
ARE INTENDED FOR WALLS, PARTITIONS, FENCES OR DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS
OWN WEIGHT WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 7.5 CM. TO 10 CM.
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF
CELLS AT BOTH ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF FOUR.

CONCRETE
CEMENTS
PORTLAND CEMENT
MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER PROPORTIONS
OF LIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON COMPONENTS. FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE
TO ONE PART CLAY ARE BASIC INGREDIENTS. THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN
PULVERIZED. PORTLAND CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50
KILOS WEIGHT OR IN BULK INTO CEMENT TRUCKS.

SPECIAL CEMENTS

• WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT – SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND

EXCEPT IN COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO
PRODUCE A PURE WHITE, NON-STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR
ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS,
DECORATIVE CONCRETE STUCCO AND TILE GROUT, OR WHEREVER WHITE OR
COLORED CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.

• MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES – HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO

PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE WITH NORMAL PORTLAND
CEMENT OR WITH A LIME-CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY GOOD PLASTICITY AND
WORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION AND BOND.

• WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT – NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING A

SMALL AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE
CEMENT CLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.

TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

CONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE BY
BINDING TOGETHER PARTICLES OF SOME INERT MATERIAL WITH A PASTE MADE
OF CEMENT AND WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL ARE THE AGGREGATE.
AGGREGATES USED ARE SAND, GRAVEL CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED
FURNACE SLAG, BURNED CLAY, EXPANDED VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.

SAND - FOUND IN RIVERBEDS, FREE OF SALT

AND MUST BE WASHED.
FINE AGGREGATE - ¼” AND SMALLER DIAMETER STONES.
COARSE AGGREGATE - BIGGER THAN ¼” DIAMETER STONES.

Page 31 of 60
 CONCRETE MIXES

CLASS “AA” - 1: 1 ½: 3 - CONCRETE UNDER WATER, RETAINING

WALLS

CLASS A - 1:2:4 - FOOTINGS, COLUMNS BEAMS, R.C.

SLABS

CLASS B - 1: 2 1/ 2:5- SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING WALLS

CLASS C - 1: 3: 6 - CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

SLUMP TEST- WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO ENSURE THAT

THE SPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED CONSISTENTLY. A STANDARD SLUMP
CONE IS 12 INCHES HIGH (0.30) AND 8 INCHES (O.20) IN DIAMETER AT THE
BOTTOM AND 4 INCHES (O.10) ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON BOTH ENDS.

THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING TAMPED OR

RODDED 25 TIMES WITH A STANDARD 5/8” BULLET NOSED ROD. WHEN THE CONE
HAS BEEN FILLED AND LEVELED OFF, IT IS LIFTED CAREFULLY AND THE AMOUNT
OF SLUMP IS MEASURED.

ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION ‘X’

BEAMS AND COLUMNS 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”

SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET & CURBS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”
SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING 10.0 cm. (.10) 4”
CANAL LINING 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”
HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST- COMMON QUALITY-CONTROL TEST OF

CONCRETE, BASED ON 7 AND 28 DAYS CURING PERIODS. SPECIMENS ARE
USUALLY CYLINDRICAL WITH A LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE DIAMETER.
STANDARD SIZE IS 12 INCH. HIGH AND 6 INCH. DIAMETER. FILLING IS DONE THE
SAME WAY AS THE SLUMP TEST BUT TAKEN OUT FROM THE MOLD IN 24 HOURS.
IT IS THEN SENT TO A COMPRESSION TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING THE
CYLINDER WHILE STILL WET. SOME COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,000 psi, 2,500
psi, 3,000 psi.

SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT

• ISLAND CEMENT
• CONTINENTAL CEMENT
• HI- CEMENT
• UNION CEMENT
• RIZAL CEMENT
• FILIPINAS CEMENT
• PACIFIC CEMENT
• FORTUNE CEMENT
• REPUBLIC CEMENT
• NORTHERN CEMENT

Page 32 of 60
BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT
• PRIME WHITE CEMENT
• KEENE
• TRINITY
• SNOWCRETE

• MORTAR – CEMENT, SAND & WATER.

• GROUT – CEMENT AND WATER MIXTURE.
• CONCRETE – CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL & WATER.
• TYROLEAN FINISH – ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING
PLASTER ON A WALL W/ A HAND OPERATED MACHINE.
• EFFLORESCENCE – AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS CAUSED BY FREE
ALKALIES LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR ADJACENT CONCRETE AS MOISTURE
MOVE THROUGH IT.
• ADIABATIC CURING - THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O THE GAIN
OR LOSS OF HEAT DURING THE CURING PERIOD.
• WHEATHERED – MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR JOINTS FOR
WALLS.
• ADOBE BRICK – LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS OF
VARYING SIZES.
• ASHLAR BRICK – A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED TO RESEMBLE
ROUGHLY HACKED STONE.
• RETARDER – AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY THE SETTING OF CEMENT PASTE
OR MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH PLASTER TO CONTROL THE RATE OF
HARDENING.
• STEAM CURING – THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER VAPOR
AT AN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR HIGH
PRESSURE.
• QUOIN / COIN – IN MASONRY, A HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO REINFORCE
AN EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.
• ZOCALO – LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET-TYPE HOUSE.
• FORTIFICATION – THA WALL OF INTRAMUROS.
• SCRATCH COAT – INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.
• CINDER BLOCK – A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER
CONCRETE.
• MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS 0.0125 m.
• PLASTERING THICKNESS IS 0.016 m.
• MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL 0.05 X 0.075 X 0.20 = 0.00075 cu.m.
FOR 4 CELL/BLOCK = 0.00075 X 4 = 0.003 cu.m. FOR 4” CHB.

Page 33 of 60
 FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS
FERROUS- METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT.

NONFERROUS- CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.

FERROUS METAL:

STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING AND

REFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE
CARBON CONTENT.
PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON ORE, AND LIMESTONE.
FIVE PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF STEEL, WHICH
OTHERWISE WOULD BE WASTE, ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON A MOVING GATE
TO CAUSE THE FORMATION OF CLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED SINTER, A HIGH-
GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGE MATERIAL.
FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE IN
MOLDS, A GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE.
THEY INCLUDED:

• COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING). PIG IRON

IS USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT
BUT LOW IN TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION.
HOWEVER SINCE IT IS CHEAP AND EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS,
MOTORS, ENGINES AND BECAUSE OF ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED
FOR PIPES TO SOME EXTENT.

• WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS

TO REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS
EASILY WORKED AND IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. IT’S MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE
AND METAL ORNAMENTS.

• STAINLESS STEELS ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF

NICKEL AND CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS,
FRAMES FOR DOORS EXPANSION JOINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA AND
GRAVEL STOPS.

• COPPER- BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS

USED FOR MAKING SHEET STEEL AND METAL LATH.

STEEL PRODUCTS
• ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES
• SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN
SEVERAL SHAPE.
• STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND
ELECTRICALLY WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.
• REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED
RAILWAY- CAR AXLES OR RAILS.
REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS, BARS
WHICH HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE TO
PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.

Page 34 of 60
SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR ¼ in. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE
EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)

No. 2= ¼“ = 6 mm.
No. 3= 3/8” = 10 mm.
No. 4= ½” = 12mm.
No. 5= 5/8” = 16mm.
No. 6= ¾” = 20mm.
No. 7= 7/8” = 22mm.
No. 8= 1” = 25mm.
No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm.

• WELDED WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT

CONSISTS OF PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES WELDED TO TRANSVERSE
WIRES AT REGULAR INTERVALS.

• STEEL WIRE – OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS, NEEDLES,
NAILS, BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES.

• BOLTS AND NUTS – (EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD-FORMED FROM WIRE

OF THE APPROPRIATE DIAMETER). FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN
AUTOMATIC BOLT-MAKING MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS,
TRIMS, POINTS, AND IN MANY ROLLS THE THREAD.

• STEEL STRAPPING – MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A NUMBER

OF SIZES. USED FOR BANDING COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP THEM FROM
BULGING UNDER THE PRESSURE OF FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE. A
TIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE TWO LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED.

• OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS – LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES MADE

IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT STYLES.

• SHEET STEEL – BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CAN BE USED TO

MANUFACTURE CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING AND FORMED STEEL
DECKING.

• STEEL STUDS – LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE

AND DOES NOT WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT POP, AND JOINTS
STAY CLOSED. MUCH FASTER TO INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD
INSTALLATION. AVAILABLE IN 1 5/8, 2 ½ AND 3 5/8 INCHES. PLUMBING
STACKS AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS FIT EASILY INTO A STEEL-
FRAMEWALL.

• PANS AND DONES – MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONE-WAY AND

TWO-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS.

Page 35 of 60
NONFERROUS METALS:

ALUMINUM – ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES 10 KILOWATT HOURS FOR EACH

POUND OF METAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE REDDISH BROWN ORE IS
WASHED AND TREATED IN A SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD A CHALKY-WHITE
POWDER CALLED ALUMNA, CONTAINING A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ALUMINUM.

ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON WALLS AND CEILINGS

AND AS REFLECTIVE INSULATION.

COPPER – A LUSTROUS REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND

MALLEABLE; HAS HIGH TENSILE STRENGTH, IS AN EXCELLENT ELECTRICAL AND
THERMAL CONDUCTOR, IS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES; WIDELY
USED FOR DOWNSPOUTS, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS,
ROOFING, ETC.

COPPER ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRONZES WHICH CONTAIN

PRIMARILY ZINC AND TIN, RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS CONTAINING NICKEL.

BRASSES ARE USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE

APPLICTIONS. BRONZES ARE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS.

LEAD – A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL; HAS LOW MELTING POINT AND
A HIGH COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION. VERY EASY TO CUT AND WORK,
ENABLING IT TO BE FITTED OVER UNEVEN SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING,
FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL PANELS.

TIN – A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A LOW

MELTING POINT; RELATIVELY UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR; USED FOR
MAKING ALLOYS AND SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET METAL.

STRUCTURAL SHAPES
THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS:
1. SQUARE BARS 6. I-BEAM
2. ROUND BARS 7. TEE BEAM
3. PLATE BARS 8. H-COLUMN
4. ANGLE BARS 9. WIDE FLANGES
5. CHANNELS 10. ZEE

STANDARD CHANNEL
THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE
CONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE REQUIRES LATERAL
SUPPORT TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE STANDARD CHANNELS
ARE GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF BUILT-UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND
ARE ALSO SUITABLE FOR FRAMING AROUND FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND
LINTELS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER SIDE. THE
CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C 15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE CHANNEL
HAS A DEPTH OF 20 cm. AND WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER LENGTH.

Page 36 of 60
WIDE FLANGE
WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24 WHICH MEANS
THAT THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12 kg. PER METER
LENGTH. ALL WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH PARALLEL FACE
FLANGE EXCEPT THOSE WITH 5% SLOPE INSIDE FACE PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM
STEEL COMPANY. COMPARATIVELY, WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE MORE
EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I BEAM WITH RESPECT TO BENDING RESISTANCE.

STANDARD I-BEAM
THE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE
WHIRL OR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH
THE CENTROID PARALLEL TO THE WAB OF THE I-BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY
SMALL.

H-BEARING PILES
H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP
EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.

ZEE SECTIONS
THE ZEE SECTION IS ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER Z WHICH
IS NOT FREQUENTLY USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION EXEPT ON THE
FABRICATION OF STEEL WINDOWS AND OTHER FRAMES.

• WROUGHT IRON – A COMMERCIALLY PURE IRON OF FIBROUS NATURE,

VALUED FOR ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE AND DUCTILITY.
• CAST IRON – AN IRON ALLOY USUALLY INCLUDING CARBON AND SILICON
WHICH HAS HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BUT LOW TENSILE STRENGTH.
• WELDING – IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH TWO METALS ARE SO JOINT THAT
THERE IS AN ACTUAL UNION OF THE INTERATOMIC BONDS.
• EXTRUSION – THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING METAL SHAPES OF A CONSTANT
CROSS SECTION BY FORCING THE HOT METAL THROUGH AN ORFICE IN A DIE
BY MEANS OF A PRESSURE RAM.
• RED OXIDE – PROTECTIVE COAT FOR IRON.
• LAP SEAM – A JOINT FORMED BY OVERLAPPING THE EDGES OF METAL SHEET
OR PLATES AND JOINING THEM BY RIVETING OR SOLDERING OR BRACING.

Page 37 of 60
JOINING STEEL MEMBERS

STEEL SHAPES CAN BE JOINED INTO A BUILDING FRAME WITH ANY OF

THREE FASTENING TECHNIQUES.

• RIVETS

A RIVETS IS A FASTENER CONSISTING OF A CYLINDRICAL BODY AND A

FORMED HEAD WHICH IS BROUGHT TO A WHITE HEAT, INSERTED THROUGH
HOLES IN THE MEMBERS TO BE JOINED, AND HOT-WORKED WITH A PNEUMATIC
HAMMER TO PRODUCED A SECOND HEAD OPPOSITE THE FIRSTHEAD.

PROCESS OF RIVETING:
A) A HOT STEEL RIVET IS INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWO
MEMBERS TO BE JOINED,
B) ITS HEAD IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUP-SHAPED
DEPRESSION,
C) WHILE A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY
AGAINST THE BODY OF THE RIVET TO FORM THE SECOND HEAD,
D) THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT COOLS, DRAWING MEMBERS TIGHTLY
TOGETHER.

• BOLTS

THE BOLTS COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTO

TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES:
1) CARBON STEEL BOLTS – OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO THE
ORDINARY MACHINE BOLTS THAT CAN BE PURCHASED IN
HARDWARE STORES.
2) HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS – ARE HEAT TREATED DURING
MANUFACTURE TO DEVELOP THE NECESSARY STRENGTH. IT IS
USUALLY TIGHTENED USING PNEUMATIC OR ELECTRIC IMPACT
WRENCH.

A MAJOR PROBLEM IN HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTING OR FRICTION-TYPE

CONNECTIONS IS HOW TO VERIFY THE NECESSARY TENSION HAS BEEN
ACHIEVED IN ALL THE BOLTS IN A CONNECTION.

SEVERAL WAY TO ACHIEVED PROPER TIGHTENING:

• TURN-OF-NUT METHOD
• LOAD INDICATOR WASHER
• TENSION CONTROL BOLTS

PROCESS OF TIGHTENING A TENSION CONTROL BOLT:

A) THE WRENCH HOLDS BOTH THE NUT AND THE SPLINED BODY OF THE
BOLT, AND TURNS THEM AGAINST ONE ANOTHER TO TIGHTEN THE BOLT,
B) WHEN THE REQUIRED TORQUE IS ACHIEVED, THE SPLINED END TWISTS
OFF IN THE WRENCH,
C) A PLUNGER INSIDE THE WRENCH DISCHARGES THE SPLINED END INTO A
CONTAINER.

Page 38 of 60
 • WELDING

WELDING CAN JOIN THE MEMBERS OF A STEEL FRAME AS IF THEY WERE A

MONOLITHIC WHOLE. WELDED ARE STRONGER THAN THE MEMBERS THEY JOIN
IN RESISTING BOTH SHEAR AND MOMENT FORCES.

TYPICAL WELDS USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION:

• FILLET WELD

• DOUBLE FILLET WELD

• DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

• SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

• V-GROOVE WELD

• V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

• PUDDLE WELD

• PARTIAL-PENETRATION SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

THE BASIC SYBOLS ARE:

BACK FILLET PLUG OR SLOT
GROOVE OR BUTT
SQUARE V BEVEL U J FLARE V FLARE BEVEL

THE ARROW
THE REFERENCE LINE CARRIES THE
DESCRIPTIVE SYMBOLS

THE ARROW POINTS TO THE WELD

THE BASIC SYMBOLS

THE BASIC WELD SYMBOL IS LOCATED ON
EITHER SIDE OF THE REFERENCE LINE AS
FOLLOWS:

SYMBOLS ON THE TOP OF THE

REFERENCE LINE REFER TO WELDS ON
THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE
ARROW

SYMBOLS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE

REFERENCE LINE
REFER TO WELDS ON THE SAME SIDE OF
THE JOINT AS
AS THE ARROW

Page 39 of 60
SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS

FIELD WELD – THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION. OTHER
WELDS ARE DONE EARLIER IN THE FABRICATOR’S SHOP.

WELD ALL AROUND – THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE CARRIED
FULLY AROUND THE PERIMETER OF THE JOINING PIECES.

BACKUP BAR – AS INDICATED IN THIS EXAMPLE, A BACKUP BAR TO SUPPORT THE

FIRST PASS OF THE WELD MUST BE PLACED ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT
OPPOSITE THE ARROW.

SPACER – SMALL METAL SPACERS ARE USED TO MAINTAIN A GAP BETWEEN THE
PIECS TO BE JOINED, PRIOR TO WELDING.

A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW INDICATES THAT THE
ARROWHEAD IS POINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED SIDE OF THE BEVEL OR J-
GROOVED JOINT.

GLASS

THE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A HARD

BRITTLE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE, ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR TRANSLUCENT;
PRODUCED BY MELTING A MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A STABILIZER; WHILE
MOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED, PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OF
SHAPES.
DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED,
COOLED SLOWLY UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED-IN
THERMAL STRESSES THAT MIGHT CAUSE IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.

THICKNESSES OF GLASS
GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESSES
RANGING FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm, THROUGH 3mm, IS CALLED SINGLE-
STRENGTH, OR 6mm TO 22mm, IS CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON SPECIAL
ORDER, 25mm IS AVAILABLE.

TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS

1. TEMPERED GLASS
TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS TO
THE REQUIRED SIZES FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY 1200
DEGREES FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH A
BLAST OF AIR WHILE ITS CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS FOUR
TIMES AS STRONG IN BENDING AND MORE RESISTANT TO THERMAL
STRESS AND IMPACT.

2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS
THE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO TEMPERING,
BUT ITS, ABOUT ONE-THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED GLASS IN TERMS OF
BENDING AND STRENGTH.

Page 40 of 60
3. LAMINATED GLASS
ITS MADE BY SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAER BETWEEN
SHEETS OF GLASS AND BONDING THE THREE LAYERS TOGETHER UNDER
HEAT AND PRESSURE. WHEN ITS BREAKS, THE SOFT VINYL HOLDS THE
SHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE RATHER THAN ALLOWING THEM TO FALL OUT
OF THE FRAME.

4. PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS

HOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH MANY DIFFERENT
SURFACE PATTERNS FOR USE WHERE LIGHT TRANSMISSION IS DESIRED BUT
VISION MUST BE OBSCURED FOR PRIVACY.

5. SPANDREL GLASS
SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE
SPANDREL AREA (THE BANDS OF WALL AROUND THE EDGES OF FLOORS) IN
GLASS CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEAT-STRENGTHENED TO RESIST
THE THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR
HEAT BEHIND THE SPANDREL.

6. WIRED GLASS
SIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING
THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. THE WIRE GREATLY INCREASES THE
RESISTANCE TO SHATTERING THROUGH IMPACT. ITS USE FOR SAFETY GLAZING,
WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL STRESS, THE WIRES HOLD THE SHEET OF
GLASS TOGETHER.

TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

SOLAR HEAT BUILDUP CAN BE PROBLEMATIC IN THE INHABITED SPACES

OF BUILDINGS WITH LARGE AREAS OF GLASS, ESPECIALLY DURING THE WARM
PART OF THE YEAR. THIS IS USE TO REDUCE GLARE AND CUT DOWN ON SOLAR
HEAT GAIN.

1) TINTED GLASS
TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTED
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE TO PRODUCE THE
DESIRED HUE AND INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRONZES, BLUES, GREEN,
AND GOLDS.

2) REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE OUTSIDE ON
A BRIGHT DAY AND AT NIGHT, WITH LIGHTS ON INSIDE THE BUILDING, THEY
APPEAR AS DARK BUT TRANSPARENT GLASS.

3) INSULATING GLASS
A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACE
BETWEEN THE SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDS OF
EDGES SEALS ARE FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE AND ORGANIC
SEALANT.

Page 41 of 60
GLASS PRODUCTS

I. GLASS BLOCKS
COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE ADDED
FEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATE
HALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER TO FORM A HOLLOW UNIT WITH
REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND SOUND INSULATION. THE EDGE
SURFACES OF THE BLOCK ARE COATED WITH A GRITTY MORTAR BOND.

TWO TYPES:

1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS – DIRECT OR DIFFUSE THE DAYLIGHT WHICH PASSES

THEOUGH THEM TO IMPROVE THE ILLUMINATION OF THE BUILDING INTERIOR.

THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:

A. A LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK – DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD TOWARD

THE CEILING. USED ALWAYS ABOVE EYE LEVEL.

B. A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK – DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLY

THROUGHOUT THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOM.

C. GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK

2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS – AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE

OF STYLES AND PATTERNS. THESE GLASS MASONRY UNITS PROVIDE ALMOST
UNLIMITED DESIGN VERSATILITY WHEN USED IN WINDOW, OPENINGS AND
FACADES, AS INTERIOR WALLS AND DIVIDER PANELING.

PAINT FINISHES
THE PURPOSE OF A FINISH IS TO PROTECT, PRESERVE OR VISUALLY
ENHANCE THE SURFACE TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED. FINISHES INCLUDE PLASTIC
LAMINATED SURFACE COVERINGS SUCH AS PLASTIC LAMINATED AND VINYL OF
FABRIC WALL COVERING.

PAINT GENERALLY REFERS TO OPAQUE OR CLEAR FILM-FORMING

MATERIAL THAT ACTS AS A SHIELD OR BARRIER BETWEEN THE BUILDING
MATERIAL AND THOSE ELEMENTS OR CONDITIONS THAT MAY ADVERSELY
AFFECTS OR DETERIORATE. THE PAINT FILM MUST RESIST DETERIORATION DUE
TO SUNLIGHT HEAT, TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS, WATER OR MOISTURE VAPOR,
MILDEW AND DECAY CHEMICALS AND PHYSICAL ABRASION. PAINT MAY ALSO
SERVE TO MAKE SURFACES MORE SANITARY, IMPROVE HEATING AND LIGHTING
EFFECTS, AND PROMOTE HUMAN COMFORT AND SAFETY.

WHEN USING PAINT, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR AND

SURFACE TEXTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED. CERTAIN COLORS MAY BE
STIMULATING WHILE OTHERS ARE RELAXING. WHITE AND LIGHT COLORS
Page 42 of 60
REFLECT SIZE OF FORM AND SPACE. DARK COLOR CAN INHIBIT THE
PERCEPTION OF FORM AND MAY BE USED FOR CONTRAST. FLAT PAINT FINISHES
SOFTEN AND DISTRIBUTE, ILLUMINATION EVENLY. GLOSSY FINISHES REFLECT
LIGHT AND CAN CAUSE GLARE, BUT THEY ALSO PROVIDE SMOOTH, EASILY
CLEANED, NON-ABSORPTIVE SURFACES.

MOST PAINTS ARE CAREFULLY FORMULATED TO MEET SPECIFIC

APPLICATION THAT USE REQUIREMENTS AND ARE READY-MIXED FOR
APPLICATION EXCEPT FOR THINNING, STIRRING, OR THE ADDITION OF AN
ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST. IT IS ALWAYS ADVISABLE THEREFORE TO FOLLOW
THE PAINT MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE APPLICATION AND USE
OF A PAINT OR OTHER PROTECTIVE COATING.

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:

MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED

• WOOD, METAL MASONRY, CONCRETE, PLASTIC, ETC.,

SURFACE FINISH TEXTURE

• GLOSS, SEMI-GLOSS, EGG SHELL, SATIN, FLAT,& VARNISH.

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF A PAINT INCLUDE:

SURFACE PREPARATION
- THE FOUNDATION OF ANY PAINT SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY PREPARED TO
ENSURE PROPER ADHESION OF THE PAINT FILM TO ITS SURFACE.

TYPE OF PAINT
- PAINT MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED.
- SPECIFICATIONS INCLUDE THE PAINT VEHICLE, FINISH COLOR, EXPOSURE,
AND MANUFACTURER AND/OR TRADE NAME.

METHOD
- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS BEING
APPLIED. COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED, ROLLED OR SPRAYED ON.
-
DRYING
- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO DRY MUST BE
CHECKED.

FILM THICKNESS
- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS (DFT) IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE NUMBER OF
COATS.
- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE
THICK COAT.
- A MINIMUM OF 2 COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 5 MIL DFT.

Page 43 of 60
COVERAGE
- A PAINT’S COVERAGE CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF VOLUME
SOLIDS:
- ie. PAINT WITH 100% VOLUME SOLIDS:
(NO THINNER)
1 GAL COVERS
1600 SF (149 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT
800 SF ( 74 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT
400 SF ( 37 m2) @ 4 MIL DFT

-PAINT WITH 50% VOLUME SOLIDS

(50% THINNER)
1 GAL COVERS
800 SF (74 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT
400 SF (37 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT

PAINT GENERALLY CONSIST OF:

PIGMENT – FINELY GROUND SOLIDS THAT PROVIDE THE PAINTS

COVERINGS OR HIDING POWER OR ITS COLOR.

VEHICLE – LIQUID MEDIUM TO CARRY THE PIGMENT IN SUSPENSION

DURING APPLICATION. AND CONSISTS OF BINDERS AND SOLVENTS.

• BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE IT TO ADHERE THE
SURFACE BEING PAINTED.
• BINDERS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE QUALITY AND
DURABILITY OF THE PAINT FIL OR PROTECTIVE COATING.
• SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.
• DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR HARDEN
BY OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL ACTION, OR BY THERMOSETTING
ACTION AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.

COLOR
• DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MANUFACTURER.

EXPOSURE
• EXTERIOR OR INTERIOR

CHARACTERISTICS:

PIGMENTED COATING
• LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTS

CLEAR COATINGS
• VARNISHES, LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERS

RUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS

• ZINC-PIGMENTED COATINGS
• ZINC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS
• ASPHALT OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON-PEMEABLE BARRIERS AGAINST
WATER AND OXYGEN TO PROTECT SUBMERGED FERROUS METAL AND TO
WATERPROOF MASONRY SURFACES.
Page 44 of 60
CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS
• MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME AND WATER USED TO DAMPPROOF
MASONRY MATERIALS AND PROTECT EXPOSED STEEL

PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS

• COATING RESISTANT TO MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
ETC.,

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ITS VEHICLE OR BINDER:

ALKYDS – USED FOR EXTERIOR PAINTS.

• OIL MODIFIED RESINS THAT HARDEN BY OXIDATION AND EVAPORATION.
• THE MOST COMMON PAINT VEHICLE
• FAST DRYING A HARDER THAN ORDINARY TIME, LOWERS THE GLOSS, AND
IMPROVES THE PAINTS WETTING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND ELASTICITY
TO RESIST BLISTERING.
• HAVE GOOD DRYING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND WATER RESISTANCE FOR
EXTERIOR EXPOSURES, AND GOOD COLOR RETENTION.

ASPHALT – USED FOR WATERPROOFING AT FIREWALL AND ROOF DECKING.

• COATINGS WITH A VEHICLE OF BOTH PETROLEUM AND NATURAL ASPHALTS
ARE USED TO PROTECT WOOD, MASONRY, CONCRETE AND AS ROOF
COATING.
• HAVE GOOD WATER RESISTANCES BUT THERMOPLASTIC IN NATURE.
• ADDITION OF ALUMINUM GLAKES HELPS TO REFLECT THE SUN’S RAYS.
• ADDITION OF EPOXY RESINS MINIMIZES THE COLD FLOW AND MAXIMIZES THE
CHEMICAL-RESISTANCE OF ASPHALT.

CHLORINATED RUBBER – USED FOR INDUSTRIAL FLOORING.

• USED IN COATINGS HIGHLY RESISTANT TO ALKALIES, ACIDS, CHEMICALS, AND
WATER
• MAY BE REMOVED BY COAL TAR SOLVENTS
• HAS LIMITED RESISTANCE TO PROLONGED HEAT EXPOSURE
• USED IN SWIMMING POOLS, WATER TREATMENT PLANTS

EPOXY CATALYZED – USED FOR DUCO FINISH.

• TWO COMPONENT COATINGS CONSISTING OF A PIGMENTED PRIMER OR
ENAMEL AND AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.
• MIXED JUST PRIOR TO USE – HAS LIMITED “POT LIFE”
• PRODUCES BY CHEMICAL ACTION A DENSE, HARD FILM SIMILAR TO BAKED
ENAMEL.
• HAS EXCELLENT RESISTANT TO SOLVENTS, CHEMICALS, PHYSICAL ABRASION,
TRAFFIC WEAR, A CLEANING MATERIALS
• HAS GOOD ADHESION PROPERTIES, COLOR RETENTION AND STAIN
RESISTANCE.
• HAS GOOD DURABILITY FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE BUT MAY CHALK.

Page 45 of 60
 HARDWARE
HARDWARE - METAL PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION, SUCH AS BOLTS,
HINGES, LOCKS, TOOLS, ETC. THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

FINISHING HARDWARE – HARDWARE, SUCH AS HINGES LOCKS, CATCHES,

ETC. THAT HAS A FINISHED APPEARANCE AS WELL AS FUNCTION, ESP. THAT
USED WITH DOORS, WINDOWS, AND CABINETS, MAYBE CONSIDERED PART OF
THE DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF A ROOM OR BUILDING.

ROUGH HARDWARE – IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, HARDWARE MEANT TO

BE CONCEALED, SUCH AS BOLTS, NAILS, SCREWS, SPIKES, RODS, AND OTHER
METAL FITTINGS.

SOME FINISHING HARDWARE BRANDS:

1. SARGENT 7. RABBIT
2. STANLEY 8. UNIVERSAL
3. YALE 9. EAGLE
4. CORBIN 10. MASTER
5. SCHLAGE 11. ALPHA
6. KWIKSET 12. YETI

DOORS – AN ENTRANCE WAY

TYPES OF DOOR:

• FLUSH – A SMOOTH-SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE PLANE

WHICH CONCEAL ITS RAILS AND STILES OR OTHER STRUCTURE WHEN USED
INSIDE, IT IS OF HOLLOW CORE, WHEN USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF SOLID
CORE.

• PANEL DOOR – A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES MUNTINS,

WHICH FORM ONE OR MORE FRAMES AROUND RECESSED THINNER PANELS.

KINDS OF DOORS:

• SWINGING DOOR

• OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR – A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR WHICH

OPENS AS AN ENTIRE UNIT.

• OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR – A DOOR WHICH, WHEN OPEN,

ASSUMES A HORIZONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE DOOR OPENING, MADE OF
SEVERAL LEAVES.

• ROLL-UP DOOR (SOLID OR SEE-THROUGH ALUMINUM SHUTTERS) A DOOR

MADE UP OF SMALL HORIZONTAL INTERLOCKING METAL SLATS WHICH ARE
GUIDED IN A TRACK: THE CONFIGURATION COILS ABOUT AN OVERHEAD DRUM
WHICH IS HOUSED AT THE HEAD OF THE OPENING, EITHER MANUAL OR
MOTOR - DRIVEN.

Page 46 of 60
• ACCORDION DOOR – A HINGED DOOR CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF PANELS
WHICH ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD TRACK. WHEN THE DOOR IS OPEN,
THE FACES OF THE PANELS CLOSE FLAT AGAINST EACH OTHER. WHEN THE
DOOR IS CLOSED, THE EDGES OF ADJACENT PANELS BUTT AGAINST (OR
INTERLOCK) EACH OTHER TO FORM A SOLID BARRIER.

• BI-FOLDING DOOR - ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE HINGED

TOGETHER SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND FOLD IN A CONFINED SPACE.

• REVOLVING DOOR - AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR LEAVES (AT

900 TO EACH OTHER) WHICH PIVOT ABOUT A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS WITHIN
A CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE, PREVENTS THE DIRECT PASSAGE OF
AIR THROUGH THE VESTIBULE, THEREBY ELIMINATING DRAFTS FROM
OUTSIDE.

• SLIDING DOOR - A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A

HORIZONTAL DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO ONE WALL.

• BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR - A SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO COVER A

FIXED DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH OR ANOTHER SLIDING DOOR.

• SLIDING POCKET DOOR - A DOOR WHICH SLIDES INSIDE A HOLLOW OF THE

WALL.

• DUTCH DOOR - A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS DIVIDED TO TWO. THE UPPER PART
CAN BE OPENED WHILE THE LOWER PORTION IS CLOSED.

• FRENCH DOOR

FINISHING HARDWARES:
A. TO HUNG A DOOR

HINGE- A MOVABLE JOINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A DOOR

ABOUT A PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO PLATES JOINED TOGETHER BY A PIN WHICH
SUPPORT THE DOOR AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME, ENABLING IT TO SWING
OPEN OR CLOSED.

TYPES OF HINGES:

1. BUTT HINGE - CONSISTS OF TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES WHICH

ARE JOINED WITH A PIN, IN LARGE HINGE, THE PIN IS REMOVABLE, IN
SMALL HINGES, IT IS FIXED.
• FAST PIN HINGE - A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED
PERMANENTLY IN PLACE.
• FULL SURFACE HINGE - A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON
THE SURFACE OF THE DOOR AND JAMB WITHOUT MORTISING.
• LOOSE JOINT HINGE - A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES, ONE
OF WHICH HAS VERTICAL PIN THAT FITS IN A CORRESPONDING HOLE IN
THE OTHER, BY LIFTING THE DOOR UP, OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE
DOOR MAY BE REMOVED WITH UNSCREWING THE HINGED.

Page 47 of 60
 • LOOSE PIN HINGE - A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH PERMITS
ITS TWO PARTS TO BE SEPARATED.
• PAUMELLE HINGED - A TYPE OF DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE JOINT
OF THE PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF MODERN DESIGN.
• OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE - A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES FORMING
AN OVAL SHAPE.

2. SPRING HINGES - A HINGE CONTAINING ONE OR MORE SPRINGS, WHEN A

DOOR IS OPENED, THE HINGE RETURNS IT TO OPEN POSITION
AUTOMATICALLY, MAY ACT IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY, OR IN BOTH
DIRECTIONS.
• DOUBLE ACTION - EXCELLENT FOR USE IN RESTAURANTS, HOSPITALS,
KITCHENS, THE DOOR OPENS BY JUST PUSHING IT WITH THE
SHOULDER OR FEET.
• SINGLE ACTION

3. PIVOT HINGE - THE AXLE OR PIN ABOUT WHICH A WINDOW OR DOOR

ROTATES.
• VERTICAL SPRING PIVOT HINGE- A SPRING HINGE FOR A DOOR WHICH
IS MORTISTED INTO THE HEEL OF THE DOOR, THE DOOR IS FASTENED
TO THE FLOOR AND DOOR HEAD WITH PIVOTS.

B. TO FIX ONE SASH

TYPES OF BOLT AND FASTENER:
• CHAIN HEAD AND FOOT BOLT
• DOOR OR BARREL BOLT
• FLUSH BOLT
• CHAIN DOOR FASTENER

C. TO LOCK THE DOOR

LOCKSET – A COMPLETE LOCK SYSTEM INCLUDING THE BASIC LOCKING
MECHANISMS AND ALL THE ACCESSORIES, SUCH AS KNOBS ESCUTCHEONS,
PLATES, ETC.
• BUTTON – A SMALL REJECTING MEMBER USED TO FASTEN THE FRAME OF
A DOOR OR WINDOW.
• KNOB – A HANDLE, MORE OR LESS SPHERICAL USUALLY FOR OPERATING
A LOCK.
• ESCUTCHEON – A PROTECTIVE PLATE SURROUNDING THE KEYHOLE OF A
DOOR.
• PLATES – A THIN FLAT SHEET OF MATERIAL.
• STRIKES – A METAL PLATE OR BOX WHICH IS SET IN A DOORJAMB AND IS
EITHER PLACED OR RECESSED TO RECEIVE THE BOLT OR LATCH OF A
LOCK, FIXED ON DOOR.
• LIP STRIKE – THE PROJECTION FROM THE SIDE OF A TRIKE PLATE WHICH
THE BOLT OF A LOCK STRIKES FIRST, WHEN A DOOR IS CLOSED;
PROJECTS OUT FROM THE SIDE OF THE STRIKE PLATE TO PROTECT THE
FRAME.
Page 48 of 60
USE A DIFFERENT LOCKSET FOR EACH ROOM:
• ENTRANCE LOCKSET – WITH A KEY AND UNIVERSAL BUTTON WHICH
WHEN PUSHED STAYS PUT AND LOCKS THE DOOR.

• BEDROOM LOCKSET – SAME AS THE ENTRANCE LOCKSET BUT SIMPLER

IN DESIGN.

• TOILET LOCKSET – WITHOUT A KEY HAS A BUTTON THAT IS PUSHED TO

LOCK INSIDE.

KIND OF LOCKSET:
• INTEGRAL LOCK – A TYPE OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS CYLINDER IN
THE KNOB.

• CYLINDER LOCK – A BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL CASE

INTO WHICH A SEPARATE LATCH CASE FITS.

LATCH – A SIMPLE FASTENING DEVISE HAVING A LATCH BOLT, BUT NOT A DEAD
BOLT CONTAINS NO PROVISIONS FOR LOCKING WITH A KEY.
NIGHT LATCH – KEY OPERATED LATCH WITH SAFETY PIN.
LIFT LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH WHICH FASTENS A DOOR BY MEANS OF A
PIVOTED BAR THAT ENGAGES A HOOK ON THE DOOR JAMB, A LEVER WHICH
LIFTS THE PIVOTED BAR USED TO UNFASTEN THE DOOR.
RABBETED LOCK – A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE IS FLUSH WITH THE
RABBET ON A RABBETED DOOR JAMB.
ROLLER LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER SPRING
TENSION INSTEAD OF A BEVELED SPRING BOLT, THE ROLLER ENGAGES A STRIKE
PLATE, HAVING A RECESS FORMED TO RECEIVE.
SCREEN DOOR LATCH – A SMALL LOCKING OR LATCHING DEVICE USED ON
SCREEN DOORS AND GENERATED BY A KNOB OR LEVER HANDLE, SOMETIMES
EQUIPPED WITH A DEAD BOLT.
HASP – A FASTENING DEVICE CONSISTING OF A LOOP OR STAPLE AND A
SLOTTED HINGE PLATE NORMALLY SECURED WITH A PADLOCK.
KEY-PADLOCK – A DEVICE WHICH FASTENS IN POSITION MAYBE OPERATED BY A
KEY.
MAGNETIC PADLOCK – A KIND OF LOCK WHICH OPENS BY USING THE
CORRESPONDING MAGNET WHICH GOES WITH IT.
HASPLOCK – A KIND OF HASP THAT HAS A BUILT-IN LOCKING DEVICE WHICH CAN
BE OPENED ONLY WITH A KEY.
BORED LOCK – A LOCK INTENDED FOR INSTALLATION IN A CIRCULAR HOLE IN A
DOOR.
CREMONE BOLT – USED TO FASTEN UPPER AND LOWER DOOR.
DEAD BOLT – A TYPE OF DOOR LOCK, THE BOLT, WHICH IS SQUARE IN SECTION
IS OPERATED BY THE DOOR KEY OR A TURN PIECE.

Page 49 of 60
TYPES OF AUTOMATIC DOOR CLOSER:
• PNEUMATIC TYPE
• SEMI-CONCEALED OVERHEAD TYPE
• CONCEALED TYPE
• OVERHEAD LIQUID TYPE

TYPES OF CABINET HINGED DOOR:

• FLUSH
• OVERLAPPING
• OFFSET

TYPES OF CABINET HINGES:

• BUTT HINGES
• COMMON BUTT
• LOOSE PIN
• T-HINGE
• PIANO HINGE
• DECORATIVE HINGE

• OFFSET HINGES – USED FOR HANGING LIPPED OR OVERLAPPING

DOORS, AVAILABLE IN SEMI-CONCEALED AND SURFACE-MOUNTED
STYLES.

• PIVOT HINGES – MADE FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOORS.

• INVISIBLE HINGES – DON’T SHOW FROM THE FRONT AND IS EXPENSIVE.

THEY CAN BE USED FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOOR.

• FLUSH COUNTER HINGE – FOR A DROP DOWN DOOR THAT CAN BE

LOWERED TO SERVE AS WORK SURFACES REQUIRE HINGES THAT LAY
FLUSH IN THE SURFACE, MORTISE THEM INTO BOTH SURFACES, THEY
DON’T SHOW WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED. A DROPDOWN DOOR ALSO
REQUIRES A CHAIN OR STAY SUPPORT TO HOLD THE DOOR’S WEIGHT
WHEN IT’S OPEN.

CATCHES FOR CLOSING OF CABINET DOORS IN PLACE

KINDS OF CATCHES:
• FRICTION CATCH – ANY CATCH WHICH WHEN IT ENGAGES A STRIKE, IS
HELD IN THE ENGAGED POSITION BY FRICTION.
• MAGNETIC CATCH – A DOOR CATCH FLAT THAT USES A MAGNET TO
HOLD THE DOOR IN A CLOSED POSITION.
• BULLET CATCH – A FASTENER WHICH HOLDS A DOOR IN PLACE BY
MEANS OF A PROJECTING SPRING ARCTUATED STEEL HALL WHICH IS
DEPRESSED WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED.

TYPES OF KNOBS:
• SCREW-IN KNOB
• BOLT-ON KNOB
• FLUSH KNOB
• FLUSH RING
• PULL
Page 50 of 60
OTHER FINISHING ACCESSORIES:
• GRAB BAR – A HAND GRIP USUALLY INSTALLED IN SHOWER, WHICH
MAY BE USED FOR STEADYING ARE SELF.

• SELF BRACKET – ANY OVER HANGING MEMBER PROJECTING FROM A

WALL OR OTHER BODY TO SUPPORT A WEIGHT.

• METAL BRACKET – USED TO SUPPORT ANY CABINET OR SHELF.

• SPRING DOOR CLOSER – ATTACHED ABOVE A SCREEN DOOR TO

AUTOMATICALLY CLOSE IT.

• DOOR STOPPER – TO PREVENT THE DOOR WITH ITS LOCKSET FROM

HARMING THE WALL OR TILES.

ROUGH HARDWARES:
NAILS
• COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND FOR STRENGTH.

• FINISHING NAIL WITHOUT HEAD AND FOR BETTER APPEARANCE

• MASONRY OR CONCRETE NAIL USED FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND BRICK

SURFACE

SIZES, 1”, 1 ½”, 2 “, 2 ½”, 3”, 3 ½”, 4”, 6”

OTHER COMMON HAMMER DRIVEN FASTENER

SCOTCH NAILS BRADS
STAPLES TACKS

SCREWS
CLASSIFIED BY GAUGE (DIAMETER), LENGTH, HEAD TYPE, AND METALLIC
MAKE-UP.

TYPES OF SCREW HEAD

• FLAT HEAD SCREW
• OVAL HEAD SCREW
• PHILIPPS HEAD
• SHEET-METAL SCREW
• ROUND HEAD SCREW
• LAG SCREW

WASHERS
• FLAT
• COUNTER SUNK
• FLUSH

Page 51 of 60
BOLTS
BOLTS HAVE THREADED SHAFTS THAT RECEIVE NUTS. TO USE THEM, A
HOLE IS DRILLED, PUSHING A BOLT THROUGH AND ADDING A NUT.
BOLTS TIGHTENED WITH SCREW WHILE HOLDING THE NUT WITH A
WRENCH.

NUTS
• FLAT SQUARE NUT
• HEX NUT
• SQUARE NUT
• ACORN NUT
• T – NUT
• KNURLED NUT
• WING NUT

HUNGER BOLTS – FOR HANGING FIXTURES FROM WALLS.

U-BOLTS – TO ATTACH FLAT SURFACE TO ROUND POLES AND PIPES.

JOINERY BRACKETS
• MENDING PLATE
• T-PLATE
• FLAT CORNER PLATE
• L-BRACKET

• AWNING – AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTED WINDOW.

• BAY WINDOW – A WINDOW WHICH PROJECTS OUTSIDE THE MAIN LINE OF A

BUILDING.

• HOPPER WINDOW – A WINDOW SASH WHICH OPENS INWARD AND ITS HINGED
AT THE BOTTOM.

• ORIEL WINDOW – A PROJECTED WINDOW BEYOND BUILDING WALL CARRIED

BY A CORBEL.

• BATTEN DOOR – A DOOR W/OUT STILES WHICH IS COSTRUCTED OF VERTICAL

BOARDS HELD TOGETHER BY HORIZONTAL BATTENS.

• STILE – VERTICAL FRAMES OF PANELLED DOOR.

• TRANSOM – WINDOW OVER A DOOR.

• DOOR JAMB – FINISHED FRAME SURROUNDING A DOOR.

• ANCHOR BOLT – A STEEL BOLT USUALLY FIXED IN ABUILDING STRUCTURE

WITH ITS THREADED PORTION PROJECTING.

• PLATE BOLT – A BOLT IN A BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH SECURES

THEPLATE OR SILL.

Page 52 of 60
• MACHINE BOLT – A THREADED BOLT HAVING A STRAIGHT SHANK AND A
CONVENTIONAL HEAD SUCH AS A SQUARE, HEXAGONAL, BUTTON OR
COUNTERSANK.

• CARRIAGE BOLT – A BOLT WITH NECK FOR NON-RATATING MOUNTING.

• LAG SCREW – COMMON HARDWARE FASTENER FOR TRUSS BRACES.

• KNOB BOLT – A DOOR LOCK WITH A SPRING BOLT CONTROLLED BY ONE OR

BOTH KNOBS AND DEAD BOLT CONTROLLED BY AKEY.

• BACKSET – THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM THE FACE OF A LOCK OF

LATCH TO THE CENTER OF THE KNOB OR LOCK CYLINDER.

• GUSSET – A PLATE ATTACHED TO SIDE OF A JOINT FOR INCREASE HOLDING

POWER.

• BRAD – A THIN NAIL WITH SMALL HEAD.

• KERF – IN A SUSPENDED ACOUSTICAL CEILING, AGROOVE CUT INTO THE

EDGES OF AN ACOUSTICAL TILES TO RECEIVE SPLINES OR SUPPORTING
MEMBERS OF THE CEILING SUSPENSION SYSTEM.

• PERFORATED TAPE – A TYPE OF TAPE USED IN FINISHING JOINTS BETWEEN

GYPSUM BOARD.

• SAHARA – USED FOR WATERPROOFING.

• PARQUET – INLAID WOOD FLOORING USUALLY SET IN SIMPLE GEOMETRIC

PATTERN.

• VINYL TILE – A FLOOR TILE COMPOSED PRINCIPALLY OF POLYVINYL

CHLORIDE.

• BEVEL – THE ANGLE WITH ONE SURFACE OF A BODY MAKES WITH ANOTHER
SURFACE WHEN THEY ARE NOT AT RIGHT ANGLE.

• CHASE – A CONTINOUS RECESS BUILT INTO A WALL TO RECEIVE PIPES,

DUCTS, ETC.

• GYPSUM BOARD – MATERIAL USED IN DRYWALL CONSTRUCTION.

• PLOUGH – A GROOVE EXTENDED ALONG THE EDGE OR FACE OF THE WOOD

MEMBER BEING CUT PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

Page 53 of 60
 BUILDING PROTECTION
PREVENTIONS

• WATERPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING SURFACES AGAINST THE

DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF WATER.
• DAMP-PROOFING – PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED BY WATER
REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN WATER ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO
RETURN TO THE EARTH. THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE
THE BUILDING CAN BE CAUSED BY PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE
OUTSIDE OR BY CONSIDERATION OF WATER VAPOR GENERATED ON THE
INSIDE.
• CLEAR PROTECTIVE TREATMENTS FOR MASONRY, CONCRETE – THIS IS A
CLEAR, INVISIBLE SILICONE WATER REPELLENT SPECIALLY FORMULATED FOR
APPLICATION ON MASONRY AND BRICKS (STANDARD SILICONE REPELLENT)
AND FOR LIMESTONE AND CONCRETE THAT SEEPS MUCH RAINWATER
(SPECIAL FORMULATED SILICONE REPELLENT). THE SILICONE LIQUID IS
APPLIED BY BRUSH OR LOW PRESSURE SPRAY AND DOES NOT AFFECT THE
COLOR OR NATURALNESS OF THE MATERIAL.
• ANAY (TERMITE) PROOFING BY SOIL POISONING – IT IS IMPORTANT TO
POISON THE SOIL AGAINST ANAY (WHITE ANTS) IN ORDER TO STOP THE ANAY
FROM INFESTING THE MAINPOSTS, WALLS AND FLOORING.
• WOOD PRESERVATIVE (POWDER POST TERMITES) – A CHEMICAL LIQUID
PAINTED AND APPLIED TO LUMBER TO PRESERVE IT FOR YEARS. IT
PROTECTS WOOD AGAINST POWDER POST BEATLES (BUKBOK) POWDER POET
TERMITE (UNOS), DECAY CAUSING FUNGI, SUCH AS SAP STAIN AND SRYROT.
• FIREPROOFING – A CLEAR LIQUID APPLIED EASILY ON WOOD, PLYWOOD,
LUMBER AND OTHER BOARD THAT RETAINS THE NATURAL BEAUTY, GIVES
ADDED STRENGTH AND PROTECTS MATERIALS AGAINST FIRE, WEATHER,
DECAY, INSECTS AND WARPING. SINCE THE LIQUID PENETRATED INTO THE
WOOD, WHEN THERE IS FIRE. IT REACTS BY DISPERSING THE FLAME,
PREVENTING PROGRESSIVE BURNING.
• RATPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING ROOMS AGAINST THE INTRUSION
OF RATS AND OTHER SMALL DESTRUCTIVE ANIMALS FROM GNAWING THE
WOODEN PARTS OF THE HOUSE, HABITATING ON CEILINGS AND FLOORS OF
HOUSES AND BUILDINGS.
• RUSTPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING THE FERROUS MATERIALS LIKE
STEEL, IRON FROM RUSTING OR CORROSION.
• FLOOR PROTECTION – WHEN FLOORS ARE SUBJECTED TO WEAR AND TEAR,
OR FROM CHEMICAL ABRASIONS AND HEAVY USE, A SPECIAL KIND OF
MATERIAL SHOULD BE USED TO PROTECT THE FLOORING.
• DESCALERS, PAINT AND CHEMICAL STRIPPERS – WHEN AN OLD HOUSE
HAVING OLE PAINT IS IN NEED OF REPAINTING, PAINT REMOVER IS APPLIED
TO THE SURFACE WHICH SOFTENS AND LIFTS THE PAINT. FOR CLEANING OF
BUILDINGS FROM STAINS, RUST, ALGAE OR EVEN CEMENT BUILD UP FROM
FORMS OR EQUIPMENT, ETC. A CHEMICAL STRIPPER OR DESCALER IS USED.
• CONTROL, PROTECT AND MANAGE – FOR BUILDINGS THAT NEED TOTAL
CONTROL OF THE INCOMING AND OUTGOING INDIVIDUALS FOR THE
PROTECTION OF THE BUILDING AS A WHOLE FROM ROBBERS, STEALERS, ETC.
THERE ARE SO MANY EQUIPMENTS WHICH CAN BE INSTALLED.
Page 54 of 60
THIS IS APPLIED ON THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS:
• ROOF DECKS
• CONCRETE TERRACES AND BALCONIES
• SHEATHING FOR WOOD SHINGLE AND TILE ROOFING
• WATER TANKS
• CONCRETE ROOF GUTTERS
• PLANT BOXES INSIDE
• KITCHEN FLOOR
• TOILETS
• CANOPIES
• BASEMENT FLOOR AND WALLS
• ELEVATOR PITS
• SWIMMING POOL
• MACHINE ROOMS, AIR CON & PUMP ROOMS
• REFRIGERATION & COLD STORAGE ROOMS

THREE TYPES OF WATERPROOFING:

• INTEGRAL TYPE – MEDIUM IN POWDER FORM IS ADDED AND
MIXED WITH THE AGGREGATES OF CONCRETE. IN THIS CASE, ONE
PACK OF USUALLY .908 KILOS IS ADDED TO ONE BAG OF KILOS
CEMENT. SOME OF THE KNOWN BRANDS ARE SAHARA AND SAKURA.
• MEMBRANE TYPE – RECOMMENDED FOR USE WHERE DIRECT
RAIN, OR STANDING WATER ARE EMINENT, THERE ARE ABOUT 14 USES.
THE MATERIALS USED DEPENDING ON THE MANUFACTURER IS EITHER
ASPHALT PAPER LAID WITH HOT ASPHALT, IMPREGNATED ASBESTOS
FELT, SOMETIMES THICK POLYETHYLENE SHEETS IS ALSO USED.
OTHER MATERIALS ARE PERFORMED SELF SEALING ASPHALT.
• FLUID APPLIED – A FLUID APPLIED ELASTOMERIC COATING
BASED ON HAVY SOLIDS ELASTOMER COMPOUND FORMULATED TO
WATERPROOF AND PRESERVE THE SUBSTRATE, LIKE CONCRETE,
WOOD, BRICKS AND STEEL. THE WATERPROOFING IS MONOLOTHIC,
SEAMLESS, FLEXIBLE AND ELASTIC OVER A WIDE TEMPERATURE
RANGE, WITHSTANDS EXTREME THERMAL MOVEMENT, SETTLING AND
CRACKING. IT RESISTS PUNCTURE AND TEARING ABRASIVE
OVERLAYMENTS. THIS ELASTOMERIC FLUID CAN BE APPLIED BY
ROLLER, BRUSH, SPRAY OR SQUEEGEE.

ROOFING FELTS – THE BASE FELTS USED IN BUILT-UP ROOFING ARE AVAILABLE
IN TWO BASIC TYPE – ASBESTOS FELTS AND ORGANIC OR RAG FELTS. THEY
LOOK ALIKE, SUPERFICIALLY, BUT THEY DIFFER WIDELY IN SERVICE.

Page 55 of 60
ASBESTOS:
• ASBESTOS FELTS – COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF ASBESTOS FIBER, A
NON-ROTTING, NON-WICKING INORGANIC MINERAL FIBER.

• IDENTICAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES TO

FINISHING FELTS.

• MINIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE OR WETTING OR DRYING

WHICH MEANS MINIMUM DISTORTION.

• LOSES STRENGTH SLOWLY WHILE AGING.

• EXCELLENT RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.

• RAT RESISTANT.

ORGANIC:
• ORGANIC FELTS – COMPOSED OF FIBROUS ORGANIC MATERIALS.
SUBJECT TO DETERIORATION BY OXIDATION AND TO WICKING.

• DIFFERENT EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES FROM

FINISHING PLIES.

• MAXIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE ON WETTING AND DRYING WHICH

MEANS MAXIMUM DISTORTION.

• LOSES STRENGTH RAPIDLY WHILE AGING.

• POOR RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.

• POOR RESISTANCE TO ROT.

VAPOR INSULATION (DAMPROOFING)

THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE BUILDINGS CAN BE CAUSED

BY PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY CONDENSATION OF
WATER VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE. PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS
PROVIDED BY WATER REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN ASIDE AND FORCE IT
TO RETURN TO THE EARTH DONE THE OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING. MOISTURE
VAPOR ON THE OTHER HAND CAN PERMEATE MOST ORDINARY BUILDING
MATERIALS SUCH AS WOOD, PAPER, LATH PLASTER, UNTREATED BRICK, ETC.
THE MOISTURE VAPOR WILL CONDENSE WATER WHEN ITS TEMPERATURE IS
REDUCED BY CONTACT WITH A COOL SURFACE OR COOL AIR. HENCE, HIGH
HUMIDITY IN A BUILDING MAY RESULT IN CONDENSATION OF WATER NOT ONLY
ON THE INSIDE OF WALLS AND WINDOWS BUT ALSO ON THE OUTSIDE OR WITHIN
THE EXTERIOR WALLS, CEILING OR ROOF. MOISTURE VAPOR IS PRODUCED BY
COOKING OCCUPANTS, LAUNDERING, EARTH CRAWL SPACES, BASEMENT
FLOORS, HUMIDIFIES, ETC.

Page 56 of 60
VAPOR BARRIERS (DAMPROOFING MATERIALS)

THESE ARE MATERIALS WHICH EFFECTIVELY RETARD OR STOP THE FLOW OF

WATER VAPOR AND NORMALLY ARE PRODUCED IN SHEETS OR THIN LAYERS.
VAPOR BARRIERS SHOULD BE INSTALLED ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE
INSULATION. THEY SHOULD BE CONTINUOUS SURFACES OF ASPHALT OR WAX
COATED PAPER, ALUMINUM, OR OTHER METAL FOIL SHEETS OR POLYETHYLENE
FILM. THEY CAN BE ATTACHED TO THE INSULATION AS PART OF THE
MANUFACTURED PRODUCT OR INSTALLED SEPARATELY IN OR ON THE WARM
SIDE OF THE WALL, FLOOR, OR CEILING. THEY MUST BE CONTINUOUS AND
ALLOW NO OPENINGS THROUGH WHICH VAPOR MAY PASS. ALTHOUGH ASPHALT
PAPER IS A GOOD MOISTURE BARRIER, IT IS NOT A VAPOR BARRIER, AND
SHOULD BE USED ON THE OUTSIDE OF A BUILDING FOR THAT PURPOSE.

MATERIALS USED AS VAPOR BARRIERS:

• POLYETHYLENE FILM – THIS IS CHEMICALLY INERT PLASTIC,

UNAFFECTED BY ACIDS, ALKALIS AND CAUSTICS, PRODUCED IN ROLLS
OF 3 TO 20 FT. WIDE. COMMON THICKNESSES ARE 2,3,4 AND 6 MIL (1MIL
= .001 IN.) THIS FILM IS USEFUL NOT ONLY AS VAPOR BARRIER FOR
WALLS, CEILINGS AND FLOORS BUT ALSO AS A BARRIER TO PREVENT
THE PASSAGE OF MOISTURE FROM THE EARTH UPWARD THROUGH A
CONCRETE SLAB LAIN ON THE GROUND. POLYETHYLENE FILM CAN BE
APPLIED VERTICALLY IN 36 IN. WIDE STRIPS TO STUDDING ON 16 IN.
CENTERS WITH A FULL OVERLAP ON ALTERNATE STUDS. FILMS ARE
STAPLED TO STUDS. OVERLAPS AND EXTENSIONS TO FLOORS AND
WALLINGS SHALL BE 6 IN.

• ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS VAPOR BARRIER AS A SINGLE SHEET,

OR AS A THIN LAYER OF FOIL LAMINATED TO A HEAVY BACKING OF
ASPHALT-IMPREGNATED KRAFT PAPER. THIS IS ALSO DONE WITH TWO
LAYERS OF FOIL LAMINATED WITH ASPHALT CEMENT.

• KRAFT PAPER COATED WITH ASPHALT OR WAX. SOMETIMES TWO

LAYERS OF PAPER ARE CEMENTED WITH A CONTINOUS LAYER OF
ASPHALT. ANOTHER MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP-PROOFING OF
CONCRETE WALLS IS “WEATHERKOTE” BITUMINOUS EMULSION, BY
SHELL.

THERMAL INSULATION

IN COLD WEATHER, WE ARE INTERESTED IN TRANSFERRING HEAT FROM

FURNACES, RADIATORS, HEATING PANELS, INTO VARIOUS ROOMS OF OUR
BUILDINGS. AT THE SAME TIME WE ARE INTERESTED IN PREVENTING THAT HEAT
FROM BEING TRANSFERRED FROM THE INTERIOR OF THE BUILDING TO THE
OUTSIDE.

DURING THE SUMMER, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WE PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF

HOT OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES TO THE WORKING AND LIVING SPACE WITHIN OUR
BUILDINGS.

ALL OF THESE ARE DONE BY THE JUDICIOUS USE OF MATERIALS WHICH IS BEST
PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HEAT, THIS WE CALL THERMAL INSULATION.

Page 57 of 60
KINDS OF THERMAL INSULATION

• LOOSE FILL – THIS BULKY AND DIVIDED INTO:

• FIBROUS TYPE
• GRANULAR INSULATION
• FIBROUS LOOSE FILL
• GRANULE

• BLANKET INSULATION- IS MADE FROM SOME FIBROUS MATERIAL SUCH AS

MINERAL WOOL, WOOD FIBER, COTTON FIBER, OR ANIMAL HAIR.
• BATTS
• STRUCTURAL INSULATION BOARD
• STRAWBOARD
• CORKBOARD

• BLOCK OR RIGID SLAB INSULATION – THIS TYPE OF INSULATION IS SO

CALLED BLOCK OR RIGID BECAUSE THE UNITS ARE RELATIVELY STIFF AND
INELASTIC.
• FOAMED PLASTIC INSULATION
• CELLULAR GLASS INSULATION
• FOAMED CONCRETE
• CELLULAR HARD RUBBER
• SHREDDED WOOD OR WOOD FIBER
• RIGID SLAB INSULATION
• RIGID INSULATION- WHICH ARE IMPERVOUS TO MOISTURE
PENETRATION RESULTING FROM CONTINUOUS CONTACT WITH
THE EARTH AND MOISTURE ARE PARTICULARLY USEFUL AS
PERIMETER INSULATION.
• REFLECTIVE INSULATION
• ALUMINUM FOIL
• COPPER- FOIL INSULATIONS
• REFLECTIVE INSULATION
• SHEET FOIL

• FOAMED-IN PLACE INSULATION – THIS IS POLYURETHANE PRODUCT MADE BY

COMBINING A POLYISOCYANATE AND A POLYESTER RESIN. THIS TYPE OF
INSULATION CAN BE APPLIED EITHER BY POURING OR BY SPRAYING. THE
BASIC INGREDIENTS FOR BOTH ARE DRAWN FROM THEIR CONTAINERS,
MEASURED, AND MIXED BY MACHINE.
• APPLICATION BY POURING
• APPLICATION BY SPRAYING

• SPRAYED-ON-INSULATIONS – MATERIALS USED ARE POLYURETHANE FOAM

ASBESTOS FIBER MIXED WITH INORGANIC BINDERS, VERMICULITE
AGGREGATE WITH A BINDER SUCH AS PORTLAND CEMENT OR GYPSUM AND
PERLITE AGGREGATE USING GYPSUM AS A BINDER. MACHINES ARE USED
FOR BLOWING THESE INSULATIONS INTO PLACE; AS A RESULT THE SHAPE OR
IRREGULARITY OF THE SURFACE BEING INSULATED IS OF LITTLE
CONSEQUENCE.
• ASBESTOS FIBER INSULATION
• CORRUGATED INSULATION

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SOIL TESTING
LARGER THAN A SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE, IT IS NECESSARY TO DETERMINE THE
SOIL AND WATER CONDITION BENEATH THE SITE.

METHOD OF SOIL TESTING:

1. DIGGING TEST PITS – ARE USEFUL WHEN FOUNDATION IS NOT EXPECTED

TO EXTEND DEEPER THAT ABOUT 8 FEET WHICH IS THE MAXIMUM
PRACTICAL REACH OF SMALL EXCAVATION MACHINE.

2. TEST BORING – BORING WITH STANDARD PENETRATION TESTS CAN GIVE

AN INDICATION OF THE BEARING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL BY THE NUMBER
OF BLOWS OF A STANDARD DRIVING HAMMER REQUIRED TO ADVANCE A
SAMPLING TUBE INTO THE SOIL BY A FIXED AMOUNT.

TYPES OF SOILS:

• ROCK – IS A CONTINUOUS MASS OF SOLID MINERAL MATERIALS, SUCH AS

GRANITE OR LIMESTONE, THAT CAN ONLY BE REMOVED BY DRILLING AND
BLASTING.

• SOIL – IS A GENERAL TERM REFERRING TO EARTH MATERIAL.

• BOULDER – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL IS TOO LARGE TO LIFT BY HAND.
• COBBLE – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL TAKES THE WHOLE HAND TO LIFT.
• GRAVEL – IF THE PARTICLE CAN BE LIFTED EASILY WITH THUMB AND
FOREFINGER.
• SAND – IF THE PARTICLE SEEN BUT ARE TOO SMALL TO BE PICKED UP.
• FINE GRAINED SOIL – IF THE PARTICLES ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SEEN.
• SILT
• CLAY

PILE DRIVING

MATERIAL USED IN PILE FOUNDATION ARE:

1. TIMBER
2. CONCRETE
3. STEEL

TIMBER – CANNOT RESIST HIGH STRESSES DUE TO HARD DRIVING THAT IS

REQUIRED TO PENETRATE HIHLY RESISTANT LAYER OF SOIL. THE TIP OF THE
TIMBER PILE WHICH COULD BE EASILY DAMAGED IS PROTECTED BY THE USE OF
STEEL SHOES, ON THE OTHERHAND THE BUTT IS ALSO PROVIDED WITH AN
AMPLE PROTECTION BY THE USE OF CUSHION BLOCK.

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CONCRETE PILES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

1. CAST-IN-PLACE

• CASED – IS CAST INSIDE A METAL SHELL FORM WHICH ARE LEFT IN THE
GROUND.
• UNCASED – ELIMINATE THE METAL CASING.

2. PRECAST PILES – ARE REINFORCED TO RESIST HIGH STRESS CAUSED BY

THE HAMMER IN DRIVING.

METAL PILE – IS AN EXCELLENT AMTERIAL FOR PILE BECAUSE OF ITS STRENGTH

CHARACTERISTICS TO WITHSTAND HARD DRIVING AND RAPID PENETRATION INTO
THE GROUND, RELATIVELY WITH SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.

DIFFERENT METAL PILES:

• H-BEARING PILES

• BOS PILES

• RAIL PILES

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