A Lab Manual on

Fundamentals of Entomology

Compiled by
S J Prasanthi
Assistant Professor
Department of Agriculture
JRU, Namkom campus, Ranchi.
 Course outlines
Part – I
History of Entomology in India, Major points related to dominance of Insecta in Animal
kingdom. Classification of phylum Arthropoda up to classes. Relationship of class Insecta with
other classes of Arthropoda. Morphology: Structure and functions of insect cuticle and molting.
Body segmentation. Structure of Head, thorax and abdomen. Structure and modifications of
insect antennae, mouth parts, legs, Wing venation, modifications and wing coupling apparatus.
Structure of male and female genital organ. Metamorphosis and diapause in insects. Types of
larvae and pupae. Structure and functions of digestive,
circulatory, excretory, respiratory, nervous, secretary (Endocrine) and reproductive system, in
insects. Types of reproduction in insects. Major sensory organs like simple and compound eyes,
chemoreceptor.
Part-II
Insect Ecology: Introduction, Environment and its components. Effect of abiotic factors–
temperature, moisture, humidity, rainfall, light, atmospheric pressure and air currents. Effect of
biotic factors – food competition, natural and environmental resistance.
Part III
Categories of pests. Concept of IPM, Practices, scope and limitations of IPM. Classification of
insecticides, toxicity of insecticides and formulations of insecticides. Chemical control-
importance, hazards and limitations. Recent methods of pest control, repellents, antifeedants,
hormones, attractants, gamma radiation. Insecticides Act 1968- Important provisions.
Application techniques of spray fluids. Symptoms of poisoning, first aid and antidotes.
Part – IV
Systematics: Taxonomy –importance, history and development and binomial nomenclature.
Definitions of Biotype, Sub-species, Species, Genus, Family and Order. Classification of class
Insecta up to Orders, basic groups of present day insects with special emphasis to orders and
families of Agricultural importance like Orthoptera: Acrididae,Tettigonidae, Gryllidae,
Gryllotalpidae; Dictyoptera: Mantidae, Blattidae; Odonata; Isoptera: Termitidae; Thysanoptera:
Thripidae; Hemiptera: Pentatomidae, Coreidae, Cimicidae, Pyrrhocoridae, Lygaeidae,
Cicadellidae, Delphacidae, Aphididae, Coccidae, Lophophidae,
Aleurodidae, Pseudococcidae; Neuroptera: Chrysopidae; Lepidoptera: Pieridae, Papiloinidae,
Noctuidae, Sphingidae, Pyralidae, Gelechiidae, Arctiidae, Saturnidae, Bombycidae; Coleoptera:
Coccinellidae, Chrysomelidae, Cerambycidae, Curculionidae, Bruchidae, Scarabaeidae;
Hymenoptera: Tenthridinidae, Apidae. Trichogrammatidae, Ichneumonidae, Braconidae,
Chalcididae; Diptera: Cecidomyiidae, Tachinidae, Agromyziidae, Culicidae,Muscidae,
Tephritidae.
Syllabus for Practicals
1. Methods of collection and preservation of insects including immature stages
2. External features of Grasshopper/Blister beetle
3. Types of insect antennae, mouthparts and legs
4. Wing venation, types of wings and wing coupling apparatus.
5. Types of insect larvae and pupae
6. Dissection of digestive system in insects (Grasshopper)
7. Dissection of male and female reproductive systems in insects (Grasshopper)
8. Study of characters of orders Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Odonata,
9. Isoptera, Thysanoptera,
10. Hemiptera,
11. Lepidoptera,
12. Neuroptera,
13. Coleoptera,
14. Hymenoptera
15. Diptera and their families of agricultural importance.
16. Insecticides and their formulations.
17. Pesticide appliances and their maintenance.
18. Sampling techniques for estimation of insect population and damage.
Practical-1:To study the methods of collection and preservation of insects including
immature stages
Insect collection is a source of recreation for many people and may be a hobby for
thosewho are interested in studying insects. Methods of collection and preservation of insects
arethe pre-requisite to study the insects and their various internal and external organs.
Aftercollection, it becomes imperative to keep and preserve the insect specimens intact and
safefor longer time to further study the characters or to develop the insect collection
museum.Let‘s have a look and do the different types methods of collection, devices used for
collectionand preservation of insects including immature stages in this practical session.
Nature of insect collection
A good Zoological collection should consist of at least four (4) individual representativeof each
of the order of insects. So that the collection comprises the great diversity and itshould reflect the
different forms occurs in insect fauna in a certain ecosystem.
Places of insect collection
Insects are omnipresent and abound anywhere and everywhere. A good place to startcollecting
insects is a flowering hedgerow or garden where insects can be found on thedifferent parts of
plants like flowers, leaves and stems. Besides these, we can also probe thesmall insects in the
soil or near the roots of plants, aquatic insects can be collected in water,ponds, streams, rivers,
lakes etc. and even do the indoors collection year round.They can be collected from- Air (flying
insects), Water (dragonflies, mayflies andstoneflies that hover over water, aquatic insects and
sea shore insects), Home (fromfurniture, boxes, bookshelves (fleas, bugs, flies, and mosquitoes),
flower, fruits andvegetables brought in), Debris and animal dung (which acts as food source for
manyinsects), and from domestic animals and birds (ecto and endo- parasites).
Catching insects: Aerial insects can be caught during flight or after they have alighted
bysweeping a net through the air or foliage or by beating the foliage and holding the netbelow.
 The aerial/ sweep nets can catch aerial insects.
 Net forceps, dippers and dredge, can catch aquatic insects.
 Separator and Berlese funnel can catch soil dwelling insects.
Methods of insect collection
1. Hand picking
This method is suitable for catching the large insects like beetles and grasshoppers. It isvery
tedious (hard working) method and not suitable for catching the biting and stingingnatured
insects.
2. Aerial net or Butterfly net
It is light in weight, useful for catching activefliers like butterflies, moths, dragonflies,wasp, flies
etc. The net consists of three partsviz., loop or frame; handle and porous muslinclothe bags. The
diameter of hoop and thedepth of the bag should be in the proportionof 1:2.
3. Sweep net
It is heavier than the aerial net. It consists ofshort handle, a large loop and dense clothbag. This is
suitable for collectingleafhoppers, grasshoppers and other smallinsects. The net is swept over
vegetation.
4. Beating tray
This method is suitable for collectingcrawling insects and those, which rest onbranches. A
beating tray is held under abranch, which is then hit sharply with a stick.
5. Aspirator/Potters/Suction tube
It is the device to collect small insects intoglass vials with no damage to the specimens.It is
employed to suck in through a rubbertube small and minute insect that is alreadycollected in the
net or sitting on wall orfoliage and on the bark of the tree. Usually itis meant for catching more
active insects. Toprevent entry of insect in to mouth, a smallcloth piece is kept in between the
glass andrubber tube.
6. Berlese (Tullgren) funnel
Soil arthropods can be sorted out by thismethods. Debris including soil arthropodscan be
collected by using the light as thesource of heat in berlese funnel method.
7. Traps- Trapping is a method of collecting insects in the absence of collector. This is themost
common methods or techniques used by growers in Integrated pest managementprogramme to
catch the insects. There are many different types of traps used for collectionof insects. They are
pheromone traps or sleeve traps, fruit fly trap, sticky traps, delta traps,water or Wota traps, pit
fall trap, wind pan trap, malaise trap and light traps.
Pheromone traps
Synthetic sex pheromones are placed in the traps to attract male moths. The rubberizedsepta
containing the pheromone lure are kept in the traps designed especially for thispurpose and used
in monitoring, mass trapping and mating disruption programmes. Stickytarps, Water pan traps
and funnel type models are available for use in pheromone basedinsect-pest control programmes.
Yellow sticky traps: Aphids, whiteflies, thrips prefer yellow colour. Yellow colour is paintedon
tin boxes and sticky material like castor oil/vaseline is smeared on the sticky material.
Probe trap: It is used by keeping them under grain surface to trap stored product pests.
Pitfall traps: Containers such as small plastic buckets, plant pots, glass jars or jam tins aresunk
into the ground to trap flightless, ground-living insects and arachnids, especiallybeetles (ground
beetles), cockroaches, crickets, spiders, harvestmen and mites. The containershould be placed in
a hole with the upper rim flush with the ground surface. A killing agentand preservative, such as
ethylene glycol, should be placed in traps that are not emptieddaily. Radiating vanes, such as
wooden planks, placed in the substrate will increase theeffective area of the trap. A bait can be
added to the trap to increase its effectiveness. Thetype of bait will depend on the specimens one
wishes to catch.
Light traps: Light traps are mainly used for attracting moths & other night flying insectswhich
are attracted towards the light. The insects are actively caught or encouraged to entera trap. The
simplest light trap consists of a light on a cable hanging out in the field forattracting the pests
during nights. However, besides a number of species of moths, beetles,flies, and other insects,
most of which are not pests, are also attracted to artificial light. Soidentification of pests and
beneficial insects is of prime importance before any controloperation is executed.
Mercury vapour lamp light trap: This trap is the basic model designed by Robinson
(1952).This trap produces ultravoilet, blue and green radiation with little red. This is currently
usedtowards a wide range of noctuids and other nocturnal flying insects. a mercury lamp
(125W)is fixed at the top of a funnel shaped (or) trapezoid galvanized iron cone terminating in a
jarcontaining dichlorvos soaked in cotton as insecticide to kill the insect.
Killing insects
Killing should be immediately after capture. Potassium cyanide (KCN), ethyl acetate,carbon
tetrachloride and chloroform are commonly used for killing insects. KCN kills theinsects quickly
but deadly poisonous and must be handled with extreme care. Ethyl acetatekills the insects
slowly and does not last long. But the dead insects remain in relaxedcondition for a longer time
without becoming brittle and stiff.
Pinching- In this method, thorax is pressedbetween thumb and index finger swiftly andwith jerk.
It needs constant practice. e.g.butterfly, grasshopper.
Injecting- Hypodermic injection of fluids.
Drowning- Larvae and insects without scales, hairs or powdery covering can be killed
bysubmerging them in water. They die of Auto toxicity when excessive CO2 unable to
escapesfrom spiracles and collects in trachea and tissues.
How to prepare Killing Bottle/ Cyanide Bottle?
Steps involved in preparing the killing bottles are given below -
 Take a wide mouthed strong bottle or vial with a tight fitting lid.
 Place a layer of potassium cyanidegranules/pellets (1/4-inch thickness) atthe bottom of
bottle.
 Cover it with a layer of dry plaster ofParis (1/4 -inch thickness)
 Mix plaster of Paris with enoughwater so that it will pour off from theend of spoon. Pour
1/2-inch layer ofwet plaster of Paris over the dry layer.
 Tap the bottle lightly on the table toeliminate any bubble in the bottle.
 Leave the lid off for a day to let theplaster dry in a well-ventilated room,completely away
from direct sunlight.
 Keep a circular piece of filter orblotting paper on the top of plaster ofParis and avoid
condensation of water droplets on the side of bottom (to check thesweating process).
 Lastly, the bottle should be tightly corked and labeled with the word ―Poison‖.
 In place of KCN, now a day‘s Ethyl acetate is being used as the replacement in
killingbottle.
Insect Collection Box
Storage of insects is done in the insect boxes,which is made up of wood (top and bottomcould be
of plywood) and lined on one(bottom) or both (roof also) sides with corksheets covered with
white paper. It is light inweight, moisture proof and airtight. General(common) size of insect
collection box is45x30x15 cm.
Labeling
Specimen collected should be uniform in size and labeled properly on stiff paper orreference
card. Labeling consists of following notes i.e., Host, Date, collector and Location.
Setting or stretching boards
Setting is the method that wings antennaeand Occasionally (Hymenopterans) spread legsin full
display of their features. This methodneeds a setting or stretching board which havetwo side‘s
boards separated by groove. Bothboard and grooves are lined with thin sheet ofcork. The width
of groove varies according to thewidth of insect body.
Methods of preservation
Protection of Insect specimens
Collected Insects can be protected for longer time in insect collection box by putting
thenephathalene balls on the corner side of box.
Preservation of insects
a) Temporary preservation
b) Permanent preservation: Insects can be permanently preserved either dry, in fluid, oron
microscope slides. Arachnids are always preserved in liquid or on microscope slides. Themethod
of preservation depends on the type of arthropods. It can be done by the followingmethods-
 Dry preservation- Insects that are to be preserved dry are best mounted in ways
thatfacilitate study and permanent storage. Specimens should be mounted soon
afterkilling, if possible while still soft.
 Liquid preservation- It is done in 70 % ethyl alcohol + 4 % formaline solution.
Softscale insects and mealybugs can be preserved in mixture of 4 parts 90 % ethanol
and 1part glacial acetic acid whereas, thrips can be preserved in a mixture of 9 parts 60
%ethanol and 1 part glacial acetic acid. It is very important to periodically check and
topup containers of a liquid collection.
 Mounting on a microscopic slide- Small specimens have to be mounted on
microscopeslides so that they can be studied under a compound microscope. These
include groupssuch as thrips, aphids, parasitic wasps, scale insects, booklice, lice and
mites. Insect andspider body parts (e.g. mouthparts and genitalia), and larvae often have
to be slidemounted.Microscope slide mounts may be temporary or permanent, but
specimensmaintained in collections require permanent mounts.
Bringing the specimen home or the laboratory
Materials required
Butterflies and other large-wingedinsects can be stored in folded protectivepaper envelopes.
Most arthropod specimenscan be conveniently stored between layers ofabsorbent paper. Paper
envelops(Newspaper, waxpaper) can be used to keepthe specimen and brought it to home
orlaboratory (having good absorbent quality)Cellophane and transparent plastics can alsobe used
for this purpose.
Relaxing container/Jar
Relaxing is the method / process of re-softening the insects. Relaxing container/Jar –contains a
layer of sand (5 cm thick) or any other absorbent materials (basal wood, pith,synthetic sponge)
and few drops of formaline or carbolic acid is added to prevent mould/fungal growth and then
covered with filter paper. Cleaning- Dust, pollens and dirt can beremoved with a camel hairbrush
dipped in water mixed with detergent.
Preparing insects for the insect collection box
Insects longer than about 8 mm are usually mounted on pins pushed through thethorax. Insect
pins are longer than ordinary pins, and are made of stainless steel that doesnot rust. A No. 2 or
No. 3 entomological pin is suitable for most insects, although those withdelicate bodies may
require a size No. 0 or No. 1.
Entomological pins-There is three general series of pins viz.,English pins: Sold by weight,
range of 18-30 mm in length and stout, used to pinlepidopteran insects, which lies or kept low in
the box.
Continental pins: Sold by 100s, Range 35 mm in length,( 000,00,0 & 1-7 Nos.), No. 2 & 3
areuseful for general purpose, 38 mm( No. 8-10), 50 mm( No. 11-12), 000 is the thinnest pin
andNo. 12 is the thickest pin.
Minute pin: Minutest and finest pins, used for pinning the insects meant to stage, forminute,
softest and fragile insects.
Pinning
It is the best and common method to preserve hard bodied insects. They will dry andremain in
perfect condition on the pins for long time without any further treatment. Theyare pinned
vertically through the body. Depending upon the size of insect‘s pins has to beselected
accordingly. Exact place of insertion of the pin varies among different groups ofinsects.
Insect groups Sketch diagram Pinning region
Insect groups Sketch diagram Pinning region
Grasshopper, crickets, Pronotum
Preying mantids and
cockroaches
Bugs (most of the Scutellum
Hemipterans)

Beetles and weevils Right elytra

(Colepterans)

Dragonfly, damselfly, Thorax

antlion, green lace wing fly,
Moths, butterfly bees, wasp,
ants
and true flies etc.

Double mounting
Pinning is troublesome in smallerinsects. Very small insects cannot be pinnedbecause most of
the body parts of the insectsare lost during pinning. For such insectsdouble mounting can be
followed.
Staging
The stage is narrow rectangular piece ofcork or pith. The small insect is pinnedcorrectly with a
micro pin to the stage. Laterthe stage is pinned in the insect store boxwith a bigger pin.
Carding
A rectangular white card (5x8 or 5x12mm) may be used as stage. On stage insteadof pinning,
the insect specimen is stuck on itby using glue or adhesive. After mountingthe insect, card is
pinned in the box with alarge pin.
Pointing / gumming
The insect specimen is glued to a cardcut into a triangle of 10 mm height and 5 mmbase. Bend
down the tip of card to form asmall surface to which the insect is stuck.Apply a drop of glue or
adhesive bytouching the point to the glue and to thethorax of the insects to be mounted.

Sweep net

Aerial/Butterfly net

Beating tray Berlese funnel

Aspirator/Potters/Suction tube Insect killing box

Insect collecting box Setting/Stretching box

Double Mounting

Gumming
 Practical – 2To study the External features of Grasshopper

The grasshoppers are widely distributed throughout the country and may be seen inabundance
during monsson season. For the generalized morphological description, thisinsect has been
considered as the most suitable representative of class insects because itsstructural details are not
much variable. Apart from this, being larger insize, it can bestudied easily.
The generalized insect body is divided into 3 distinct body regions: a head, a thorax andan
abdomen. Grouping of body segments into distinct regions is known as tagmosis and thebody
regions are called as tagmata.
The Head
This is an anterior part of the body formed by the fusion of six segments viz., ocellary,antennal,
intercalary, mandibular, maxillary and labial. All these segments are closelyamalgamated to form
a hard case or head capsule, the cranium that bears the antennae, eyesand mouthparts. The head
is attached to the thorax by means of a flexible membranous neck(cervix) that allows its
movement. Head capsule is sclerotized and the head capsuleexcluding appendages formed by the
fusion of several sclerites is known as cranium.
Sclerites of Head
i. Vertex: Summit of the head between compound eyes.
ii. Frons: Facial area below the vertex and above clypeus.
iii. Clypeus: Cranial area below the frons to which labrum is attached.
iv. Gena: Lateral cranial area behind the compound eyes.
v. Occiput : Cranial area between occipital and post occipital suture.
Sutures of Head: The linear invaginations of the exoskeleton between two sclerites arecalled as
suture (sometimes referred as sulcus).
i. Epicranial suture/ ecdysial line: Inverted `Y' shaped suture found medially on the topof head,
with a median suture (coronal suture) and lateral sutures (frontal suture).
ii. Epistomal suture/ Fronto clypeal suture: Found between frons and clypeus. (epi –above;
stoma- mouth parts)
iii. Clypeo-labral suture: Found between clypeus and labrum (upper lip).
iv. Postoccipital suture: Groove bordering occipital foramen. Line indicating the fusion
ofmaxillary and labial segment.
The Thorax: It is a body region situated between head and abdomen. The insect thorax is
composedof three segments: an anterior prothorax, a middle mesothorax, and a posterior
metathorax.Each segment bears a pair of legs. The last two segments often called as pterothorax
maybear wings. Meso and metathorax which bear wings are called as Pterothorax.
Thoracicsegments are made up of three sclerites namely, dorsal body plate tergum or nota,
ventralbody plate sternum and lateral plate pleuron
Functions of thorax: Site of locomotion.
Abdomen: Abdominal segments are telescopic in nature, highly flexible and are interconnected
bya membrane called conjunctiva. Each abdominal segment is made up of only two
scleritesnamely dorsal body plate (tergum) and ventral body plate (sternum). In grass hopper
eightpairs of spiracles are present in the first eight segments, in addition to a pair of tympanum
inthe first segment. Eight and ninth abdominal segments bears the female genital structureand
ninth segment bears male genital structure. Abdominal appendages in adult insects aregenital
organs and cerci.
Function: Site of metabolism and reproduction.
 Practical -3To study the types of insect antennae
The collected insect samples can be inspected in laboratory after detaching the antennaand put
them under the microscope. They can also be studied through the permanent slidesof different
types of antennae by the help of microscope.
Antennae are mobile sensory segmented appendages of the head. They articulate with headin
front or between the eyes and arise from antennal socket. The size and shape ofantennae varies in
different insects. They used for sensory perception whi ch includesmotion and orientation, odor,
sound, humidity, and a variety of chemical cues. Sensilla onantenna acts as tactile, olfaction,
carbon dioxide, temperature, wind, humidity, andsound receptors.
Structure of Antenna: Antennae consist of three parts:
a) Scape- It is first basal segment of antenna by which the antennae is attached to thehead. It is
often distinctly larger than the other succeeding joints. It articulates withthe antennal ridge.
b) Pedicel- The joint immediately followed the scape is pedicel. It is usually smalland contains a
special sensory structure known as Johnston’s organ, which is absentin Diplura, Collembola.
c) Flagellum- It is also known as clavola, and is the remaining part of theantenna. Flagellum
segments (flagellomeres) increase in number in certain insects. Itis modified according to the
surroundings and habits of the insects.
Types of antennae:
1. Setaceous: (Bristle like) Size of the segments decreases from base to apex. e.g.Leafhopper,
Dragonfly, Damselfly.
2. Filiform: (Thread like) Segments are usually cylindrical. Thickness of segments remainssame
throughout. e.g. Grasshopper.
3. Moniliform: (Beaded) Segments are either globular or spherical with prominentconstriction in
between e.g. Termite.
4. Serrate: (Saw like) Segments have short triangular projections on one side. e.g.Longicorn
bettle
5. Pectinate: (Comb like) Segments with long slender processes on one side e.g. Sawfly
6. Bipectinate: (Double comb like) Segments with long slender lateral processes on boththe
sides e.g. Silkworm moth
7. Clavate: (Clubbed) Antenna enlarges gradually towards the tip. e.g. Blister beetle
8. Capitate: (Knobbed) Terminal segments become enlarged suddenly e.g. butterfly
9. Lamellate: (Plate like) Antennal tip is expanded laterally on one side to form flat platese.g.
lamellicorn beetle
10. Aristate: The terminal segment is enlarged. It bears a conspicuous dorsal bristle calledarista
e.g. House fly
11. Stylate: Terminal segment bear a style like process eg. Horse fly, Robber fly.
12. Plumose: (Feathery) Segments with long whorls of hairs e.g. male mosquito
13. Pilose: (Hairy) Antenna is less feathery with few hairs at the junction of flagellomeres.e.g.
Female mosquito.
14. Geniculate: (Elbowed) Scape is long remaining segments are small and are arranged atan
angle to the first resembling an elbow joint. e.g. Ant, weevil and honey bee.
Structure of Typical Antenna
 Practical- 4To study the different types of mouthparts and their modifications
Mouthparts of insects vary among insects of different groups depending upon theirfeeding
habits. They are mainly of two types viz., Mandibulate (feeding mainly on solidfood) and
haustellate (feeding mainly on liquid food). Insect mouthparts have becomemodified in various
groups to perform the ingestion of different types of food and bydifferent methods. Indeed the
modifications in the mouthparts to ingest almost all kinds ofthe food material, are one of the
factors for the success of the group.
1. Biting and chewing type: e.g. Cockroach & grasshopper.
It is the primitive type of mouth part and consists of the following parts.
i. Labrum : (Upper lip) It is flap like, bilobed and attached to the clypeus by an
articularmembrane. It is movable. It covers the mouth cavity from above. It helps to pull thefood
into the mouth. It holds the food in position so that mandibles can act on it. Itforms the roof of
the pre oral food cavity.
ii. Labrum-epipharynx: Inner surface of the labrum is referred to as epipharynx. It isfrequently
membranous and continuous with the dorsal wall of pharnyx. It is an organof taste.
iii. Mandibles: There is a pair of mandibles. They are the first pair of jaws. They are alsocalled
as primary jaws or true jaws. Mandibles articulate with the cranium at twopoints. They are
heavily sclerotised. They are toothed on their inner border. There aretwo types of teeth. Distal
are sharply pointed and are called incisor or cutting teeth andproximal teeth are called molar or
grinding teeth. They act transversely to bite andgrind the food into small fragments.
iv. Maxillae: They are paired and more complicated than mandibles. They are calledsecondary
jaws or accessory jaws. At proximal end the first sclerite cardo joins themaxilla to head. The
second sclerite is called stipes which articulates with cardo. Stipescarries a lateral sclerite called
palpifer which bears a five segmented antenna likemaxillary palp. On the distal end of the stipes,
there are two lobes. The outer lobe iscalled galea and inner lobe is lacinia which is toothed.
Maxille direct the food into themouth. They hold the food in place when the mandibles are in
action. They act asauxillary jaws and assist in mastication of food. Sense organs connected with
theperception of touch, smell and taste are abundantly found in palpi.
v. Hypopharynx : It is a tongue like organ. It is located centrally in the preoral cavity.Salivary
gland duct opens through it.
vi. Labium /lower lip: It is a composite structure formed by the fusion of two
primitivesegmented appendages. It bounds the mouth cavity from below or behind. It forms
thebase of the preoral cavity. It consists of three median sclerites viz., submentum
(largebasalsclerite), mentum (middle sclerite) and prementum (apical sclerite). On the lateralside
of the prementum there are two small lateral sclerites called palpiger bearing threesegmented
labial palpi. Distally prementum bears two pairs of lobes. The other pair oflobes is called
paraglossae and inner pair of lobes, glossae. Both pairs when fused arecalled ligula.
2. Piercing and sucking / hemipterous /bug type e.g. Plant bugs.
Labium projects downwards from theanterior part of the head like a beak. Beak isfour segmented
and grooved throughoutits entire length. At the base of the labiumthere is a triangular flap like
structurecalled labrum. Labium is neither involvedin piercing nor sucking. It functions as
aprotective covering for the four stylets(fascicle) found within the groove.Both mandibles and
maxillae are modified into long slender sclerotized hair likestructure called stylets. They are
lying close together and suited for piercing and sucking.The tips of the stylets may have minute
teeth for piercing the plant tissue. The innermaxillary stylets are doubly grooved on their inner
faces. When these are closely opposedthey form two canals viz., food canal and salivary canal
through sap and saliva areconducted respectively. Saliva contains enzymes or toxins that can
distort plant cell wall topermit the stylets to penetrate down and reach phloem for suking the sap.
Both palps areabsent.
3. Piercing and sucking / dipterous /mosquito type : e.g. Female mosquito
Mouthparts of female mosquito consistsof an elongate labium which is groovedforming a gutter
which encloses six stylets.The stylets are composed of labrum -epipharynx (enclosing the food
canal), thehyphophrynx (containing the salivary canal),two maxillae and two mandibles. Both
theends of maxillary stylets and mandibularstylets are saw like and suited piercing flesh.The
stylets are inserted into host's skin by a strong downward and forward thrust ofbody. Both
mandibles and maxillae are reduced in male and they feed on plant nectar andjuices of decaying
fruits. Female pierces the skin of human beings into which it injects salivacontaining an
anticoagulant (to keep the blood flowing without clotting) and an anesthetic(to keep the victim
unaware of the bite) and sucks up the blood. Labium does not pierce butfolds up or back as
stylets pierce. Maxillary palpi are present.
4. Chewing and lapping type : e.g.honey bee
Labrum and mandibles are as inbiting and chewing type of mouth parts.But mandibles are blunt
and not toothed.They are useful to crush and shape waxfor comb building; ingest pollen grains
and other manipulative functions.Maxillolabial structures are modified toform the lapping
tongue.The tongue unit consists of two galea of maxillae, two labial palpi and elongatedflexible
hairy glossa of labium. The glossa terminates into a small circular spoon shaped lobecalled
spoon or bouton or flabellum which is useful to lick the nectar.
5. Rasping and sucking : e.g. Thrip
Mouth cone consists of labrum, labiumand maxillae. There are three stylets derivedfrom two
maxillae and left mandible. Rightmandible is absent. Stylets are useful tolacerate the plant tissue
and the oozing sap issucked up by the mouth cone. Bothmaxillary palpi and labial palpi are
present.
6. Sponging type : e.g. House fly
The proboscis is fleshy, elbowed,retractile and projects downwards fromhead. The proboscis can
be differentiatedinto basal rostrum and distal haustellum.The proboscis consists of labium which
isgrooved on its anterior surface. Within thisgroove lie the labrum-epiphraynx (enclosing
the food canal) and slender hypopharynx(containing the salivary canal).Mandibles are absent.
Maxillae are represented by single segmented maxillary palpi.The end of the proboscis is
enlarged, sponge like and two lobed which acts as suction pads.They are called oral discs or
labella. The surfaces of labella are transvered by capillarycanals called pseudotracheae which
collect the liquid food and convey it to the canal. Labellafunction as sponging organs and are
capable of taking exposed fluids. These insects oftenspit enzyme containing saliva onto solid
foods to liquify them.
7. Siphoning type : e.g. Moths andbutterflies
Mouth parts consists of elongate sucking tube or proboscis. It is formed by two greatlyelongated
galeae of maxillae which are zippered together by interlocking spines and hooks.Galeae are
grooved on their inner surface and when they are fitting together closely theyform a suctorial
food canal through which the nectar is sucked up. The proboscis is coiled uplike watch spring
and kept beneath the head when it is not in use. By pumping of blood intogaleae, the proboscis is
extended. The other mouth parts are reduced or absent except thelabial palpi and smaller
maxillary palpi.
Structure of (A) mandible, (B) maxilla, and (C) labium of a typical chewing insect.

Piercing and sucking type – Bug

 Piercing and sucking type – Mosquito

Cross-section of proboscis

Chewing and Lapping type: Honey bee

Rasping and sucking type mouth parts Siphoning type of mouth parts

Sponging type of mouth parts

 Practical -5To study the legs and their modifications
The typical thoracic leg consists of six parts, basal coxa that articulates with the thoraxin the
pleural region, small trochanter, femur, tibia, segmented tarsus, and pretarsus. Thecoxa is often
divided into two parts, the posterior and the anterior (usually the larger part)being called the
meron. The trochanter articulates with the coxa, but usually forms animmovable attachment with
the femur. The femur and tibia are typically the longest legsegments. The tarsus, which is
derived from a single segment, - is usually sub-divided intoindividual tarsomeres. The pretarsus
may consist of a single claw, but it is usually composedof a pair of moveable claws and one or
more pads or bristles.Legs are usually lookedupon as the principal organs ofterrestrial
locomotion. Theyhave undergone manymodifications and have beenadapted to a wide variety
offunctions including swimming,prey capture, pollen collectionand digging.
Ambulatorial (Ambulate - to walk;Walking leg) e.g. Fore leg and middle legof grasshopper.
Femur and tibia are long.Legs are suited for walking.
Cursorial: (Cursorial = adapted forrunning : Running leg) e. g. All the threepairs of legs of
cockroach. Legs are suitedfor running. Femur is not swollen.
Saltatorial: (Salatorial = Leaping: JumpingLeg) e.g. hind leg of grasshopper.
Fossorial: (Forrorial =Digging; Burrowingleg) e.g. Fore legs of mole cricket.
Natatorial: (Natatorial = pertaining toswimming; Swimming leg) e.g. hing legsof water bug and
water beetle.
Raptorial: (Raptorial=predatory; Graspingleg) e.g. Forelegs of preying mantids.
Scansorial: (Scansorial = Climbing;climbing or clinging leg) e.g. all the threepairs of legs of
head louse.
Foragial leg: (Forage = to collect foodmaterial) e.g. Legs of honey bee.
i. Forelegs : The foreleg has threeimportant structures (Eye brush, Antennacleaner or strigillis
and Pollen brush)
ii. Middle legs: It has two importantstructures.
(a.) Pollen brush: Stiff hairs onbasitarsus form pollen brush which isuseful to collect pollen
from middle part oftheir body.
(b.) Tibial spar: At the distalend of the tibia, a movable spur is presentwhich is useful to loosen
the pellets ofpollen from the pollen basket of hind legsand to clean wings and spiracles.
iii. Hind legs: It has three importantstructures viz., pollen basket, pollenpacker and pollen comb.
(a.) Pollenbasket: It is also called corbicula. Theouter surface of the hind tibia contains ashallow
cavity. The edges of the cavity arefringed with long hairs. The pollen basketenables the bee to
carry a larger load ofpollen and propolis from the field to thehive.
(b.) Pollen packer: It is also calledpollen press. It consists of pecten andauricle. Pecten is a row
of stout bristles atthe distal end of tibia. Auricle is a smallplate
Climbing or Sticking leg: e.g. all the threepairs of legs of house fly.
Clasping leg: e.g. Forelegs of male waterbeetle.
Prolegs: Caterpillars‘ posses‘ three pairs of thoracic legs (true-legs) and five pairs of abdominal
legs (pro-legs) on 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and last abdomenal segments. In some, semi-loopers larvae,
prologs on 3rd and 4th abomenal segments absent, and hence while movement, it looks like semi
loop, in some, looppers, prologs present only on 6th and last abdominal segments, and hence
while movement, it looks like loop.
• Thoracic legs are also called the true legs, which are typically jointed and sclerotized.
• Abdominal legs are called prolegs. These are unjointed, short, fleshy with a flat surface at the
bottom called planta.
• A number of hooks like structures called crochets are seen arranged in circular or semi
cuticular form on the surface of the plants.
• In sawflies of Hymenoptera, the larvae have 3 pairs of true legs in thorax, and 6 or >6 pairs of
prologs in abdomen. This is the unique feature of sawfly larva, but these prologs do not bear
crochets, unlike lepidopteran larva.

Structure of a typical leg

Ambulatorial leg Cursorial leg Saltatorial leg

 Fossorial leg Natatorial leg

Scansorial leg Raptorial leg

Sticking leg
Prolegs
Foraging legs
 Practical- 6To study about the Wing venation, types of wings and wing coupling
apparatus.
The complete system of veins of a wing is termed as venation or neuration. Generally inall the
insects there is some similarity in wing venation and therefore, it is presumed that alltypes of
wing venation have developed from the common base or the same ancestor. Bymeans of an
extensive study of wing venation in different groups of insects, Comstock andNeedham
constructed a hypothetical type of wing venation from which all other types havepresumely been
derived. According to them the primitive wing venation has developedfrom two tracheae which
are situated on the anterior and the posterior basal margins ofwings and their branches are spread
all over he wing. Each main trachea give rise to threeprincipal veins, thereby forming 6 principal
veins namely costa, radius, medius, cubitus,penultimate and ultimate. Each principal vein gives
rise to a sub-vein near its base.

Wing venation of a hypothetical wing

The principal veins are represented by + sign whereas the sub veins by - sign. Thus thewhole
wing venation system is represented by + and the - signs in alternate as shown in thefigure. The
branching of principal veins is represented in the following manner:
Such type of hypothetical wing ventaion is never met in any insect as one or the othervein is
invariably found lacking for example the medius vein is absent in order Hemipteraand
Ephimereda and submedius is missing in Odonata. Some of the scientists considerprecosta,
costa, subcosta, radius, medius, cubitus and anal as the principal veins of the insectwing.
Cross veins
The veins joining the two longitudinal veins are known as cross veins. The importantcross veins
along with their symbols are given below :
(i) Humeral cross vein (h)- It extends fromcosta to sub-costa near the humeral angle andvein.
(ii) Radio-medial cross vein (rm)- It joins the sub radius and the medius veins.
(iii) Medial cross vein (m) -The vein joining the m2 and m3 branches of medius is termed
asmedial cross vein.
(iv) Medio-cubital cross vein (m-cu) - It joins the medius and the cubitus longitudinalveins.
(v) Radial cross vein (r) -It extends from R1 to R2
Wing Adaptations and Modifications:
Wing Type Photos Modifications and
Examples
Membranous  Membranous wings are
thin & more or less
transparent, but some are
darkened.
 These wings are with
highly developed
venation.
 They are useful for
flight. Examples: Hind
wings of Grasshopper,
Dragonfiles and
damselflies (order:
Odonata), lacewings
(order: Neuroptera), flies
(order: Diptera), bees
and wasps (order
Hymenoptera),
termites (order Isoptera)
 Halteres  Halteres are an extreme
modification among the
order Diptera (true flies),
in which the hind wings
are reduced to mere
nubs.
 Used for balance and
direction during flight
(gyroscopic stabilizers).
 It is divided into three
regions-scabellum,
pedicel and capitalum.
Examples: All flies
(Diptera).
Elytra  Elytra (singular elytron)
are the hardened, heavily
sclerotized forewings of
beetles (horny sheet
without venation).
 Modified to protect the
hind wings when at rest.
 Examples: All beetles
(order Coleoptera).
Hemi Elytra  A variation of the elytra
is the hemelytra.
 The forewings of
Hemipterans are said to
be hemelytrous because
they are hardened
throughout the proximal
two-thirds,while the
distal portion is
membranous.
 Unlike elytra, hemelytra
function primarily as
flight wings.
 Examples:
Bugs(Hemiptera)
Tegmina  Tegmina (singular
tegmen) are the leathery
forewings of insects in
the orders Orthoptera,
Dictyoptera
 Like the elytra on
beetles the tegmina help
protect the delicate hind
wings, and also used for
flight sometimes.
 Examples:
Grasshoppers, crickets
and katydids
(Orthoptera),
Cockroaches,
Mantids (Dictyoptera)
Scaly Wings  Scaly wings-thin and
membranous front and
hind
wings covered over
surface with
flattened unicellular setae
(scales).
 The scales make the
wings colorful and used
for taxonomic studies.
 They are useful for
flight.
 Examples: Butterflies,
moths and skippers
(order Lepidoptera),
caddisflies (order:
Trichoptera).
Fringed Wings  Fringed wings-slender
front and hind wings
with long fringes of
marginal hairs, giving a
feather like appearance.
 The wings are highly
reduced with reduced
venation.
 They are useful for
flight.
 Example: Thrips
(Thysanoptera)
Clefted Wings  Front wing is
(Fissured Wings) longitudinally
divided forming a fork-like
structure.
 The hind wing is divided
twice, forming two forks
with three arms.
 All forks possess small
marginal hairs.
 They are useful for
flight.
  Example: Both wings of
Plume Moth
Wing coupling apparatus
In certain insects special structures have been developed to fasten together the twowings of each
side so that it may bring more synchronus action of the fore and hind wings,thereby enabling the
insects to fly more swiftly. This action in many insects is ensuredsimply by fore wing
overlapping the hind wing. The important coupling device developedin insects‘ wing for adding
more efficiency in flying are described below-
(i) Jugal and humeral lobe- This couplingdevice is commonly found in Lepidoptera,Thchoptera
and Mecoptera wherein thewing bases are highly modified. Theposterior end of the fore wing is
modifiedinto slender finger like organ which isstiffened by a branch of IIIrd anal vein isknown
as the jugal lobe; whereas theanterior margin of the hind wings ismodified in to a small humeral
lobe. Thelobes of fore and the hind wings arecoupled with each other during flight.
(ii) Frenulum and Retinaculum -This type ofcoupling apparatus is well illustrated in higher
Lepidoptera wherein the jugum is lostand the frenulum assumes more importance. In female
butterflies a number of stoutbristle arise beneath the extended fore wing known as frenulum
which engages in aretinaculum from a patch of hair near the cubitus of a hind wing. However, in
males thefrenulum bristles are fused into a single stout structure and is held by a curved process
from the sub-costal vein of the fore-wing.
(iii) Hamuli -In this modification the costal margin of the hind wings bears a row of smallhooks
known as hamuli. These hooks get attached into a fold on the inner margin of thefore-wings.
Such coupling apparatus is generally met in Hymenoptera.
(iv) Amplexiform - This example is commonly met in the insects belonging to
familypapilionidac and bombycidae of order Lepidoptera. In this case the wings are
coupledsimply by overlapping basally to each other.
 Practical- 7To study the types of insect larvae and pupae
Metamorphosis and immature stages
The change in growth and development (form) of an insect during its life cycle frombirth to
maturity is called metamorphosis. There are four basic types of metamorphosis ininsects.
Ametabola: (No metamorphosis) e.g. Silver fish.
These insects have only 3 stages in their life cycle namely egg, young ones and adults. It ismost
primitive type metamorphosis. The hatching insects resemble the adult in all respectsexcept for
the size and called as juveniles. Moulting continues throughout the life.
Hemi-metabola: (Incomplete metamorphosis) e.g. Dragonfly, damselfly and may fly.
These insects also have 3 stages in their life namely egg, young ones and adults. Theyoung ones
are aquatic and are called naiads. They are different from adults in habits andhabitat. They
breathe by means of tracheal gills. In dragonfly naiad, the lower lip (labium) iscalled mask
which is hinged and provided with hooks for capturing prey. After final moult,
the insects have fully developed wings suited for aerial life.
Pauro-metabola: (Gradual metamorphosis) e.g. Cockroach, grasshopper, bugs.
The young ones are called nymphs. They are terrestrial and resembles the adults ingeneral body
form except the wing and external genitalia. Their compound eyes and mouthparts are similar to
that of adults. Both nymphs and adults share the same habitat. Wingbuds externally appear in
later instars. The genitalia development is gradual. Later instarsnymphs closely resemble the
adult with successive moults.
Holo-metabola: (Complete metamorphosis) e.g. Butterflies, moths, fly and bees.
These insects have 4 stages namely egg, larva, pupa and adult. Majority of the insectsundergo
complete metamorphosis. Larvae of butterfly is called caterpillar. Larva differsgreatly in form
from adult. Compound eyes are absent in larva. Lateral ocelli or stemmataare the visual organs.
Their mouth parts and food habits differ from adults. Wingdevelopment is internal. When the
larval growth completed it transforms into pupa. It isthe resting and non feeding stage in which
the larval tissues disintegrate and adult organsare built up.
Paura-metabola

Hemi-metabola

Immature stages in insects

Larva: Larval stage is the active growing and immature stage between the egg and pupalstage of
an insect having complete metamorphosis. This stage differs radically from theadults.
Types of larvae:
Type of larva Photo Modification
I. Oligopod: Thoracic legs are well developed. Abdominal legs are absent.
i. Campodeiform They are similar with
diplurans genus Campodea.
Body is elongate, depressed
dorsoventrally and well
sclerotized. Head is
prognathous. Thoracic legs
are long. A pair of
abdominal or caudal
processes is usually
 present. Larvae are
generally predators and are
very active. E.g. grub of ant
lion or grub of lady bird
beetle.

ii. Scarabaeiform Body is “C” shaped, stout

and sub-cylindrical. Head
is well developed. Thoracic
legs are short. Caudal
processes are absent. Larva
is sluggish, burrowing into
wood or soil. e.g. grub of
rhinoceros beetle.
Body is “C” shaped, stout
and sub-cylindrical. Head
is well developed. Thoracic
legs are short. Caudal
processes are absent. Larva
is sluggish, burrowing into
wood or soil. e.g. grub of
rhinoceros beetle.
II. Polypod or Eruciform: The body consists of an elongate trunk with large sclerotized
head capsule. Head bears powerful mandibles which tear up vegetation. Two groups
of single lensed eyes Stemmata found on either side of the head constitute the visual
organs. The antenna is short. 3 pairs of thoracic legs and up to 5 pairs of unsegmented
abdominal legs or prolegs or pseudolegs are present. e.g. Caterpillar (larva of moth
and butterfly).
i. Hairy caterpillar The body hairs may be
dense, sparse or arranged in
tufts. Hairs may cause
irritation, when touched.
e.g. red hairy caterpillar.
ii. Slug caterpillar Larva is thick, short, stout
and fleshy. Larval head is
small and retractile.

iii. Semilooper either 3 or 4 pairs of

prolegs are present. e.g
castor semilooper.

iv. Looper They are also called

measuring worm or inch
worm. In this type, only 2
pairs of prolegs are present
in 6th and 10th abdominal
segments. e.g. Dhaincha
looper.

III. Apod: They are larvae without appendages for locomotion. Based on the degree of
development and sclerotization of head capsule.
i. Eucephalous Larva with well developed
head capsule with
functional mandibles,
maxillae, stemmata and
antennae. Mandibles act
transversely. e.g. Wriggler
(larva of mosquito) and
grub of red palm weevil.
 ii. Hemicephalous Head capsule is reduced
and can be withdrawn into
thorax. Mandibles act
vertically. e.g larva of
house fly and robber fly.

iii. Acephalous Head capsule is

absent.Mouth parts consists
of a pair of protrusible
curved mouth hooks and
associated internal sclerites.
They are also called
vermiform larvae. e.g.
Maggot (larva of house fly)
Pupa: It is the resting and inactive stage in all holometabolous insects. During this stage,
theinsect is incapable of feeding and is quiescent. During the transitional stage, the
larvalcharacters are destroyed and new adult characters are created.
Types of pupae
Type of pupae Photo Modification
Obtect Various appendages of
pupa viz. Antennae,
legs and wing pads are
glued to the body by a
secretion produced
during the last larval
moult. Exposed
surfaces of the
appendages are more
heavily sclerotized
than the inner surface.
e.g. moth pupa.
Chrysali It is naked obtect type
of butterfly. It is
angular and attractive
coloured. The pupa is
attached to the
substratum by hooks
present at the terminal
end of the abdomen
called Cremaster. The
body of chrysalis is
attached to the
substratum by 2 strong
silken threads called
gridle.
Tumbler Pupa of mosquito is
called tumbler. It is an
obtect type pupa. It is
comma shaped with
rudimentary
appendages. Breathing
trumpets are present in
the cephalic end and
anal paddles are
present at the end of
the abdomen.
Abdomen is capable of
jerky movements
which are produced by
the anal paddles. The
pupa is very active.
Exarate Various appendages
viz. antennae, legs and
wing pads are not
glued to the body.
They are free. All
oligopod larvae will
turn into exarate
pupae. The pupa is
soft and pale. e.g. pupa
of rhinoceros beetle.

Coarctate the last larval skin is

changed into a pupal
case and the pupa is
actually an exarate
pupa. The pupal case
is dark brown, barrel
shaped, smooth with
no apparent
appendages and called
as puparium. e.g. fly
pupa
Practical -8To study the dissection of alimentary canal/nervous system in insects
(Grasshopper/Cockroach)
The best learning situation requires one specimen and set of tools per two students forstudies.
Students working in pairs have ample opportunity to fully participate in thedissection and to
carefully examine the specimen. They are also able to share and discusstheir observations during
and after the dissection.
Materials required for dissecting Cockroach
Dissection Kit includes- Surgical scissors, Iris scissors, Tissue forceps, Scalpel, handle,Scalpel
blades, Probe with angled tip, Dissection needles, Dropping pipette, Blow pipes,Dissection tray,
Dissecting pins, Rigid metal ruler, And case Camel hair brush etc
Diagram of Alimentary canal showing the major subdivisions in a generalized Grasshopper
Insect

Digestive system
It includes the organs of ingestion (alimentary canal and its associated glands) and thephysiology
of digestion. The organs of ingestion are located in the head and are meant forthe intake of food.
The preoral cavity is enclosed by the mouth parts and is divided into twoparts by the
hypopharynx, the anterior region in which the alimentary canal opens is termedas cibarium and
in which the salivary duct opens is known as salivarium. In the suckingInsects the cibarium is
modified into a sucking pump while salivarium serves as the salivarysyringe.
Alimentary canal
The alimentary canal of grasshopper/cockroach is a simple, hollow and tubular instructure which
runs from the buccal cavity to anus. It is distinctly divided into thefollowing three primary
regions
1. Foregut or stomodaeum.
2. Mid gut or mesenteron or ventriculus.
3. Hind gut or proctodaeum.
1. Foregut or Stomodaeum
It constitutes the anterior region of the alimentary canal which is primarily an organ ofingestion
and shows as a site for storing food. It consists of the following paris
(i) Pre-oral food cavity-It has been described previously and indeed it is not a part ofalimentary
canal.
(ii) Pharynx-It is situated in between the pie-oral cavity and the oesophagous and isprovided by
the dilateral muscles. These muscles are highly developed in those thoseinsects which pharynx
helps in forming the suking pump.
(iii) Oesophagous-It is simple straight tube which runs from the posterior region of thehead to
thorax and joins with the crop.
(iv) Crop- It is simple bag like structure and serves as a storage reservoir for the
food.Apparently it is a dilated portion of the oesophagous but differs histologically by
thepresence of sclerotized ridges which are arranged transversely in the crop. Since itserves as a
reservoir for food hence its walls are thin and the muscles are poorlydeveloped.
(e) Gizzard-It is situated in the posterior region of the crop which cannot be
apparentlydistinguished from crop but differs internally by having the longitudinal folds into
thelumen in which cuticular teeth are attached. Its posterior part is concentric in the internallayer
of six 'V' shaped processes are attached which form the cardiac valve with the folds ofgizzard. Its
major function is to regulate the passage of food into the mid gut.Histologically, the following
layers may be distinguished in the walls of the stomodaeum
(1) Intima - The inner most layer of chitin found in continuation of body cuticle.
(2) Epithelial layer-It is a thin layer secreting the intima.
(3) Basement membrane- Bounding the outer most surface of the epithelium.
(4) Longitudinal muscles—These muscles are less developed than circulatory muscles.
(5) Circulatory muscles - These are well developed.
(6) Peritoneal membrane - It is often difficult to detect and consists of apparentlystructureless
connective tissue.
2. Mid Gut or Mesenteron
It is relatively a short tube or elongated sac with uniform diameter extends from hepaticcaecae or
cardiac valve to Malpighian tubes or pyloric valve. Histologically, the inner wall ofmesentcron
or stomach is not made up of chitin, but consists of following layers
(i) Peritrophic membrane (ii) Enteric epithelium
(iii) Basement membrane (iv) circular muscles
(v) Longitudinal muscles (vi) Peritoneal membrane
The enteric epithelium is made up of three types of cells:
(i) The columnar cells whichsecret the enzymes and absorb the digested food,
(ii) the regenerative cells which renew thedestroyed and dead epithelial cells through
secretion or in the process of degeneration and
 (iii) the goblet cells which are of uncertain functions.
Thus, there are following five major function of enteric epithelium:
(i) to make digestiveenzymes
(ii) to absorb the digested food
(iii) to produce new cells
(iv) to absorb the water
(v) to excrete the waste material outside the body.

The inner surface of midgut is sometime lined by a thin membrane known asperitrophic
membrane which protects the epithelial cells from the direct contact of foodparticles. This
membrane is absent in Lepidopterans and hemipterans.
3. Hind Gut or Proctodaeum
It extends from the posterior end of midgut to the anus and is also an invagination ofthe body
wall. The hind gut consists of the some layers as the fore gut except that thecircular muscles of
its are developed both inside and outside the layer of longitudinalmuscles. The hind gut is
externally marked by the insertion of the Malpighian tubes andinternally by the pyloric valve. It
may be divided into three distinct regions(i) Ileum or small intestine (ii) Colon or large intestine
(iii) Rectum.
Ileum- It is a small tube which has many folds in its inner wall.
Colon- It is situated on the 5th and 6th segments of the abdomen and is a slender tubewhich,
cannot be easily distinguished from the ileum. In some insects it is just like 'S' instructure.
Rectum- Both the ends of the rectum are comparatively slender while the middle portion isthick
and large which consists of six rectal papillae internally and six ridges of longitudinalmuscles
externally. The rectum opens to exterior through the anus which is situated at thecaudal end of
the abdomen.
Salivary Glands - The labial glands which are associated with the gnathal appendages arethe
salivary glands. A pair of salivary glands is found in the grasshopper which generally liein the
thorax and are convoluted tubes often branched and racemose. Both the ducts ofsalivary glands
unite together beneath the oesophagous to form a common salivary ductwhich opens into the
salivarium.
Physiology of digestion
The grasshopper is phytophagous and eats the leaves and soft parts of the plants whichare hold
by the maxillae and, they bring the food near to mandibles where it is broken intosmall particles.
These small food particles are sent to the buccal cavity with the help oflabrum and labium. On
entering the buccal cavity, it is subjected to the action of salivawhich contains the amaylase
enzyme. It acts on the carbohydrates present in the food andchange them into simple sugar i.e.,
glucose which is absorbed in the crop. Saliva is alsohelpful in moistening the food. This food
passes onward to the crop where the secretions ofthe midgut and the hepatic 'caecae mix with it.
These secretions are weakly acidic or alkalineand contain maltase, invertase, lactase, protease,
lipase, peptidase, erypsin and trypsinenzymes which act on the food. Due to the action of these
eyzymes the starch is convertedinto sugars, protein into amino acids and fat into fatty acids.
After this the food comes togizzard where it is again masticated then it passes through the
cardiac valve intomesenteron where further digestion of the food takes place. The digested food
is absorbedby the spongy and thick walls of mesenteron. The undigested food passes to the hind
gut(proctodaeum) through pyloric valve where the absorption of water takes place and thenwaste
and undigested food expelled out through anus in the form of excreta. The absorbedfood is
utilized for the following purposes
(i) In the form of energy required for different life activites
(ii) Some part is consumed in theformation of muscles etc.
(iii) The rest is stored in the fat bodies which are used in emergency.
Filter Chamber:
• A number of cicadids and cercopids suck sap from xylem, which contains amino acidsin very
dilute solution and relatively higher concentration of salts.
• This solution has to be concentrated before absorption so as to avoid excessive dilutionof
haemolymph.
• In these insects removal of excessive water is done with the help of ―the filterchamber‖.
• The filter chamber consists of an expanded thin walled bladder-like anterior midgut,which lies
in close association with (or surrounds) the posterior midgut (interior) andproximal ends of the
Malpighian tubules (interior) or anterior part of the hindgut.
• The chamber formed within the folds of the anterior gut is called the filter chamber. Itis
suggested that the Malpighian tubules produce a hypertonic fluid, which is rich inK+. This
establishes an osmotic gradient from the anterior midgut to the filter chamberthen to the
Malpighian tubules, so that water passes almost directly to the hindgut andabsorption of nutrients
takes place in the more central region of the midgut. Filterchamber of the coccids has parts of
midgut invaginated into the rectum.
 Practical- 9To study the male and female reproductive systems in insects (Grasshopper)
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
The male reproductive organs consist of the followings- (i) A pair of testes (ii) A pair ofvasa
deferentia (iii) Seminal vesicles (iv) Ejaculatory duct (v) Penis or Aedeagus (vi)Accessory
glands (vii) Male genital atrium
The Testes-They are located above the midgut and held in position by the surrounding fatbodies
and tracheae. Each testis is a more or less ovoid body partly or completely dividedinto a variable
number of follicles or lobes which are cylindrical in shape. Each follicle isconnected with vas
deferens by a relatively well developed slender tube known as vaseffcrens. The peritoneal
investment of the follicle is developed to the extent of envelopingthe testis as a whole in a
common coat known as scrotum. the presence of the sex cells indifferent stages of development.
These zones are as follows
(i) The germarium - It is the region having primordial genii cells or spermatogonia
whichundergo multiplication.
(ii) The zone of growth – In this zone the spermatogonia increase in size and undergorepeated
mitotic division and develop into spermatocytes.
(iii) The zone of division and reduction-Here the spermatocytes undergo meiosis andproduce
spermatids.
(iv) The zone of transformation - The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa.The masses
of spermatozoa are generally enclosed in the testicular cyst cells from whichthey are released in
the vas deferens. In addition, the testes contain large elements knownverson's cells or apical
cells.
Vas deferens- These are the paired canals leading from the testes which are partly or
whollymesodermal in origin.
Seminal Vesicles- The Vas deferens vary greatly in length in the majority of insects. EachVas
deferens becomes enlarged along its course to form a sac known as seminal vesicle inwhich
spermatic fluid is collected.
Ejaculatory duct -Posteriorly, the vasa deferentia unite to form a short common canal whichis
continuous with a median ectodermal tube known as ejaculatory duct. The terminal endof
ejaculatory duct opens in the male genital atrium.
Aedeagus- The terminal end of the ejaculatory duct is enclosed in a finger-like evaginationof the
ventral body wall which forms the male intromittent organ known as aedeagus. It issituated on
9th abdominal sternum of the grasshopper on the conjunctival membrane of theposterior margin.
Accessory glands- These are one to three pairs in number and usually present in relationwith the
genital ducts opening into seminal vesicle. These are tubular or sac-like in structure.In most of
the cases their secretions mix with spermatozoa and in some insects glands aredirectly concerned
with the formation of the spermatophores.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
The female reproductive system consists of the following organs- (i) A pair of ovaries(ii) A pair
of lateral oviducts (iii) Spermatheca (iv) Vagina and genital chamber (v) Accessoryglands
(Collaterial glands)
The ovaries-These are typically more or less compact bodies lying in the body cavity of
theabdomen on either side of the alimentary canal. Each ovary is about 2 cm long andcomposed
of a variable number of ovarioles and open into the oviduct. A typical ovariole isan elongated
tube in which the developing eggs are disposed one after the other in a singlechain. The oldest
oocyte is situated nearer the union with the oviduct. The wall of anovariole is made of follicular
epithelium whose cells rest upon a basement membraneknown as tunica propria.
Each ovariole may be differentiated into three zones:
(i) Terminal filament- It is the slender thread like apical prolongation of the peritoneallayer.
The filaments of the ovary combine to form a common thread termed as terminalfilament. The
terminal filament of one ovary units with the filament of the other ovaryto form a median
ligament. It aids in maintaining the ovaries in the position and isattached to the dorsal
diaphragm.
(ii) The germarium- It is situated below the terminal filament and forms the apex of anovariole.
It consists of a mass of cells which are differentiated from the primordial germcells.
(iii) The region of growth- It is also called as vitellarium which constitutes the majorportion of
an ovariole. The vitellarium contains the developing eggs (oocytes). Theepithelial layer of the
wall of vitellarium grows inwards to enclose each oocyte in adefinite sac known as follicle. The
cells of the follicle secrete the chorion of the egg andin some cases serve to nourish the oocytes.
Three types of ovarioles may be recognized on the basis of presence or absence ofnutritive cells.
(a) Panoistic type– Nutritive cells are absent e.g., grasshopper and other insects ofOrthoptera
and Isoptera.
(b) Polytrophic type-Nutritive cells are present and arranged inalternate with the oocytes e.g.,
Hymenoptera.
(c) Acrotrophic type-Nutritive cells arepresent and situated at the apices of the ovarioles e.g.,
Hemiptera.
The oviducts– The lateral oviducts are paired canals leading from the ovaries and areformed
from the mesoderm. These lateral oviducts form the common oviduct which opensinto the
vagina. Each oviduct is an enlarged pouch which stores eggs. The vagina is greatlyenlarged to
form a chamber, known as uterus, for the reception of developing eggs.
The Spermatheca– This is a pouch or sac for the reception and storage of the
spermatozoa(seminal fluid) and is also known as receptaculum seminis. It generally opens by a
duct intothe dorsal wall of the vagina which is known as sperm duct. In many insects pairing
takesplace only once and since the maturation of eggs may extend after the union of the sexes,
theprovision of spermatheca allows for their fertilization from time to time. A
specialspermathecal gland opens into the duct of spermatheca and secretes a fluid which
lengthensthe life of sperms.
Genital chamber– The vagina opens into the genital chamber on 9th sternum and thischamber is
called bursa copulatrix which helps in copulation.
Accessory glands– These are paired structures opening into the distal portion of the
vagina.These glands provide material for the formation of egg pod or ootheca.
Fertilization– After copulation; the spermatic fluid is received in the spermatheca. The
eggcomes down from the oviduct to the vagina which has an opening (micropyle) into its
shellfor the entrance of male germ cell (spermatzoan). One or two spermatozoa enter the
eggthrough micropyle and only one succeeds in fertilizing the egg. After fertilization
theaccessory glands secrete a fluid around the egg
which hardens it.
Male reproductive organ
L. S. of Testicular follicle
 Female reproductive organ L.S. of an Ovariole

Practical -10To study the characters of orders Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Odonata,

Neuroptera, Isoptera,Thysanoptera and their families

Order- Orthoptera(Ortho- straight; ptera - wing)

Synonyms : Saltatoria, Saltatoptera, Orthopteroid

Common names : Grasshoppers, Locust, Katydid, Cricket, Mole cricket

Characters
Distribution : Worldwide but mainly in tropics
Body : Medium to large sized
Mouthparts : Chewing and biting type
Eyes : Well developed compound eyes; ocelli 2or 3
Antenna : variable, filiform in most of the insects
Thorax : Large prothorax with shield in many of the insects
Wings : Forewings are called tegmina (hard and lathery in texture),Hind wings
are membranous
Legs : Hind legs is usually adopted for jumping (saltatorial)
Cerci : Short and unsegmented
Ovipositor : Long and well developed
Specializedorgans : Stridulatory (sound producing) organ and auditory (hearing) organpresent
Metamorphosis : Gradual / Paurometabola type

Sub-orders : Caelifera and Ensifera

Family: Acrididae (Caelifera)

Characters
Antenna : shorter than the body length
Legs : Hind legs are long and meant for jumping with the help of
levatormuscles
Tarsus : three segmented
Ovipositor : Short and horny
Sound production : Tympanum is located on either side of the 1st abdominal segment.Sound
is produced by femoro-alary mechanism (a row of peg likeprojections
found on the innerside of each hind femur which arerubbed against hard
radial vein of the tegmen)Examples(Short hornedGrasshopper andLocusts)
Dhan ka tidda – Hieroglyphus banian
Kharif ka tidda – H. nigrorepletus
Ghas ki tiddi – Chrotogonus sp.
Locust – Schistocerca gregaria
Family: Tettigonidae (Ensifera)
Characters
Antenna : Long as long as body or larger
Tarsus : Four segmented
Ovipositor : Sword like
Sound production : Alary type (a thick region on the hind margin of forewing (scraper)is
rubbed against a row of teeth on the stridulatory vein (file)present on the ventral side of
another forewing which throws theredonant areas on the wing (mirror) into vibrations to
producesound)Examples : (Long horned grasshoppers, Katydids and bush crickets)
Order-Dictyoptera(Dictyon = network; ptera=wings)
Synonyms : Oothecaria, Blattiformia
Common names : Cockroaches and preying mantids
Characters

Body : Medium to large sized

Head : Hypognathous
Antenna : Filiform or setaceous
Mouthparts : Chewing type
Thorax : Prothorax usually larger than meso and meta thorax
Wings : Forewings thickened, leathery with a marginal costal vein called
tegmina, Hindwings membranous and folded fanlike
Tarsi : 5 segmented
Cerci : Short and many segmented
Eggs : Contained in Ootheca
Metamorphosis : Gradual/paurometabola
Sub-orders : Blattaria (Cockroach) and Mantodea (Preying mantids)
Important Families of Dictyoptera
Characters Blattidae Mantidae
Head Not mobile in all directions Mobile in all directions
Pronotum Shield like and cover the head Elongated, do not cover head
Ocelli Degenerated- 2 called as fenestra Three
Body Flattened, dark coclored Elongated sometimescylindrical
Legs Cursorial running type Forelegs are raptorial, middleand
hind legs are ambulatorial
Gizzard Powerfully armed with chitinous NoChitinous teeth
teeth
Mating behaviour Do not devour male during mating Often (but not always)
Ootheca Chitinous Not chitinous
Nymphal charcter Not cannibalistic Cannibalistic
Mimicry Absent Mimic leaves and flowers
Habitat Omnivorous Mostly outdoors
Economic importance Household pest Predators on crop pest
Examples American Cockroach Preying mantids
Order- Odonata
(Odon = tooth; strong mandibules)
Common names : Dragonflies and damselflies
Characters

Body : Long, cylindrical, medium to large sized, attractively coloured

Head : Globular and constricted behind into a petiolate neck
Antenna : Very short, bristle like, setaceous
Eyes : Compound eyes are large. Ocelli- Three
Mouthparts : Adapted for biting, Mandibles are strongly toothed Lacinia andgalea are
fused to form mala which is also toothed
Wings : Membraneous, venation is net work with many cross veins. Wingshave a
dark pterostigma towards the costal apex. Sub costa ends innodus. Wing
flexing mechanism is absent.
Legs :Basket type arrangement, 3 segmented tarsi, They are suited forgrasping,
holding and conveying the prey to the mouth.
Abdomen :Abdomen is long and slender, In male gonopore is present on
9thabdominal segment. But the functional copulatory organ is presenton
the 2nd abdominal sternite. Before mating sperms are transferredto the
functional penis. Female have gonopore on 8th segment.
Metamorphosis : Incomplete with three life stages. The Nymphs (called naiad) isaquatic.
Labium is greatly elongated, jointed and bears two hooks atapex. It is
called mask. It is useful to capture the prey.
Sub-orders : Anisoptera (Dragonfly) and Zygoptera (damselfly)
Importance : Adults are aerial predators. They are able to catch, hold and devourthe
prey in flight. Naiads are aquatic predators. Dragonflies anddamselflies
can be collected with an aerial net near streams andponds especially on a
sunny day. Naiads can be collected fromshallow fresh water ponds and
rice fields.
Order- Neuroptera
(Neuro=nerve; ptera=wing)
Common names : Lace wings, Ant lions, Mantispidflies, Owlflies
Characters

Body : Soft bodied insects

Antenna : Filiform, with or without a terminal club
Mouthparts : Chewing type in adults
Wings : Wings are equal, membranous with many cross veins, held in a roof-
likemanner over the abdomen, weak fliers
Larva : Campodeiform with mandibulo-suctorial mouthparts
Pupa : Exarate, Pupation takes place in a silken cocoon, Six out of
eightMalpighian tubules are modified as silk glands. They spin thecocoons
through anal spinnerets.
Sub-orders : Megaloptera and Planipennia
Planipennia : Families
1. Chrysopidae: Body pale green in colour, eyes are golden yellowin
colour, pedicellate/stalked eggs to avoid cannibalism andpredation, larvae
prey on soft bodied insects especially on aphids,exhibits camouflage with
debris, biocontrol agents, mass multipliedeasily for pest control in field.
(e.g. Green lacewings, Goldeneyes,Stinkflies, Aphid lions)
2. Mantispidae: Resemble preying mantids, larvae predaceous
(e.g.Mantispidflies).
3. Myrmeleontidae: Resemble damselfly (Ant lions)
4. Ascalaphidae: resemble dragonfly (Owlflies)
Order- Isoptera
(Iso=equal; ptera=wing)
Synonyms : Termitina / termitida / Socialia
Common names : Termites, White ants
Characters

Body : Minute to large sized and soft

Head : Prognathus, characteristic depression “Fontanella” is present on
thedorsum of head
Mouthparts : Biting and chewing type
Eyes : Compound eyes present in the winged form; in apterous form itmay or
may not be present; Ocelli 0 – 2
Antenna : Short and moniliform
Wings : Identical in size, form and venation, two pairs, membranous andsemi
transparent. Wings are extended beyond abdomen and flexedover
abdomen when at rest.
Abdomen : Broadly joined to the thorax without constriction
Cerci : Short
Genital organs : Externally lacking in both sexes
Specialities : They are ancient polymorphic, social insects living in colonies
Examples Termites- Odontotermusobesus, Eutermusheimi, Microtermesanandi
Caste system is existing in isopteran.
Termite castes
1. Reproductives 2. Non-reproductives (sterile)
King Workers (dominate the colony, usually blind and apterous)
Queen Soldiers- (a) mandibulate (b) Nasute (defend the colony)
Order: Thysanoptera
(Thysano-fringe; ptera- wing)
Synonyms : Physopoda
Common names : Thrips
Characters

Body : Minute, slender, soft bodied insects

Mouthparts : Rasping and sucking type, Mouth cone is formed by the labrum
andlabium together with basal segments of maxilla. There are threestylets
derived from 2 maxillae and left mandibles. Right mandibleis absent.
Hence mouth parts are asymmetrical.
Antenna : Moniliform
Eyes : Compound eyes well developed, ocelli present in alate form
Wings : Either present or absent, when present very narrow and fringedwith
hairs which increase the surface area, weak fliers and passiveflight in
wind is common
Legs : Ambulatorial, Tarsus is with one or two segments, At the apex ofeach
tarsus a protrusible vesicle is present.
Abdomen : 11 segmented, pointed. An appendicular ovipositor may be presentor
absent
Cerci : absent
Metamophosis : Paurometabola/gradual, Nymphal stage is followed by prepupaland pupal
stages which are analogous to the pupae ofendopterygote insects.
Sub-orders : Terebrantia (Important family is Thripidae) and tubulifera(ovipositor
absent, tubular abdomen, Wing venation is absent)
EconomicImportance : Most of the thrips species belong to the family Thripidae and
arephytophagous. They suck the plant sap. Some are vectors of
plantdiseases. Few are predators.
Examples : Rice thrips, Stenchaetothripsbiformisand Onion thrips, Thripstabaci
Practical -11To study of characters of order Hemiptera and its families
Order –Hemiptera
(Hemi - half; ptera – wings)
Synonyms : Rhynchota
Common names : True bugs
Characters

Body : Minute to large sized

Head : Opisthognathous
Mouthparts : Piercing and sucking type, 2 pairs of bristle like stylets which are the
modified mandibles and maxilla are present. Stylets rest in thegrooved
labium or rostrum
Antenna : Mostly with 4 or 5 segments
Thorax : Mesothorax is represented dorsally by scutellum.
Wings : Forewings are mostly hemelytra basally coriaceous and
distallymembranous
Cerci : Always absent
Metamorphosis : Usually gradual, rarely complete
Alimentary canal Modified into filter chamber to regulate liquid food
Sub-orders : Heteroptera (Hetero -different; ptera - wing) andHomoptera (Homo -
uniform; ptera - wing )
Characters Heteroptera Homoptera
Forewings heavily sclerotized at the base, hemelytraUniformly textured
Wings at rest Held flat over the abdomen held roof like over the back
Head porrect or horizontal deflexed
Bases of forelegs do not touch the headtouch the head
Habitat Both terrestrial and aquatic Only terrestrial (Herbivorous)
(Herbivorous, predaceous or bloodsucking)
Glands Odoriferous or scent glandsWax glands usually present
present
Honeydew secretion uncommon Common
Scutellum well developed Not well developed
(Triangular plate found
Betweenthe wing bases)
Antenna Relatively long Short
Ocelli Dorsal ocelli 0 or 2 2 or 3
Families of Hetroptera sub-order
Family: Coreidae (Squash bugs / Leaf footed bugs)
Members with many branching veins arising from a transverse basal vein. Stink glandsare found
inside the metathorax and glands opening are found on the sidesof the thoraxbetween middle and
hind coxae. They emits disagreeable / foul pungent odour. Hind tibiaand tarsi are expanded and
leaf like. Nymphs and adult suck the sap from the panicles orpods of pulses.
e.g. Rice gundhi bug- Leptocorisaacuta, Pod bug- Riptortuspedestris
Family: Pyrrhocoridae (Red bug or Stainer)
They are elongate oval bugs. They show warning colouration. They are brightly markedwith red
and black. Feeding injury caused by these bugs leads to the contamination by thefungus
Nematospora resulting in yellowish brown discolouration of the lint.
e.g. Red cotton bug- Dysdercuscingulatus
Family: Reduviidae (Assassin bugs or Kissing bugs)
Predaceous insects, Head is narrow elongated and beak like. The portion behind thecompound
eyes is narrow and resembles a beak. The rostrum is short and three segmentedantenna is
filiform. Abdomen is broad in the middle. The lateral margins of the abdomen areexposed
beyond the margin of the wings. e.g. Rhynocorismarginatus- predators on bees andother pests.
Families of Homoptera sub-order
Family: Jassidae or Cicadellidae (Leaf hoppers and Jassids)
Insects have wedge shaped body with attractive colour. Hind tibiae have a double rowof spines.
Ovipositor is modified for lacerating plant tissue. Nymphs and adults have thehabits of running
sidewise. They suck the plant sap and also transmit the viral disease.e.g. Green leaf hopper-
Nephotettixvirescencetransmits the Rice tungro virus disease.
Family: Delphacidae (Plant hoppers)
Large mobile flattened spur is present at the apex of hind tibia. It causes hopper burn,transmits
viral disease in rice. e.g. Brown plant hopper- Nilaparvatalugens
Family: Lophopidae (Aeroplane bugs)
Head is produced into snout. Hind trochanter is directed backward. Hind basitarsus ismoderately
long. Both nymph and adult suck the sap and reduce the quality and quantity ofcane juice. e.g.
Sugarcane leaf hopper- Pyrillapurpusilla
Family: Aleyrodidae (Whiteflies)
Minute insects, which superficially resemble like tiny moths. Wings are opaque anddusted with
mealy white powder wax. Wing venation is much reduced. Vasiform orifice ispresent in the last
abdominal tergite. It is conspicuous opening provided with an operculum.Beneath the operculum
there is a tongue- like organ termed ligula. The anus opens at thebase of the ligula through which
the honey dew is excreted in large amount. Immatureinstars are sessile, scale like, with wax
covering. Metamorphosis approaches theholometabolous type due to the presence of a quiescent
stage prior to the emergence ofadults. It transmits vein clearing/mosaic disease in Bhendi (Okra).
e.g. Cotton whitefly-Bemisiatabaci
Family: Aphididae (Aphids or Plant Lice)
Body is pear shaped. Both apterous and alate forms are found. A pair of cornicles orsiphonculi or
wax tube or honey tube is present in the dorsum of 5th or 6th abdominalsegments which secretes
wax like substance. The chief constituents are being Myristic acid,sugars and water. They
excrete copious amount of honey dew on which ants feed and sootymould fungus grows. Aphids
are known for their extraordinary fecundity, short life cycleand parthenogenitic reproduction.
Life cycle is highly complex and it involves alteration ofgeneration. They feed on plant sap and
disseminate plant diseases. e.g. Cotton aphid –Aphisgossypii

Family: Kerridae or Lacciferidae (Lac Insect)

Females are highly degenerate without legs, wings and antennae. The body is irregularglobular.
Body is enclosed in a thick resinous cell. Dermal glands secretion of this insectprovides the stick
lac. e.g. Lac insect – Lacciferlacca
Family: Pseudococcidae (Mealy bug)
Body is elongate, oval in shape. Body segmentation is distinct. Body is covered by longradiating
thread of mealy secretion. Functional legs are present in all instars. Wings areabsent. Nymph and
adults suck the sap and affect the growth of spindle leaf. e.g. Coconutmealy bug-
Pseudococcuslongispinus.
Family: Cicadidae (Cicadas)
Males have sound producing organs at the base of the abdomen. Sound producingorgans consists
of a pair of large plates, the opercula covering the cavity containingstructures producing sound.
In the anterior part of the cavity beneath each operculum is ayellowish membrane. A shining
mirror is located in the posterior part of the cavity. In thelateral wall of the cavity is an oval
shaped ribbed structure, the tymbal. These are vibratedby strong muscles to produce sound. Each
species has a characteristics song. Tympanum ispresent in both the sexes. Wings are transparent.
Eggs are inserted into the tree twigs by thefemale. Nymphs drop to the ground, enter the soil and
feed on root sap. Anterior femurs ofthe nymph are thickened with spines beneath and are suited
for digging the soil. Life cycleof periodical cicada lasts for 13- 17 years.
 Practical- 12To study of characters of order Lepidoptera and its families
Order: Lepidoptera
(Lepido- scale; ptera- wings)
Synonyms : Glossata
Commonnames : Butterflies, moths and skippers
Characters

Body : Body, wings and appendages are densely clothed with overlappingscales,
which give colour, rigidity and strength. They insulate the bodyand
smoothen air flow over the body.
Mouthparts : Mouthparts in adults are of siphoning type. Mandibles are absent.
Thegaleae of maxillae are greatly elongated and are held together
byinterlocking hooks and spines. The suctorial proboscis is coiled up likea
watch spring and kept beneath the head when not in use.
Wings : Wings are membranous and are covered with overlapping
pigmentedscales. Forewings are larger than hind wings. Wings are
coupled byeither frenate or amplexiform type of wing coupling.
Larvae : Larvae are polypod-eruciform type. Mouthparts are adapted forchewing
with strong mandibles.There are three pairs of five segmented thoracic
legs ending in claws.Two to five pairs of fleshy unsegmented prolegs are
found in theabdomen. At the bottom of the proleg, crochets are present.
Pupae : Pupa is generally obtect. It is either naked or enclosed in a cocoonmade
out of soil, frass, silk or larval hairs.
Sub-orders : Ditrysia and Monotrysia
Most of the lepidoptern insects (97 %) are grouped under the suborder Ditrysia in which
thefemale insects have two pores i.e., the copulatory pore is located in the 8th
abdominalsternite and the egg pore in the 9th abdominal sternite. Remaining insects are grouped
underthe suborder Monotrysia in which the female insects have one pore.
Butterfly Family
1. Papilionidae (Swallotail Butterfly)
They are often large and brightly coloured (Fig. on cover page). Prothoracic legs havetibial
epiphysis. In many species hind wings has tail like prolongation. Amplexiform type ofwing
coupling is present. Larval body is either smooth or with tubercles. RetractileOsmeteria are
present on the prothoracic tergum of the caterpillar. e.g. Citrus butterfly,Papiliodemoleus
2. Pieridae (Whites and sulphurs)
They are white or yellow or orange coloured with black markings. Larva is green,elongate and
covered with fine hairs. Larval body segments have annulets. e.g. Cabbagewhite butterfly,
Pierisbrassicae
Moth Family
1. Arctidae (Tiger moth)
Wings are conspicuously spotted or banded. They are nocturnal and attracted to light.Larva is
either sparsely hairy or densely hairy (wooly bear). e.g. Spotted boll worm, Eariasvitella,
Sunhemp caterpillar, Utetheisapulchella
2. Bombycidae (Silk worm moths)
Antenna is bipectinate. Larva is either with tuft of hairs or glabrous with medio dorsalhorn on
8th abdominal segment. Pupation occurs in dense silken cocoon. e.g. Mulberry silkworm,
Bombyxmori
3. Gelichidae (Paddy moths)
Forewings trapezoidal and narrower than hind wing. Caterpillars bore into the seedstubers and
leaves. e.g. Cotton pink boll worm, Pectinophora gossypiella, Angumous grainmoth,
Sitotrogacerealella, Potato tuber moth, Pthoremeaoperculella
4. Noctuidae (Noctua moths)
They are medium sized, stoutly built moths. They are nocturnal and attracted to lights.Labial
palpi is well developed. All crochets on the larval prolegs are of same size andarranged in semi
circle. Some larvae are semiloopers. They have either 3 or 4 pairs ofprolegs. Larvae attack the
plants during night. Larvae of some species remain concealedbeneath the surface of the ground
or litter during day and feed on plants during night. Theyoften cut small seedlings close to the
ground and hence they are called cut worms. e.g.Tobacco cut worm, Spodopteralitura
5. Pyraustidae/ Pyralidae
Proboscis is vestigial in many species. Labial palp is snout like. Larval habit varies. Itmay live
among aquatic plants and bore into the stem or remain in silken web among spunup plants parts.
Some larvae are aquatic and gill breathing. e.g. Rice stem borer, Scirpophagaincertullus
6. Saturniidae (Moon moth, giant silk worm moth)
They are large sized moths. Antenna is bipectinate. Transparent eye spots are presentnear the
centre of each wing. The spots are either circular or crescent shaped. Larva is stoutand smooth
with scoli. Cocoon is dense and firm.e.g. Tusor silk worm, Anthereapaphia,which yields silk.
 Practical- 13To study the characters of order Coleoptera and its families
Order: Coleoptera
(Coleo-Sheath; petra- wing)
Synonyms : Elytroptera
Common names : Beetles, Weevils
Characters

Body : Minute to large sized insects

Antenna : 11 segmented
Mouthparts : Chewing and biting type, Mandibles are short with blunt teeth
atthe mesal face in phytophagous group, In predators the
mandiblesare long, sharply pointed with blade like inner ridge. In
pollenfeeders teeth are absent and the mandibles are covered with
stiffhairs.
Thorax : Prothorax is large, distinct and mobile. Mesothorax and
metathoraxare fused with the first abdominal segment. Forewings
are heavilysclerotized, veinless, hardened and called elytra.
Wings : Forewings are heavily sclerotised, veinless and hardened. They
arecalled elytra. Forewings do not overlap and meet mid-dorsally
toform a mid-dorsal line. It is not used for flight. They serve as a
pairof convex shields to cover the hind wings and delicate tergites
ofabdomen. Hind wings are membranous with few veins and
areuseful in flight. At rest they are folded transversely and
keptbeneath the elytra. In some weevils and ground beetles
theforewings are fused and hind wings are atrophied.
Abdomen : Cerci and a distinct ovipositor are absent.
Development : Metamorphosis is complete. Larvae are often called grubs. Pupae
are usually exarate and rarely found in cocoons.
Importance : It is the largest order. It includes predators, scavengers and many
crop pests. They also damage stored products.
Sub-orders : Adephaga (predators/ devourers) and Polyphaga (eaters of
manythings).
Families of predators :Cicindelidae (Tiger beetle), Carabidae (Ground beetle),
Dytiscidae(True water beetle), Gyrinidae (whirligig beetle),
Coccinellidae (Lady bird beetle),Lampyridae (Firefly, glow worm)
Families of scavengers :Scarabaeidae (Scarabs, dung beetle), Hydrophilidae
(waterscavenger beetle)
Families of stored product pests:
Anobiidae (Wood worm/ wood borer) e.g. Cigrette beetle- Lasiodermaserricorne
Bostrychidae (Grain borer) e.g. Lesser grain borer -Rhizoperthadominica
Families of crop pests:
1. Apionidae e.g. Sweet potato weevil, Cylasformicarius, a pest both in the field and in
storage.Head is produced into snout. Antennae are not elbowed. Grubs are apodous.
2. Cerambycidae (Longicorn beetles/ Longhorn beetles)
e.g. Mango stem borer, Batocerarufomaculata
3. Curculionidae (Weevils/ snout beetles)
Minute to large sized insects. Frons and vertex of the head produced into snout, which
iscylindrical and in some species larger than the beetle itself. Mouthparts (mandible andmaxilla)
are present at the tip of the snout, It is useful to feed on internal tissues of the plantand provide a
place for egg laying. Antenna is geniculate and usually found in the middle ofthe snout. Grubs
are apodous and acephalous. Weevils are important crop pests during bothin field and in storage.
e.g. Coconut red palm weevil, Rhynchophorusferrugineus
4. Galerucidae / Chrysomelidae (Pumpkin beetle)
Antenna are closely approximated. Third tarsomere is deeply bilobed. Larvae are rootfeeders.
Adults bite holes on plants.Red pumpkin beetles, Raphidopalpafoevicollis
5. Melolonthidae (Chaffer beetle, June beetle, White grub)
They are stout beetles with glossy surface. Head is small. Labrum is well sclerotized.Adults are
attracted to lights. They feed on tree foliage during night and hide in soil duringday time. Larvae
are scarabaeiform and root feeders. e.g. Groundnut white grub, Holotrichiaconsanguinea, a
serious pest under rainfed conditions.
Families of Predators:
1. Coccinellidae (Lady bird beetle)
They are hemispherical insects. The body is convex above and flat below. The bodyappearance
resembles like a split pea, head is small, turned down ward and received into aprominent notch
of prothorax. Elytra is strongly convex, brightly coloured and variouslyspotted. Grubs are
campodeiform and spiny. The last larval skin either covers the pupa andgets attached to its anal
end. Except the genus Epilachna others are predators on aphids,scales, mites and whiteflies. e.g.
Coccinellaseptupunctata, Coccinellavigintioctopunctata
Practical- 14To study the characters of order Hymenoptera and Diptera and their families

Order: Hymenoptera

(Hymen- membrane; ptera- wings), (Marriage on wings)

Common names : Sawflies, ants, bees, and wasps
Characters

Mouthparts : Primarily adapted for chewing, Mandibles are very well

developed.In bees both labium and maxillae are integrated to form
the lappingtongue.
Thorax : Modified for efficient flight. Pronotum is collar like. Mesothorax
isenlarged. Metathorax is small. Both prothorax and metathorax
arefused with mesothorax.
Wings :Stiff and membranous. Forewings are larger than hindwings.
Wingvenation is reduced. Both forwings and hindwings are
coupled by arow of hooklets (hamuli) present on the leading edge
of thehindwing.
Abdomen :Basally constricted, The first abdominal segment is
calledpropodeum. It is fused with metathorax. The first pair of
abdominalspiracles is located in the propodeum. The second
segment is knownas pedicel which connects the thorax and
abdomen. Abdomenbeyond the pedicel is called gaster or
metasoma.
Ovipositor :Always present in females. It is variously modified for oviposition
orstinging or sawing or piercing plant tissue.
Metamorphosis : Complete
Larva :Often the grub is apodous and eucephalous. Larva is rarely
eruciform.
Pupa : Exarate and frequently enclosed in a silken cocoon secreted from
labial glands
Sex determination : Fertilized eggs develop into females and males are produced from
unfertilized eggs.
Importance : Productive and beneficial insects
Sub-orders : Symphyta and Apocrita
Suborder Symphyta- Abdomen is broadly joined with thorax, stemmata present, ovipositoris
saw like and suited for piercing plant tissues, habits are phytophagous ,e.g. sawflies andhorntails
Family: Tenthrinidae (Saw flies)
They are wasp like insects. Abdomen is broadly joined to the thorax. Ovipositor is sawtoothed
and suited for slicing the plant tissue. Larva is eruciform. It resembles a lepidopterncaterpillar. It
has 1 pair od ocelli, papillae (reduced antanna), 3 pairs of thoracic legs and6-8pairs of abdominal
legs.Prolegs lack chrochets. They are external feeder on the foliage.Larvae while feeding usually
have posterior part of the body coiled over the edge of the leaf.(Mustard Sawfly, Athlia lugens
proxima is a defoliator of mustard and cruciferous vegetables.
Suborder Apocrita– Abdomen is petiolated, Stemmata are absent, Legs are absent,ovipositor is
not saw like and Suited for piercing or stinging,they are generally parasitic.
Family:Apidae (Honey bee)
Body is covered with branching or plumose hairs. Mouth parts are chewing andlapping type.
Mandibles are suited for crushing and shaping wax for building combs. Legsare specialized for
pollen collection. Scopa (pollen basket) is present on hind tibia. They aresocial insects with 3
castes viz. Queen, drone and workers.Division oflabour is noticedamong honey bees. Indian
honey bee, Apisindica
Formicidae (Ants)
They are common widespread insects. Antennae are geniculate. Mandibles are welldeveloped.
Wings are present only in sexually mature forms.Petiole may have 1 or 2 spines.They are social
insects with 3 castes viz. Queen, males and workers. Workers are the sterilefemales and they
form the bulk of the colony. Exchange of food materials between adultsand immature insects is
common. After a mating flight queen alone finds a suitable nestingsite.Many species have
associated symbiotic relationship with homopteran insects.
Braconidae (Braconid wasp)
They are small, stout bodied insects. Fore wing has one recurrent vein. Petiole is neithercurved
nor expanded at the apex. Gaster is sessile or subsessile. Abdomen is as long as headand thorax
together. They parasitize lepidoptern larvae commonly. They are gregariousparasites. In many
species, Polyembryony is observed. Bracon brevicornis is mass multipliedand released for the
control of black headed coconut caterpillar.
 Order- Diptera
(Di-two;ptera-wings)
Common names : True flies,Mosquitoes,midges,gnats
Characters

Body : Small to medium sized, soft bodied insects

Antenna : Often hemispherical and attached to the thorax by a slender neck
Mouthparts : Sucking type
Thorax :Fused together. The thoracic mass is largely made up
ofmesothorax.
Wings : Single pair of wings. Forewings are larger, membranous and
usedfor flight. Hind wings are highly reduced, knobbed at the end
andare called halteres
Metamorphosis : Complete
Larvae : Larvae of more common forms are known as maggots. They
areapodous and acephalous.
Pupa : Pupa is generally with free appendages, often enclosed in
thehardened last larval skin called puparium. Pupa belongs to
thecoarctate type.
Sub-orders : Nematocera (Thread-horn), Brachycera (Short-horn) andCyclorrhapha
(Circular-crack)
Families of agricultural Importance:
Syrphidae (Horse flies, Flower flies)
They are brightly coloured and brilliantly stripped. A vein like thickening is present inbetween
the radius and median in the forewing. Abdomen has distinct black and yellowmarkings.
Maggots prey on soft bodied insects especially aphids. Adults are excellent fliers.They hover
over flowers. They feed on pollen and nectar. They aid in pollination.
Tephritidae (Fruit flies)
Sub costa bends apically and fades out. Wings are spotted or banded. Female has asharp and
projecting ovipositor. Maggots can hop. They are highly destructive to fruits andvegetables.
Cucurbit fruit fly, Dacuscucurbitae.
Tachinidae (Tachinid flies)
Arista is completely bare. Abdomen is stout with severalnoticeable bristles.They arenon specific
endoparasite on the larvae and pupae of Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidopteraand Coleoptera.
 Practical- 15To study the Insecticides and their formulations.

Insecticide formulations

After an insecticide is manufactured in a relatively pure form (technical grade), it mustbe

formulated before it can be applied. Formulation is the processing of the technical gradeby
various methods which is done to make the product safer, more effective and moreconvenient to
use. Formulation is the final physical condition in which the insecticide is soldcommercially. In a
formulation, there are one or more chemicals (formulants) which are theactive ingredients (a.i.)
and other ingredients which have no pesticide action (inertingredients). There are mainly three
types of pesticide formulations (liquid, solid and gas).
A single pesticide may be sold in more than one formulation. Formulation type depends on
several factors:
 toxicology of the active ingredient,
 chemistry of the active ingredient,
 how effective the product is against the pest,
 the effect of the product on the environment (plant, animal or surface etc.),
 how the product will be applied and the equipment needed the application rate.
Characteristics of an Appropriate Insecticides Formulation
 Highly toxic to target insects.
 Not repellent or irritant to target insects
 Long-lasting
 Safe to humans and domestic animals
 Stable during storage and transportation
 Cost-effective
TYPE OF FORMULATIONS
Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC)
 It consists of a technical grade material, organic solvent and a emulsifier.
 Emulsifier makes the water insoluble toxicant to water soluble
 When an emulsifiable concentrate is added to water and agitated (i.e., stirredvigorously),
the emulsifier causes the oil to disperse uniformly throughout the carrier(i.e., water)
producing an opaque liquid (oil in Water suspension).
 A few formulations are Water in oil suspension. These are opaque and thick, employedas
herbicide formulations, because they result in little drift.
 These are easy to transport and store, and require little agitation in the tank.
However,care must be exercised in handling the toxic concentrates.
 Shelf life approximately 3 years
 More than 75% of all insecticides formulations are applied as sprays.
 Examples : Quinalphos 25EC, Dimethoate 30EC, Chlorpyriphos 20EC.
Dusts (D)
  Simplest of all formulations and the easiest to apply.
 The technical material (active ingredient) is mixed with an inert diluents carrier such
asclay, organic flour, pulverised minerals.
 In a formulated dust, the following two types of mixtures are usually found :
Undiluted toxic agent, e.g., sulfur dust used for control of mites and powdery
mildew andToxic a.i. plus an inert diluent. This is the most common dust
formulation sold as 2%,5%, or 10% a.i dust.
 Concentration of dust formulation ranged between 0.1% to 25%
 Particle size of dust particles 1-40 μ pass through 325 mesh sieve.
 Least effective and cause wind drift leading to poor deposit on surface. It has
beencalculated that not more than 10-15% of the applied material is retained on the
surface.
 Highly toxic to beneficial insects.
 Example : Carbryl 5 D, Malathion 5D.
Granules (G)
 The chemical is in the form of small granules of inert material, either as a coating on
thesurface of the inert granules, or as an impregnated toxicant in the granules.
 Consist of small pellets of the active ingredients sprayed on to clay and allowingsolvents
to evaporate
 Size: 0.25 – 0.38 mm (20-80 mesh or 30-60 mesh i.e (i.e., the number of grits
(granules)per inch of the sieve through which they have to pass).)
 The amount of active ingredient varies from 2-10 per cent.
 Used mainly as systemic insecticides and can be applied on to the soil, or may be
placedin the whorl of leaves depending on the nature of pest control required.
 Granular insecticides may be more economic since precise applications are possiblewith
them.
 Much safer to apply than dusts and are generally less harmful to beneficial insects suchas
bees.
 Example : Carbofuran 3G, Phorate 10G, Cratap 4G.
Wettable Powders (WP)
 Concentrated dusts containing a inert diluents (50-75% talc or clay) and a wetting agentto
facilitate mixing the powder with water before spraying.
 Much more concentrated than dusts, containing 15 to 95 per cent active ingredient.
 Do not dissolve washers and rubber hoses;do not damage materials sensitive to
organicsolvents
 Leave effective residues in cracks and crevices and are not phytotoxic.
 Require frequent agitation and cause corrosion of valves, nozzles and pumps andsprayers
 Should never be used without dilution.
  These are easy to carry, store, measure, and mix. However, care must be taken toprotect
against inhalation during handling.
 Example: Carbaryl 50WP, Sulfur 80WP, Bacillus thurnigiensis var. kurstaki 5WP.
Soluble Powders (SP or WSP)
 Contain a finely ground water soluble solid which dissolves readily upon the additionof
water forming true solution.
 Do not require constant agitation and forms no precipitate.
 The amount of active ingredient in soluble powder ranges from 15-95% by weight; it
isusually not more than 50%.
 Soluble powder have all the advantages of wettable powders except the inhalationhazard
during mixing.
 Example: Cartap hydrochloride 50SP, Acephate 75SP.
Water Dispersible Granules (WDG)
 Water dispersible granules, or dry flowables is a relatively new type of formulation
andbeing developed as safer and more commercially attractive alternatives to
wettablepowders and suspension concentrates formulations.
 They are becoming more popular because of convenience in packaging and use,
nondusty,free-flowing granules which should disperse quickly when added to water in
thespray tank.
 They therefore represent a technological improvement over wettable powders.
Thedispersion time in water is a very important property and to ensure that no
problemsshould occur during mixing in the spray tank.
 It is necessary for all the granules to disperse completely within two minutes in
varyingdegrees of water temperature and hardness.
 Example: Endosulfan 50 WG, Cypermethrin 40 WG, Thiamethaxam 25
WG,Deltamethrin 25 WG.
Suspension Concentrates (SC)
 Pesticide particles maybe suspended in an oil phase, but it is much more usual
forsuspension concentrates to be dispersed in water.
 A stable suspension of solid pesticide(s) in a fluid usually intended for dilution withwater
before use. Ideally, the suspension should be stable (i.e. not settle out).
 The active ingredient range between 0.1-60%.
 A.I. must be water insoluble with friable crystals, Easy to tankmix (very compatible) -
A.I. tends to settle out over time.
 Farmers generally prefer suspension concentrates to wettable powders because they
arenon-dusty and easy to measure and pour into the spray tank.
 Example: Fipronil 5 SC, Sulphur 52 SC.
Microencapsulation/Capsule Suspensions (CS)
  The polymer membrane, or microencapsulation technique, has become popular inrecent
years.
 These are particles of pesticide, either solid or liquid encapsulated by polymericcoatings.
Microcapsule solids are suspended in water as a concentrate and dilutedproduct (1:100 to
1:1000) is applied in spray solution to soil or foliar canopy.
 The rate of release of the active ingredient can be controlled by adjusting
themicrocapsule/droplet size, the thickness of the polymer membrane and the degree
ofcross-linking or porosity of the polymer.
 Example: Lambda Cyhalothrin 10 CS, Lambda Cyhalothrin 25 CS etc
O/W Emulsions (EW)
 Oil-in-water emulsions are now receiving considerable attention reduced or
eliminatedvolatile organic compounds (VOCs) for safer handling.
 They are water based, oil-in-water emulsions can have significant advantages
overemulsifiable concentrates in terms of cost and safety in manufacture, transportation
anduse.
 The active ingredient must have very low water solubility to avoid crystallizationissues.
 Example: Butachlor 50 EW, Cyfluthrin 5 EW, Tricontanol 0.1 EW etc
Flowable Suspension (FS)
 Flowable suspensions are concentrated 40% to 70% w/w suspensions of
micronizedinsoluble active pesticide in water.
 FSs must be formulated for low viscosity and good fluidity, so that transfer to the
spraytank is easy and complete. This requires an effective wetting agent and an
efficientdispersing agent to ensure adequate dispersion of the pesticide in the water. Since
theactive ingredients in FSs are insoluble, good suspension stability is essential.
 If the suspension settles and leaves sediment at the bottom of the container,
theapplication of the pesticide may be too weak to be effective.
 A combination of smectite clay (bentonite) and xanthan gum works synergistically
toprovide excellent long term suspension stability at low viscosity and at low cost.
 Example: Thiram 40 FS, Thiamethoxam 30 FS, Tebuconazole 5.36 FS
Microemulsions (ME)
 Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable transparent dispersions of twoimmiscible
liquids and are stable over a wide temperature range.
 Involves the incorporation of the insecticide in a permeable covering, microcapsules
orsmall spheres with diameter ranging from 1-50 μ.
 The total concentration of surfactants for a microemulsion can be as high as 10–30%
ormore, compared with about 5% for a typical o/w emulsion.
 The insecticides escape through the small sphere wall at a slow rate over an
extendedperiod of time.
  Microemulsions have relatively low active ingredient concentrations, but the
highsurfactant content and solubilisation of the active ingredient may give rise to
enhancedbiological activity.
 Example: Neemazal 30 MEC, Pyrithiobac Na 5.4 + Quizalofop-P-Ethyl 10.6 ME.
Oil Dispersion Formulations
 One of the latest formulation types is oil dispersions (ODs). This technology allows
veryefficient and environmentally friendly agrochemical formulations.
 In ODs the solid active ingredient is dispersed in the oil phase, making it
especiallysuitable for water-sensitive or non-soluble active ingredients.
 The oil-phase can comprise different oils such as mineral oils, vegetable oils or esters
ofvegetable oils.
 Special attention is needed with the auxiliaries in ODs: suitable oil-compatibledispersing
agents and emulsifiers adjusted to the type of oil which forms a stableemulsion after
dilution with water.
ZW Formulation of CS & EW
 A mixed formulation of CS and EW is a stable suspension of microcapsules of the
activeingredient and fine droplets of active ingredient(s) in fluid, normally intended
fordilution with water before use.
 In the case of microcapsules, the active ingredient is present inside discrete,
inert,polymeric microcapsules.
 The formulation is intended for dilution into water prior to spray application. Mixturesof
active ingredients one of which is encapsulated are used to provide a broaderspectrum of
pest control.
 Formulating the active ingredients together eliminates the need for tank mixing
(whichcan lead to incompatibilities).
 Example: Lambda Cyhalothrin-25.0 CS + Chloropyriphos-10.0 EW
Flowable Powder (FP)
 The technical material is wet milled with a clay diluent and water with a
suspendingagent, a thickener and anti freeze compound forming a thick creamy pudding
likemixture which mixes well with water.
 Needs constant agitation to prevent the insecticide from coming out of suspension
andsettling.
Oil solutions
 Formulated by dissolving the insecticides in an organic solvents for direct use in
insectcontrol
 Rarely used on crops as they cause severe burning of foliage.
 Effective on livestock, as weeds sprays along roadsides, in standing pools formosquito‘s
larvae control, and in fogging machines for adult mosquito control.
Aerosols
 Most common of all formulations for home use
  Consists of toxicant (2%), solvent (10%), knockdown agent (2%) and propellant (86%).
 The active ingredients soluble in volatile petroleum oil is kept under pressure providedby
propellant gas
 When solvent is atomized, it evaporates quickly leaving behind small droplets of
theinsecticides suspended in air
 The toxicant is suspended as minute particle (0.1 - 50 w/w) in air as a fog or mist.
 Used for the knockdown and control of flying insects and cockroaches, but they
provideno residual effect.
 Caution must be taken when used as they produce droplets well below 10 μ,
readilyabsorbed by alveolar tissues in the lungs.
Ultra low volume concentrates (ULV)
 Technical ingredient is dissolved in minimum amount of solvent 0.6 litre to 5.0 litre/hain
very small droplets of 1-15μ.
 Small droplets can better penetrate thick vegetation and other barriers
 Used for insect control in large areas where high volume of water constitutes a
technicaldifficulty.
Fumigants
 Gases or low volatile liquids of low molecular weight which readily penetrate thematerial
to be protected
 Used for the control of insects in stored products, for soil sterilization.
 Most of the fumigants are liquid and are mixtures of two or more gases.
Fogging concentrates
 Used in control of adult flies and mosquitoes for public health.
 Fogging machines generate droplets of 1-10μ.
Smoke generators
 They are used in the form of coil like strips containing pyrethrum, oxidant and wooddust
for the control of mosquitoes. When ignited, these coils release vapours.
Impregnating materials
 Used in the treatment of woollens for moth proofing and timbers against wooddestroying
organisms.
Poison bait
 Contains low level of toxicant incorporated in to material such as food stuffs,
sugars,molasses etc. that are attractive to target pest.
LABEL INFORMATION
Every pesticide container has a label affixed on it with a leaflet. The label givesinformation of
the pesticide in the container. The leaflet contains information on directionsto use warnings,
disposal and storage. Both the lable and leaflet are statutorily requiredunder the Insecticide Act,
1968. The following information must be furnished on the label.
 Name of the pesticide (Brand name, Trade name, Common name), Name of
themanufacturer and address, Registration number, Kind and name of active
ingredientand their percentage, Types of formulation, Net content by weight, Batch
number(assigned by manufacturer), Date of manufacture, Expiry date, Antidote statement
 Warming symbols and signal (warming symbol is of diamond shaped consisting of
twotriangles with a colour in the lower triangle and a signal in the upper triangle).
 Practical -16To study the Pesticide appliances and their maintenance
Plant Protection Equipments
SPRAYERS
Sprayer is a machine used to apply liquid chemicals on plants to control pest anddiseases. It can
also be used to apply herbicides to control weeds and to spray micronutrientsto enhance plant
growth. The main functions of a sprayer are
 Breaking the chemical solution in to fine droplets of effective size.
 Distributing the droplets uniformly over the plants.
 Applying the chemicals with sufficient pressure for positive reaching the plants
 Regulating the amount of liquid applied on plants to avoid excessive application.
A variety of high volume sprayers are available in the market. Almost all types of highvolume
sprayers have some kind of pump to supply pressurised spray liquid to thehydraulic nozzle which
breaks the liquid into spray droplets and throws the spray awayfrom it. The high volume sprayers
are both manually operated or power operated type.
Principle: The function of sparyer is to atomize the spary fluid in to small droplets and ejectit
with some force.
Parts of sprayers: The important parts are tank, agitator, pressure gauge, valves, filters,pressure
chamber, hose, spray lance, cut off device, boom and nozzle.

Fig.1. Sprayer components

Nozzle body: It is the main component on which other component of a nozzle fit (Fig. 1a).
Swirl plate: It is the part of a cone nozzle which imparts rotation to the liquid passingthrough it
(Fig. 1b).
Spray gun: It is a lance from which spray is readily adjustable during the operation.
Spray boom: It is a spray lance with spray nozzles fitted to a head, mounted at right anglesto the
lance (Fig. 1d).
Filter: It is a component to remove suspended matter larger than a predetermined size fromfluid.
Over-flow pipe: It is a conduit through which excess fluid from a pump is by-passed by
theaction of a relief valve or pressure regulator.
Relief valve: It is an automatic device to control the pressure of fluid or gas within range
apredetermined value.
Pressure regulator: It is an automatic device to control the pressure of fluid or gas within
arange of settings.
Cut-off valve: It is a mechanism between the pump and the nozzle to control the flow ofliquid
from the sprayer. This is operated by hand.
Nozzle disc: It is component containing the final orifice of a nozzle usually acone nozzle.
Nozzle boss: It is a lug on spray boom or spray lance to which a nozzlebody or cap is screwed.
Nozzle tip: It is component containing the final orifice of a nozzle usually afan nozzle.
Spray lance: A hand-held pipe through which the liquid reaches the
nozzle mounted at the free end.
TYPES OF NOZZLE: The three common types of nozzle
a. Hollow cone nozzle: This liquid is fed into a whirl chamber through atangential entry or
through a fixed spiral passage to give a rotatingmotion. The liquid comes out in the form of a
harrow conical sheetwhich then breaks up into small drops. This is used for insecticide
andfungicide spraying.
b. Solid cone nozzle: This nozzle covers the entire area at small range.The construction is
similar to hollow cone nozzle with the addition ofan internal jet which strikes the rotating liquid
just within the orifice ofdischarge. The breaking of drop is mainly due to impact. This is usedfor
herbicide spraying.
c. Fan nozzle: It is a nozzle which forms narrow elliptical spray pattern. In this type theliquid is
forced to come out as a flat fan shaped sheet which is then broken intodroplets. This nozzle is
mostly used for low pressure spraying.

a. Hollow cone nozzle b. Solid cone nozzle c. Fan nozzle

TYPES OF SPRAYERS:
A. Manually Operated Hydraulic Sprayers- In this type, the hydraulic pump directly actson
the spray fluids and discharge it.
a. Hand syringe
It is a single acting pump working on the principle of cycle pump. it consists of cylinderin to
which the spray fluid is drawn during the suction stroke and delivered during thepressure stroke
and discharge through nozzle. It is useful to operate only a small area.
b. Hand Sprayers
This is a simple sprayer. It creates hydraulic pressure by forcing spray solution to anozzle by the
direct action of hand pumping. The spray solution is filled in a plastic can (5-10 L) which is
usually shoulder slung. A dip-tube draws liquid from the tank due to handactuation of the
plunger. Held by both the hands the piston pump is worked by slidingaction. The capacity of this
sprayer is about 0.5 acre per day. It is useful for small scalespraying in nursery or kitchen
gardens and pot plants.
c. Bucket or Stirrup Pump Sprayer:
It consist either of a double acting pump with two cylinders or a single acting pumpwith one
cylinder. The other parts of the sprayer are the plunger assembly, foot valueassembly, hose, lance
and nozzle, a stirrup and an adjustable foot rest. The suction part ofthe pump is immersed in the
spray solution kept on floor in a bucket. The pump is operatedby hand by one person while the
other person holding the delivery line, trigger cut-offdevice and lance nozzle sprays pesticide.
This sprayer is used both for public healthspraying and agricultural spraying purposes. This type
of sprayer is useful for sprayingsmall trees. Area covered per day is 0.5 to 0.8 ha.
d. Knapsack Sprayer
The sprayer is mounded on the back of operator with help of a pair of mounting straps.The pump
of the sprayer is actuated by working a hand lever up and down by one hand ofthe operator and
the other hand holds the cut off device for spraying purpose. This sprayerconsists of liquid tank,
hydraulic pump, operating lever, pressure chamber, agitator,delivery hose, spray lance and
nozzle. A bean shaped plastic tank of 14-16 liters capacity iscommonly used. It is necessary to
operate the hand lever continuously at the rate of 15-20strokes per minute. The normal working
pressure is 40 psi. It is user for spraying field cropsvegetables and nurseries. The area covered
per day is 0.8 to 1 ha.
e. Rocker Sprayer
It is very much similar to thefoot sprayer.
The main differenceis the operation of
pump. Thepump actuation is done by hand
of the operator. The sprayer pumpmounted
on wooden platform iskept on ground and
the spraysolution is kept in a separate tank
or container. It can develop highpressure
10 kg/cm2. For sprayingtall trees, an
extension bamboolance can be fitted. The
adjustabletype hydraulic nozzle
(TripleAction Nozzle) is normally used. It
can be used for spraying trees and tall field
crops. Itcovers about 1.5 to 2 hectares of area
in
a day.
f. Foot Sprayer or Pedal Pump:
The pump of the sprayer isworked by
operating a pedal lever bythe foot of the
operator. The sprayliquid is kept in bucket or containerand it is sucked by a suction hosethrough
a filter (strainer) due to pistonmovement. A suitable ball valve isprovided in the piston assembly
toserve as suction valve. The liquid fromthe pump cylinder is then deliveredinto a pressure
chamber where fromthe pressurized liquid reacheshydraulic nozzle. Minimum two person team
is required to work on this machine.Hydraulic pressure of 10 kg/cm2 can be achieved which is
necessary to project the jet ofspray to tall trees simultaneously from two spray nozzles. The foot
operated sprayer isbasically for orchard and tree spraying. The design is strong and sturdy. An
adjustable typehydraulic nozzle (Tripple Action Nozzle) is generally used which can generate
differenttypes of spray patterns viz., fine spray (hollow cone), medium spray and coarse spray
(jet).
The fine and medium spray are suited for low height orchards, jet spray are necessary fortree
spraying. The spray jet can reach height of 15 - 20 feet. For spraying taller trees an
extraextension like bamboo lance may be used to gain additional height by 8 - 10 feet. It
isdifficult to treat field crops by foot sprayers because the sprayer is kept on ground andpesticide
solution tank is also kept on ground separately and so movement of the longdelivery hose
becomes very difficult. About 1 to 1.5 ha area can be sprayed in a day.
B. Manually Operated air compression Sprayers
These are also known as pneumatic sprayersbecause air pressure is employed for forcing
theliquid though the nozzle for atomization. Thecontainers of these sprayers should not be
filledcompletely with the spray fluid. A part of thecontainer is kept empty so that adequate air
pressurecan be developed over the spray fluid in the tank.They do not have agitators and hence
are not usefulspraying materials which settle down quickly.
a. Pneumatic Hand Sprayer
The container for the spray fluid also acts as thepressure chamber. An air pump attached to
thechamber inside. The inner end of the discharge pipe runs down to the bottom of thecontainer
and its outlet terminates in a nozzle is filled about 3/4th of it and the pump isworked force air
into the space to build sufficient pressure upon the spray fluid. Thesesprayers are used
extensively in kitchen gardens, in glasshouses and in doors againsthousehold insects. The
capacity of tank is up to one liter, if used in field it can cover an areaof 0.1 ha in a day.
b. Pneumatic Knapsack Sprayer
This is similar to compresssion hand sprayer but are used for spraying large quantitiesof liquids
(9-10 Litres). It comprises a tank for holding the spray as well as compressed air, avertical air
pump with a handle, filling hole with a strainer, spray lance with nozzle andrelease and shut-off
devices. The tank is provided a convenient rest with the back of theoperator and has shoulder
straps that allow it to be carried by him. These sprayers are usedagainst agricultural pests and
mosquito control operations. This pump covers an area ofabout 0.8 to 1.2 ha in a day.
C. Power Sprayer (Mist blowers cum Duster)
Here the spray fluid is blown out by an air produced in the machine. It consists ofchemical tank,
fuel tank, carburator, spark plug, engine, blower assembly, delivery system,nozzle system and
starter pulley. The power operated spraying system can be converted into a dusting unit by
changing certain components. The tank in these is made of a thickpolyethylene and has a
capacity of 10 liters. The fuel tank capacity is 1.0 to 1.5 liters. It isprovided with 1.2 to 3.0 hp
petrol engine. This can also be used for dusting providedsuitable accessories. The area covered
by these sprayers is about 2 ha in a day.

Mist blower Motorized Knapsack sprayer

D. Hand carried, battery operated spinning disc sprayer (Ultra Low Volume Sprayer)
The pesticides are applied assuch or with
less than 5 litres sprayfluid produces fine
droplets (80μm).These are light weight
sprayers(<3kg) have a rotary
atomizer(spinning disc) powered by
anenclosed DC motor with a plasticspray
head, a liquid reservoir, ahandle and a
power supply unit.
Liquid is gravity fed from
polyethenecontainer screwed in to the
sprayhead moulding and the liquid isflung
off by centrifugal force.
E. Electrodyn Sprayers (EDS)
It is new system of spraying for the controlled droplet application of chemicals (CDA).EDS puts
more of active chemical on the target than any other spraying system since thecharged particles
are attracted to target crop which ensure coverage on the underside ofleaves where many pests
feed and also there is minimal drift to non target areas. The EDSconsists of a spray stick and an
unique combination of bottle plus nozzle the bozzle. Thespray stick consists of the batteries and
a solid state high voltage generator. The bozzlecontains ready formulated chemical for
immediate application to crops. The pesticide inULV formulation is used undiluted at a quantity
less than 6 liters/ha and usually at 0.5 to2.0 liters/ha for field crops. The droplet size varies from
20-150 micron with ground sprayingequipment for ULV spray an area of 5 ha can be covered in
a day.
DUSTERS
The dusting powders are low concentration ready to use type, dry formulationscontaining 2 to
10% pesticide. The inert material or dry diluents is talc, soapstone,attapulgite, etc., and it is non
toxic. The sulphur dust is not diluted with inert material. Thedusts are applied at 20 - 50 kg/ha. It
should be noted that the application is done in highlyconcentrated form, as compared to high
volume or low volume spraying technique.Therefore, adequate precautions must be taken in
handling the dust and during theapplication in field. The dusters are available both manually
operated and power operatedmodels. All dusters consist essentially of a hopper which usually
contains an agitator, anadjustable orifice and delivery tubes. A rotary fan or a bellows provides
the conveying air.
A. Manually operated dusters
a. Plunger duster
They are very simple, low cost machines and useful in a limited way. It consists of adust
chamber, a cylinder with a piston or plunger, a rod and a handle. The field applicationcapacity is
low. They hold 200 to 400 g of dust in a chamber into which air is pushed by anadjoining piston
type air pump operated by hand. The dust cloud is issued from thedischarge outlet. It is useful for
small scale use in kitchen garden and in household.
b. Bellows duster
This is also a simple design low cost dusting machine. A collapsible bellows pushes airinto a
dust hopper of 1-2 kg capacity and dust is discharged from the nozzle outlet.
c. Rotary duster:
This type of duster makes use of a fan or blower to flow large volume of air at highspeed. The
dust powder is fed into the stream of air and blown from the outlet tube. The fanor blower rotates
at high speed by hand cranking handle, which is geared to it. The highergear-ratio and better
blower design provide easy cranking and good volume of air isemitted. The dust hoppers are
generally cylindrical and are provided with agitator, feedersand dust metering mechanism.Such
rotary dusters are either shoulder slung type or belley mounted type. Theshoulder-slung models
are better balanced when the dust hoppers are filled. But it becomesinconvenient to operate in
crops like sugarcane and cotton. The belley mounted type can beused in such situations. A hand
rotary duster can discharge dust powder from 0 – 150 g/minand displace air about one m3/min at
35 RPM. Such machine can treat 1 to 1.5 ha /day.
d. Power Duster
These are bigger machines run with the help of engine or electrical motor. Some powerdusters
are tractor mounted type and are driven by tractor P.T.O. The equipment ismounted on iron
frame (stretcher) and can be carried by 2-3 men. The engine/motor drives acentrifugal fan
usually via V-belt drive. The engine is petrol/ diesel run and 3 - 5 H.P. Thefan displaces 20 m3
air/min or more at 100-250 km/hr air velocity. These dusters are good forlarge area treatment and
suitable for application on tall trees. In this type of duster design,usually the dust powder is not
rotated in the fan-case but dust powder is aspirated in thedelivery channel by air blast. The dust
hopper capacity is 10- 20 kg and dust can bedischarged at a rate of 1 to 8 kg/min. A power duster
can cover about 10 ha/day.
e. KNAPSACK DUSTER
The motorised knapsack sprayer can be converted to a duster by replacing some plasticfittings
inside the hopper. Almost all mist blowers have provision of converting them fromspraying unit
to dusting unit. The two stroke petrol engine runs a blower fan and deliversthe air through a hose
pipe system. The dust is agitated and lifted by the blast of air in thehopper (2-5kg capacity) and it
is fed into the main air hose or a long dusting hose (40-50 ftlong polythene perforated hose) can
also be attached to knapsack duster. Such anattachment is very good for large area treatment in
less time. The dust output can beadjusted from 0 to 1.5 kg/min. The motorised knapsack sprayer-
cum-duster unit is thereforeuseful for both low volume spraying and dusting operation.
Soil Injector
It is also known as soil gun, which consists of a cylindrical tank for the liquid fumigant,a pump
barrel and plunger assembly, injector nozzle, thrust handle and injection handle.The hand
operated soil injectors have a capacity of 1 to 3 liters and they can cover about 0.5ha in a day.
They are used to apply liquid nematicides to kill soil nematodes.
Granule Applicators:
They are used to apply granular formulations of pesticides uniformly. These are two
types of granular applicators.
i. There is a plastic hopper 1 liter capacity from which the granules flow by gravity to anozzle.
ii. It is a knapsack type with hopper of 10 liters capacity.
Bird Scarer
It produce loud noise at regular interval and used to scare away the birds. It has threeessential
chambers, a chamber to hold calcium carbide, a smaller chamber placed inside theformer to hold
water and combustion chamber attached to the main chamber. Water actswith calcium carbide
and generates acetylene which explodes producing the noise. Thefrequency of flow of water into
calcium carbide chamber. One kg of calcium carbide issufficient for working a machine for 24
hours. One bird scarer is sufficient to cover 1 to 2 ha.
Rat Traps:
Several types of mechanical devices for trapping rats and mice are used in India. Inthese traps
baits like dry fish are used for attracting these rats. The cage type wooden boxwith a door closing
device and spring board types are the more common ones used in thehouses.
Practical- 17To study about the Sampling techniques for estimation of insect population
and damage
Sampling population estimates of insect pests are the fundamental activity in
ecologicalentomology. Regular monitoring can answer several important questions such as-
Whatkinds of pests are present? Are the pest numbers great enough to do damage and to
warrantcontrol? Are bio-agents or natural control present and working? When is the right time
tobegin control? and have management efforts successfully reduced the number of pests?
Pest monitoring is the pre-requisite for any successful pest management programwherein, no
control measure should be undertaken for a pest unless it is known that- thepest is actively
present and it is present in sufficient numbers to cause an economic loss.
How to count or measure a species/damage caused in plant, soil or other habitat ?
The sampling method should be: suitable for all key pests, rapid and simple to use,
easyintegration into current sampling program, sampling equipment readily available and easyto
carry and sampling procedure be simple to understand and conduct.
Sample unit: Single plant, clusters, plants/hill, plant/m2 etc.
Sampling Size: In preliminary studies: sample size will be small and 10% of the mean errorshall
be acceptable. Number of samples depends on degree of precision required and chosento
minimize the variance and cost..
Types of Sampling
Random sampling: The sample is taken at random with good field coverage to determineinsect
numbers or damage per samples unit. For this purpose, use of random numbers ismade.
Stratified random sampling: It involves the division of population in to different stratabased on
distribution of population.
Sequential sampling: It requires continuous sampling until a pre established upper or
lowerinfestation level is found.
Trap sampling: This refers to using light, suction, sticky or sex pheromone traps to detectthe
presence of insects in an area.
Systematic sampling: It involves sampling ofpopulation at fixed intervals.
Selection of Sampling Site
1. Random
2. Along one diagonal
3. Along two diagonals
4. Zig-zag diagonally
5. Along alphabet ‗W‘
6. In micro-plots of 1m2
7. Meter row length
Important Sampling Methods
Absolute methods: This method is used to estimate
density of insects per unit area.
Differenttypes of absolute sampling are denoted by n.
Unit of habitat method
 In situ or direct counts: e.g. Leafhoppers
 Knock down: removing insects form the habitats-drop sheet method e.g. Helicoverpa
spp.brushing, washing etc.
 Netting: for highly mobile insects
 Trapping: Use of different types of traps. Phermone traps, Light traps, suction traps etc.
 Extraction from soil: From a fixed volume of soil insects can be counted. e.g.
whitegrubs, cutworms, pupae of several lepidopterous larvae.
 Indirect techniques: By taking crop samples for example, dead hearts in case
ofsugarcane shoot borer, number of plants cut e.g cutworms, per cent defoliation
e.g.foliage feeders, root damage e.g. termites, root weevils; shoot damage e.g.
spottedbollworms, per cent fruiting bodies damaged e.g. bollworms of cotton, pod
borers,stubble infestation e.g. in sugarcane.
Absolute sampling method are desirable because they are accurate, however, these methodsare
time consuming, often difficult to conduct and are usually expensive compared torelative
methods. Relative methods are more economical in terms of time, labour andequipments.
Relative methods: This method provides an identification of insect pests abundance ordamage
relative to other times or location. Different types of relative methods are as
followsvisualsearches, use of various traps, plant damage etc.
Remote sensing: Acquiring information through the satellite about pest damage withoutcoming
into physical contact. It can be useful in monitoring of certain pests. A radar canmonitor height,
speed and direction of insects like locusts, aphids etc.
Components of Remote Sensing
1. Platform
 The vehicle/device on which sensors are mounted
 Carriers or vehicles for the sensors
2. Sensor System
 The device which senses the energy reflected/emitted by the target object
3. Data Products
 Information received from the sensor Packaged as per user requirement
OTHER METHODS
Beat bucket: Requires 20-25 litre capacity plastic bucket (white or light coloured); similar
toshake cloth/drop sheet method; top 25 cm of a single plant is bent into the bucket andshaken
vigorously (12-15 times during 4-5 seconds); plant is quickly removed andinsects/predators and
spiders are counted. It is more effective than shake cloth method;reduces variability due to field
scouts.
Vacuum sampling: Sucks into bags most everything from on and around a single plant orplant
part; impractical for regular use in sampling and the samples are too messy to process.Further
improvements could be made by better initial planning and involvement of thestatistician with
the biologists.
Sampling techniques for major insect pests on Paddy crops
Crop Pest Economic Method of sampling
threshold level
Paddy Green leafhopper
a) At earing stage 5-15 insects/hill Select 5 micro-plots of
1m2 each in a field and
shake vigorously plants
in 5 hills/plot or shake
vigorously 25 random
plants and count
leafhopper fallen on
water.
b) At flowering stage 10-15 insects/hill Same as above
Stem borer 5-10% plants with Count infested and
dead-hearts or 2% healthy tillers in 25
white ears or one random plants.
egg mass or
moth/m2.
Leaf-folder 2 damaged leaves/ Count infested and
plant or one healthy plants among 25
larva/hill random plants or count
Rice gundhi bug 1-2 insects/hill Count the insect on 25
random
Gram Gram pod borer One larva/meter row length Count larvae in one
meter row length from
10-20 random sites in a
field.
Okra Leafhopper 2-5 nymphs/leaf Count leafhopper
nymphs from underside
of three fully developed
leaves in the upper
canopy of each of 20
random plants or count
leaves showing
yellowing and curling
from margins and healthy
leaves of 20 random
plants in a field
Whitefly 6-8 adults/leaf Count whitefly adults as
above.
Spotted bollworm 10% drooping Count drooping shoots
shoots or 5-10% and healthy shoots of 25
infested fruiting random plants or
bodies examine all green fruiting
bodies of the above
 plants for spotted
bollworm induced holes
or damage.
Tomato Fruit borer One larva/m2 Count larvae in 1 m2
micro plot from
10 random sites in a field