CHAPTER 19

PESTICIDES
JH Giliomee

19.1 DEFINITION
Pesticides are substances used by human beings to kill or deter organisms (pests)
and wellbeing. pets and
that threaten
livestock, or
our
health the health and wellbeing of
cause damage to crops. Antibiotics in the medical sense are
excluded, but included are insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, acaricides
nematicides, molluscicides and rodenticides, among others. Of these, insecticides
(to control insects) and herbicides (for controlling unwanted vegetation) are uscd
in the largest quantities' and have the greatest impact on the environment.

19.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Since are by
pesticides definition
to
toxic living organisms, there is greatbutpublic
the of
concern over
eftect these substances, not only on human beings. also
the
on
non-target organisms in environment. People fear that they themselves
may be poisoned by the indiscernible residues on the food that they eat or in the
air that they breathe. They are also concerned that birds, fish, and other
beneficial organisms may be adversely affected by pesticides. In the 1960s, this
Carson her Silen
fear was articulately expressed by Rachel in best-selling book,
Spring widely credited with giving impetus to the quest for the safer use of
pesticides in particular and to the environmental movement in general.
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

PESTICIDES: ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM

Use of Pesticides
Until 1940's the following chemicals were used to control pests:
(1) Elements fungicides (S, Cu, Hig, organomercury) against fungal diseases.
(2) Copper sulphate, sodium aresenite and ferrous sulphate against weeds.
(3) Nature insecticides e-g. pyrethrum and nicotine, against beetles and aphids.
4) Tar oil, petroleum, etc, against and red spider mite eggs.
(5) Lead arsenate against caterpillars.
these sparingly used. The applications to cereals used to be confined
to
Even chemicals were
seed treatment with organomercury to kill-borne pathogens.
The organochlorine insecticides and herbicides became quite widespread in the mid and
late 1950s
a n d a large variety of these dangerous compounds were being used in the 1960s
USA, UR, The British Govt. approved over 150 chemicals
in
tor
and other developed countries.
use as pesticides/herbicides by 1970.

THE HAZARDOUS METHODS OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION

It is
The main method of pesticide applicationon a large scale is the 'Aerial Drift Spray".
a highly ineficient and wasteful, capital-intensive technique. A close study shows its nature:
(1) More than 40 per cent of applied pesticide is normally out of the target area.
(2) 15 per cent is out of the target crops.
( ) 40 per cent near the target insect.
4) 75 per cent is not in contact with it
(6) It is estimated that the insect through contact, inhalation and ignition absorbs less
than one of the total applied pesticide.
6) Only about 0.3 per cent of the applied insecticides appear to be absorbed by aphids
on bean contours and 0.02 per cent by myriads on cocoa. The wasteful use is
magnified by the practice followed by farmers who apply pesticide according to the
preet Cnedules prepared by manulacturers.
Inde ed the actual use of pesticides
cut by cent with no
by many advanced country armers may salely be 30 to s0 per
adverse ettect on crop producton in case pesucides are appled only when necessary
and in relation to specitic pests.

The following are some general pro perties of pesticides or their residues:
(1) They often strike the intended pests as well as several of
(2) Many of them continue to persist and cannot be disposed off.
(3) They may cause unintended effects like resistance, faunal displacement and other
population changes.
4) They may be carried to places fare removed from the points of application or origin.
(6) Their concentration and magnification in biological systems may lead to certain
unexpected or untoward result.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE : NATURAL RESOURCES 81

PROBLEMS CREATED BY THE PESTICIDES APPLICATION

Pesti cides widely distributed by natural means but they tend to retain much of their
biocidal aetivity for fairly long periods. On account of the use of different kinds of poisonous
is being
agriculture chemicals the whole biosphere increasingly poisoned and poluted. Many
of these chemicals and pesticides are known to persist for long periods in the environment.
Their concentration builds up geometrically as they are transferred to different stages of the
food web.
Harms caused by the use of pesticides are as under:

(1) Harm to Fish

Serious cases of fish mortality have occurred following the leaching of poisonous biocides
from agricultural fields to nearby ivers or streams after rainfall. Great concern was shown
on a case of large-scale fish kill in the lower Mississippi river in U.S.A. wherein five million

fish died. Careful investigation indicated that the fish had died due to dumping ofEndrin
rich agriculture wastes and runoff into a tributary of the Mississippi River the Memphis.
The widespread use of DDT' as an insecticide has also aroused considerable concern in
recent years. As a result, some countries have already legally banned its use.

(2) Harm Caused by the Herbicides

of various weedicides and insecticides often accumulate in soils
Residues agricultural
rapidly. Insecti cides are designed to kill insects. As such they may not be toxic to plants. On
the
contrary to it, some herbicides differ
from insecticides in
killing both desirable species
as well as the intended target. They may adversely affect such soils microbes as nitroes
algae and bacteria. This, in turn, may impair the growth and production
fixing blue-green
of higher plants.
(3) Damage to the Extent of Complete Destruction of Vegetation
The impact of some chemical wastes as phenols, metals etc. applied to soil may go to
the extent of complete destruction of vegetation and also soil sterilization.

Thhlo 9 7
4) Findings of the Researches
Extensive reseurhes in the USA found widespreud distribution of DDT residues through
food grains in several lakes. Residues were detected in shallow and deep-water mud samples,

rustaceans, whitefish, duck ring-billed and herring gulls and other fauna. Both DDT and
Dieldrin are found pass ing from mother off spring through the placenta in mice and certain
other animals, possible including man.

(5) Adverso Consaquance of Pasticides like DDT

Most pesticides tend to accentuate the problems of both production and pollution
of The is
instead
containing them. consequence of pesticides almost invariably adverse and
In the Nintcenth ccntury, the ladybird bectle was brought from Australia
harmful.
to California to
CDntrol a scale unacCt pcat ot Orangcs. Lt TCportcd that the becuc 3ucCcaatuly kcpt the pcat
under ive decades DDT began be
check tor more than unul about 146 when w used in the
dtrus orchards. "The beetle was susceptible to DDT and hence its population declined.
However, a subsequent withdrawal of DDT again restored the natural balance of biological
control within a few years.
In fact, DDT is une uf the must ellective pesticides known. This is the reasorn why it was
banned in the USA ín 1972. ts remarked inseeticldal properties were first discovered in
1939 it berame a uhiquitnns mntaminant of fish, pengiins, hirds and human heing Henee
popular public movement startcd in the USA that askcd the Govcrnment to protcet the
ablic frm the general toxifiratinn of the envimnment hy n T ' and perxintent poirona.

(6) Harm to Human Beings

Hurnun beings ure expused tw pestieides

alRo hy inhaling ontaminated air.
mainly through the intuke of fowd und war but
Several pAsficides are taratoCanie, mntagenie, or

carcinogenic.
)Harm to Bees
Decs vitally aid the pollination of several plants. Pesticides have adverscly offcctcd
rme
honey bees and other useful inseetls whose populations have decined. Acording o
Hmental,
A
annual agriculture losses due to poor polhinaton Irom pesticides can be as high
10NN) million in the USA.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE : NATURAL RESOURCES 83

(8) Damage to Crops

(i) Sometimes crops are damaged by pesticide applications, eg. application of improper
dosage under unfavourable conditions.
ii) Herbicides that drift from a treated crop to a nearby crop also cause serious
environmental problems. Persistent herbicides also can injure crops planted in
otation.

(9) Harm Caused to Fishery and Wildlife

Drifting or leaching pesticides drain into nearly water bodies causes fishery and wildlife
losses. Wild birds and mammals exposed to pesticides suffer by death from direct
to high doses and reduced suvval growth and reproduction Irom exposure to
exposure
subtle dosages.

(10) Harmful Effect on Decomposers

Pesticides have harmful effects on insects, earthworms, invertebrates, protozoa, and
microbes found in soils, especially the decomposers. It is reported that human pesticide
poisonings, reeducation in insects and mites, and honeybee poisonings account for about 70
per cent ot the caleulated socio-environmental costs lor pesticides in the USA.

(11) Development of Secondary Pests

The use of pesticides kills natural enemies and creates such problems as the development
of secondary pests eg. Red spider mites. Resurgence of primary pests can also occur. To
illustrate, caterpillars of the small cabbage white butterfly in Brussels sprouts reappeared
after DDT has killed their natural enemies. Resistance to pesticides is a cause for serious
oncern. Other hazards include those to the operator or worker who sprays pesticide, those
to the consumer of the crop and those to wildlife.

(12) Elimination of Birds

Some species of Eagles and top carnivors are known to be eliminated by DDT because
ontaminated adults failed to lay viable eggs. Populations of peregrine lalcons and some
pelicans have disappeard from some areas from some areas where excessive use of DDT
interfered with the bird's ability to transport calcium to growing eggs, leading to marked
thinning of the eggs shells. Such weak eggs fail to reach the hatching stage. It is discovered
that in ringdoves, DDT greatly reduced the activity of carbonic anhydrase. This enzyme is
critical in providing calcium for eggshell growth. When the pesticide inhibits this enzyme,
eggshell grows thinner

(13) Growth of New Pests

Artificial introduction of pesticides in the environment upsets natural biological controls.
Thi is the reason why new pests are created in this way because their natural predators,
This
which previously checked populations, are In
their eliminated. this
way mites have become
a pest as a consequence of the emergence of the pesticide industry. Indiscriminate and
excessive use of DDT killed some insect predictors of these mites, enabling the mites to
multiply to pest status.
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

(14) Effect on Algaee

Some of the pesticides inhibit division in aquatic algae. They may decrease their rates
of this in the
photosynthesis. In way they almost produce changes species composition and
or diversity of algal communities. The algae-grazing animals are more affected by the level
bloom8.

(15) Flora And Fauna

adverse
Pesticides havebacteria efifects on the flora and fauna of
in forests would almost
soils.
alter
Efifectsmycorrhizal
on

fungi
or decomposer certainly plant community structure
in forests. Some soil animals consume plant debris and contribute to soil fertility. Use of
insecticides changes the populations of some of these animals. It leads to reduction in soil
fertility especially in woodlands.
Noise Pollution
Noise can be defined as unwanted/unpleasant sound. So noise pollution is unwanted
sound dumped into the atmosphere without regard to the adverse effects it may have. In
our country urbanization and industrialization have become twin problems. Ciies and towns
have sprouted up where industries are concentrated. Lack of town' planning had led to
residential, commercial and industrial areas being mixed up. Houses, schools and hospitals
are situated near ndustries. All the boons of industriaization and avilization such as
motors, horns, heavy and hght machinery, work and movement, blaring radios, supersonic
aeroplanes have become disturbing and imitant Our ears can hear ordinary conversation
between 30-60 decibels. Moderm conversation has a noise value of 60 decibels. A decibel
value greater than 80 decibels causes noise pollution. Noise becomes troublesome above 140
decibels.

Effect of Noise Pollution

1. Constant noise affects a man physically and mentaly. Physical effects include
blood vessels to contract, skin to become pale, muscles to constrict and rise in blood
pres sure leading to tension and nervousness.
2. High intensity sound emitted by industrial plants, bottling machines, supersonie
aircrafts, when continued for long periods of time not only disturbs but also
permanentdy damages hearing.
3. Offices, industries and crowded places where constant noise prevails can produce
Temper tantrums, headaches, 1augue and nausea.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

4. Loud and sudden noise affect the brain. Intermittent noise leads higher incidence
of psychiatric illness and also a danger to health of pregmant mothers and small
nfants.

5. Noise has harmful effects on nonliving materials too, eg. cracks develop under the
stress of explosive sound.

Control of Noise Pollution

Following methods can control noise pollution:
1. Limited use of loudspeakers and amplifiers.
2. Excursing control over noise producing vehicles.
3. Industrial workers should be provided with ear plugs.
4. Delocalisation of noisy industries far away from dwelling units.
5. Within a radius of 10 miles of airport, no buildings or factories should be allowed.
6. Plants and trees should be planted all around the hospitals, libraries and schools
and colleges.
7. Personal protection against noise can be taken by using, cotton plugs in the ear,
Podiotion.