Bactoferm™ Meat Manual vol.

3
Dry-cured meat products with Chr. Hansen
starter cultures
Contents
Production of dried cured meats 2
Introduction 2
General process 2
Raw material 3
Initial bacterial count 3
Temperature 3
pH-value 4
Other aspects 4
Ingredients 5
Salt 5
Nitrite 5
Nitrate 5
Sodium ascorbate 5
Spices 6
Starter cultures 6
Sugars 6
Processing 7
Curing 7
Dry curing 7
Pickle curing 8
Injection curing 9
Post salting (ripening in storage) 9
Maturation (ripening) 10
Procedures of raw ham production 11
Microbiological stabilization 11
Color formation 11
Flavor formation 13
Benefits of starter cultures 15
Product examples 16
Parma ham 16
Serrano ham 17
Bündnerfleisch and Bresaola 18
Coppa 19
Westphalian ham 20
Coburg ham 21
Schwarzwälder ham 22
Holsteiner Katen ham 23
Bacon (“Gelderländer”) 24
Pancetta 25
Literature 26
Troubleshooting 27
Texture 27
Apperance and color 28
Flavor 30

The information contained herein is presented in good faith and is, to the best of our knowledge and belief, true and reliable. It is offered solely for your
consideration, testing and evaluation, and is subject to change without prior and further notice unless otherwise required by law or agreed upon in
writing. There is no warranty being extended as to its accuracy, completeness, currentness, non-infringement, merchantability or fitness for a particular
purpose. To the best of our knowledge and belief, the product(s) mentioned herein do(es) not infringe the intellectual property rights of any third party.
The product(s) may be covered by pending or issued patents, registered or unregistered trademarks, or similar intellectual property rights. Copyright (c)
Chr. Hansen A/S. All rights reserved.
Production of dried
cured meats
Introduction Due to difference in animal species, meat cuts and
applied technology, there is a multitude of
The preservation of whole pieces of meat through commercial cured meat types. In Germany the name
salting, curing and potentially smoking is an ancient ham/Schinken always indicates that the meat is
technique dating back to times when salting was from the rear legs of a pig. For all other products,
the primary means of preservation, and it may animal species or the part of muscle used must be
be even older than the procedure for fermented mentioned.
sausages.
Furthermore, particular aspects of the product types
The products are often defined in national or even are expressed by the name of the product e.g.
regional regulations or standards of identity. designation of origin (Prosciutto di Parma, Parma
An example are the German basic principles ham), special technology (“Katenschinken”) or
(corresponds to GMP in Anglo-Saxon countries) simply the name of the particular muscle used in the
which defines dried cured hams as raw meat process (ham from muscle longissimus dorsi would
products, which are stabilized by salting and drying. be called “Lachsschinken”).
The curing process uses ingredients like salt, nitrate
and/or nitrite to obtain a preservation effect.
Cured hams are smoked or non-smoked pieces
General process
of meat of stable color, typical flavor and of a The industry uses different methods to introduce salt
consistency, which makes slicing possible. and curing agents into the core of a raw, compact
piece of meat. The three most widespread methods
In the European Union (EU) many of the cured
are:
meats are protected within the Protected
Geographical Status (PGS) framework. Three • Dry curing
regimes exist within this framework which came • Pickle curing
into force in 1992 (EU 2081/92, EU 501/2006): • Injection curing
Protected Designation of Origin (PDO, most strict),
Protected Geograical Indication (PGI, less strict) and The next step in the process would be a “ripening in
Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG, least strict). storage” or post salting step (“brennen” in German).
PDO and PGI apply to food and certain agricultural This step is necessary to even out the difference in
products, and the products must meet both origin salt concentration between edge and centre zones
and quality requirements, whereas TSG does not of the ham. The ham obtains its typical flavor and
impose any geographical restrictions. appearance by the further maturation and drying
steps. Depending on product type, a smoking
The use of meat cultures may not be defined in process can follow. The finished ham is sold without
some of the PDO and PGI products. further treatment or as a sliced and pre-packed
ready-to-eat product.
 Raw material
Sometimes very big differences in meat quality are Initial bacterial count
found between hams. And the choice of meat and
fat quality is key to an optimal end product. A few The initial bacterial count of the meat must be low.
parameters should be applied as indicators of meat This can be expected when the animals are rested
quality e.g. initial bacterial count, fast cooling of the before slaughtering and the slaughtering is done 2|3
carcass and of the meat. without any stress. In addition, the meat should be
chilled as fast as possible.

An initial high bacterial count represents a high risk

RAW MATERIAL
of presence of cold tolerant spoilage bacteria and
pathogens. Undesired bacteria can penetrate the
center of the meat by way of temperature and pH
DRY CURING PICKLE CURING INJECTING CURING probes or during slaughtering when knives spike the
meat in an unnecessary way. Furthermore, bacteria
penetration is possible through the bleeding spot.
POST SALTING

MATURATION Temperature
To keep the bacterial count low the temperature in
the core of the meat has to be brought below +4°C
AIR DRYING SMOKING
(39.2°F) as fast as possible. For pork this cooling
has to be achieved within 24h.
Figure 1. Flow diagram of dry cured meat processing The best temperature for inhibition of bacteria
growth is a temperature near -1°C (30.2°F) (meat
freezes at –1.6°C (34.9°F)!). Frozen meat may
have a positive effect on water loss when drying,
but it also releases bacteria when thawed. The
resulting juice is an ideal substrate for proliferation
of microorganisms. The thermometer should be
checked regularly (simple method: put ice and water
into a small vessel and allow for 1 minute waiting
time and stir. The temperature is 0°C (32°F) until
all ice has melted).
pH-value Other aspects
The pH-value should be below 5.8 in chilled meat Besides the three parameters for the meat quality
(pH-value 24h post mortem). The pH-value is the the condition of the fatty tissue or the age of the
most important hurdle (together with the chilling animals play a decisive role. The texture of the fat
process) to impede the growth of micro-organisms. mainly depends on the saturation of the fatty acids.
At pH-values above 5.8 the water binding capacity The higher the quantity of unsaturated fatty acids,
of the meat is higher and the water loss is slower the more liquid and soft is the texture (low melting
throughout salting and post salting. The reason for point). The soft texture of the pork fat can be
this water binding effect at high pH is the swelling explained mainly by the presence of oily acids. The
of muscle fibers at high pH-values. This “closed” proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in the fatty
structure of the meat slows down the penetration of tissue can be influenced by feeding. Oil-seeds or
salt and curing agents. Every piece of meat must be their pulps make the fat softer. More solid fat is
controlled. Therefore meat with a pH-value higher obtained by feeding of e.g. coconut oil.
than 5.8 is unsuitable for dry cured ham and must
The age of the animal is important as well. Meat of
be discarded. In practice, people often experience
old animals has a high content of myoglobin. This is
problems with determining the pH-value.
an advantage for the formation and stabilization of
Therefore the following recommendations should the curing color.
be followed:
Furthermore, various residues can influence the raw
• Measure in muscle tissue, not in the fatty ham production negatively, e.g. antibiotic residues
tissue or sinews are able to suppress the desired bacterial flora in
the meat.
• Measure in several spots. It is not
sufficient to measure only in the
recommended measuring spot of the leg
(muscle semimembranosus). Check as
well the pH-value of the “thick flank”
(nut) since this can be 1.0 units higher

• Measure for at least 15 seconds

• Calibrate the device with two buffer solutions

daily and repeatedly if heavy duty is required
(pH-values of 7.0 and 4.0, respectively at 25°C)

• Clean the electrode according to the

manufacturer’s recommendations.
(e.g. the reading adapts only very slowly)

• Adjust pH-meter to meat temperature.

• The tip of the electrode must always be

directed downwards. A horizontal handling
of the probe leads to wrong results (air
bubble in probe moves over the electrode)
Ingredients
To produce an optimal ham it is also necessary to Nitrate
use the right ingredients. Common salt, nitrite salt,
nitrate, spices, curing agents, sugars and starter Nitrate does not have any anti-bacterial effect
cultures are the main components used. as such and no or only a weak direct chemical effect.
Micro-organisms use nitrate as an oxygen source
and this chemical reaction leads to a reduction of
Salt nitrate to nitrite. Thus the nitrate-nitrite cycle is only
working efficiently when nitrate reducing starter
Common salt (NaCl) is by far the most important cultures are added. The active principle in this
ingredient for the cured ham production because the reaction, nitrate reductase, is primarily formed by
strongest microbiological stabilization is obtained strains of the Staphylococcaceae family.
by reducing the water activity, i.e. the aw-value.
This happens by addition of common salt and drying.
4|5
Spoiled cured hams very often show a too low salt Sodium ascorbate
content. High salt content may give sensory
problems. The art of salting cured ham consists of Ascorbic acid and sodium ascorbate are known as
distributing salt as evenly as possible in the product. antioxidants or more accurately as oxygen
The finished ham should contain 4.5 – 6.0% of salt. scavengers, and have a widespread use as curing
agents throughout the industry. Ascorbic acid gives
a very fast nitrite reduction. Hereby a lot of nitrite
Nitrite escapes as gas (nitric oxide, NO) and the result is a
too low nitrite content for color development. For this
The addition of nitrite (NO2-) in the form of a mixture reason only sodium ascorbate should be used in the
of nitrite with common salt is less important for curing process of ham. The sodium ascorbate works
the microbiological stabilization of cured ham than in two ways: it reduces nitrite to nitric oxide (NO)
the addition of common salt. Whole, long maturing, and reduces the trivalent iron of the metmyoglobin
cured hams, e.g. Parma hams, can be stabilized to the bivalent iron of the myoglobin. Furthermore,
microbiologically without the addition of nitrite or the ascorbate stabilizes the cured color-pigment by
nitrate (NO3-). Nitrite plays a role for the micro- preventing its oxidation. Sodium erythorbate can
biological stabilization of short-maturing, cured also be used in place of ascorbate and is generally
hams e.g. smoked ham. The antibacterial effect of cheaper.
the nitrite depends on the pH-value as well. If the
pH is low this effect will be big and vice versa. The
nitrite is important for the curing color and the
curing flavor of cured ham having a short or medium
range maturing cycle. Long maturing products can
beproduced without nitrite.
Spices Sugars
The use of spices is specific to regions or type of Sugar serves primarily as an energy source for the
ham. It is important to use spices with a low bacterial starter cultures. Glucose, maltose, saccharose and
count. A basic requirement is that they are starch hydrolysates are predominantly used. The
stored under dry conditions and in sealed containers. bigger the carbohydrate molecules, the longer the
Dominant spices, such as garlic or rosemary, should time before the starter cultures can use these sugars
be used very carefully. In injection curing spice for their metabolic activity. It is important that the
extracts have big advantages. Sometimes spices, sugar type is aligned with the starter culture needs in
such as red pepper, have a color effect. This can order to supply an energy source as early as possible.
be useful or undesirable. Some bacteria strains use only specific sugars for
their metabolism.

Starter cultures
To get an excellent flavor and to improve and
stabilize the color, it is positive to use starter cultures
in the curing process. In this case primarily coagulase
negative Staphylococci are used. Furthermore,
Lactobacilli can be used, depending on desired end
product and raw materials available. The desired
feature when using Lactobacilli is a slight drop in
pH, ie increased acidity. The inoculation with mould
cultures like Penicillium strains gives advantages
for the surface treatment. Addition of sugar in
combination with Lactobacilli must be handled
carefully to avoid “sour ham”.
Processing
Curing Shortly after salting, meat juice starts to drip from
Three different methods are used to distribute the the meat as a result of the high difference in salt
salt and curing agents into the raw, compact piece concentration between the outside and the inside of
of meat: the meat (osmotic pressure). This brine is drained
and collected (or not) beneath a grid. It contains
• Manual or mechanical application of dry curing agents, salt soluble proteins, muscle pigment
curing agents to the meat (dry curing) and other substances of meat origin. The diffusion of
the curing salt ions into the core of the meat as well
• Marinating the meat in brine (pickle curing)
as the color development take places while the
• Injecting the brine into the meat (injection meat juice is running off. To ensure a better salt
curing) distribution and approximately the same pressure
for all pieces of meat during the curing process,
the meat should be repacked from time to time 6|7
Dry curing depending on their sizes. When repacked, the hams
must be put into the curing container in reverse
Dry curing is the oldest curing process. It starts with
order. The upper layers of hams go down and vice
rubbing the mixture of curing agents (common salt,
versa.
nitrate/nitrite, sugars, sodium ascorbate and starter
cultures) onto the meat. For large pieces, salting by
hand is recommended. In this case the meat is less
damaged. For small pieces, a tumbler can be used
because this has less effect on texture and helps to
rationalize the process. Afterwards, the pieces of
meat are packed side by side in curing containers.
The pieces of meat should be packed in the curing
containers in such a way that the desired shape of
the product is already obtained at the beginning
of the treatment. The meat is soft and easier to
form than at a later stage of production. The use of
stainless steel separators and sheets are well-proven
means. The bottom of the curing container should
allow drainage of the leaking liquid from the meat.
This can be obtained by installing a grid approx.
20 cm above the bottom of the container.
The hams must be treated with the curing salt Pickle curing
mixture once more when repacking takes place.
For this reason the salt mixture must be divided In the pickle curing process the meat is marinated
into different batches with respect to the number of in brine, which can also contain curing agents and
repacking steps. To avoid a loss of curing agents the spices together with common salt. The salt
salt mixture should always be freshly prepared. This concentration of the brine depends on the kind of
is also advisable from a hygienic perspective. Spices desired ham product. It is often between 10% and
should always be added during the last salting. 20%. Meat with a bigger diameter always requires
higher concentrated brine. The diffusion of salt into
The curing process must take place at temperatures the meat and the outflow of meat juice into the brine
below 4°C (39.2°F). The aw-value inside the meat is lead to a dilution of the brine. Due to the declining
higher than 0.96 and therefore the product is not salt level and the high protein content the brine
microbiologically stable at this stage. An aw-value of can spoil. The salt concentration of the brine can
0.96 approximately corresponds to a salt content of be determined by a density measurement with an
about 4.5 %. The curing time depends on the size of “aräometer”. The value is shown as a °B (degrees
the hams. A rule of thumb says that the curing time Baumé). The real amount of salt in the brine is 0.5
for fresh meat is 2 to 2.5 days/kg. This rule of thumb % lower than the determined °B. This knowledge
is confirmed by a mathematical approximation called makes it easy to prepare the brine with the required
the first law of diffusion developed by Fick: salt concentration. The required salt content of the
dm = D * (dc * dA * dt) / dl brine for a given ham technology can be calculated
dm = quantity of curing salt as follows:
dA = cross-section of the ham Cf = Cl * A / (Q * A + 1)
D = diffusion constant Cf = salt concentration in the meat
dt = time Cl = salt concentration in the brine
dc = gradient of ionic concentration Q = meat brine relationship
dl = diffusion distance A = amount of solution of the meat
This equation explains that the amount of curing A = (1 – fat % / 100) * 0,74
salt,which must diffuse into the piece of meat, is The factor 0.74 reflects the water content of pure
proportional to the gradient of ionic concentration, meat (e.g. 74% water). During pickle curing a
to the cross-sectional area, to the time and inversely temperature below 4°C (39.2°F) is very important.
proportional to the diffusion distance. The diffusion The ratio of meat:brine is also very important.
constant depends on several factors. One is surface A meat:brine relationship of 1:1 to 2:1 is generally
structure of the meat and another is pH-value, the approved. In this context the density of the laminar
third is temperature. Sinews between single muscle layer (between meat and brine) is of importance
groups slow down the diffusion and furthermore (as a diffusion barrier).
affect the evenness of the diffusion over the cross-
section.

Meat/Brine = 9/1 Meat/Brine = 3/1 Meat/Brine = 3/7

14 g salt/kg = too little salt 35 g salt/kg = salting OK 98 g salt/kg = too much salt

Fig. 2. Relation between meat and brine to achieve optimal salt diffusion.
Close to the meat surface the brine is diluted by the Injection curing
diffusion of salt into the meat and by the outflow of
meat liquids into the brine. The factor of density of In the dry and pickle curing methods the salt and the
the laminar layer (as a diffusion barrier) indicates curing agents move from the outside of the meat
that the salt concentration decreases proportionally to the inside by diffusion. With injection curing the
with the distance to the meat surface. The low salt and the curing agents penetrate the meat by
concentration is closer to the meat and the high injection. The injection can be done directly into the
concentration is closer to the brine within the muscle tissue (injection at random with a multi–
laminar layer. needle injector) or indirectly into the blood vessels
(artery injection) and the diffusion distance of the
The wider the laminar layer, the slower the salt curing agents becomes fundamentally shorter and
diffusion and vice versa. This barrier can be reduced therefore the curing process is sped up considerably.
by creating turbulences in the brine (pumping) or by The injection curing has a positive effect on the
moving the meat (stir/overhaul). Even when applying microbiological stability because the curing agents
those measures the curing time is approx. 2 days/kg are very quickly present in the core of the product
of meat. Consequently, a process shortening is and can impede the bacteria in the core. On the
generally not possible as opposed to the dry curing other hand spoilage micro-organisms can be injected
method. However, a bigger disadvantage of pickle accidentally into the meat. In this ase the
curing is the inability to shape the product in the aw-value is very high and therefore a curing
very beginning of the curing process. temperature below 4°C (39.2°F) is necessary.
Meticulous hygiene of the injectors is very
important. The needles have to be regularly checked 8|9
C
for corrosion as well, because corroding needles can
D2 lead to discoloration in the injection spots.

D1 Post salting (ripening in storage)

CL
The post salting step aims at leveling the difference
C02 in salt concentrations throughout the meat, which
fundamentally contributes to the microbiological
C01
stability of the hams. At the beginning of the post
salting step the salt distribution is still uneven and to
Brine Meat
avoid microbiological growth the temperature should
be below 4°C (39.2°F). This processing step also
contributes to an intensification of the curing flavor,
an improved tenderness and a stabilization of the
color. In parallel the product loses water. At the
beginning the hams must be picked from the curing
O
Depth of meat container, and superficial salt must be removed.
Afterwards, the hams are hung, stacked on racks or
C = salt concentration
CL = salt concentration of brine
shaped in special ham presses. If the hams are hung
CO1 = salt concentration by distance D1 or stacked the relative humidity has to be chosen in
CO2 = salt concentration by distance D2 such a way that the surface of the product is dry but
D1 = distance of laminar layer (1) no dry rim is formed.
D2 = distance of laminar layer (2)

Fig. 3 Influence of the laminar layer on the diffusion of salt from

brine into meat (Oskar Prändl et al, 1988)
The speed of air should be moderate. To avoid Therefore the temperature of 4°C(39,2°F) during
rancidity this process should be carried out in post salting must be increased to approx. 30°C
darkness. Relative humidity and air speed are of little (86°F) and afterwards decreased to 13–14°C
importance if the hams are pressed. The advantage (55,4–57,3°F). This increased temperature has
of pressing is to get a better sales quality via a several advantages: Spoilage of the hams, which
square shape. Furthermore, the formation of a dry may arise during the salting and post salting steps,
rim can be prevented in this ase. The post salting can more easily be recognized (spoilage bacteria
should take approx. 2/3 of the curing time. After this often produce gas in the inside of the ham. This
phase an optimal salt distribution should be obtained gas expands and the ham blows up) and micro-
and the salt content must be at least 4.5% in all organisms and enzymes become more active at
areas. This ensures an aw-value below 0.96. these temperatures, which is important for the
development of flavor.

To obtain the desired water loss the relative humidity

Maturation (ripening) is lowered slowly from 85% to 70% during this
After post salting the microbiologically stable hams maturation phase. The air speed should be approx.
are treated in many different ways. This leads to a 0.5 m/sec at the beginning of the maturation.
great variety of products. It is not possible to give The air speed has to be lowered as the weight of
a general statement about all types of ham and the ham decreases. Water loss increases at the same
the characteristic differences in technology. humidity level when increasing air speed. The risk
of developing a dry rim is highest close to the air
But some of the differences should be outlined.
entry openings in the climate chamber.
The maturation may be carried out at high
temperatures if the hams are microbiologically If the product is smoked the surface of the hams
stable. Long matured ham should predominantly must be dry. Short ripened hams can be smoked at
be ripened at 15°C – 18°C (59°F – 64.4°F). Shortly temperatures up to 25°C (77°F). Hams with long
matured hams should be ripened below 24°C ripening time should be smoked at temperatures
(75.2°F). These temperatures ensure a good from 15–18°C (59–64.4°F). To suppress growth of
development of flavor. For big compact hams it is mould a short smoking is recommended at the
recommended to increase the temperature in the beginning of the ripening step. However, a too long
first week of maturation. These hams are stable or too intensive smoke results in a smoking rim.
due to sufficient salting and a corresponding post
salting step (aw-value < 0.96).
Procedures of raw ham production
Microbiological stabilization the reduction of the aw-value is the predominant
hurdle at the end of the process. To inhibit growth
The primary aim of the cured ham production is of spoilage bacteria (Gram negative bacteria of the
to make fresh meat non-perishable, while the family Enterobacteriaceae) and pathogenic bacteria
objectives of the processing steps are to protect (Clostridium botulinum) an aw- value below 0.96 is
the product from spoilage by micro-organisms. very important and the temperature must be below
In contrast to canned products, which are made 4°C until this aw-value is reached.
stable by heat treatment, cured hams become
stable by preventing growth of spoilage bacteria
by influencing their growth conditions in specific Color formation
ways. Collectively, this is obtained by applying the Color development in dry cured meats is
hurdle principle; i.e. several hurdles/technologies predominantly a result of the conversion of the
that impede growth: At the beginning of the curing unstable red myoglobin to the typical dark and
process the pHvalue and the temperature of the stable red color of nitrosomyoglobin by means
meat are the first hurdles/barriers for growth while of the curing agent - nitrite.
10 | 11

aw < 0.96 = 4,5% NaCl

t < 4°C (39,2°F)

aw
5.5 – 5.8 t

Fig. 4. Hurdle effects during the manufacturing of dry cured ham (Leistner, 1986)

KNO3 KNO2 catalyzed by nitrate reductase

KNO2 + H2O HNO2 + K+ + OH-
in slightly acidic conditions
3 HNO2 2 NO + HNO3 + H2O catalyzed by reducing agents in slightly acidic conditions

Fig. 5. Reactions during the color formation

The nitrite, which is added as a mixture of sodium myoglobins with oxygen. Metmyoglobin is formed
nitrite and common salt or is formed from the in the presence of low amounts of oxygen from
enzymatic reduction of nitrate by the action of myoglobin. The central iron atom of the myoglobin is
Staphylococci, is decomposed in several steps. oxidized and the bivalent Fe++ becomes the trivalent
The nitrite changes to nitric acid in the presence Fe+++. At a high oxygen level, the unstable brightly
of hydrogen ions. The further breakdown of the nitric red oxymyoglobin forms by further reactions with
acid to nitric oxide can be made by acid catalyzed oxygen also the brownish metmyoglobin. The
decomposition of NO2. This reaction takes place at metmyoglobin cannot become nitrosylmyoglobin.
a pH-value of 5.0 to 5.5. Therefore it must be reduced to myoglobin first.
In this case the ascorbic acid or the sodium
But this is probably not the only way of obtaining
ascorbate has a different function. They can
a stable red color because there are often high
reduce the metmyoglobin to myoglobin. There
pH-values in the cured ham production with good
is predominantly unchanged myoglobin inside
color results. Besides the acid catalysed
cured ham. On the surface of large hams the color
decomposition, nitrite can also be decomposed
development mainly follows the metmyoglobin
by reduction or reducing agents to nitric oxide.
chain. As all chemical reactions, the color
A reduction can be made by the meat’s inherent
development reactions always aim at a balance.
reduction systems like a cystein-cystein reduction
system or any other enzyme reduction system. This means that the described pathways always
imply two reactions. The color development in the
Ascorbic acid or sodium ascorbate are used as
meat stops when the balance is reached. A complete
reduction additives. With reduction by sodium
myoglobin change into nitrosylmyoglobin is therefore
ascorbate nitrate is formed as well. This nitrate can
not possible.
then be decomposed by Staphylococci to nitrite,
which again can be used in color formation. It is possible to obtain an appetizing ham color
The real color formation is the association of the without nitrite and nitrate, but it requires a very long
formed nitric oxide to the central iron ion of the ripening process. The color development is probably
muscle pigment myoglobin. This complex is called due to denaturation of the myoglobin to
nitrosylmyoglobin and it has a deep red stable color. myochromogen inside the ham. The inside of the
During further maturation the protein part of the ham is protected from oxygen during the maturation.
nitrosylmyoglobin is denatured to the more stable The myochromogen is stable against oxygen and
nitrosylmyochromogen. However, the brownish light.
metmyoglobin may also stem from reaction of the

+oxygen
Myoglobin Oxymyoglobin
(red) - oxygen (cherry red)

oxidation
+ NO red ox
reduction

Nitrosylmyoglobin ox - NO Metmyoglobin
(dark, stable red) red + NO (brown)
(simple system)

Fig. 6. Possible reactions with myoglobin

Flavor formation Primarily Staphylococci form proteases and lipases.
Lipases are able to release fatty acids from fats.
The development of the product specific flavor Free fatty acids can react with oxygen. In the first
profile is another important target of the process. step hydroperoxides are formed, then aldehydes,
Many components are responsible for the specific, ketones and volatile fat acids arise. These
well-rounded smell and taste of matured dry cured components have a very intensive flavor and can
hams. Some are salt, spice and/or smoke and be found especially in long matured cured hams.
microorganisms. Others arise without a direct Proteases degrade soluble meat proteins. Therefore
participation of microorganisms (e.g. oxidation the content of free amino acids increases during
of fat) or from the inherent meat enzymes. maturation. Yeasts and molds also influence the
flavor, especially on the ham surface. The ammonia
However, the most important flavor components
formation by molds is important in this context.
come from the microbial enzymatic breakdown
of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

MUSCLE CALPAINS MUSCLE

AND CATHEPSINS EXOPEPTIDASES

PROTEINS PEPTIDES FREE AMINO ACIDS

STRECKER/MAILLARD
TASTE REACTION 12 | 13

VOLATILE COMPOUNDS
AROMA
DRY CURED HAM

SHORT CHAIN CARBONYL COMPOUNDS

MUSCLE AND ADIPOSE OXIDATION

TRIGLYCERIDES TISSUE LIPASES

FREE FATTY ACIDS

PHOSPHOLIPIDS MUSCLE
PHOSPHOLIPASES

Fig. 7. General scheme showing flavor generation during the processing of dry-cured ham (Fidel Toldrá 2002)

Cystein-cystin redoxsystem:
-2H20
2 HNO2 + R1-SH + HS-R2 2 NO + R1 - S- S- R2

Enzyme redoxsystems:
NADH2 NAD+
NO-2 + Cyt. -c (red.) NO-Cyt. - c (ox.) NO + Cyt. -c (red.)

Reducing additive (e.g. sodium ascorbate):

-2H20
C6H806 + 2 HNO2 2 NO + C6H606

Fig. 8. Further reactions during the color formation

Benefits of starter cultures
The described technology steps show that on the color formation and stabilization, but they
microorganisms play a decisive role almost in also prevent rancidity. Furthermore, Staphylococci
all processes of the cured ham production. The have a very positive effect on the formation of nice
Staphylococci have a key role. They improve the taste and flavor. Staphylococci are able to produce
color of the hams by reducing nitrate to nitrite. enzymes like lipases, proteases and peptidases.
This is a significant feature even if only nitrite is These enzymes break down fats and proteins to
applied. The explanation is the formation of small molecules. These molecules have a very
nitrate during the decomposition of nitrous positive influence on the cured ham flavor (see
acid to nitric oxide (see Color formation p. 11). Flavor formation p. 13). All these positive effects
This nitrate can be reduced/decomposed can be obtained by using the starter culture
enzymatically to nitrite by nitrate reductase Bactoferm® C-P-77.
from the Staphylococci. This nitrite is in turn
Another starter culture is Bactoferm® SM-75, a
available for the color development. Furthermore,
mix of Staphylococcos carnosus and Staphylococcos 14 | 15
Staphylococci have the ability to produce catalase
xylosus, which gives a more intensive flavor
enzyme. Catalase is able to decompose generated
during ripening. The more proteolytic strain
hydrogen peroxide.
of Staphylococcos xylosus leads to a more
Hydrogen peroxide and other peroxides are strong “Mediterranean“ aroma.
oxidants, which react with the red and brown
In BactoFlavor® BFL-C08 the Staphylococcos xylosus
myoglobin complex. This leads to discoloration
is replaced by Debaromyces hansenii. This leads to
and green and yellow colors appear. These colors
more yeasty flavor compounds during ripening.
together with the red and brown curing color look
grey to the human eye. Besides this reaction, The Chr. Hansen starter cultures for cured meat
peroxides are also responsible for rancidity. products are specifically developed to work at lower
Consequently, Staphylococci have not only an effect temperatures than normal fermentation cultures.

Culture name Strains included Characteristics

C-P-77 Staphylococcos carnosus Color formation and stability, tenderizing, improving flavor

SM-75 Staphylococcos carnosus As C-P-77, but more flavor

Staphylococcos xylosus

BFL-C08 Staphylococcos carnosus As C-P-77, but more Mediterranean flavor

Debaromyces hansenii

Table 1. Selection of Chr. Hansen cultures for dry cured meat products
Product examples

Parma ham
The true Parma ham/prosciutto di Parma or and older than 10 month. Parma hams are seasoned,
prosciutto di San Daniele are from northern Italy’s salt-cured and air-dried but not smoked. The real
province of Parma. The special diet of chestnuts Parma cured ham goes through at least 14/18
and “whey” (from the cheese-making process) that months of maturing. This long treatment results in
Parma pigs enjoy results in an excellent quality of the special mild, nutty taste. Most Parma hams have
meat. The pigs have to be a weight of 140 kg at least PDO status.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

1. Salting with coarse salt 0 – 4°C 80 – 90% 7 days

2. Salting with fine salt 0 – 4°C 80 – 90% 21 days

Addition of starter cultures

3. Salting 0 – 4°C 70 – 80% 28 days

Removing of the superficial salt

by brushing

1. Post-salting “burning” 2 – 4°C 50 – 60% 14 days

2. Post-salting “burning” 2 – 4°C 70 – 80% 70 days
1. Ripening 25 – 30°C 80 – 85% 5 days
Removal of spoiled hams

2. Ripening 15 – 18°C 75 – 85% until a water loss of 25 %

Sealing of the meat surface with
a special lard mixture

3. Ripening 10 – 12°C 65 – 75% 180 – 330 days

Serrano ham
Serrano means “from the mountains”, as the cool 2. The salt is washed off and the hams hung to dry
dry mountain air offers the perfect condition for the and start the first curing phase. This phase serves
curing process. Serrano ham has TSG status i.e. it to initiate the curing process, here (among other
must be traditional and different from other similar things) the fat begins to breakdown.
products. The production process involves three
3. Air drying - it is during this phase that the hams
distinct phases:
are hung in a cool, dry place, and where the distinct,
1. The fresh hams are first trimmed and cleaned, then subtle flavors and aromas develop. This lasts from
stacked like cordwood and covered with salt. This 6 to 18 months, depending on the climate and
serves to draw off excess moisture and to preserve the size and type of ham. The drying sheds
the meat from spoiling. This typically lasts 2 weeks. (“Secaderos”) are usually built at higher elevations,
thus the name “Serrano”.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

Salting with coarse salt 0 – 4°C 75 – 95% 10 – 18 days 16 | 17

Addition of starter cultures 1 day/kg ham

Washing with water (Water temp.)

30 – 40°C

Post-salting “burning” 4 – 6°C 70 – 90% 40 – 60 days

1. Ripening 6 – 16°C 80 – 90% > 45 days

2. Ripening 16 – 24°C 50 – 85% > 35 days

3. Ripening 24 – 34°C 70 – 80% > 35 days

4. Ripening 12 – 20°C 70 – 80% > 35 days

until a water loss of 34 %
Bündnerfleisch and Bresaola
Bündnerfleisch (Bündner meat) is a special product Bresaola is the protected (PGI) Italian version
from Switzerland. This natural product is made from produced in Northern Italy. It originates from the
selected lean parts of the leg of beef. The beef meat Valtellina valley in the mountainous Lombardy
is salted with a mixture of salt, nitrate, pepper, garlic region. Products produced outside Valtellina may
and bay leafs. After salting, the product is dried in have generic names like “beef prosciutto”. Bresaola
the clear air of the mountain valleys of “Graubünden” is produced from carefully trimmed top inside round
(the Grisons) for 6 month. Bündner meat is very cured with salt and spices like juniper, cinnamon and
lean and has a very strong flavor. Usually this special nutmeg for 1–2 weeks and dried for 2–3 months.
product is eaten in very thin slices.

Process (Bündnerfleisch) Temperature Relative humidity Duration

Salting with a salt/spice blend into 0 – 4°C 21 days

containers
Addition of starter cultures

Collection of brine and overflow Every day

the meat.

Repacking Every third day

Washing in salt-water

Drying 8 – 12°C 70 – 75% until a water loss of

Three pressing phases for 1 – 2 days 40 – 50%
during drying step
(faster equilibration of water).

Removal of mold by brushing

Coppa
Coppa is a special type of ham. It is made from pork
neck, salted, aged naturally and stored raw. The
finished product is cylindrical in shape and when
sliced open displays a homogenous interior of red
meat flecked with pinkish-white areas.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

Salting 2 – 4°C 7 days

Addition of starter culture

Drying and ripening 24°C 94% 24 hours

20°C 90% 24 hours
18°C 86% 24 hours

Post ripening until a water loss of 25%

18 | 19
Westphalian ham
Westphalian ham comes from the Western region of dried or smoked over beech wood dust. Depending
Germany and has a very long tradition. This kind of on the quality there is a 3–8 month ripening phase.
ham is made from pork leg including bones. After The final weight is usually 4–5 kg. The bones remain
the dry salting and post salting stages the ham is air in the ham until the end of maturation.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

1. Salting 0 – 2°C 5 days

(3,5 % nitrite salt, dextrose,
ascorbate and starter culture)

2. Salting (3,5 % nitrite salt, 4 – 6°C 8 days

dextrose, ascorbate and
starter culture)

3. Salting (0,2 % nitrite salt) 4 – 6°C 5 days

4. Salting (0,2 % nitrite salt) 6 – 8°C 5 days

Post-salting (burning) 18°C 85% 3 – 5 days

Smoking (if desired) 24°C 85%

Ripening (with pressing phases 14°C 82% 9 – 12 weeks
to obtain the desired form)
Coburg ham 20 | 21

Originally this protected ham type was established whether the ham will be used for a smoked ham or
by pigs from the Fränkisch area. The Coburg ham is an air-dried Coburg ham. Before the ham is sold, it
a raw ham which is cut from the main item of the must mature for at least six months. It then weighs
ham (topside and subshell). It depends on the curing approx. 2.5 to 3.0 kg and the taste is mild and soft.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

1. Salting with a salt mixture 0 – 4°C 7 days

Addition of starter cultures

2. Salting (addition of brine) 0 – 4°C 7 days

Post-salting 4 – 6°C 80% 7 days

Drying (rolling before) 24°C 70% 2 hours

Smoking (if desired) 20°C 75% desired color

Ripening 15°C 80% 5 – 6 months

Schwarzwälder ham
Black Forest ham, or Schwarzwälder Schinken in Then the ham is cold smoked for several weeks.
German, is a smoked ham from pork leg, produced in The smoke is created by smoldering pine wood
the Black Forest region of Germany. The production pieces and sawdust. This special smoking treatment
of Black Forest ham can take up to three months. gives the ham its typical flavor and dark surface.
The raw meat is salted and seasoned with garlic, Finally the ham is ripened for another couple of
coriander, pepper, juniper berries and other spices. weeks in order to get its tender structure.
After curing, the salt is removed and the ham cures
for another one to two weeks.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

1. Salting (5 % salt mixture) 0 – 4°C 7 days

Addition of starter culture

2. Salting (3 % salt mixture) 0 – 4°C 7 days

Addition of starter culture

3. Salting (2 % salt mixture) 0 – 4°C 7 days

Addition of starter culture

Post-salting (burning) 6 – 8°C 75 – 80% 7 days

Drying 30 – 35°C 70 – 75% 2 hours

Ripening 15 – 18°C 70 – 75% 7 days

Smoking 15 – 18°C 75 – 80% 4 – 6 weeks

(pine wood and pine needles)
Holsteiner Katen ham
With a weight of up to 17kg the “Holsteiner Katen” After smoking, the ham must mature 2–3 months.
is the biggest ham type. By rubbing, the ham is dry This traditional method gives the ham a deep brown
salted for a couple of weeks. After this it hangs for color, delicate and juicy meat and a mild taste with
several weeks in the smoke house (cold) where a sweet note. Due to the extreme size the “Katen”
22 | 23
it is smoked slowly by using beech wood flour. ham is frequently offered in 3 partial cuts:

The “Pape” is the item part of the ham. The “Blume” is the lean part of the ham. The “Kappe” is the “rump” of the ham with a
little bit more fat.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

1. Salting with coarse salt 0 – 4°C 80 – 90% 7 days

2. Salting with fine salt 0 – 4°C 80 – 90% 21 days

Addition of starter cultures

3. Salting 0 – 4°C 70 – 80% 21 days

4. Salting 0 – 4°C 70 – 80% 21 days

Washing

Drying 20 – 24°C 70 – 75% 1 – 2 days

Smoking 12 – 14°C 70 – 75% 30 – 120 days

Ripening 14°C 80% 1 – 6 months

Bacon (“Gelderländer”)
Bacon comes from the side of the pig. The meat is essential to good bacon, usually one-half to two-
cured and usually smoked. It is the fat in the bacon thirds fat to meat. The flavor of regular bacon can
that provides most of the flavor and allows it to cook vary widely depending on the breed of the pig, its
up crispy, yet tender. A high ratio of fat to meat is feed, how it is cut, processing and curing methods.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

Salting with a salt mixture 0 – 4°C 7 days

Addition of starter cultures

Repacking in a reversed order 0 – 4°C 7 days

Washing

Drying 22 – 24°C 70% 8 hours

Smoking 22 – 24°C 75% until desired color

 24 | 25

Pancetta
Pancetta is Italian bacon that is cured with salt, It is usually used as a flavoring for dishes, added to
pepper, and other spices and dried for about 3 sauces, stuffings, etc. In Italy, there are numerous
months, but it is not smoked. Pancetta is only from recipes called “all’amatriciana,” meaning “with
the belly and is often rolled up like a large sausage. pancetta.” It is often found as an ingredient in
pastas, on pizzas, etc.

Process Temperature Relative humidity Duration

1. Salting on pallet 2 – 4°C 5 days

(salt, spice and culture)

2. salting on pallet 2 – 4 °C 5 days

Washing and hanging

1. Fermentation cycle 25°C (40°C) 80% moderate 24 hours

ventilation (4 – 6 hours)

Spices (pepper) + culture/rolling

+ netting

2. Fermentation cycle 25°C 65 - 75% 24 – 48 hours

strong ventilation
Drying cycle 12 – 13°C appr. 80% appr. 3 weeks
moderate ventilation
Literature
1. Oskar Prändl, Alber Fischer, Thomas Schmidhofer, Hans-Jürgen Sinell 1988. Fleisch: Technologie und
Hygiene der Gewinnung und Verarbeitung. Handbuch der Lebensmitteltechnologie. Ulmer, Stuttgart.

2. Fidel Toldrá 2002. Dry-cured meat products. Publications in food science and nutrition.
Food & Nutrition press, INC. Trumbull, Connecticut 06611 USA.

3. Werner Frey 1986. Die sichere Fleischwarenherstellung. Leitfaden für den Praktiker. Hans Holzmann
Verlag, Bad Wörishofen.

4. Joachim E. Reichert 1983. Die Wärmebehandlung von Fleischwaren. Grundlagen der Berechnung und
Anwendung. Schriftenreihe Fleischforschung und Praxis Band 13. Hans Holzmann Verlag, Bad
Wörishofen.

5. Bundesanstalt für Fleischforschung 1985. Mikrobiologie und Qualität von Rohwurst und Rohschinken.
Kulmbacher Reihe Band 5. Institut für Mikrobiologie, Toxikologie und Histologie der Bundesanstalt für
Fleischforschung, Kulmbach.

6. Bundesanstalt für Fleischforschung 1990. Sichere Produkte bei Fleisch und Fleischerzeugnissen.
Kulmbacher Reihe Band 10. Institut für Mikrobiologie, Toxikologie und Histologie der Bundesanstalt für
Fleischforschung, Kulmbach.

7. Georg Moiser, Werner Nass, Oswald Oberländer 1979. Fachkunde für Fleischer. Georg Westermann
Verlag, Braunschweig.

8. Keim, Weichert 1976. Das Fachwissen des Fortschrittlichen Fleischers. Verlagshaus Sponholz,
Frankfurt am Main.

9. H.-D. Belitz, W. Grosch 1992. Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie. Springer Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.

10. Achim Stiebing 1993. Vorlesungsscript im Fach: Technologie der fermentierten Fleischwaren.
Studiengang: Fleischtechnologie, Fachhochschule Lippe Lemgo.

11. Leistner 1986. Allgemeines über Rohschinken, Fleischwirtschaft. 66, 496

12. Ternes 1990. Naturwissenschaftliche Grundlage der Lebensmittelzubereitung, Behr’s Verlag, Hamburg

13. Norbert Frank 1996, Schinken. Hugo Matthaes Druckerei und Verlag, Stuttgart
Troubleshooting
TEXTURE
TOO SOFT

Raw material Use of meat with high pH-value, badly chilled meat
Ingredients Amount of salt is too low
Technology Injection of too much brine when injection curing
Unfortunate ratio of brine to meat when pickle curing
The temperature during the curing process has been too high
The relative humidity during “burning” step has been too high
Ripening The temperature during smoking has been too high
Storage The temperature during storage has been to high
The relative humidity during storage has been too high
Packing Packing of ham with a too high pH-value
Packing of insufficiently matured ham (too fresh)
26 | 27
TOO FIRM, RIM TOO FIRM

Technology Too strong dehydration during “burning” step

Ripening The temperature has been too high and the relative humidity
has been too low
Storage The relative humidity has been too low => formation of dry rim

TOO DRY

Raw material Use of PSE meat

Technology The relative humidity during “burning” step has been too low
Ripening During ripening the temperature has been too high and the relative
humidity has been too low
Storage The relative humidity has been too low => formation of dry rim

DRY FIBROUS TEXTURE

Raw material Use of PSE meat

Ingredients Amount of salt has been too high
Ripening During ripening and smoking the temperature has been too high and the
relative humidity has been too low
Storage The relative humidity has been too low => formation of dry rim
APPEARANCE AND COLOR
ROUGH SURFACE WITH LOTS OF OPENINGS

Raw material Bad cutting of the fresh meat

PALE COLOR (BAD COLOR FORMATION)

Raw material Use of PSE meat

Ingredients Amount of nitrite and/or nitrate has been too low
The storage of the nitrite or nitrate was unfavorable
Addition of ascorbic acid to the nitrite salt brine resulting in
decomposition of nitrite
Technology The temperature during the curing process has been too low,
thus delaying the color formation reactions
The ratio of brine : meat is unfavorable (pickle curing)
Curing time has been too short
Ripening During ripening and smoking the temperature has been too high and
the relative humidity has been too low
Storage The relative humidity has been too low => formation of dry rim

COLOR UNSTABLE

Raw material Use of PSE or DFD meat

Ingredients Too low amount of nitrite and/or nitrate has been added
Addition of ascorbic acid to the nitrite salt brine
(i.e. decomposition of nitrite)
Technology Bad hygiene when curing, the amount of drying has been insufficient
Ripening The temperature and relative humidity during ripening and smoking has
been too high, with these conditions unwanted bacteria can grow
(they are often responsible for discoloration primarily at the rim)
Storage The temperature and relative humidity during storage has been too high
Too much light during storage leads to decomposition of the color
Packing Unhygienic packing conditions
Unwanted condensation on product
Deficiencies of the film; e.g. storage of the films under strong effect of light

UNEVEN COLOR OF SLICE

Raw material Use of PSE meat

Ingredients Too low amount of nitrite salt and/or nitrate has been added
Technology Time for curing has been too short
APPEARANCE AND COLOR
GREY RIM

Raw material Meat with a high amount of unwanted bacteria

Ingredients Too low amount of nitrite salt and/or nitrate has been added
Technology Unfortunate ratio of brine:meat (too much brine) when pickle curing
The meat is not full covered with brine (oxygen)
Watering of the hams after the salting step (diffusion of color substances
from the rim)
The temperature and relative humidity during “burning” has been
too high (steaming up and growth of unwanted mold at surface can
damage the color)
Ripening The temperature and relative humidity during smoking have been
too high (damage of color at the rim)
Storage The temperature and relative humidity during storage have been too high
(damage of color at the rim)
Too much light during storage leads to decomposition of the color
The temperature during storage has been too low (pale surface)
Packaging Unhygienic packing conditions
Deficiencies of the film (oxygen) 28 | 29
Storage under strong light

SURFACE SLIMY, MOLDY, GREYISH/WHITISH SURFACE

Technology Unhygienic conditions at the “burning” rooms

High amount of bacteria at the air
The temperature and relative humidity at the “burning” rooms have
been too high
Ripening The relative humidity during ripening has been too high
Storage The relative humidity during storage has been too high
Too high amount of unwanted bacteria in the air
Unhygienic conditions in the storage rooms
Packaging Deficiency of the film (oxygen)
Condensation on product
Hams have been too wet when packing
Unhygienic packing conditions
Temperature of storage has been too high

DRY RIM

Technology The relative humidity at the “burning” room has been too high
Ripening The temperature and relative humidity during ripening and smoking
have been too high
Storage The relative humidity during storage has been too low

DARK RIM, SMOKING RIM

Technology The relative humidity at the “burning” room has been too high
Ripening The temperature during smoking has been too high
The relative humidity during smoking has been too high
Strong development of carbon black during smoking
FLAVOR
SPOILED, STICKY/MOIST AND SOFT SURFACE

Raw material Use of meat with high pH-value

Use of DFD meat
Use of bad chilled meat or meat with too high temperature
Ingredients Too low amount of nitrite salt and/or nitrate has been added
Technology Temperature at the curing room has been too high
Unfortunate ratio of brine:meat; e.g. not enough brine (pickle curing)
Unhygienic handling (e.g. workers with open wounds)
Temperature and relative humidity during “burning” have been too high
Ripening The relative humidity has been too low, leading to development of dry rim
which results in a “stuffy” centre of the ham
Temperature during ripening and smoking has been too high (especially
bone-in hams)
Storage Temperature during storage has been too high (especially if pH-value is high)
Packaging Hams have been too fresh when packing

RANCIDITY

Raw material Use of old/non-fresh meat

Technology Temperature during curing has been too high, strong effect of light
during curing and “burning”
Ripening Temperature during ripening and smoking has been too high
Strong light
Storage Temperature during storage has been too high
Strong light

FATTY

Raw material Fat of the meat has been too soft

Ingredients Amount of salt has been too low
Technology Temperature during curing has been too high
Ripening Temperature during ripening and smoking has been too high
Storage Temperature during storage has been too high
Packaging Temperature of the hams have been too high

MOLDY, SMELLY

Raw material Use of old/non-fresh meat

Technology Temperature and relative humidity during “burning” have been too high
(excessive relative humidity and hence growth of unwanted mold and
bacteria at the surface can lead to flavor changing)
Ripening Temperature during smoking has been too high
Usage of smoking material, which was stored under wet conditions
Usage of molded smoking material (strong deviance of flavor)
Storage Relative humidity during storage (development of unwanted mold
which leads to unwanted flavor)
Packaging Barrier deficiency of the film (oxygen)
Film is too thin
Condensation on product
Unhygienic packing conditions
FLAVOR
SALTY

Ingredients Amount of salt has been too high

Incorrect addition of salt
Technology Injection of too much brine (injection curing)
Unfortunate ratio of meat:brine (pickle curing)
Relative humidity during “burning” has been too low,
which leads to strong drying
Ripening Relative humidity has been too low
Storage Relative humidity during storage has been too low, which leads
to strong drying

SMOKY / ACRID (TONGUE) FEELING

Ingredients Dosage of sugar has been too high

Technology Temperature and relative humidity during “burning” has been too high
Ripening Temperature and relative humidity during smoking have been too high
Use of timber which produce a lot of carbon black when the timber
is smoldering
30 | 31
 HOOGS DESIGN
Copyright © 2013 Chr. Hansen.
Application and Technology Centers

Denmark
Chr. Hansen A/S
Boege Allé 10-12
DK-2970 Hoersholm
Danmark
Phone: +45 45 74 74 74
Fax: +45 45 74 89 94

Germany
Chr. Hansen GmbH
Giessener Strasse 94
D-35415 Pohlheim
Germany
Phone: +49 6403 950 10
Fax: +49 6403 950 130

USA
Chr. Hansen, Inc.
9015 West Maple Street
Milwaukee, WI 53214
USA
Phone: +1 414 607 5700
Fax: +1 414 607 5959

www.chr-hansen.com