Biology SS1 2ND Term E-Notes
Biology SS1 2ND Term E-Notes
Biology SS1 2ND Term E-Notes
……
DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL
www.dlhsschools.org, www.dlhsschools.com,
[email protected].
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS 1
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKS TOPICS
WEEK 2
i. PARENCHYMA
Tissues made up of living unspecialized plant cells that are roughly spherical in
shape
They are composed of mainly cellulose and a large vacuole containing cell sap
It gives rigidity to plants as a result of tightly packed cells.
Other tissues are derived from parenchyma.
They possess thin wall and are found in the cortex of stems, leaf mesophylls, and
flesh of fruits.
ii. COLLENCHYMA
Consist of living cells that are thickened at the corners.
Collenchyma cells are found beneath the epidermis in stems and petioles and
around the veins in dicot leaves.
Usually polygonal elongated cells with tapering ends
It enable flexibility and resilience
Does not support secondary growth in plant
iii. SCLERENCHYMA
This is made up of cells impregnated with lignin that gives the plant hardness,
rigidity and mechanical support.
They are made up of dead cells (fibres and sclereids/stone cells)
Fibres are made up of narrow polygonal elongated cells
It has thick secondary walls.
Nectarine Tree
The nectarine tree is a variety of peach tree that produces a smooth-skinned fruit called a nectarine. The color and seed of the fruit are very
similar to that of the peach. Nectarine seeds have been known to grow trees that bear peaches and peach trees have been known to bear
nectarines. Commercial farming of nectarines is extensive in California.
iv. Rigidity ; Supporting tissues gives rigidity that plant needs to withstand blows from
outside.
v. Resilience and Flexibility; By the help of supporting tissues, plant sway in the
direction of the wind, breezes, and water without being moved.
EVALUATION
1. List four plant tissues and discuss any one of your choice.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. One of these is not a plant tissue (a) Bark (b) Collenchyma (c) Parenchyma (d )
phloem (e) sclerenchyma.
2. The first cells formed from the meristem are called (a) Xylem (b) Cortex (c)
Epidermis (d) Collenchyma (e) Parenchyma.
3. One of these forms the protective skin of the stem (a) Wood (b) Epidermis (c) Phloem
(d) Cortex (e) Cambium layer.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Sketch an annotated diagram of the cross section of the stem.
i. Phloem
ii. Epidermis.
iii. Endodermis
iv. pith
v. Piliferous layer.
vi. Cortex.
vii. Cambium
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL
Cut a stem of a shrub, and identify all the parts with the aid of a microscope.
WEEK 3
Ecology Concepts
Environment: This refers to all the factors in an organism’s surroundings, living or non-
living. The factors include the place where the organism lives and the physical conditions in
the place, the food, water and air it takes in, the animals that prey on it and the disease that
affect it.
1. Habitat: This is the place where an organism lives. It is the place that is suitable to
the organism’s way of life e.g. the habitat of fish is water.
2. Ecological Niche: This is the functional role and the space / specific portion of
habitat occupied by a particular organism or species. E.g. a caterpillar and an
aphid may live on the same plant but occupy different positions. The caterpillar lives
on the leaves and feeds on them while the aphid lives on the young shoot / stem and
sucks sap from it. The functional role includes the organism’s behaviour, its feeding
habits and breeding habits i.e. the activities carried out while occupying the spaces in
the habitat.
3. Population: This is the total number of all organisms of the same species or kinds,
living together in a given area / habitat. E.g. the total number of Tilapia fish in a pond
constitutes the population of Tilapia fish in that habitat.
4. Community: This is made up of all the populations of living organisms that exist
together in a habitat. It is any natural occurring group of different organisms living
together and interacting in the same habitat. E.g. the community on a rotting log will
include insects like termites, ants, lizards, small birds and decomposers such as
bacteria and fungi.
6. Ecosystem: This is self – supporting unit that is made up of a living part and a non-
living part. It is a community of plants and animals interacting with themselves
and with the non-living factors in their environment.
EVALUATION
1. Define ecology
2. Mention four ecological concepts and explain them
(a) Biotic component: This includes all living things/organisms in an environment. It is also
called the biotic community. It is made up of;
i. Food producer’s e.g. autotrophs (green plants), chemosynthetic bacteria and
protophyta.
ii. Food consumer’s i.e. heterotrophs such as animals, protozoa and some bacteria.
iii. Decomposer’s i.e. saprophytes like fungi and some bacteria.
(b) Abiotic component: This consists of abiotic resources and abiotic conditions
Abiotic resources: These are what organisms need so as to stay alive. E.g. sunlight (a source
of energy) and inorganic nutrients like water, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, phosphorus etc.
Abiotic conditions: These are those factors that determine the kind of organisms that are
found in a particular ecosystem. These factors affect the behaviour, growth and breeding
patterns of organisms, they include;
(a) Climatic factors such as temperature, wind, light intensity, humidity, water currents,
turbidity, rainfall, e.t.c.
(b) Edaphic factors such as soils, rocks, topography, etc.
other factors include air, water, storms, etc.
Characteristics of an Ecosystem
(i) there is a flow of energy
(ii) there is recycling of inorganic nutrients.
The major interaction between the biotic and abiotic components involves feeding. Food
producers like plants, trap sun-light energy and nutrients (e.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen) etc.
from the abiotic environment to make food. The energy and nutrients in the food is passed on
to heterotrophs (consumers) such as animals which feed on plants or on one another. The
animals and plants eventually die and decomposers feed on them thereby obtaining their own
energy. However in the process, the decomposers release the nutrients in the animals and
plants back into the abiotic environment (i.e. the soil). These nutrients can be re-used again
by the food producer’s. Plants also give out oxygen during photosynthesis and this is used by
animals for respiration. Animals give off carbon dioxide during respiration which plants take
up.
NB: As the energy in food is passed from one organism to another it eventually escapes into
the environment and cannot be re-used.
EVALUATION
1. Define (a) biotic factor (b) abiotic factor
2. Give two examples each of the concepts defined above
3. What characteristics make an ecosystem a self- supporting unit.
(1) The forest zone: This is made up of vegetations having mainly trees, they
include:
(a) Mangrove swamp: A forest of tall woody trees with aerial roots. The
rainfall is high and the soil is water logged throughout the year.
Plants here include the white and red mangroves, raffia palms and coconut.
Found in states like the Delta, Cross River, Bayelsa etc. The climate is hot and wet
throughout the year. Rainfall is heavy usually above 2500mm and the average monthly
temperature is around 26ºc for most months of the year.
(b) Tropical Rainforest: Consists of tall trees with buttress roots, with evergreen and broad
leaves. The trees exist in canopies i.e. different layers, and prevent sunlight from reaching the
forest floor, thus the vegetation on the forest floor is sparse. Epiphytes and climbers are
common features in the trees.
The climate is hot and wet throughout the year. The mean annual temperature is 27ºc while
the mean total annual rainfall is 2000mm. These forests are found in states like Oyo, Edo,
Cross River, Ogun, Ondo, Imo and Rivers State.
(b) Northern Guinea Savanna (Sudan Savanna): This has short but numerous grasses. The
trees are scattered, short and deciduous. The trees have thorns while others have thick barks.
The trees include acacia, date palm, baobab and silk cotton plants.
The rainfall is low, about 50-100cm per annum. They may be found in states like plateau,
Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Taraba, Adamawa and Kano.
(c) Sahel Savanna: It has very short and scanty grasses. There are short and tough shrubs or
trees. The plants are mainly drought resistant and scattered examples include acacia, gum
arabic and date palm.
The temperature is very high and rainfall is very low, below 50cm per annum. It may be
found in States like Bornu, Katsina, Sokoto, Yobe, Kebbi, Zamfara, Kano and Jigawa.
EVALUATION
1. What is a biome and how can it be identified?
2. Mention the two major biomes in Nigeria and the types
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Epiphytes are usually found in (a) grassland (b) desert (c) forest (d) marsh land
2. The highest amount of rainfall is recorded in (a) Rainforest (b) Mangrove swamp
(c) savanna (d) desert
3. The Sahel savanna is found in …….. state of Nigeria (a) Akwa Ibom (b) Kogi
(c) plateau (d) Zamfara
4. Most trees in the savanna region (a) have buttress roots (b) have pneumatophores
(c) are deciduous (d) are ever green
5. Which of the following is not an abiotic factor? (a) air (b) food (c) light (d) water
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Make a drawing of the map of Nigeria and outline the local biomes
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL
Make a local visit to any nearby vegetation and make a report of your observations.
WEEK 4
TOPIC: BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
CONTENT: 1. Major biomes of the world
2. Population studies by sampling method
3. Ecological factors
4. Simple measurement of ecological factors
5. Relationship between soil types and water holding effects of soil
on vegetation
(3) Coniferous forest: These consist of needle leaved, evergreen conifers e.g. pines, fires and
spruces. Only a few types of tree are found in these forests. Other plants such as shrubs, ferns
and mosses are also present. The temperature is cool and rainfall is light. There is also light
snow. Examples are found in Eurasia and North America.
(4) Temperate shrubland: Consist of drought-resistant shrubs, aromatic plants and dwarf
trees. The temperature is very high (over 30ºc), rainfall is low, the summers are hot and dry
and the winters are mild and rainy. Examples are found in North-Eastern Brazil, Australia,
and close to the Sahara in West Africa.
(5) Savanna: These are tropical grasslands with few scattered trees. It has a moderately dry
climate, a warm dry season and a hot rainy season. Examples are found in Central America,
Interior of Brazil, West Africa, East Africa, and South-East Asia.
(6) Temperate grassland: Consist of large stretches of perennial grasses growing on very
fertile soil. Examples are the steppes, prairies, plains, pampas and veld. The climate is
moderately dry with a cold winter and hot summer. Examples are Found in the interior
continents in Asia, North America, South America, (Argentina), South Africa and Australia.
(7) Desert: Consist of very sparse vegetation which are mainly succulent perennials with
deep root systems and annuals which exist mainly as seeds, germinate and grow rapidly,
flower and produce seeds during brief periods of rain. Rainfall is very low and temperature is
very high. E.g. Sahara desert (North Africa), Arabian Desert (Arabia), e.t.c.
(8) Tundra: Consists of treeless marshy vegetation composed mainly of dwarf shrubs,
grasses, sedges, lichen and moss. The climate is clod with long icy winters and very short
summers. The average temperature is 10ºc. Examples are the coastal strip of Greenland,
Northern Canada and Alaska, Arctic seaboard of Eurasia.
(9) Mountain vegetation: Consist of evergreen rain forest occurring on the slopes of
mountains. The forests are less luxuriant than the tropical rain forest. The Afro-alpine
vegetation occurs at height above 3000m on mountains. The vegetation consist mainly of
heaths, grasses and sedges. In Africa it is found in Cameroon mountain, Kenya highland and
Kilimanjaro mountain. Temperature decrease with altitude. Rainfall is heavy on the
windward side and less on the leeward side of the mountains.
EVALUATION
1. List six biomes of the world
2. Briefly discuss two biomes of the world.
2. The dominant species: This refers to the species of organisms in a community which exert
a great influence on the habitat and on the other populations. Dominance may be expressed in
terms of their number, size, the portion of space occupied and contribution to the energy flow
of the habitat.
Example: If an area of land of 100m² has an elephant grass population of 1000 plants, the
density of elephant grasses will be;
Total number of individuals
Total area
= 10 elephant grasses / m²
Population density can be used to estimate the total number of individuals of a population i.e.
population size.
(c) Population frequency: This refers to how often the species occurs at different sites in its
habitat. It is recorded as the number of times the organism is sited (seen).
(d) Population growth rate: This refers to the total and final effect of birthrate and death
rate of organisms in the habitat.
(e) Percentage cover: This is the area of ground or space covered (or occupied) by a given
species its habitat. It is expressed in percentage.
(f) Distribution: This refers to the way in which individuals of a particular population are
arranged in a given habitat. The individuals may live in clumps, they may be evenly spaced
or randomly spaced.
Example: If the western half of the habitat contained ¾ of the elephant grasses, then,
Density = ¾ x 1000 = 75Ø = 15 grasses / m²
5Ø
(2) Collection of Animals: Animals are more difficult to collect than plants; however their
presence can be inferred by looking for signs of their presence such as nests, eggs, feaces,
tracks, feathers, etc and by studying the vegetation with which they are associated. To study
animals different types of nets and traps are used in capturing them. The following methods
can be used.
(a) Capture - Recapture method: In this method animals of one type in a particular area are
caught, counted and marked with ink and released. Their number is recorded as A1. The
following day another set is captured and the number recorded as A2.This second batch may
include animals which had been caught and marked the previous day, their number is
recorded as A3. The population of animals present in the area is found using the formula;
Population in area = A1 x A2
A3
This method is based on the assumptions that;
i. Individuals do not move out of or into the ecosystem
ii. The marked individuals are randomly distributed in the population.
iii. The marked individuals are a random sample.
iv. The initial capture and markings do not influence recapture.
v. That none of the marks have worn off during the interval between the two catches.
NB : The results obtained by this method are approximations.
(b) Collection of soil animals with quadrats: The soil animals in an area can be studied by
collecting samples of soil from several sites chosen by tossing a quadrat randomly. A 25%
sodium chloride solution is added to each soil sample and the animals are collected as they
float in the solution.
For earthworms, the sites chosen with the quadrat are irrigated with 25% formalin solution
and the earthworms are collected as they move to the surface of the soil.
EVALUATION
1. What are the major investigations carried out when studying a habitat?
2. A pond with an area of 200m² has a duckweed population of 1,500 plants. Find
(a) The population density
(b) If the western half of the habitat contained ¾ of the duckweed. What is the density of the
eastern half?
3. Explain what a Tullgren’s funnel is and what it is used for.
4. Make a list of traps used for capturing animals for study and describe how captured
animals are kept or preserved.
(2) Edaphic Factors: These are factors related to the nature of soil particles. The word
edaptic refers to the influence of soils on plants and animals. Differences in the soil of a
locality usually produce difference in vegetation since plants are dependent on the soil and
the type of plants determine the type of animals that will be found in the habitat. Edaphic
factors include:
(a) Soil Types: this could be sand, loam or clay. The type of soil determines the fertility of
the soil, its porosity and water retaining capacity.
(b) Soil Texture: The amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil affects its water retaining
capacity. Soil texture refers to the degree of fineness or coarseness of soil particles. It also
affects leaching and erosion.
(c) Soil structure: This refers to the arrangement of the various soil particles in soil. This
affects the level of soil aeration and percolation and the type and level of soil organisms in
the soil.
(d) Soil pH: The pH of soil also affects the type of plants in the habitat e.g. some plants grow
best in acid soils while others prefer alkaline conditions.
(3) Atmospheric factors (Relative Humility): This is a measure of the amount of moisture
in the air. It affects the rate of transpiration from plants and evaporation from animals. As
relative humidity falls, evaporation and transpiration rise as such organisms that live in areas
where humidity is low must prevent water loss from their body surfaces. E.g. in deserts, the
leaves of plants like the cactus are reduced to spines to prevent loss of water.
(2) Depth Of Water: As a body of water becomes deeper, the amount of light and dissolved
oxygen become less, so at the bottom of deep lakes and oceans, there may be too little light
for photosynthesis as such no green plants can grow there. Shallow bodies of water such as
ponds are usually well supplied with oxygen and light and support a lot of plants and animals.
However, these habitats are subject to evaporation and drying up in the dry seasons, the
plants and animals therefore have to develop adaptation to survive such conditions. E.g.
formation of cysts by some protozoans.
(4) Dissolved Gases: This refers to dissolved oxygen. Oxygen concentration of water
decreases with depth. Oxygen is required by most aquatic organisms for respiration as such
organisms which live in stagnant or very deep water have to be able to tolerate low levels of
oxygen concentration. Organisms that require high oxygen concentration, usually live near
the surface of deep water or in fast-flowing rivers and streams e.g. the simulium larva lives in
fast flowing streams.
(5) Tides and Wave Action: Tidal movement refers to the regular rise and fall in the level of
the sea. Organisms which live in the intertidal zone of a seashore have to be able to tolerate
being alternately covered by sea-water and then exposed to air twice daily.
Wave action is also important both in the intertidal and splash zones of the seashore. Most
organisms in these areas are attached to the substratum or live in burrows. Some attach
themselves firmly to rocks and other immovable objects, while some others have hard body
covering to prevent evaporation of water from their bodies. Waves cause the aeration of the
surface waters of the open sea, thus enabling aquatic organisms to have sufficient supply of
dissolved gases for their needs.
(6) Speed of Flow (currents): Plants and animals are affected by the rate at which the water
flow. Some organism’s e.g. spirogyra prefer to live in slow moving stagnant water while
others e.g. Tilapia, prefer fast-flowing water. Many organisms which live in fast-flowing
rivers and streams have adaptations which serve to prevent them from being swept away from
their support by currents in water. Water currents increase aeration and the turbidity of the
water. Currents also carry warm water to colder regions and this affects the distribution of
organisms.
(7) Density: Density of water varies with the type of habitat. The density of fresh water is
about 1.00 while that of sea water is 1.028 at atmospheric pressure and 0ºc. It is easier to
move through air than water because water is more dense, as such aquatic organisms have a
streamlined shape to help them move easily through water. Some organisms that float on the
surface are sensitive to changes in density e.g. eggs of aquatic organisms sink to different
depths depending on the density of the water.
Ecological Factors Common To All Habitats
The ecological factors that affect both the terrestrial and aquatic habitats are mainly climatic
e.g. temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, wind, high intensity hydrogen ion concentration
(pH) and pressure. Of these factors temperature and rainfall determine the type of vegetation
in a region.
(2) Rainfall: Rain is the main source of water to most organisms. It also supplies water to soil
on which land plants depends. It is also the major source of water in rivers, ponds, lakes,
oceans etc. The amount of rainfall in an area has a major effect on the type of vegetation
found there. Low amount of rainfall usually causes drought on land and drying up of
freshwater habitats (which leads to death of animals). Too much rain causes floods and
destruction of vegetation through erosion.
Rainfall increases relative humidity and also increases turbidity of streams, rivers and lakes.
Rainfall is necessary for seed germination. It helps to dissolve nutrients in the soil thus
making them available to plants. It is also necessary for the vegetative growth of most crops
e.g. flowering and proper development of groundnut pods.
Rain water may form puddles and small pools which provide temporary habitats for mosquito
larvae, algae and tadpoles. It is also necessary for the start of new termite colonies.
(3) Light: Light is necessary for photosynthesis in green plants. It affects the productivity of
crops and facilitates flowering and fruiting in some plants. Light is the ultimate source of
energy for all organisms. Light affects the activities of animals e.g. some animals are active
during the day (butterfly) while others are active at night (cockroaches). The ultra-violet rays
of the sun enable animals to manufacture vitamin D.
(4) Wind: Winds are important because they cause water currents and waves thus mixing
water and making food available in aquatic habitat, Winds carry rain bearing clouds. They
also determine a season e.g. In Nigeria, the S/W wind is responsible for the rainy season
while the N/E wind brings the harmattan. Wind has drying effects (on land) and so it
increases the rate of transpiration in plants. In an area exposed to strong winds only
xerophytes can grow there. Winds also aid pollination of flowers and dispersal of seeds and
fruits. Winds increase the rate of evaporation from the soil and in savanna and desert areas it
is a major cause of soil erosion. Winds also play an important role in the establishment of
insects in a given area.
(5) Pressure: Atmospheric pressure decreases from the depths of the ocean upwards to the
higher attitude of the atmosphere. Plants and animals have special adaptations to a particular
level of pressure to enable them survive. For instance in the oceans, the pressure increases by
1.03kg/m² every 10m, so organisms found at depths of about 400m live in conditions of
enormous pressure but are well adapted to such conditions and will not survive at levels with
lower pressure.
(6) Hydrogen ion Concentration (pH): This refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil or
water in a habitat. pH affects the types of plants and animals in a habitat. E.g. some plants
grow best in acidic conditions while others can only grow in alkaline conditions. In aquatic
habitats pH varies with the salinity of the water. Freshwater is neutral while sea water is
fairly alkaline (pH 8.5). Organisms like the freshwater mollusks (Mytilus) are usually absent
in water with a pH less than 6 (i.e. acidic water).
(2) Competition: This may occur between organisms of the same species or different
species. Competition may be for food, space, mates, etc. One of the organisms will eventually
over come the other.
(3) Commensalism: This involves two organisms living together. One of the organisms (the
commensal) benefits from the association while the other organism neither benefits nor is
harmed.
(4) Predation: This involves an organism (called the predator), killing / feeding on another
organism (the prey).
(7) Aeration of the soil by some animals e.g. earthworms, termites, etc.
Evaluation
1. State five ecological factors that (a) affect terrestrial habitats (b) affect aquatic habitats (c)
are common to both habitats
2. Discuss two of each set of factors mentioned above.
(2) Rainfall: This is measured with a rain gauge. This can be made from a tin can, a plastic
funnel and a 50ml measuring cylinder. The amount of rainfall is calculated in millimeters,
with the formula
d
D²x h = rainfall for a period where;
Usually, the height of the water in the cylinder indicates the amount of rainfall after every
storm.
(3) Relative Humidity: Is measured using a wet and dry bulb hygrometer, or a pocket
hygrometer. The pocket hygrometer is exposed to air and the reading taken after the lever
arm has stabilized. The wet and dry bulb hygrometer is swung in air for 30seconds and the
reading on the thermometers taken and converted to relative humidity units using a table of
conversion. The hygrometer may also be kept in a Stevenson’s screen.
(4) Wind: Wind has both speed and direction. Wind direction is measured / indicated by a
wind vane while wind speed is measured with an anemometer (recorded in ms¹)־.
(5) Light Intensity: Is measured by a light meter or photometer. The readings on the meter
are expressed in lux units. The greater the intensity of light, the higher the readings on the
meter and vice-versa.
(7) Water Depth: Is measured with a meter rule or a marked and weighted line knotted at
one meter intervals. The meter rule is attached to a weighted line to ensure that it is vertical in
water.
(8) Water Flow: To measure the speed of flow of a water body, the distance (m) covered per
unit times by a float is taken. The float may be a weight tube and the distance covered has to
be pre-determined. Speed of the current is calculated in meters per second. A simple water-
speed meter can be used to compare the speed of water flow at different positions in a stream
(9) Turbidity: Is measured by slowly sinking a weighted white disc called a secchi disc into
the water, noting the depth at which it just cannot be seen anymore. This is not a real
measurement of turbidity but a useful method of comparing the turbidity of different aquatic
habitats, different sites of the same habitats, or at different times.
(10) Slope: Is measured with a simple slope gauge constructed with a meter rule to which a
protractor is attached. The angle readings on the protractor are read and recorded. Small
angles indicate a steep slope.
(11) Height: The height of objects like tall trees is measured using the principle of similar
triangles.
EVALUATION
State five ecological factors and describe how they are measured.
(2) Clay Soil: This contains more fine clay (60%) and silt particles.
(3) Loamy Soil: This contains a mixture of both clay and sand with some humus in roughly
equal proportion. Loamy soils are the most fertile and the humus in it gives it a mellow tilth
i.e. the size of the soil particles and the air spaces between the particles are the most suitable
for cultivation.
SUGGESTED PRACTICALS
EVALUATION
1. List the three major soil types.
2. Discuss the constituents of the soil types mentioned.
3. Compare the water holding capacities of the three soil types.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The distribution of plants in a rain forest is governed mainly by ……..(a) amount of
sunliught (b) rainfall pattern (c) soil type (d) vegetation
2. The turbidity of a water body can be measured using (a) hygrometer (b) light meter (c)
rain guage (d) secchi disc
3. The number of organisms of a particular species is termed ………(a) community (b)
ecosystem (c) synecology (d) population
4. All these are ecological factors affecting all habitats except ……(a) humidity (b) rainfall
(c) temperature (d) wind
5. Which of the following world biomes is strictly mountain vegetation? (a) Afro-alpine (b)
deciduous forest (c) Mangrove (d) savanna.
ESSAY QUESTION
(1) Describe how the height of a forest tree can be measured.
(2) In a table outline the properties/characteristics of the three major soil types (at least ten
properties)
(3) Make large well labeled drawings of a maximum and minimum thermometer; a rain
gauge, a wind vane, an anemometer, a light meter, a secchi disc, a barometer and a slope
gauge.
WEEK 5
TOPIC: FUNCTIONAL ECOSYSTEM
CONTENT: (a) Autotrophy and Heterotrophy (i) Producers (ii) Consumers (iii) Aquatic and
Terrestrial
In this topic, the question a wise student will ask is; what is ecosystem? First of all, the word
‘eco’ simply means ecology so, it is ecological system. Let us consider this illustration, in a
freshwater habitat where you have aquatic plant such as spirogyra, animals such as tilapia,
frogs and toads. All this living things interact with the non- living environment which
includes the water where they are, the atmosphere, and the soil beneath it. These living things
in the environment together with the non-living environment constitute an ecological system
or ecosystem. Therefore, an ecosystem is defined as the interrelationship between the
living things and their non-living environment
COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
In an ecosystem, there are two major parts; the biotic or living and abiotic or non-living part.
Then from the functional point of view, we have three kinds as producers, consumers, and
decomposers. The producers are always green plants; the consumers are the animals, while
the decomposers are the saprophytes.
Decomposers are organisms which feed on the carcasses of dead producers and consumers
and in the process bring about the decay of such carcasses. Large decomposers such as
insects and earthworms are called macro decomposers, whereas small decomposers, such as
certain bacteria and fungi are known as micro decomposers.
ROLE OF DECOMPOSERS
The role of decomposers is the recycling conversion of materials of dead organic
materials into inorganic materials which are available to the producers in the ecosystem.
Coral Reef in the Red Sea
Coral reefs represent the most complex aquatic ecosystem found on Earth. Although coral reefs can be found
between 30 degrees north and south latitude, the greatest concentration is found between 4 degrees north and south
latitude in the western portions of all major oceans. There are two broad categories of coral reefs: shelf reefs and
oceanic reefs. Shelf reefs include fringing reefs, platform reefs, bank reefs, and barrier reefs and are located on the
continental shelf, while oceanic reefs are found off the continental shelf growing around the margins of volcanic
islands. Coral reefs support greater numbers of fish and invertebrate species than any other ecosystem in the ocean.
EVALUATION
1. Define the term ecosystem.
2. List the two major parts of the ecological system
3. Outline four classes of consumer with on example each.
4. Write the two types of decomposers.
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1. A domestic fowl belong to (a) omnivores (b) quaternary consumer (c) primary
consumer (d) secondary consumer (e) tertiary consumer.
2. Some gaseous products of decomposition include all of these except (a) ammonium
Chloride (b) carbon (iv) oxide (c) ammonium (d) hydrogen sulphide (e) hydrogen
oxide.
ASSIGNMENT
i. Write short notes on (a) autotrophs (b) Heterotrophs.
ii. Sketch the organogram of the ecosystem
iii. Find out the group of consumers the Carnivores belong.
iv. Give an instance in writing to show how living things interact with their non living
environment.
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL
Carry out an activity to show that heat is released during decomposition.
SUB-TOPIC: FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEBS AND TROPHICAL LEVELS
As living and non-living things interact, energy is transferred from one level to the other. The
ecosystem actually operates as a movement where all organisms depend on the primary
producers, the green plants.
I. FOOD CHAIN
Food chain is the transfer of food energy from producers (green plants) to a series of
organisms in a habitat. In the arrangement of the food chain, the natural rule is that it must
start from a producer or an autotroph. Some examples of food chain are below:
1. Grass Grasshopper Lizard Snake.
2. Plankton Tilapia Water snake.
3. Dead wood Termite Frog Hawk.
Note: that each level of competition in the food chain is called a trophic level. Looking at
example 1, it represents the terrestrial habitat.
II. FOOD WEB: considering food chain energy pathway, you will observe that it is a single
energy pathway. In the actual sense, such simple food chains as shown above rarely exist
within a community because consumers rarely depend on only one type of food. Often a
particular food item is eaten by more than one consumer. Therefore, a network of
interrelated food chains forms what is called a food web.
V. PYRAMID OF NUMBERS:
This is the progressive drop in the population at each higher or successive trophic level of the
food chain or the relative decrease in number or organisms in a food chain as one ascends the
higher trophic levels.
VI. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: The pyramid of Biomass (or standing crop) indicates, by
weight, the total mass of individuals or organisms at each trophic levels.
a pyramid of biomass
NUTRIENT MOVEMENT
Nutrient movement refers to the chemical energy in form of carbohydrates, fats, protein, and
other nutrients are distributed among producers, consumers and decomposers. It just about
how nutrients flow from one energy level to the other in the ecosystem.
ENERGY FLOW
Under this topic, we shall consider the following: Food pyramid, Pyramid of Numbers,
Pyramid of biomass, and Pyramid of Energy. In any natural community, the number of
individuals at the lower part of the food chain or web is greater than those above. Producers
are therefore greater than primary consumers, and secondary consumers less in number than
the primary consumers. This number reduces till the terminal group of organism is reached
which have no predators depending on them for food. When these numbers are
diagrammatically represented, a pyramid of numbers is obtained.
EVALUATION
1. Explain the following with a typical example: Food Chain, Food Web, and trophic
level.
2. Why is the energy flow in the ecosystem not cyclic.
3. What is nutrient movement?
4. Write a short note on energy flow.
5. State two the differences between pyramid of numbers and the pyramid of energy.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. In aquatic habitat, one of these is a primary producer (a) plankton (b) grass (c) tilapia
(d) shark (e) Amoeba
2. Which of the following organisms feed directly on green plants? (a)decomposer (b)
secondary consumer (c) producer (d) primary consumer (e) tertiary consumer.
3. Trophic levels refers to the part of (a) biosphere (b) hydrosphere (c) a habitat (d) a
food web (e) a food chain.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1a. Define the term (i) consumers (ii) producers.
b. Classify the following organisms: cow, bacteria, green plants, herbivores, fungi, and man
into producer, primary, secondary and tertiary consumer.
2. Sketch a diagram of typical food web
WEEK 6
DATE: ………………………
TOPIC: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN NATURE
CONTENT:
1. Energy Loss in the Ecosystem (i) Solar radiation (ii) Energy Loss in the Biosphere
(iii) Measure of primary production e.g. the amount and rate of energy fixation
2. Laws of thermodynamics.
Solar Energy: Only about 2% of solar energy is used by green plants while the rest is lost to
the earth’s surface. Thus, energy is a limited factor in the production of autotrophs.
The first law of thermodynamics states that when one form of energy is converted into
another, the total quantity of energy is constant (there is no net loss or gain in energy) that is
to say that energy is neither created nor destroyed. Hence, in the process of burning, chemical
energy of wood changes into heat and light. In a motor vehicle, energy in form of fuel
changes into mechanical energy. So, energy can only be converted from one form to the
other.
Second Law Of Thermodynamics: The law states that when one form of energy is
converted into another, a proportion of it is converted into heat. The second law of
thermodynamics is sometimes known as the entropy law; entropy being a measure of disorder
in terms of unavailable energy in a closed thermodynamic system.
How the Laws are Used to Explain Energy Flow across the Trophic Level
Pyramid of energy
1. According to the first law, energy is transferred into a variety of other forms in the
successive trophic level but the sum total is constant.
2. Using the second law, we observe that during energy transformation in the successive
trophic levels, a proportion of it is converted into heat which is lost, hence the
progressive drop in energy in successive trophic levels and also the pyramidal shape
of feeding relationship.
Food Chain
1. In accordance with first law, chemical energy stored in plants, can be converted into
light energy in glow- worm which in turn is converted into electrical energy in fire-fly
and when eaten by man, it is converted into mechanical energy in muscular
contraction without any loss or gain.
2. The second law shows that when energy flows through a food chain, only a small
proportion of the energy taken up by each link is transferred to the next step. This is
because at each transfer, most of the energy is lost as heat.
EVALUATION
1. State the laws of thermodynamics
2. Explain the term entropy law.
3. How does law of thermodynamics apply to pyramid of energy?
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. The first law of thermodynamics states that (a) energy is gained but not lost (b) there is
no net gain or loss of energy (c) energy is converted only once (d) the conversion of
energy is specific and non directional (e) energy is loss through enthalpy.
2. Only about ---percent of solar energy is used by green plants (a) 10% (b) 20% (c) 2%
(d) 5% (e) 80%
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain what happens when heat is lost in a food chain.
2. Explain various ways through which energy flow from the producer to you.
WEEK 8
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
DATE------------------
CLASS: SS I
TOPIC: RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE
CONTENT:
1. Classification of Plants
- Botanical classification
- Agricultural classification
- Classification based of life cycle
2. Effects of Agricultural Activities on Ecological system
3. Pests and Diseases of Agricultural importance
i. Botanical classification
ii. Nature and uses of products
iii. Life cycle
I. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
This is the classification system of flora and fauna that uses the binomial system of
nomenclature in which every plant is given two names (generic and specific names). The
generic names are always written first starting with capital letter while the Last which is the
specific names are written in small letters. The names are either italised or underlined
separately. E.g. Rhizopus nigricans or Marchantia Palmata.
Based on what is present or absent on the plants, Botanist grouped plants by considering the
plants structure, presence of flower and mode of reproduction.
a. Thallophyta: these are plants that have bodies called thalli. They lack organs like
roots, stems, leaves, flowers and vascular tissues. Examples: Algae, fungi, bacteria
and Lichens.
b. Bryophyta: the plants are multicellular and non vascular. They have stem-like and
leaf-like structures but lack roots. Bryophytes live in moist place and reproduce by
spores. They have rhizoids through which the plant absorbs nutrients from the soil.
c. Pteridophyta: they are multicellular plants with true roots, stems and leaves but lack
flowers. The vascular system os primitive as well as chlorophyll. They reproduce by
spores. Some of them are aquatic while some are terrestrial e.g. ferns (Dryopteris,
Nephrolepsis).
i. Cereals: these plants belong to the grass family. The grains have a high starch content
and varying amounts of proteins e.g. maize, rice, millet, wheat and guinea corn.
ii. Legumes: these plants are important source of dietary protein. They also supply
protein-rich fodder for livestock in tropical countries. Legumes replenish soil
nitrogen-fixing bacteria are present in their root nodules. Examples include beans,
cowpea, soya-bean, groundnut, oil bean, lina bean and yam-bean.
iii. Root crops: they are grown mainly for starch and form the staple food of the people
in many tropical countries; e.g. cassava, yam and sweet potato.
iv. Vegetables: they are grown to supply dietary vitamins and certain minerals like
calcium. Examples include tomato, okra, onion, pepper and spinach.
v. Fruits: fruits are rich sources of vitamins especially vitamins A and C, minerals and
sugars. Most fruits are eaten raw. Examples include orange, banana, pineapple,
plantain, mango and pawpaw.
vi. Beverages and drugs: the crops which yield these product include cocoa, coffee,
tobacco and guinea.
vii. Spices: pepper, ginger, cinnamon and cloves belong to this group. They are used
mainly for flavouring food.
viii. Oils: oils producing plants include coconut, oil palm, shea-butter and groundnut.
ix. Latex: when a cut is made on the trunks of certain trees, a milky fluid called latex
flows out. The rubber tree produces white latex which is coagulated into exported
rubber.
x. Fibres: Plants such as jute, hemp and button are grown for their fibres which are used
for making ropes and cloth.
xi. Forage crops: these are grasses and legumes that are grown for animal feed.
i. Ephemerals: These are plants that complete their life cycles within three to four
monthes and can undergo two to three life cycles within a growing season. Examles
include waterleaf (eg Talinum triangularare,) goat weed (Ageratum conyziodes).
ii. Annuals: these are plants that complete their entire life cycle and die within one
growing season which may be from a few months to a year. Examples include rice,
wheat, maize, beans, flax, jute and sunflower.
iii. Biennials: these are plants which complete their life cycled in two years. The plant
grow and store food during the first growing season to produce and use it in the
second growing season to produce flowers fruits and seed before they die. Examples
include cabbage, turnip and radish.
iv. Perennials: these plants complete their life cycles in many years or have many
growing seasons for life cycles to be completed e.g. mango, orange, oil palm, and
ginger.
EVALUATION
Agricultural activities involve both growing of crops as well as rearing of farm animals.
Ecological system refers to the interrelationship between living organisms and their
environments. The natural dynamic balance between plant and animal communities in the
ecosystem is often disturbed by agricultural activities such as burning and tillage. Bush
burning
Roadside Market in Bulgaria
People buy red peppers and other vegetables at a farmers’ market in a suburb of Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria.
Although privatization of Bulgaria’s economy has been slow, most farmland once controlled by the state is now
owned by independent farmers.
In many places, some areas used for cropping is always set on fire before the cropping
season. The ash produced by the burnt rubbish increases the alkaline content of the soil. This
replaces the acidity of the soil in most tropical African soil. In contrast, burning exposes the
soil surface to erosion by wind and rain, reduces the humus content of soil, destroys micro-
organisms of the soil, kills small animals such as insects and earthworms, and destroys other
important plants and animals. As a result, the balance of the ecosystem is disturbed by bush
burning.
Pesticides
The use of pesticides in some cases disturbs the dynamic balance of the ecosystem in some
unexpected ways. Insecticides affect both beneficial and harmful insects. DDT is a very
stable compound; instead of being excreted by animals, it is stored in their body fats when
such fat is oxidized during respiration in some animals, harmful quantities of DDT may be
librated into the blood.
Effects of different types of farming have effects both desirable and undesirable on ecological
systems.
Different kinds of farming have effects both desirable and undesirable on ecological systems.
These effects are explained below.
(a) Shifting cultivation: the method is possible where population is small and where land
is abundant. Ecologically, large population with small land results in overuse which
inturn leads to total loss of soil fertility.
(b) Crop rotation: crops grown are rotated in success seasons. The method gives better
yield for respective crops because different crop make different demand of mineral
elements of the soil.
(c) Mixed farming: this involves keeping livestock and growing plants side by side. As
the product of crops is being used as food to feed livestock, the remains (faeces) of
the livestock can also be used as manure for the farm crops.
EVALUATION
ASSIGNMENT
State three advantages and disadvantages each of the following:
i. Shifting cultivation
ii. Crop rotation
iii. Mixed farming
iv. Mixed cropping
v. Pastoral farming
vi. Mono cropping
vii. Bush fallowing
PESTS OF ANIMALS
Animals or livestock pests are often parasitic on their victims. Livestock pests are either
ectoparasites or endoparasites.
i. Ectoparasites: some of them are vectors of diseases e.g. ticks vectors of tick fever and heart
water disease of cattle, sheep and goats. Other ectparasites of livestock are lice, nites, fleas
and flies.
ii. Endoparasites: these include flat worm (e.g. tapeworm and liver fluke) or round worm (e.g.
Ascaris, Hookworms) or protozoa e.g. Trypanosome and coccidian which cause coccidiosis.
Endoparasites injure the tissue or organs in which they live. They cause wasting, stunting and
death of livestock when they occur in large numbers.
Control of Endoparasites
Two main effective ways of controlling endoparasites are:
i. The use of appropriate drugs as directed by the veterinary department.
ii. Proper management to ensure that domestic livestock does not come in contact with the
parasitic eggs or larvae.
EVALUATION
1. State three general effects of pest and diseases on crops and animal.
2. Name two plant pest and how they can be effectively controlled.
3. State two main effective ways controlling endoparasites of livestock.
4. Use a table to describe the causative organism, the host, the major symptoms and control
measures of the following diseases:
(a) Mosaic (b) black pod (c) coccidiosis (d) ringworm.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The following are examples of cereals except (a) maize (b) rice (c) millet (d) bean
2. Which of the following does not belong to the major four divisions of plant kingdom (a)
thallophyta (b) tracheophyta (c) pteridophyta (d) bryophyte
3. Which of the following pest control method involves the use of pest enemies? (a) cultural
method (b) biological method (c) physical method (d) chemical method
4. Which of the following is affected by black pod diseases? (a) oil palm (b) cocoa (c) rubber (d)
cowpea
5. Which of the following diseases is caused by a virus? (a) mosaic (b) brown spot (c) black pod
(d) anthracnose
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. (a) List any four main divisions of the plant kingdom.
(b) List any ten classifications of plants based on the nature and uses of their products, giving two
examples in each group.
2. (a) In a tabular form state any five differences between monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
(a) Discuss any five agricultural practices that have harmful and beneficial effects on these plants
stating their effects on these plants and how they can be controlled.
3. Mention any four pests of named plants and how they can be controlled.
4. (a) List any five groups of animal diseases and give one example each.
(b)Briefly discuss the effects of bush burning on a piece of farm land.
5. (a) State four ways of controlling plant pests and discuss any two of them.
(b) Use a table to explain the causative organism, host, major symptoms and control
measures of the following diseases (i) coccidiosis (ii) Newcastle (iii) anthracnose
(iv) brown spot.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
List five environmental factors that affect the production of crops and identify any way by
which farm crops are wasted.
WEEK 9
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS1
CONTENT:
1. Food production and storage
(a) Ways of improving crop yield
(b) Causes of wastage
(c) Methods of persevering and storing food.
2. Population growth and food supply
3. Relationship between availability of food and human population (effects of
storage).
4. Government efforts to increase food production (e.) agricultural revolution.
Adequate food production makes food available for teaming population to be well fed. It also
earns the country foreign exchange through exportation of food crops. One the other hand,
food shortage will increase death rate and cause migration of people to where food is
available. There will be competition among organism which in turn leads to starvation and
cannibalism. Natality or birth rate will be affected through avoidance of marriage.
The methods commonly used in preservation and storage of foods include the following:
i. Drying: food items such as meat and fish can be dried to preserve food and prevent damage.
Drying remove water from food and prevent growth of organism that can cause decay.
ii. Salting: common salt is added to fish and meat. Salt kills the bacteria by high osmosis
pressure.
iii. Refrigerating/ freezing: keeping food at low temperature prevents bacteria growth. Meat,
fish and vegetables are preserves in this way.
iv. Smoking: this removes water from food and prevents growth of microbes on food. Microbes
are killed by poisonous substances such as phenols, present in the smoke.
v. Canning: if the food is sealed and air excluded, growth of micro organisms will be
impossible. High temperature kills the microbes and kills the microbes and keeps the food.
vi. Chemicals: the application of preservatives and protective chemicals on the food keep pests
away and also prevents bacteria and fungi from growing on the food, thereby preventing
decay.
vii. Pasteurisation: it is special method of preserving milk. Milk is pasteurised by heating to 72%
for 15 seconds and then cooled rapidly. This destroys micro organisms, thereby preventing
the milk from becoming sour very quickly.
Other methods of food preservation are fermentation and radiation.
Pest Control or Pollution?
Pest control has become a difficult issue for farmers because of its potential environmental impact. Although the
insecticide being sprayed on this potato field will eliminate a generation of Colorado potato beetles, it may also
contaminate local food and water sources.
EVALUATION
1. List three dangers of inadequate food supply to the population.
2. State four ways of improving crop yield.
3. State five causes of crop wastage
4. List seven method of food preservation
EVALUATION
i. Define population.
ii. State three factors that influence population of an habitat
iii. List three effects of inadequate food supply on population
iv. Describe an experiment that shows the effect of food supply on population.
Due to climate, drought, poor agricultural planning, political instability, war, and the mismanagement of natural
resources, there were about 820 million undernourished people in the developing world in 2006. Only a small
percentage of hunger deaths are caused by starvation. Most hunger-related deaths are the result of chronic
malnutrition, which weakens the body's ability to fight diseases. In 2003, almost 16,000 children were dying from
hunger-related causes each day.
EFFECTS OF FOOD STORAGE
Naturally, some crops are meant to grow in wet season while some few are grown in the dry
season. If there is no good storage facilities, distribution of food across the season will be
difficult; as there would be a period of plenty of food and another period of food shortage. To
strike a balance, storage facilities will make equitable distribution of food and food will be
available in required quantities at all seasons. Advantages of food storage include the
following:
i. Provision of employment opportunities i.e. to workers in processing industries.
ii. Provision of adequate food supply during period of war and natural disaster.
iii. Stabilisation of food prices at all season. Equitable distribution of food will prevent
unnecessary high demand for food at any time which may lead to like in prices of
food.
iv. It ensures economic use of food by preventing spoilage at time of plenty and adequate
supply of food at off-harvest period.
v. Provision of foreign exchange to improve the economy of the nation. Food can be
used as aids to countries in need as love and donations.
EVALUATION
1. Name five crops that are produced during the wet season but are scarce during the dry
season.
2. State two needs for food storage.
3. State four importance of food storage.
Agriculture in Iraq
Agriculture, an important part of the Iraqi economy, became even more essential after the United Nations (UN)
imposed trade sanctions on the country in 1990, following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. Iraqi farmers grow grains,
dates, grapes, figs, and other crops, while nomadic and seminomadic Iraqi herders raise livestock. Yet before the
UN trade embargo, Iraq had imported approximately 70 percent of its food. This photograph shows an Iraqi
farmer bagging grain.
EVALUATION:
i. List three agricultural programme established by the government to boast food
production.
ii. State three factors that hinders food production.
iii. State four ways by which the government can improve food in Nigeria.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following factors does not affect population growth? (a) food supply (b) games
and sport (c) reproduction (d) migration
2. Food can be preserve through all except (a) fermentation (b) washing (c) pasteurisation (d)
radiation.
3. Which of the following does not cause food wastage? (a) storage (b) pest (c) diseases (d)
delayed harvesting
4. Which of the following is not an outcome of inadequate food supply to a population(a)
migration (b)competition (c) population growth (d) cannibalism
5. Which of the following factors does not have adverse effect on food production? (a)
unfavourable climate condition (b) outbreak of pest and diseases (c) irrigation system (d)
good road network
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. (a)List ten method of food preservation.
(b)Discuss any two methods of food preservation.
2. (a)State any five environmental factors that affect crop production.
(c) State any five ways by which farm crops are wasted.
3. (a) list three major consequences of food shortage in the world growing population.
(a) Describe an experiment to show the effects of food supply on population
4. (a) State five causes of crop wastage.
(b) State four ways of improving crop yield and discuss any one of them.
5. (a) Name three agricultural programmes aimed at increasing food production.
(b) State five ways by which government can improve food production in Nigeria.
WEEK 10
BIOLOGY
CONTENT:
1. Micro organism in air and water.
(i) Group of micro organisms: bacteria, viruses, some algae, protozoa, fungi.
(ii) Concept of culturing
2. Identification of micro-organism in (i) Air (ii) pond water (iii) river (iv)concept of culturing
3. Micro-organisms in our bodies and food.
4. Carriers of micro organisms – examples, location of the micro-organism in carriers and types
of micro organism.
MICROBES
Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1733) was the first scientist to discover microbes with
his newly invented microscope.
Micro-organisms are dreaded as disease causing agents (germs). However, many microbes
are of great benefits to man e.g. saprophytic microbes that bring about decay of organic
matter. Those microbes that affect man negatively are mainly the parasitic ones which are
called pathogem.
Micro organism are found everywhere- in the air, water, siol, in our own food, on our food on
surfaces of object, and on inside living organisms, on our bodies, inside of our bodies and on
our clothes in shut, anywhere everywhere.
1. Groups of micro organisms:
Microbes are very many and are grouped as follows:
I. Bacteria
II. Viruses
III. Some algae
IV. Protozoa
V. Some fungi
Most microbes are unicellular but some fungi and algae are multi-cellular. Several microbes
survive adverse conditions of temperature or humidity by forming spaces the within the cell.
On the return of favourable condition of the spores are released carried in the air and on
landing on suitable substrate grow and produce more spores.
Hepatitis B Virus
The hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes inflammation of the liver. The virus is recognizable
under magnification by the round, infectious “Dane particles” accompanied by tube-shaped,
empty viral envelopes. Symptoms of hepatitis B infection include jaundice and a flulike
illness, while chronic infection can lead to serious problems such as cirrhosis and cancer of
the liver.
I. BACTERIA
Bacteria can be seeing with the use of light microscope. It has a simple structure. It is
unicellular. It is a prokaryotic cell i.e it does not have a true nucleus. Heredity materials are
contained in a strand of DNA (Deoxyribose nucleic acid) inside the cell.
a) Plant diseases caused by bacteria e.g. web blight in cowpeas, black arm in cotton
etc.
II. VIRUSES
They are unicellular in nature, without nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane. Smaller
than bacteria and can only be seen under electron microscope. Virus lack life. Thus it
cannot respire nor carry out metabolism. They can only survive inside living cells.
Types of viruses
Viruses can be grouped based on:
(a) Type of nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)
(b) Nature of Protein coat
III. ALGAE
They are mainly free-living microscopic plants. They survive in a wide range of habits such as
wet soil, fresh water, sea etc. they have chlorophyll to a number of other pigments giving rise to
green algae, brown algae, blue/green algae etc. examples of algae are: Sprirogyra, volvox, chlamy
domonas,nostoc, Diatoms etc.
IV. PROTOZOA
These are unicellular microscopic animals. They are found in damp soil and water. Some of them
are parasitic while others live freely in their habit. Examples of parasitic protozoa are:
Trypanosome, plasmodium etc. examples of free-living Protozoa are: Amoeba, Paramecium etc.
parasitic protozoans are pathogens that cause disease like Malaria, sleeping sickness, Bilharziasis
etc.
V. FUNGI:
These are non-green simple plants. They feed Saprophytically or parasitically. Saprophytic fungi
such as mucor, yeast, penicilium are useful to man. Parasitic fungi do cause diseases which are
unpleasant to man. Example of animal diseases caused by fungi is: Ringworm, Athelet’s foot,
mouth thrush, candidioses etc. plant diseases caused by parasitic fungi are: mildews, spots, wild,
blights and Rots.
CONCEPT OF CULTURING
Culturing is a technique of growing micro-organisms in the laboratory for the studying the
microbes.
The process has to do with:
i. Preparing a sterile medium
ii. Inoculating
iii. Incubating
iv. Examining micro-organism in the medium.
While bacteria, fungi and algae can be grown in test tubes and Petri dishes in culture media,
viruses cannot be grown. They can only grow and multiple inside living cells of an organism.
Through Tissue culture, living tissues and cells of multi-cellular organism are cultured in
appropriate media and studied. To carry out studies involving viruses, are cultured in the
laboratory by injecting the virus into the fertilized Bird egg e.g. egg of duck.
On the culture medium, micro-organisms occur as colonies. Colonies of micro-organism do
clump together in large number of organism of the same kind. Colour, appearance other
characteristics of the colonies enable the investigator to identify and differentiate microbes in
a culture medium.
EVALUATION
1a. What are Micro-organism?
b. List the important groups, giving examples of each group.
2a. Expalin the concept of culturing.
b. What steps will you take in preparing a culture solution and state precautions in preparing
it.
c. Identify sources of samples for culturing.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Read up Identification of Micro-organisms in the Air, Pond water, Rivers and Streams and
Micro-organism in our bodies and food.
2. Read more on concept of culture. Modern Biology Pg 166-170 and
(a) outline different types of culture.
(b) state importance of tissue culture.
Spirochete
Bacteria, included within the kingdom Prokaryotae, are single-celled organisms
lacking a well-defined internal cellular organization. The bacterium
Leptospirilla ichterohemorrhagiae, pictured here, exhibits the spirochete, or
spiral, structure characteristic of many of the 1600 species of bacteria.
MICRO ORGANISMS IN WATER AND THEIR EXAMPLES:
1. Bacteria: examples – aquatic species of coccus, Baccillus, Pseudomonas, Azobacter,
Thiobacillus, Sarcinina, spirillum, Micrococcus, Vibro and Spirochaeta. These bacteria are
either heterotrophic, autotrophic and chemotrophic.
2. Blue – green algae: examples; oscillatoria, nostoc, anabaena,
3. Protists: these are autotrophic diatoms e.g. chlamydomonas, cholera and some species of
euglena as well as heterotrophic amoeba and paramecium.
4. Algae: these are located close to the shore of where they form thick green floating mesh e.g.
spirogyra, volvox etc. Algae arte major part of primary producers in the aquatic habitat since
they contain chlorophyll and can photosynthesis.
Millions of micro-organisms living inside and outside the human body. These microbes are
non-pathogenic. They are regarded as the normal micro flora which plays importance role in
the body.
This normal micro flora prevents pathogen from invading the body as well as secretes certain
substances that inhibits or kills some other pathogens. Weakened immune systems ,
indiscriminate use of antibiotics, unhygienic practices like smoking and intake of alcohol
malnutrition, stress etc could make non-pathogen to become pathogenic harmful to the body
as the normal micro flora become disturbed.
Pathogens harm the body by using up the hosts’ nutrients thereby starving the tissue of the
host.
Through their actions they damage tissues of the affected part of the host as well as produce
toxins that negatively affect the functioning of particular organs or body systems of the
individual.
Anthrax Bacteria
An electron micrograph shows a cluster of bacteria, Bacillus anthracis, in a capillary of
a lung. The bacteria cause anthrax, a disease in humans and animals that can result in
death. Anthrax can be cured when treated early with antibiotics.
CAREER OF MICRO-ORGANISM
Apart from the various means through which microbes get into our body already discussed,
there are certain organisms that carry micro-organisms that can affect man negatively about.
These organisms are called Careers are usually insects and mammals. The hairy nature of the
insect body traps the microbes and gets carried from place to place. The natural habitats of
these insects include latrines, food stores, dung hills and other similar places where microbes
abound. The careers pick up the pathogens and bring them to exposed human food. As they
land on these exposed food to feed on them, the microbes are transferred to the food which
could be eaten by man and consequently bring about infection and diseases. These careers are
called Vectors. The pathogen neither grow nor affect them adversely hence, they are called
Vectors. Vectors are primary to the pathogen while man is the secondary Host.
EVALUATION
1. What are careers? Give two examples.
2. State the habitat of the career named above.
Streptococcus Bacteria
This scanning electron micrograph shows disease-causing Streptococcus bacteria,
commonly found in the human mouth, throat, respiratory tract, bloodstream, and
wounds. Often airborne in hospitals, schools, and other public places, Streptococcus
bacteria are responsible for infections such as strep throat, scarlet fever, and some types
of pneumonia.
EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms: (i)natural microflora (ii) pathogen (iii) careers (iV) vectors
2. Name and describe the two methods by which pathogens are carried from place to place.
3. List the important groups of micro-organisms and give one example from the group.
4. What is culture?
5. Outline the steps you will take in preparing a culture solution.
GENERAL EVALUATION
(Objectives)
1. One of the micro-organisms cannot exist on its own (a) bacterium (b) an algae (c) a virus (d)
fungus (e) protozoa
2. Which of the following can be grown only in a tissue culture? (a) a virus (b) a bacteria (c) an
algae (d) a fungus (e) a protozoan.
3. Which of the following statements is false? (a) micro-organisms exists in water and air (b)
micro-organisms exist inside very small organisms (c) micro-organisms exists inside bodies
(d) hand lens can be used to observe and study micro-organisms (e) housefly are expanded of
vectors
4. Micro-organisms are important in recycling nutrients because; (a) they are capable of
multiplying by space of formation (b) many of them are parasites (c)they are many and are
found everywhere (d) they are capable of breaking dead organic material (e) they can
multiply very quickly
5. Facultative bacteria are ----- (a) unable to survive in aerobic environment (b) unable to
survive in anaerobic environment (c) can only survive in aerobic environment (d) can survive
in both aerobic and anaerobic environment (e) none of the above
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1a. what do you understand by micro-organisms?
b. Describe how micro-organisms enter our bodies with examples and steps preventing
them.
c. list the groups of micro-organism with examples.
2a. List micro-organisms found in water with examples.
b. micro-organism in 2a can be grouped into 3, name these groups with short
explanations.
c. A group of aquatic micro organisms are known as primary producers explain.
3a. what is culture?
b. What steps are entails in preparing a culture solution
c. Outline precautions to observe in preparing a culture solution.
4a. Describe an experiment to show that atmospheric Air contains micor-organisms.
b. What are the functions of natural normal micrflora in and on human body?
c. List two insects and three mammalian vectors, stating the following for each
organism: (i) micro-organisms (ii) Disease caused (iii) possible control of spread
5a. Define the following terms: (a) natural microflora (ii) pathogen (iii) careers (iv)
vectors
b. Write short notes on the importance of micro-organism to man in the area of (i)
medicine (ii) agriculture
SUGGESTED PRACTICALS:
1. Preparation of culture solution
2. Examine the presence of microbes in Air, water, saliva, under nail.
3. Classification of bacteria using different criteria
WEEK 11------------------------Revision
WEEK 12------------------------Examination