THEORY & DESIGN OF

STRUCTURES
C3 -05 (5S3 NVQ 2045)

Eng. Y.A.P.M Yahampath

B Sc. Eng (Hons), Dip Highway & Traffic Eng, AMIESL, AMECSL
Lecture Hours Allocated
Lecture / Tutorial Practical Demonstrations/ Self Study Total
Industrial visits

72 Hrs 00 Hrs 38 Hrs 110 Hrs

Unit Title Time (Hrs)

Combined Direct & Bending stresses 10
Principle stresses & strain 06
Structural design principles 06
Designing of Reinforced concrete 26
elements
Design of structural steel elements 18
Structural detailing 06
Total 72
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
PRINCIPLES
Fundamental concept of structural design
Use of code of practice
Design simple structural Elements
What is Structural Design?
• Structural designing is fundamental to the civil engineering discipline as it deals
directly with the structural strength and integrity of buildings or structures.
• It includes planning, designing, and structural analysis of large structures like
skyscrapers, bridges, tunnels, towers, and even off-shore structures like oil rigs.
• Civil engineers are required to use structural design to ensure the safety and
stability of the structure
• Structural designing is based on applying the principles of physical laws and
mathematics into building structures. With empirical research and analysis, civil
engineers have to use structural design to analyze the structural design of the
building and the strength of different materials used to determine its safety and
economical specifications.
• Structural design ensures that the planned structure will be sufficiently strong
enough to bear its intended load and withstand possible environmental
conditions.
What is the purpose of structural design?
Structural design is the methodical investigation of the
• stability,
• Strength
• Rigidity of structures
• Serviceability
• The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure
capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life.
Ensures Build & Design of the Structure
• Structural designing provide all the crucial information about foundations, walls,
floors, roof types, steep beams, material quality, and more to ensure that the
structure is built to be safe and sound.
• It is essential for civil engineers to work with design aesthetics and build
structures that can withstand its loads and pressures without leading to any
mishaps.
• Indeed, building a structure without considering the structural design of it always
remains under the high risk of collapsing under its own weight or due to the
environmental pressures.
• Structural designing is hence crucial to construction projects as it directly impacts
the safety and durability of the structures.
Provides Analysis of the Structure
• Civil engineers are required to perform a thorough and detailed analysis of the
structure with respect to the principles of the structural design.
• This helps to ensure that the new structure meets up all the necessary safety
criteria and design codes.
• Moreover, when an in-depth analysis of the structure is made, it helps bring out
information about the load that the building is capable of bearing, the wind
velocity it can withstand, and the overall utility and capability of the building
under different environmental conditions.
• For instance, knowing the accurate estimation of the magnitude of tremors a
skyscraper can withstand and the safe weight maximums on bridges can surely
help prevent any catastrophes in future.
Helps Ensure Efficient Material Management
• Structural designing is also interlinked with ensuring the efficient use of
construction materials and resources. Civil engineers have to determine the
optimal material grade to ensure safety and operational use of the structures
without any unnecessary costs.
Procedure of Structural Design
Once the architectural engineer sets the function and layout of the structure, the
role of the structural engineer begins which can be summarized in the following
steps to develop a safe, functional and economic structures.

STEP 1: CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

STEP 2: DETERMINING THE INTERNAL FORCES OF EACH ELEMENT
STEP 3: ITERATIVE DESIGN
STEP 4: FOUNDATION DESIGN
STEP 5: DRAFTING
STEP 1: CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
• In this stage, initial design of the building elements (e.g. slabs, beams, columns
…etc.) is performed based on code recommendations.

• It starts with selecting the appropriate columns’ locations and orientation in such
a way that they do not interfere with the architectural drawings.
• For example, you do not want a column to be in the middle of a room or
something like that. Also, one should consider that at least 30% of the total
number of columns to be in either x- or y- directions to give adequate earthquake
resistance of the building.

• After that, the type of structural system is selected. For instance, the slab might
be chosen to be solid slab, hollow block or flat slab … etc. Accordingly, the
location of beams are determined.
STEP 2: DETERMINING THE INTERNAL FORCES OF EACH
ELEMENT
• After finishing the initial design, the exact dimensions of each building element
shall be determined.
• First, an analysis model is created for the building with its initial dimensions as
determined from STEP 1 on an analysis software such as SAP 2000.

• All the loads that act on the structure have to defined in the model such as dead
loads, live loads, wind and earthquake loads … etc.

• From the model, the internal forces [Normal Force, Shear Force, Bending
Moments] on each elements is calculated.
STEP 3: ITERATIVE DESIGN
• Now you have the straining actions on the elements based on the initial sizing
and simply, you can use them to design according to the relevant code.
• The design process became so easy by using some spreadsheets or any other
software that facilitates the design.

• Next, the analysis model should be modified to the new dimensions obtained
from the previous design and the analysis is re-run. Internal forces are obtained
and design is made again based on the new forces.

• This iterative process is repeated until the element design be the same in two
following iterations.
STEP 4: FOUNDATION DESIGN
• After the final dimensions of members are found, the foundation system
type can be selected taking in consideration, the bearing capacity of the soil
and the loading coming from the structure.
STEP 5: DRAFTING
• In this step, the structural plans
are created. These plans should
be fully detailed such that the
construction process in the site
can proceed smoothly and not
delayed due to missing data in
the drawings.
Load Path On
Structure
TYPES OF LOADS ACTING ON STRUCTURE
TYPES OF LOADS ACTING ON STRUCTURE
Loads acting on building

Vertical loads Horizontal loads Longitudinal Loads

Dead loads Wind loads

Live loads Earthquakes loads

Impact loads
Dead loads
• Dead load consists of the weight of the structural members that make up the
structure.
• This could include the buildings insulation, drywall, wood studs, flooring, brick
veneer etc.
• Individually these items may seem fairly light, but when their weights are all
added together it can account for a significant amount of weight applied to the
structure.
• These loads are in addition to the self weight of the structure which could include
the weight of the floor/roof decking and joists, beams, bearing walls, columns,
bracing etc.
• Dead loads are always present throughout the lifetime of a structure, compared
to live loads which can come and go.
Floor finish :
• The floor finish should be assumed as 1 kN/m2.
Sunk :
• Sunk weight depends upon the material to be filled and taken depth. In this example, we will
take 300 mm down sunk withe material density of 16 kN/m3.
Hence, the total sunk weight will be 4.8 kN/m2.

Wall :
• Thickness of wall x (height of the wall - beam depth) x Density kN/m.

Slab Weight :
• Thickness x density kN/m2.

Self-weight of beam :
• Breadth x depth x density kN/m.

Self-weight of column :
• Breadth x depth x density kN/m.
Live loads
• Live loads are loads imposed on a structure that are made up by the
people who use the structure and what they decide to place in the
structure (furniture/storage etc.).
Snow and rain loads
• The weight of snow and rain should not be ignored as it its weight
after an extreme storm can often be heavier than the weight of the
roof structure that supports it
Horizontal/lateral loads
• The lateral loads that are applied to structures include wind, seismic
and earth loads. These loads act in the direction perpendicular to the
buildings wall and roof systems.
• Lateral loads on a building are usually resisted by walls and bracing.
• When you see large steel X’s in the windows or exposed elsewhere in
a building, this is often one of the elements used to resist lateral loads
imposed on the structure.
Wind Loads
• Wind loads can be applied towards a surface of a building/structure
but it can also be applied away from the building causing a suction
force. These are called positive and negative pressures.
• Wind loads on a structure get greater the higher they are applied to a
structure. On a high rise building, the wind pressures are significantly
higher at the peak of the structure compared to at the ground level.
• If you have ever been outside during an intense windstorm you can
understand how large these wind forces can be and why it is so
important to design a structure to resist these loads.
Earthquakes
• Earthquakes are what cause seismic loading on a structure.
• Seismic loads used in designing structures vary depending on where
the structure is relative to seismic zones and the potential for
earthquakes
Earth loads

• Earth loads occur when soil is built up against a wall causing lateral earth pressures.
• These loads can be seen on basement foundation walls, retaining walls and tunnels.
• The magnitude of this lateral load is dependent on the type of soil built up against the
structure and the depth of the soil.
• A house with a very high basement would likely have foundations walls that would
have to resist high lateral loading from the soil built up against it if the basement was
fully underground. This can be one of the causes of cracking seen in basement walls if
the wall was not built strong enough to resist these lateral loads.
• If water is allowed to build up against a wall, lateral loads from hydrostatic pressure
would need to be designed for. Installing a weeping tile system is a way to prevent
water from building up against a basement wall.
 Characteristic strength of materials
• The term characteristic strength means that value of the strength of material
below which not more than minimum acceptable percentage of test results are
expected to fall.
• Characteristic strength and rupture strain are important for the mechanical
reliability of the samples.
Target mean strength
• Target mean strength is
target strength set by
following the codal provisions
in designing the concrete
mix.
What is the difference between target mean strength
and characteristic strength?
• Assume we want M30 mix then target mean strength would be (say 33.5)
following codal provisions. Now if I cast 100 cubes from this mix if less than 5
cubes have strength less than 30 N/mm^2 . Then we say that characteristics
strength of that particular mix is 30 N/mm^2.

Example : before you try to understand target mean strength you should know
what actually “characteristic strength” actually means .
• suppose if you take M25 grade concrete, 25 N/mm² is called characteristic
strength of concrete which means if you test 100 cubes 95 will give you strength
greater than or equal to 25N/mm², but those 5 cubes may give lesser strength,
• Now coming to the point, in all those 95 cubes, the strength that we got
maximum no. Of times that is known as target mean strength.
Why does concrete have a target strength ?
• Concrete strengthens over time as the chemical reactions complete and the
concrete “cures.”
• Normally, concrete strength is defined at the seven and twenty-eight day
intervals, when tests are performed to ensure proper strength. The concrete
passes the test if the strength equals or exceeds the target at the defined
interval.
• Concrete will actually continue to get marginally stronger over years.
What is the difference between Characteristic
compressive strength & compressive strength ?
• Characteristic compressive strength of concrete is obtained by multiplying
compressive strength of concrete with the Factor of safety.
• Mathematically, CCS = 1.5 X CS,
• where 1.5 is the factor of safety for concrete.
• And compressive strength of concrete is simply the test results obtained during
actual practical in laboratory conditions.
• We cannot take risk so we design the structure for extra safety also considering
variability in material strength, poor workmanship etc….we take characteristics
compressive strength.
How is the strength of concrete specified ?
• Strength of concrete is specified by its grade, for eg. a concrete of grade M15 is
taken into consideration. Then the M in M15 denotes that it is a mix, the
number 15 is the compressive strength of the mix taken at 28 days after casting.

• M15 is a standard mix with proportion of

1:2:4 which means for 1 part of cement,
there is 2 parts of fine aggregates and 4 parts
of coarse aggregates. Taking these
constituents in their proportions, mixed with
water, concrete is formed which is then
placed in a mold.
• For determination of compressive strength of concrete, according to IS 456 :
2000, standard moulds of 15cm x 15cm are used. Concrete is placed in this mould
and cubes are casted. Generally 9 cubes are casted, out of which 3 cubes are
used for testing after 3 days from casting; 3 after 7 days and remaining 3
after 28 days.

• These cubes are subjected to compressive loads in

a Compression Testing Machine(CTM) or
a Universal Testing Machine(UTM).
• The loads are applied gradually until the point where
the cubes break. The load at which it breaks is noted.

• This load divided by the cross-section area of the

cube gives the strength of the cube in N/mm^2. So
for a grade of M15 say, the concrete can take a
minimum load of 15N for every 1 mm^2 area.
 Characteristic strength and loads
• Limit state method is based on statistical concepts.

Characteristic strength ( fck )

• Strength of materials and loads are highly variable in a range of values.
• The test in laboratory on compressive strength of concrete has indicated coefficient of
variation of 10%.
• Hence in reinforced concrete construction, If is not practicable to specify a precise cube
strength.
• Hence in limit state design uses the concept of 'characteristic strength' fck indicates
characteristics strength of concrete & by characteristic strength of steel.
• In general fk indicates the characteristic strength of material.

• fk = fm -1.646 , here fm = mean strength.

 Characteristic strength and loads
characteristic load ( Lk )

• Similarly 'characteristic load' is that value of load which has an accepted

probability of not being exceeded during the life span of structure. In practice the
load specified by IS875 - 1987 is considered as characteristic load. Equation for
characteristic load is

• Lk = Lm + 1.64
What are characteristic strength of concrete?
• Characteristic strength of concrete is the strength of concrete specimens casted
and tested as per given code of practice and cured for a period of 28 days; 95%
of tested cubes should not have a value less than this value.
• The compressive strength of concrete is
given in terms of the characteristic
compressive strength of 150 mm size
cubes tested at 28 days (fck)
• The characteristic strength is defined as
the strength of the concrete below
which not more than 5% of the test
results are expected to fall.
Characteristic strength of concrete
• Characteristic strength of concrete Characteristic strength of concrete is denoted
by fck (N/mm2) and its value is different for different grades of concrete e.g. M 15,
M25 etc.

• The target mean strength of concrete mix should be equal to characteristic

strength plus 1.65 times the standard deviation.
Target Mean Strength = Characteristic strength + 1.65 x Standard deviation.
(28 days compressive
strength)
• Where sufficient tests results for a particular grade of concrete are not available,
the value of standard deviation given below shall be assumed for design mix of
concrete in the first instance.
What is characteristic strength (FY ) of steel?
• The term characteristic strength means that value below which not more than 5%
of the test results are expected to fall.
• As per IS 456:2000, the characteristic strength of steel is equal to the minimum
yield stress or 0.2 percent proof stress.
• Table 1.10 give the values of characteristic strength for different grades of steel
and their minimum percentage elongation.
What is Fu in steel design?
• the term fy stand for yield strength of steel and term fu stand for ultimate tensile
strength of Steel.
• Ductility property of Steel that is ductility it has property of Steel to get stretch up
to certain elongation point When it is applied with stress force.
 REINFORCING MATERIAL
Concrete is weak in tension and it is to be reinforced properly with suitable
material.
The purpose of providing reinforcement in R.C.C. is :
• To take up all the tensile stresses developed in the structure.
• To increase the strength of concrete sections.
• To prevent the propagation of cracks developed due to temperature and
shrinkage stresses.
• To make the sections thinner as compare to plain concrete section.
To fulfill above criteria the reinforcing material should
satisfy the following requirements :
• The reinforcing material should develop a perfect bond with concrete to transfer
stresses from one material to other.
• It should have high tensile strength.
• It should be cheap, easily available and durable.
• The coefficient of thermal expansion of the reinforcing material should be nearly
same as that of concrete, for obtaining a good composite action.
• It should be workable i.e., easy to cut, bend and join.
• It should not react with other ingredients of R.C.C.
• It should be free from loose mill scales, loose rust and coats of paints, oil mud or
any other substances which may destroy or reduce bond.
 Suitability of Steel as Reinforcing Material
Many traditional materials such as bamboo and natural fibres have been tried as
reinforcement in earlier times.
But steel is found to be the most appropriate form of reinforcement.
It is the most suitable reinforcing material in R.C.C. because of following reasons :
• Steel is very strong in compression, tension, shear and torsion.
• Concrete develops very good bond with steel.
• Steel is ductile in behavior. More ductility means more elongation of steel before
failure.
• The steel bars can be cut, lifted and welded easily with commonly available tools
and machines.
• Steel has longer life.
• Steel is easily available.
 Disadvantages of Steel as Reinforcing Material
Steel reinforcement has various advantages as listed above, which make it a
suitable reinforcing material. However, steel has a few disadvantages which are
listed below.
• The biggest disadvantage of steel reinforcement is rusting. If concrete is porous
or if cover to the reinforcement is not sufficient, steel gets rusted and loses
strength.
• Steel loses its strength at high temperatures.
What are three characteristics of steel?
• The properties that need to be considered by designers when specifying steel
construction products are: Strength. Toughness. Ductility.
What is the characteristics of steel?
• Steel has a number of properties, including:
• hardness,
• toughness,
• tensile strength,
• yield strength,
• elongation,
• fatigue strength,
• corrosion, plasticity,
• malleability and creep.
 TYPES OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT
• Mild Steel Reinforcement
• High Yield Strength Deformed Bars
• TMT (Thermomechanically Treated) Steel Bars
• CRS (Corrosion Resistant Steel) Bars
• Steel Wire Fabric
• Structural Steel
What is the characteristic strength of mild steel?
• Mild steel reinforcement has a characteristic yield strength of 250 N/mm2 and
was designated as Grade 250 in BS 4449 Specification for carbon steel bars for
the reinforcement of concrete. It was supplied as plain round bars. Standard
diameters were from 6 mm to 16 mm.
• Mild steel bars are also known as Fe 250 because the yield strength of this steel is
250N/mm2. The stress-strain curve for mild steel is given in Fig. 1.1.
• It shows a clear, definite yield point.
• Although mild steel bars are very ductile, they are not preferred over high yield
strength deformed bars because of their less strength and weak bond.
• The modulus of elasticity of mild steel is taken as equal to 2×105 N/mm2.
However, they are used as lateral ties in columns and at places where nominal
reinforcement is required. Mild steel plain bars are represented by symbol f.
High Yield Strength Deformed Bars
• These are also known as HYSD bars. They have higher percentage of carbon as
compared to mild steel Their strength is higher than of mild steel, but the yield point is
not clearly defined as shown in Fig. 1.1.

• These bars are available as two types :

• (i) Hot rolled high yield strength bars.

• (ii) Cold worked high yield strength bars.

• The (ii) type of steel is also called as CTD (Cold Twisted Deformed) bars or Tor steel and
are available in two grades. Deformed bars are represented by symbol … or #.

• (i) Fe 415 or Tor 40

• (ii) Fe 500 or Tor 50
High Yield Strength Deformed Bars Cont…..
• A twisted deformed bar has about 50% higher yield stress than plain bars.
• A deformed bar has corrugation or ribs on the surface of the bar, as shown in Fig.
1.2, to increase the bond and prevent slipping of the bar in concrete.
• These bars do not show a definite yield point.
• So, the yield point is taken as 0.2 percent proof stress, which is determined from
the stress-strain curve as follows :
• (i) Draw a line parallel to the initial stress-strain curve, corresponding to a
strain value of 0.002 (0.2 percent).
• (ii) The point where this line cuts the stress-strain curve is taken as the yield
stress or 0.2 percent proof stress.
What is difference between yield strength & 0.2
proof stress?
• Although as mentioned by others this is not universally accepted, in my opinion
the reason that the 0.2% strain was used for proof stress, is that it offers a more
straight forward comparison with the yield stress of steel. Steel has a distinct
yield point, that you can use to set a good safety margin before failure.
What is the characteristic strength of HYSD steel?
HYSD bars are preferred as reinforcement in R.C.C.
over plain mild steel bars, due to following reasons :
• Higher Strength : HYSD bars have yield strength, higher than that of plain mild
steel bars.

• Better Bond : The HYSD bars have better bond with concrete due to corrugations
or ribs on the surface of the bars. As per IS 456:2000, the bond strength of HYSD
bars is 60 percent greater than the plain mild steel bars.

• Economy : The cost HYSD bars is approximate same as mild steel but the use of
HYSD bars leads to overall economy as the amount of steel required is less, due
to its higher strength
TMT (Thermo mechanically Treated) Steel Bars
• Among the constituents of R.C.C., steel is the costliest, so focus has been more on
steel to make it better and better.
• TMT steel is new generation, high strength steel having superior properties as
compared to common HYSD bars.
• TMT bars are manufactured by passing hot rolled steel bars through cold water.
By doing this, the outer surface of the bar becomes harder while the inner core is
still softer.
• The TMT bars have following advantages:
• High yield strength
• Better weldability
• Excellent ductility
• Superior corrosion resistance.
CRS (Corrosion Resistant Steel) Bars
• The latest development in steel bars is the production of CRS or corrosion
resistant steel bars.
• The carbon content in the CRS bars is 0.18% as compared to 0.2% of HYSD bars.
• The percentage of corrosion resisting elements such as chromium is as high as
1.5%.
• Thus making the steel bars more corrosion resistant while keeping its other
properties unchanged.
Steel Wire Fabric
• Wire fabric is a fabric made by welding or weaving steel wire in the form of a
mesh which is also called as steel wire mesh. This mesh is used as reinforcement
in slabs, shells, pavements and roads etc.

Structural Steel

• Sometimes for very heavily loaded elements such as foundations and

columns rolled sections like rolled steel joists, channels or angles are
embedded in concrete and used as reinforcement.
What is the difference between characteristic load
and design load?
• That's why ultimate loads are called design loads; because we design with them.

So what about Characteristic Loads?

• This term simply means that they have not been multiplied by any safety factor.
The "characteristic" refers to the fact that these loads are an estimate of the
loads likely to be encountered.
Different Theories Of Reinforced Concrete Developed
Historically

•Elastic theory
•Ultimate load theory
•Limit state design stating
Relationship Between Stress and Strain
• Stress and strain have a straight proportional relationship up to an elastic limit.
• The relationship between stress and strain is explained by Hooke's law.
• Hooke's law statesStress and strain have a straight proportional relationship up to
an elastic limit. that the strain in a solid is proportional to the applied stress,
which must be within the solid's elastic limit.

• Hooke’s Law
• When English scientist Robert Hooke was studying springs and elasticity in the
19th century, he observed that numerous materials had a similar feature when
the stress-strain connection was analyzed. Hooke's Law defined a linear zone in
which the force required to stretch material was proportionate to the extension
of the material.
(i) Proportional Limit
• The region in the stress-strain curve that observes Hooke's Law is known as the
proportional limit.
• According to this limit, the ratio of stress and strain provides us with the
proportionality constant known as young's modulus

(ii) Elastic Limit

• Elastic limit is the maximum stress that a substance can endure before
permanently being deformed.
• When the load acting on the object is completely removed and the material
returns to its original position, that point is known as the object's elastic limit.
(iii) Yield Point
• The point at which the material starts showing to deform plastically is known as
the yield point of the material.
• Once the yield point of an object is crossed, plastic deformation occurs. There are
two types of yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.

(iv) Ultimate Stress Point

• The point at which a material endures maximum stress before failure is known as
the Ultimate Stress point. After this point, the material will break.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point

• In the stress-strain curve, the point at which the failure of the material takes
place is known as the breaking point of the material.
 Elastic theory
• The elastic design method, also termed as allowable stress method (or Working
stress method), is a conventional method of design based on the elastic
properties of steel.
• This method of design limits the structural usefulness of the material up to a
certain allowable stress, which is well below the elastic limit.
• The stresses due to working loads do not exceed the specified allowable stresses,
which are obtained by applying an adequate factor of safety to the yield stress of
steel.
• The elastic design does not take into account the strength of the material beyond
the elastic stress.
• Therefore the structure designed according to this method will be heavier than
that designed by plastic methods, but in many cases, elastic design will also
require less stability bracing.
 Working Stress Method (WSM)

Which method is based on linear elastic theory?

• Working Stress Method (WSM) This is the traditional method of design.
• Used not only for reinforced concrete but also for structural steel and timber.
• Close to about a hundred years old, the method is based on linear elastic theory
or the classical elastic theory.
• Which means that the stress is directly proportional to strain up to the point of
collapse.
 Fundamental Assumptions Of Elastic Theory Of Bending
Assumptions In The Theory Of Simple Bending Of R.C.C. Beams (Working
Stress Method)

• The elastic theory of bending or simply straight line theory forms the basis of
working stress method of design.
• In this method, the ultimate compressive strength of concrete and the yield
stress of steel are divided by the appropriate factors of safety to get the allowable
or permissible stresses in the materials under working loads.
• This theory is applicable only in the narrow range of stress-strain curve where
Hook’s law is applicable.
Fundamental assumptions of elastic theory of bending
The fundamental assumptions of elastic theory of bending are explained below:
A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending.
This assumption implies that the strain above and below the neutral axis are proportional to
the distance from the neutral axis i.e. the strain distribution is triangular, linearly varying from
zero at the neutral axis to maximum value at the extreme fibre.
The concrete and steel reinforcement are perfectly bonded.
It means that the tensile strain in steel reinforcement is equal to the tensile strain in concrete
surrounding the steel.

It is assumed that perfect bonding exists between concrete and steel at the interface so that
no slip can occur between the two materials. Hence, as the one deforms, so must the other.
With modern deformed bars, a high degree of mechanical interlocking is provided in addition
to the natural surface adhesion, so this assumption is very close to correct.

 All tensile stresses are taken up by steel and none by concrete.

This assumptions implies that the contribution of concrete to take tension is completely
neglected and the concrete is assumed to be cracked in the tension zone.

In view of the fact that the tensile strength of concrete is only a small fraction of its
compressive strength, the concrete in that part of a member which is in tension is usually
cracked. While these cracks, in well-designed members, are generally so narrow as to be
hardly visible (they are known as hairline cracks), they evidently render the cracked concrete
incapable of resisting tension stress. Correspondingly, it is assumed that concrete is not
capable of resisting any tension stress whatsoever.
The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete under working loads is a
straight line.
It implies that stress distribution is also linear like strain distribution, with a zero
at the neutral axis to maximum value at the extreme fibres.

The modulli of elasticity of steel Es and concrete Ec are constant.

The modular ratio (m) has the value

m = 280/3σ cbc
where σcbc is the permissible compressive strength of concrete in bending in
N/mm2.

There are no initial stresses in steel and concrete.

Why modular ratio is used in working stress
method?
• Modular ratio:
In the case of working stress method of analysis, the composite section of
reinforced concrete is transformed into an equivalent section of single material of
concrete. For this, we need to define modular ratio which is the ratio of elastic
modulus of steel to concrete.
• The method basically assumes that the structural material behaves as a linear elastic
manner, and that adequate safety can be ensured by suitably restricting the stresses in
the material induced by the expected “working loads” on the structure.
• As the specified permissible stresses are kept well below the material strength, the
assumption of linear elastic behavior is considered justifiable.
• The ratio of the strength of the material to the permissible stress is often referred to as
the factor of safety.
• However, the main assumption linear elastic behavior and the tacit assumption that the
stresses under working loads can be kept within the ‘permissible stresses’ are not found
to be realistic.
• Many factors are responsible for this such as a long term effort of creep and shrinkage,
the effects of stress concentrations, and other secondary effects.
• All such effects resulting significant local increases in a redistribution of the calculated
stresses.
• The design usually results in relatively large sections of structural members, thereby
resulting in better serviceability performance under the usual working loads.
 Plastic theory
• In the method of plastic design of a structure, the ultimate load rather than the
yield stress is regarded as the design criterion.
• The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate load is found
from the strength of steel in the plastic range.
• This method is also known as method of load factor design or ultimate load
design.
• The strength of steel beyond the yield stress is fully utilized in this method.
• This method is rapid and provides a rational approach for the analysis of the
structure.
• This method also provides striking economy as regards the weight of steel since
the sections designed by this method are smaller in size than those designed by
the method of elastic design.
• Plastic design method has its main application in the analysis and design of
statically indeterminate framed structures.
BASIS OF PLASTIC THEORY
Ductility of Steel
• Structural steel is characterized by its capacity to withstand considerable deformation
beyond first yield, without fracture.
• During the process of 'yielding' the steel deforms under a constant and uniform stress
known as 'yield stress'.
• This property of steel, known as ductility, is utilized in plastic design methods.
• Fig. 1 shows the idealized stress-strain relationship for structural mild steel when it is
subjected to direct tension.
• Elastic straining of the material is represented by line OA.
• AB represents yielding of the material when the stress remains constant, and is equal to
the yield stress, fy
• The strain occurring in the material during yielding remains after the load has been
removed and is called the plastic strain and this strain is at least ten times as large as
the elastic strain, €y at yield point.
Idealized Stress-strain Relationship For Structural Mild Steel
Theoretical Basis
• As an incremental load is applied to a beam, the cross-section with greatest bending
moment will eventually reach the yield moment.
Elsewhere the structure is elastic and the 'peak' moment values are less than yield.
As load is incremented, a zone of yielding develops at the first critical section, but due to
ductility of steel, the moment at that section remains about constant.
The structure, therefore, calls upon its less heavily stressed portions to carry the increase
in load.
Eventually the zones of yielding are formed at other sections until the moment capacity
has been exhausted at all necessary critical sections.
After reaching the maximum load value, the structure would simply deform at constant
load.
Thus it is a design based upon the ultimate load-carrying capacity (maximum strength) of
the structure.
This ultimate load is computed from a knowledge of the strength of steel in the plastic
range and hence the name 'plastic'.
Perfectly Plastic Materials
• The stress-strain curve for a perfectly plastic material upto strain hardening is
shown in Fig. 2.
• Perfectly plastic materials follow Hook's law up to the limit of proportionality.
• The slopes of stress-strain diagrams in compression and tension i.e. the values of
Young's modulus of elasticity of the material, are equal.
• Also the values of yield stresses in tension and compression are equal.
• The strains up to the strain hardening in tension and compression are also equal.
• The stress strain curves show horizontal plateau both in tension and
compression. Such materials are known as perfectly plastic materials.
• In order to find out the fully plastic moment of a yielded section of a beam as
shown in
• Fig. 3, we employ the force equilibrium equation, namely the total force in
compression and the total force in tension over that section are equal.
Plastic modulus Of Section (Zp )
• The plastic modulus of a completely yielded section is defined as the combined
statical moment of the cross-sectional areas above and below the neutral axis or
equal area axis.
• It is the resisting modulus of a completely plasticized section.
Section modulus (Z)
• Section modulus is a geometric property for a given cross-section used in the
design of beams or flexural members.
• The elastic section modulus is defined as the ratio of the second moment of area
(or moment of inertia) and the distance from the neutral axis to any given (or
extreme) fiber.
• The elastic section modulus is defined as
Z=I/y
here I is the second moment of area (or area moment of inertia)
y is the distance from the neutral axis to any given fibre.
It is often reported using y = c, where c is the distance from the neutral axis to the
most extreme fibre
 Bending Of Beams Symmetrical About Both Axes
• The bending of a symmetrical beam subjected to a gradually increasing moment
is considered first.
• The fibers of the beam across the cross section are stressed in tension or
compression according to their position relative to the neutral axis and are
strained in accordance with Fig. 1.
• While the beam remains entirely elastic the stress in every fibre is proportional to
its strain and to its distance from the neutral axis. The stress (f) in the extreme
fibres cannot exceed fy
• When the beam is subjected to a moment slightly greater than that, which first
produces yield in the extreme fibres, it does not fail. Instead the outer fibres yield
at constant stress (fy) while the fibres nearer to the neutral axis sustain increased
elastic stresses.

• Fig. 5 shows the stress distribution

for beams subjected to such
moments.
• Such beams are said to be
'partially plastic' and those
portions of their cross-sections,
which have reached the yield
stress, are described as 'plastic
zones'.
• The depths of the plastic zones depend upon the magnitude of the applied
moment. As the moment is increased, the plastic zones increase in depth, and, it
is assumed that plastic yielding can occur at yield stress (fy) resulting in two
stress blocks, one zone yielding in tension and one in compression.

• Fig. 6 represents the stress

distribution in beams stressed
to this stage.
• The plastic zones occupy the
whole of the cross section, and
are described as being 'fully
plastic'.
• When the cross section of a member is fully plastic under a bending moment, any
attempt to increase this moment will cause the member to act as if hinged at the
neutral axis.
• This is referred to as a plastic hinge.
• The bending moment producing a plastic hinge is called the full plastic moment
and is denoted by 'Mp'.
• Note that a plastic hinge carries a constant moment, MP
 General Requirements For Utilizing Plastic Design Concepts
• Generally codes (such as IS 800, BS 5950) allow the use of plastic design only
where loading is predominantly static and fatigue is not a design criterion.
• For example, in order to allow this high level of strain, BS 5950 prescribes the
following restrictions on the properties of the stress-strain curve for steels used
in plastically designed structures (clause 5.3.3).
1. The yield plateau (horizontal portion of the curve) is greater than 6 times the
yield strain.
2. The ultimate tensile strength must be more than 1.2 times the yield strength.
3. The elongation on a standard gauge length is not less than 15%.

These limitations are intended to ensure that there is a sufficiently long plastic
plateau to enable a hinge to form and that the steel will not experience a
premature strain hardening.
Shape Factor
• As described previously there will be two stress blocks, one in tension, the other
in compression, both of which will be at yield stress.
• For equilibrium of the cross section, the areas in compression and tension must
be equal.
• For a rectangular cross section, the elastic moment is given by,

• The plastic moment is obtained from,

• Here the plastic moment Mp is about 1.5 times greater than the elastic moment
capacity.
• In developing this moment, there is a large straining in the extreme fibers
together with large rotations and deflection. This behavior may be plotted as a
moment-rotation curve. Curves for various cross sections are shown in Fig. 7.
 Ultimate load method (ULM)
• With the growing realization of the shortcomings of WSM in reinforced concrete
design, and with increased understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete
at ultimate loads, the ultimate load of design is evolved and became an
alternative to WSM.
• This method is sometimes also referred to as the load factor methods are the
ultimate strength.
• In this method, the stress condition at the site of impending collapse of the
structure is analyzed, and the nonlinear stress-strain curves of concrete and steel
are made use of.
• The concept of ‘modular ratio’ and its associated problems are avoided entirely in
this method.
• The safety measure design is introduced by an appropriate choice of the load
factor, defined as the ratio of the ultimate load to the working load.
 Ultimate load method (ULM) Cont….
• The ultimate load method makes it possible for different types of loads to be
assigned different load factors under combined loading conditions, thereby
overcoming the related shortcoming of WSM.
• This method generally results in more slender sections, and often economical
designs of beams and columns, particularly when high strength reinforcing steel
and concrete are used.
• However, the satisfactory ‘strength’ performance at ultimate loads does not
guarantee satisfactory ‘serviceability’ performance at the normal service loads.
• The designs sometimes result in excessive deflections and crack-widths under
service loads, owing to the slender sections resulting from the use of high
strength reinforcing steel and concrete.
• The distribution of stress resultants at ultimate load is taken as the distribution at
the service loads, magnified by the load factor(s); in other words, analysis is still
based on linear elastic theory.
 Limit state method (LSM)
• The philosophy of the limit state method of design represents a definite
advancement over the traditional design philosophies.
• Unlike WSM which based calculations on service load conditions alone,
and
Unlike ULM, which based calculations on ultimate load conditions alone,
LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational solution to the design problem,
by considering,
 safety at ultimate loads
and
 serviceability at working loads.
The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to provide
adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at service
loads, by considering all possible ‘Limit State’.
Limits States
• A limit state is a state of impending failure,
beyond which a structure ceases to perform its intended function satisfactorily,
in terms of either safety of serviceability i.e. it either collapses or becomes
unserviceable.
There are two types of limit states:
Ultimate limit states (limit states of collapse):- which deal with strength,
overturning, sliding, buckling,
fatigue fracture etc.

Serviceability limit states: - which deals with discomfort to occupancy and/ or

malfunction, caused by excessive deflection, crack
width, vibration leakage etc., and also loss of
durability etc.
TYPES OF SUPPORTS
Beam classification According to the end supports condition:
• Simply supported beam
This type of beam is supported at both ends
consisting of pin support at one of the ends and
roller support at the other end as shown in the
figure below.

• Cantilever beam
A Cantilever Beam is a type of beam constrained at
one end with the other end extending freely
outwards. In other words, this beam is supported at
one end and the other end is free i.e. it has no
support.
Some of the examples of cantilevers we see in our
daily life are the balconies in a building which are
fixed at one end and unsupported at the other end.
• Continuous beam
A continuous beam is a type of beam extending
over more than two supports distributed
throughout its length.

• Fixed end beam

As the name indicates in this beam both the ends
are fixed which restrains it from rotating or moving
horizontally or vertically at that end.

• Overhanging beam/ Double overhanging beam

The overhanging beam is a type of beam having its
end portion extending beyond its supports. This
beam has the properties of both a cantilever beam
and a simply supported beam. The overhanging
portion can be at one end or at both ends of the
beam which is called a double overhanging beam.
Bending moment
of a Beam
UDL (Uniformly Distributed Load )
• A uniformly distributed load (UDL) is a load that is distributed or
spread across the whole region of an element such as a beam or
slab. In other words, the magnitude of the load remains uniform
throughout the whole element.
 TYPES OF R.C.C. BEAM
(i) Singly Reinforced Beams :
This is the one of Types of R.C.C. beam in which steel
reinforcement is placed in the tensile zone only are called as
singly reinforced beams.
If the factored moment (Mu) is less than the limiting
moment ( Mulim ) then the beam is designed as a singly
reinforced beam.
( Mu<Mulim )

• We mostly use the singly reinforced beam in the building if

the stresses are less.

• The bottom reinforcements are designed to resist the

tensile load.

• Top reinforcements are also provided in a singly reinforced

beam but it is designed to hold the stirrups in position and
not designed to be carried the compression load.
 TYPES OF R.C.C. BEAM
(ii) Doubly Reinforced Beams :
The beams in which reinforcement is placed in the tensile as
well as compression zone are called as doubly reinforced
beams.
When the factored moment (Mu) is greater than the limiting
moment (Mulim) then the beam is designed as a doubly
reinforced beam.
(Mu > Mulim)

• The bottom reinforcements are designed to resist the

tensile load and top reinforcements are designed to resist
the compressive load.

• The doubly reinforced beam is most suitable where there is

a higher chance of earthquake or stress reversal. also, if an
increase in depth is limited for the beam.
 (iii) Flanged Beams (T beams and L beams) :
In most reinforced concrete structures, the slab and beams are case monolithic.
Thus, the beam forms a part of the floor system. When the beam bends, a part of
the slab also bends along with the beam. So, the intermediate beams in a floor
system act as T beams and the end beams as L beams. The beams in which a
portion of the slab acts together with the beam for resisting compressive stresses
are called as flanged beams. Figure 2.1 shows singly reinforced, doubly reinforced
and T-beam sections.
Neutral axis
• Natural axis separates the compression and tension zones in the beam. it is denoted
by xu. formula to find xu is following,

To avoid the brittle failure of concrete, keep the maximum depth of the neutral axis
(xumax) always less than the neutral axis (xu).

xu ⊁ x umax

The value of x umax for different grade of steel

can be obtained from IS 456, p- 70 or SP. 16, p-9.
Types Of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections
Based on fundamentals of analysis in the above section, a singly reinforced
rectangular section may be put in any of the three categories :
(i) a Balanced Section
(ii) an Under-Reinforced Section,
(iii) an Over-Reinforced Section
Balanced section
A section is balanced when the extreme fibre of concrete in compression and the
tensile steel reach their respective permissible stresses simultaneously under
applied bending moment Under applied bending moment, Mulim, the maximum
stress in concrete in compression and tensile stress in steel are their respective
permissible values(limiting values ), σcbc and σst simultaneously.
• In the balanced section,
xu = x umax
pt = pt lim
Mu = M ulim
Under reinforced section
• The steel will fail first with showing the warning if under reinforced section is
used in the beam. the failure called ductile failure.

• Every designer prefers to design the section according to the under the
reinforced section.
xu < x umax
pt < pt lim
Mu < M ulim
Under reinforced section
As the name suggests an under-reinforced section is one in which the area of
tensile reinforcement provided is less than that required for balanced section.
Let a cross section of reinforced concrete may be taken in which the area of
tensile steel is less than that required to make it a balanced section (Figure 8.3). If
applied moment is increased gradually on such section, the permissible tensile
stress in steel will reach first since Ast & AstB and at this stage the stress in
concrete will be fcbc & σcbc, (Figure 8.3(d)).
Over reinforced section
• An over Reinforced Section is one in which the tensile reinforcing steel area is
more that required for a balanced section.
• The concrete will fail first without showing any sign. the sudden failure will occur
if the over reinforced section is used. the failure will be called brittle failure.
xu > x umax
pt > pt lim
Mu > M ulim
QUESTIONS ?