TDS Lec 5
TDS Lec 5
TDS Lec 5
STRUCTURES
C3 -05 (5S3 NVQ 2045)
• It starts with selecting the appropriate columns’ locations and orientation in such
a way that they do not interfere with the architectural drawings.
• For example, you do not want a column to be in the middle of a room or
something like that. Also, one should consider that at least 30% of the total
number of columns to be in either x- or y- directions to give adequate earthquake
resistance of the building.
• After that, the type of structural system is selected. For instance, the slab might
be chosen to be solid slab, hollow block or flat slab … etc. Accordingly, the
location of beams are determined.
STEP 2: DETERMINING THE INTERNAL FORCES OF EACH
ELEMENT
• After finishing the initial design, the exact dimensions of each building element
shall be determined.
• First, an analysis model is created for the building with its initial dimensions as
determined from STEP 1 on an analysis software such as SAP 2000.
• All the loads that act on the structure have to defined in the model such as dead
loads, live loads, wind and earthquake loads … etc.
• From the model, the internal forces [Normal Force, Shear Force, Bending
Moments] on each elements is calculated.
STEP 3: ITERATIVE DESIGN
• Now you have the straining actions on the elements based on the initial sizing
and simply, you can use them to design according to the relevant code.
• The design process became so easy by using some spreadsheets or any other
software that facilitates the design.
• Next, the analysis model should be modified to the new dimensions obtained
from the previous design and the analysis is re-run. Internal forces are obtained
and design is made again based on the new forces.
• This iterative process is repeated until the element design be the same in two
following iterations.
STEP 4: FOUNDATION DESIGN
• After the final dimensions of members are found, the foundation system
type can be selected taking in consideration, the bearing capacity of the soil
and the loading coming from the structure.
STEP 5: DRAFTING
• In this step, the structural plans
are created. These plans should
be fully detailed such that the
construction process in the site
can proceed smoothly and not
delayed due to missing data in
the drawings.
Load Path On
Structure
TYPES OF LOADS ACTING ON STRUCTURE
TYPES OF LOADS ACTING ON STRUCTURE
Loads acting on building
Impact loads
Dead loads
• Dead load consists of the weight of the structural members that make up the
structure.
• This could include the buildings insulation, drywall, wood studs, flooring, brick
veneer etc.
• Individually these items may seem fairly light, but when their weights are all
added together it can account for a significant amount of weight applied to the
structure.
• These loads are in addition to the self weight of the structure which could include
the weight of the floor/roof decking and joists, beams, bearing walls, columns,
bracing etc.
• Dead loads are always present throughout the lifetime of a structure, compared
to live loads which can come and go.
Floor finish :
• The floor finish should be assumed as 1 kN/m2.
Sunk :
• Sunk weight depends upon the material to be filled and taken depth. In this example, we will
take 300 mm down sunk withe material density of 16 kN/m3.
Hence, the total sunk weight will be 4.8 kN/m2.
Wall :
• Thickness of wall x (height of the wall - beam depth) x Density kN/m.
Slab Weight :
• Thickness x density kN/m2.
Self-weight of beam :
• Breadth x depth x density kN/m.
Self-weight of column :
• Breadth x depth x density kN/m.
Live loads
• Live loads are loads imposed on a structure that are made up by the
people who use the structure and what they decide to place in the
structure (furniture/storage etc.).
Snow and rain loads
• The weight of snow and rain should not be ignored as it its weight
after an extreme storm can often be heavier than the weight of the
roof structure that supports it
Horizontal/lateral loads
• The lateral loads that are applied to structures include wind, seismic
and earth loads. These loads act in the direction perpendicular to the
buildings wall and roof systems.
• Lateral loads on a building are usually resisted by walls and bracing.
• When you see large steel X’s in the windows or exposed elsewhere in
a building, this is often one of the elements used to resist lateral loads
imposed on the structure.
Wind Loads
• Wind loads can be applied towards a surface of a building/structure
but it can also be applied away from the building causing a suction
force. These are called positive and negative pressures.
• Wind loads on a structure get greater the higher they are applied to a
structure. On a high rise building, the wind pressures are significantly
higher at the peak of the structure compared to at the ground level.
• If you have ever been outside during an intense windstorm you can
understand how large these wind forces can be and why it is so
important to design a structure to resist these loads.
Earthquakes
• Earthquakes are what cause seismic loading on a structure.
• Seismic loads used in designing structures vary depending on where
the structure is relative to seismic zones and the potential for
earthquakes
Earth loads
• Earth loads occur when soil is built up against a wall causing lateral earth pressures.
• These loads can be seen on basement foundation walls, retaining walls and tunnels.
• The magnitude of this lateral load is dependent on the type of soil built up against the
structure and the depth of the soil.
• A house with a very high basement would likely have foundations walls that would
have to resist high lateral loading from the soil built up against it if the basement was
fully underground. This can be one of the causes of cracking seen in basement walls if
the wall was not built strong enough to resist these lateral loads.
• If water is allowed to build up against a wall, lateral loads from hydrostatic pressure
would need to be designed for. Installing a weeping tile system is a way to prevent
water from building up against a basement wall.
Characteristic strength of materials
• The term characteristic strength means that value of the strength of material
below which not more than minimum acceptable percentage of test results are
expected to fall.
• Characteristic strength and rupture strain are important for the mechanical
reliability of the samples.
Target mean strength
• Target mean strength is
target strength set by
following the codal provisions
in designing the concrete
mix.
What is the difference between target mean strength
and characteristic strength?
• Assume we want M30 mix then target mean strength would be (say 33.5)
following codal provisions. Now if I cast 100 cubes from this mix if less than 5
cubes have strength less than 30 N/mm^2 . Then we say that characteristics
strength of that particular mix is 30 N/mm^2.
Example : before you try to understand target mean strength you should know
what actually “characteristic strength” actually means .
• suppose if you take M25 grade concrete, 25 N/mm² is called characteristic
strength of concrete which means if you test 100 cubes 95 will give you strength
greater than or equal to 25N/mm², but those 5 cubes may give lesser strength,
• Now coming to the point, in all those 95 cubes, the strength that we got
maximum no. Of times that is known as target mean strength.
Why does concrete have a target strength ?
• Concrete strengthens over time as the chemical reactions complete and the
concrete “cures.”
• Normally, concrete strength is defined at the seven and twenty-eight day
intervals, when tests are performed to ensure proper strength. The concrete
passes the test if the strength equals or exceeds the target at the defined
interval.
• Concrete will actually continue to get marginally stronger over years.
What is the difference between Characteristic
compressive strength & compressive strength ?
• Characteristic compressive strength of concrete is obtained by multiplying
compressive strength of concrete with the Factor of safety.
• Mathematically, CCS = 1.5 X CS,
• where 1.5 is the factor of safety for concrete.
• And compressive strength of concrete is simply the test results obtained during
actual practical in laboratory conditions.
• We cannot take risk so we design the structure for extra safety also considering
variability in material strength, poor workmanship etc….we take characteristics
compressive strength.
How is the strength of concrete specified ?
• Strength of concrete is specified by its grade, for eg. a concrete of grade M15 is
taken into consideration. Then the M in M15 denotes that it is a mix, the
number 15 is the compressive strength of the mix taken at 28 days after casting.
• Lk = Lm + 1.64
What are characteristic strength of concrete?
• Characteristic strength of concrete is the strength of concrete specimens casted
and tested as per given code of practice and cured for a period of 28 days; 95%
of tested cubes should not have a value less than this value.
• The compressive strength of concrete is
given in terms of the characteristic
compressive strength of 150 mm size
cubes tested at 28 days (fck)
• The characteristic strength is defined as
the strength of the concrete below
which not more than 5% of the test
results are expected to fall.
Characteristic strength of concrete
• Characteristic strength of concrete Characteristic strength of concrete is denoted
by fck (N/mm2) and its value is different for different grades of concrete e.g. M 15,
M25 etc.
• The (ii) type of steel is also called as CTD (Cold Twisted Deformed) bars or Tor steel and
are available in two grades. Deformed bars are represented by symbol … or #.
• Better Bond : The HYSD bars have better bond with concrete due to corrugations
or ribs on the surface of the bars. As per IS 456:2000, the bond strength of HYSD
bars is 60 percent greater than the plain mild steel bars.
• Economy : The cost HYSD bars is approximate same as mild steel but the use of
HYSD bars leads to overall economy as the amount of steel required is less, due
to its higher strength
TMT (Thermo mechanically Treated) Steel Bars
• Among the constituents of R.C.C., steel is the costliest, so focus has been more on
steel to make it better and better.
• TMT steel is new generation, high strength steel having superior properties as
compared to common HYSD bars.
• TMT bars are manufactured by passing hot rolled steel bars through cold water.
By doing this, the outer surface of the bar becomes harder while the inner core is
still softer.
• The TMT bars have following advantages:
• High yield strength
• Better weldability
• Excellent ductility
• Superior corrosion resistance.
CRS (Corrosion Resistant Steel) Bars
• The latest development in steel bars is the production of CRS or corrosion
resistant steel bars.
• The carbon content in the CRS bars is 0.18% as compared to 0.2% of HYSD bars.
• The percentage of corrosion resisting elements such as chromium is as high as
1.5%.
• Thus making the steel bars more corrosion resistant while keeping its other
properties unchanged.
Steel Wire Fabric
• Wire fabric is a fabric made by welding or weaving steel wire in the form of a
mesh which is also called as steel wire mesh. This mesh is used as reinforcement
in slabs, shells, pavements and roads etc.
Structural Steel
• This term simply means that they have not been multiplied by any safety factor.
The "characteristic" refers to the fact that these loads are an estimate of the
loads likely to be encountered.
Different Theories Of Reinforced Concrete Developed
Historically
•Elastic theory
•Ultimate load theory
•Limit state design stating
Relationship Between Stress and Strain
• Stress and strain have a straight proportional relationship up to an elastic limit.
• The relationship between stress and strain is explained by Hooke's law.
• Hooke's law statesStress and strain have a straight proportional relationship up to
an elastic limit. that the strain in a solid is proportional to the applied stress,
which must be within the solid's elastic limit.
• Hooke’s Law
• When English scientist Robert Hooke was studying springs and elasticity in the
19th century, he observed that numerous materials had a similar feature when
the stress-strain connection was analyzed. Hooke's Law defined a linear zone in
which the force required to stretch material was proportionate to the extension
of the material.
(i) Proportional Limit
• The region in the stress-strain curve that observes Hooke's Law is known as the
proportional limit.
• According to this limit, the ratio of stress and strain provides us with the
proportionality constant known as young's modulus
• The elastic theory of bending or simply straight line theory forms the basis of
working stress method of design.
• In this method, the ultimate compressive strength of concrete and the yield
stress of steel are divided by the appropriate factors of safety to get the allowable
or permissible stresses in the materials under working loads.
• This theory is applicable only in the narrow range of stress-strain curve where
Hook’s law is applicable.
Fundamental assumptions of elastic theory of bending
The fundamental assumptions of elastic theory of bending are explained below:
A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending.
This assumption implies that the strain above and below the neutral axis are proportional to
the distance from the neutral axis i.e. the strain distribution is triangular, linearly varying from
zero at the neutral axis to maximum value at the extreme fibre.
The concrete and steel reinforcement are perfectly bonded.
It means that the tensile strain in steel reinforcement is equal to the tensile strain in concrete
surrounding the steel.
It is assumed that perfect bonding exists between concrete and steel at the interface so that
no slip can occur between the two materials. Hence, as the one deforms, so must the other.
With modern deformed bars, a high degree of mechanical interlocking is provided in addition
to the natural surface adhesion, so this assumption is very close to correct.
In view of the fact that the tensile strength of concrete is only a small fraction of its
compressive strength, the concrete in that part of a member which is in tension is usually
cracked. While these cracks, in well-designed members, are generally so narrow as to be
hardly visible (they are known as hairline cracks), they evidently render the cracked concrete
incapable of resisting tension stress. Correspondingly, it is assumed that concrete is not
capable of resisting any tension stress whatsoever.
The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete under working loads is a
straight line.
It implies that stress distribution is also linear like strain distribution, with a zero
at the neutral axis to maximum value at the extreme fibres.
These limitations are intended to ensure that there is a sufficiently long plastic
plateau to enable a hinge to form and that the steel will not experience a
premature strain hardening.
Shape Factor
• As described previously there will be two stress blocks, one in tension, the other
in compression, both of which will be at yield stress.
• For equilibrium of the cross section, the areas in compression and tension must
be equal.
• For a rectangular cross section, the elastic moment is given by,
• Cantilever beam
A Cantilever Beam is a type of beam constrained at
one end with the other end extending freely
outwards. In other words, this beam is supported at
one end and the other end is free i.e. it has no
support.
Some of the examples of cantilevers we see in our
daily life are the balconies in a building which are
fixed at one end and unsupported at the other end.
• Continuous beam
A continuous beam is a type of beam extending
over more than two supports distributed
throughout its length.
To avoid the brittle failure of concrete, keep the maximum depth of the neutral axis
(xumax) always less than the neutral axis (xu).
xu ⊁ x umax
• Every designer prefers to design the section according to the under the
reinforced section.
xu < x umax
pt < pt lim
Mu < M ulim
Under reinforced section
As the name suggests an under-reinforced section is one in which the area of
tensile reinforcement provided is less than that required for balanced section.
Let a cross section of reinforced concrete may be taken in which the area of
tensile steel is less than that required to make it a balanced section (Figure 8.3). If
applied moment is increased gradually on such section, the permissible tensile
stress in steel will reach first since Ast & AstB and at this stage the stress in
concrete will be fcbc & σcbc, (Figure 8.3(d)).
Over reinforced section
• An over Reinforced Section is one in which the tensile reinforcing steel area is
more that required for a balanced section.
• The concrete will fail first without showing any sign. the sudden failure will occur
if the over reinforced section is used. the failure will be called brittle failure.
xu > x umax
pt > pt lim
Mu > M ulim
QUESTIONS ?