Instrumental Scales Used To Describe The Size of An Earthquake Began With The

instrumental scales used to describe the size of an earthquake began with the Richter
magnitude scale in the 1930s. It is a relatively simple measurement of an event's amplitude, and
its use has become minimal in the 21st century. Seismic waves travel through the Earth's
interior and can be recorded by seismometers at great distances. The surface wave
magnitude was developed in the 1950s as a means to measure remote earthquakes and to
improve the accuracy for larger events. The moment magnitude scale not only measures the
amplitude of the shock but also takes into account the seismic moment (total rupture area,
average slip of the fault, and rigidity of the rock). The Japan Meteorological Agency seismic
intensity scale, the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale, and the Mercalli intensity scale are
based on the observed effects and are related to the intensity of shaking.
Seismic waves
Every earthquake produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with
different velocities:
 Longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves)

 Transverse S-waves (both body waves)
 Surface waves – (Rayleigh and Love waves)
Speed of seismic waves
Propagation velocity of the seismic waves through solid rock ranges from approx. 3 km/s
(1.9 mi/s) up to 13 km/s (8.1 mi/s), depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In the
Earth's interior, the shock- or P-waves travel much faster than the S-waves (approx. relation
1.7:1). The differences in travel time from the epicenter to the observatory are a measure of the
distance and can be used to image both sources of earthquakes and structures within the Earth.
Also, the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly.
P-wave speed
Upper crust soils and unconsolidated sediments: 2–3 km (1.2–1.9 mi) per second
Upper crust solid rock: 3–6 km (1.9–3.7 mi) per second
Lower crust: 6–7 km (3.7–4.3 mi) per second
Deep mantle: 13 km (8.1 mi) per second.
S-waves speed
Light sediments: 2–3 km (1.2–1.9 mi) per second in
Earths crust:4–5 km (2.5–3.1 mi) per second
Deep mantle: 7 km (4.3 mi) per second
Seismic wave arrival

As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earthquake arrive at an observatory via the
Earth's mantle.
On average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P-
and S-wave times 8.[53] Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure.
By such analysis of seismograms, the Earth's core was located in 1913 by Beno Gutenberg.
S-waves and later arriving surface waves do most of the damage compared to P-waves. P-
waves squeeze and expand the material in the same direction they are traveling, whereas S-
waves shake the ground up and down and back and forth.[54]
Earthquake location and reporting

Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur.
The world is divided into 754 Flinn–Engdahl regions (F-E regions), which are based on political
and geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into
smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions.
Standard reporting of earthquakes includes its magnitude, date and time of
occurrence, geographic coordinates of its epicenter, depth of the epicenter, geographical region,
distances to population centers, location uncertainty, several parameters that are included in
USGS earthquake reports (number of stations reporting, number of observations, etc.), and a
unique event ID.[55]
Although relatively slow seismic waves have traditionally been used to detect earthquakes,
scientists realized in 2016 that gravitational measurements could provide instantaneous
detection of earthquakes, and confirmed this by analyzing gravitational records associated with
the 2011 Tohoku-Oki ("Fukushima") earthquake.[56][57]
Effects of earthquakes
1755 copper engraving depicting Lisbon in ruins and in flames after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, which
killed an estimated 60,000 people. A tsunami overwhelms the ships in the harbor.
The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following:
Shaking and ground rupture
Damaged buildings in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, January 2010.
Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in
more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local
effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from
the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or
reduce wave propagation.[58] The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.
Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of
shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or
local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils
to soft superficial soils and the effects of seismic energy focalization owing to the typical
geometrical setting of such deposits.
Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of
the fault, which may be of the order of several meters in the case of major earthquakes. Ground
rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges, and nuclear power
stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any that are likely to break the
ground surface within the life of the structure.[59]
Soil liquefaction
Main article: Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such
as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction
may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. For
example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the
ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves.[60]
Human impacts
Ruins of the Għajn Ħadid Tower, which collapsed during the 1856 Heraklion earthquake
Physical damage from an earthquake will vary depending on the intensity of shaking in a given
area and they type of population. Undeserved and developing communities frequently
experience more severe impacts (and longer lasting) from a seismic event compared to well
developed communities.[61] Impacts may include:
 Injuries and loss of life

 Damage to critical infrastructure (short and long term)
o Roads, bridges and public transportation networks
o Water, power, swear and gas interruption
o Communication systems
 Loss of critical community services including hospitals, police and fire
 General property damage
 Collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings
With these impacts and others, the aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities,
mental consequences such as panic attacks, depression to survivors,[62] and higher insurance
premiums. Recovery times will vary based off the level of damage along with the socioeconomic
status of the impacted community.
Landslides
Further information: Landslide
Earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard.
Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue work.[63]
Fires
Fires of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake
Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water
mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire
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 Longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves)

Seismic wave arrival

Earthquake location and reporting

Shaking and ground rupture

Damaged buildings in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, January 2010.

 Injuries and loss of life

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