Countable and • The girl was wearing a (indefinite article preceding

word with a consonant sound “you”) uniform but it

Uncountable looked faded. The (definite article) uniform was old.
• I took an (indefinite article preceding word with
Nouns a vowel sound “um”) umbrella as it was beginning
to rain. It did not help because the (definite article)
A noun is a word that refers to person,
umbrella was faulty.
place, thing, event, substance or quality;
Indefinite Article
can be either countable or uncountable. 9
Countable nouns have singular and You can use the with countable nouns when you want
plural forms while uncountable nouns to refer to a specific person or thing.
can be used only in the singular form. E.g.
6
• The baby stared at the moon in fascination.
In English grammar, words that refer to people, places or
• Please take me to the clinic near the coffee shop.
things are called nouns. There are several ways to classify
I’m not feeling well.
nouns. One way is whether they are countable (also known
The indefinite article is not used with uncountable
as count) or uncountable (also known as non-count)
nouns. However, the definite article the can be used with
nouns. Countable nouns, as the term suggests, are things
uncountable nouns when referring to specific items.
that can be counted.
E.g.
They have singular and plural forms.
• I found the luggage that I had lost.
E.g.
• I appreciated the honesty of the salesman.
• table, tables; month, months; pen, pens.
Definite Article
A countable noun becomes plural by adding s at the end
Sometimes when uncountable nouns are treated as
of the word. Of course, there are nouns that form plurals
countable nouns, you can use the indefinite article.
in other ways.
E.g.
E.g.
• Please select a wine that you like.
• man, men; child, children; goose, geese. 10
7
Tricky Uncountable Nouns
In contrast, uncountable nouns cannot be counted.
The noun fruit is usually considered as an
They have a singular form and do not have a plural form
uncountable noun.
– you can’t add an s to it, e.g. dirt, rice, information and
E.g.
hair. Some uncountable nouns are abstract nouns such
• Fruit is good for your health.
as advice and knowledge.
When referring to a single piece of fruit, you would say,
E.g.
• She had only a piece of fruit for lunch!
• Her jewellery is designed by a
However, when referring to different kinds of fruit,
well-known designer.
you may use fruit as a countable noun.
• I needed some advice, so I went
E.g.
to see the counsellor.
• I love to shop at that supermarket –
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending
they have a wide variety of tropical fruits.
on the context or situation.
Similarly, you may use an indefinite article for uncountable
E.g.
nouns when you are referring to a single item.
• We’ll have two coffees (countable).
E.g.
• I don’t like coffee (uncountable).
8
• a piece of furniture, a bottle of water, a grain of rice.
11
ARTICLES
Countable and uncountable nouns may also be used with
You cannot refer to a singular countable noun on its own.
quantifiers. These are words that express amount or quantity.
It is usually preceded by an article, either the indefinite
Common examples are some, any, more, few, little, several.
article – a, an – or the definite article the.
However, there are some quantifiers that can be used with
When the countable noun is mentioned for the first time,
only countable nouns: many, few, a few, fewer, several.
you use an indefinite article a for words beginning with
E.g.
a consonant sound or an if the noun begins with a vowel
• The citizens came to the meeting with many
sound. However, when a countable noun is mentioned
suggestions on how to improve their neighbourhood.
for the second time, it is usually preceded by the definite
• Fewer tourists visited that area as it was known to
article the.
be unsafe.
E.g.
Some other quantifiers can be used with only uncountable
• I saw a (indefinite article) cat yesterday.
nouns: much, little, a bit of.
The (definite article) cat was grey with black stripes.
E.g.
• Would you like a bit of pepper in your soup? 16
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
• There’s very little dessert left.
Subject Object Subject Object
Some quantifiers may be used with both countable and First
uncountable nouns: all, some, any, lots of, plenty of, enough. (person speaking) I me we us
E.g. Second
• He has enough courage to face the bullies. (person spoken to) you you you you
Third
• We have some plates for the party tonight. (person spoken of) he, she, it him, her, it they them
Tracy will bring more. He refers to a male.
Quantifiers She refers to a female.
12
It refers to a thing or animal.
Countable nouns may take singular or plural verbs.
Personal pronouns may be categorised as follows:
E.g. 17
• Our neighbour is singing at the competition tonight. A pronoun can be the subject of a verb:
• Our neighbours are singing at E.g.
the competition tonight. • I can’t catch the mouse. It moves too quickly.
However, uncountable nouns are considered singular and A pronoun can be the object of a verb:
may take only singular verbs. E.g.
Nouns such as luggage, furniture and jewellery are • The flowers look beautiful.
uncountable nouns and take singular verbs. Sally arranged them just now.
E.g. A pronoun can be the object of a preposition:
• The furniture in this house needs to be replaced. E.g.
• The apparatus for the next • I’m going to buy some snacks.
experiment has been set up. Make sure you keep a place for me.
• My luggage has been checked in. Positions of Pronouns in Sentences
Uncountable nouns ending with s may pose a problem to 18
users of English. These refer to the person or animal that is the subject
Subject-Verb Agreement of the verb. The following are reflexive pronouns.
13 PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
These nouns have the plural ending s, but they take First myself ourselves
a singular verb. Second yourself yourselves
Third himself, herself, itself themselves
E.g.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
• The news is not good.
19
• Mathematics is a very important subject. Reflexive pronouns may be used:
All uncountable nouns associated with clothes, such as As the object of a verb.
shorts, jeans and briefs, are plural uncountables. They E.g.
cannot be used in the singular form or with numbers. • Meera blames herself for the mistake.
We cannot say for example a shorts or two shorts. As the object of a preposition.
Instead we say: E.g.
E.g. • Stop looking at yourself in the mirror.
• Can you lend me a pair of shorts? As the indirect object of a verb.
I didn’t bring mine. E.g.
Pronouns • Tara gave herself a treat.
To emphasise a noun or personal pronoun.
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or noun phrase
E.g.
that has already been mentioned in a text or conversation.
15
• Jane herself baked this delicious cake.
There are several types of pronouns. Among them are Positions of Reflexive Pronouns in Sentences
20
personal, possessive, demonstrative, indefinite, reflexive
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
and relative pronouns.
Examples of possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers,
Personal pronouns stand in for nouns and noun phrases,
ours, theirs, its.
and usually refer back in a text or conversation to them.
Unlike personal pronouns, these usually stand alone and
E.g.
do not have to precede a noun.
• Jane is going to watch the parade tomorrow.
E.g.
She plans to leave at 4 pm.
• Karen told me that she had lost her phone.
• We are collecting old photographs for our project.
That must be hers.
They should still be in good condition.
• They have found their seats. Have you spotted ours?
PRONOUNS
• The cat is looking for its master. who, whom and which.
Note: The possessive pronoun its is different from it’s. E.g.
It’s is a contracted form of it is. • The shirt that Matthew bought has some stains on it.
21 Note: American English favours the use of that over
The indefinite pronoun is used when referring to no which while British English still uses both that
particular person or thing. and which.
Some indefinite pronouns refer to people, 25
e.g. someone, anyone, everybody, no one, everyone, nobody. Fill in the blanks with the correct pronouns
Some indefinite pronouns refer to things, from the box below.
e.g. something, anything, everything, nothing. Dear Mr Eric Tan
E.g. I am writing this letter as a note of appreciation for the
• Someone is at the door. good service I received at your restaurant recently. I was
• Where is everyone? at the Plum Blossom Restaurant with my family on 20th
• Has anyone seen the television remote control? June. 1. were fortunate to experience the great
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS service that 2. restaurant is well known for.
22 The dishes were served promptly. More importantly,
E.g. Ms Shirley Teo and her team provided excellent service.
• Jane stopped eating rice for dinner. Now test yourself!
This has helped her lose weight quickly. How well do you know your pronouns?
• That was the last time I saw my colleague Matthew. I it we herself she this you they your that
NEAR IN 26
DISTANCE 3. were very attentive and Ms Teo
OR TIME
4. ensured that we were well taken care of.
FAR IN
DISTANCE 5. was never flustered even when the
OR TIME restaurant became more crowded.
Singular this that The dish 6. we liked best was the Peking
Plural these those Duck. 7. is the best I have ever eaten. The
A demonstrative pronoun points to a specific thing or duck was succulent and tender. 8. would give
things to indicate whether they are close or far, in space it five stars!
and/or time. Like possessive pronouns, demonstrative My family will definitely dine at the Plum Blossom
pronouns stand alone and do not have to precede a noun. Restaurant again. 9. is a promise I intend to
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS keep! Once again I thank 10. for the excellent
23
RELATIVE PRONOUN REFERS TO service and food.
who a person or people Yours sincerely
whom a person or people Mrs Jamie Lee
which a thing or things 27
whose a person, people, a thing or things 1. We (personal pronoun, refers back to the noun, family)
that animal(s) or thing(s)
2. your (possessive pronoun, refers to the restaurant
Who, whom, whose, which and that function as relative
owned by the reader, Mr Eric Tan)
pronouns when they add further information to the things
3. They (personal pronoun, refers back to the
or people mentioned in the sentence.
noun phrase, Ms Shirley Teo and her team)
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
4. herself (reflexive pronoun, for emphasis,
The difference between who and whom is that who may
draws attention to Ms Shirley Teo)
be the subject of a verb; it is also often used as an object
5. She (personal pronoun, refers back to Ms Shirley Teo)
although this is frowned upon.
6. that (relative pronoun, refers to the
E.g.
noun phrase, the dish)
• Isn’t that Shyla who objected to the proposal?
7. It (personal pronoun, refers back to the
• These are candidates whom we interviewed last week.
noun phrase, the Peking Duck)
24
Whom is used only as the object of a verb. Both who 8. I (personal pronoun, refers to the writer
and whom can be the object of a preposition but if the of the letter, Mrs Jamie Lee)
preposition comes before the pronoun, you must use 9. This (demonstrative pronoun, used before
whom. This is illustrated in the examples below. a singular noun, promise. It also indicates
E.g. something that will take place soon)
• Whom/who did you speak to about this matter? 10. you (personal pronoun, refers to
• To whom did you speak about this matter? the reader, Mr Eric Tan)
The relative pronoun that can often be used instead of ANSWERS
Adjectives Positions of Adjectives in Sentences
33
An adjective is a word that describes people, objects, You can use adjectives in the ways suggested below.
events, substances and ideas. Use two or more adjectives to describe a noun in
29 greater detail.
Do you want to add colour to your speech or writing? Try E.g.
using appropriate, vivid adjectives to express your thoughts • small grey cat,
and feelings. Adjectives describe nouns by telling us more • desperate, brazen thief
about them, e.g. their size, colour or shape. Show comparison and contrast using parallel
Using adjectives to describe the things, people or ideas phrases such as ‘not only … but also’, ‘as … as’.
we are talking about helps our readers and listeners form E.g.
a more vivid picture of them. • Beatrice is not only intelligent,
E.g. but also hardworking.
• Please bring that beautiful leather bag to me. • Tom is as strong as his father.
(expresses a positive opinion) Use adjectives to express opinions:
• She was a timid, nondescript girl when she was E.g.
at school. (expresses a negative opinion) • What a boring play! The director
ADJECTIVES was unimaginative.
30
How do you use Adjectives?
Many adjectives do not have prefixes or suffixes. 34
E.g. Adjectives describe many different things, such as size,
• good, tall, fat, wide, simple, gaunt. shape, colour, quality, origin or nationality, material, and
However, adjectives may be formed by adding prefixes the speaker’s or writer’s opinion.
(before a word) or suffixes (after a word). It is common to find two or more adjectives before a noun.
E.g. However, they cannot be strung together randomly; rather,
• illegal, insensitive, rusty, childish, they follow a fairly strict order, from top to bottom:
merciless, enjoyable. Observation/Opinion : lovely, boring,
Usually adjectives are formed by adding suffixes to nouns. beautiful, fascinating
E.g. Size : petite, gigantic, high, long
• baggy, hairy, hairless, burdensome, Shape : round, square, oval, circular
quarrelsome, beautiful. Age : old, new, young
Formation of Adjectives Colour : red, blue, green, yellow
31
Nationality/Origin : Chinese, American,
Sometimes, adjectives may be formed by adding
British, Christian
suffixes to verbs.
Material : gold, silver, silk, linen
E.g.
E.g.
• attractive, washable, expectant,
• small old wooden box
complimentary, boring, disappointed.
• beautiful colourful Turkish rug
When a negative prefix such as un, il, dis, in, im or 35
ir is added to an adjective, it creates an opposite or Your opinion usually precedes any other adjective.
negative meaning. E.g.
E.g. Those horrible yellow chairs; a foolish young boy.
• unnatural, illogical, dishonest, It is common to use two adjectives, but it is unusual
infamous, immoral, irreverent. to use three or more adjectives.
32
Use commas to separate adjectives from the same
Adjectives may be found in three positions in a sentence:
category, e.g. opinion.
Before a noun:
• A handsome, charming man.
E.g.
You do not have to use commas if the adjectives are
• exciting lesson, empty room.
from different categories, e.g. opinion and nationality.
As a complement, after a linking verb:
• A wealthy Japanese businessman.
E.g.
Some pointers when using Adjectives
• The shop is open. 36
• John is sick. Adjectives are useful when you want to
After a noun or an indefinite pronoun: compare things. Adjectives have three degrees:
E.g. positive, comparative, superlative.
• I wrote to the person concerned. The positive merely describes a noun, e.g. a tall child.
• Is there anyone important at the meeting? The comparative compares one person, animal
or object with another. (material, shape)
E.g. Correct: I want to buy that oval ruby
• She is taller than her mother. (shape, material) ring.
The superlative compares a person, animal 2. Incorrect: Chartres is a French beautiful city near Paris.
or object with more than one other. (nationality, opinion)
E.g. Correct: Chartres is a beautiful French
• She is the tallest in her class. (opinion, nationality) city near Paris.
Comparison of Adjectives 3. Incorrect: I’m going to feed the small pitiful cat.
37 (size, opinion)
How do you use adjectives to show comparison? Correct: I’m going to feed the pitiful small
Words containing one or two syllables take the suffix (opinion, size) cat.
-er in the comparative form and -est in the superlative. 42
Many adjectives containing two syllables and all Positive Comparative Superlative
adjectives containing three or more syllables have the active more active most active
old older oldest
word more or most before the adjective to convey the simple simpler simplest
comparative and superlative respectively. far farther, further farthest, furthest
E.g. little less least
• more intelligent, most comfortable. Test 2
38 4. Incorrect: They have a new blue charming letter box.
Positive Comparative Superlative
(age, colour, opinion)
fast faster fastest
small smaller smallest
Correct: They have a charming new blue
careful more careful most careful (opinion, age, colour) letter box.
generous more generous most generous 5. Incorrect: John wore a silk blue tie to the wedding.
Here are some examples: (material, colour)
Positive Comparative Superlative Correct: John wore a blue silk (colour, material)
bad worse worst
tie to the wedding.
good better best
many more most
much more most
Tenses
Here are some examples where the comparative and Tenses show when something happens.
superlative do not have the -er or -est suffix: Present tense - I eat.
39 Past tense - I ate.
Test 1 Future tense - I will eat.
Correct the following sentences by changing the order 44

of the adjectives. Explain why the order is incorrect. Verbs are one of the most important classes of words. They
1. I want to buy that ruby oval ring. tell us what is happening in terms of actions or the state of
2. Chartres is a French beautiful city near Paris. affairs in a particular situation.
3. I’m going to feed the small pitiful cat. E.g.
4. They have a new blue charming letter box. • The children talk (verb) very loudly.
5. John wore a silk blue tie to the wedding. • My daughter is (verb) a talented artist.
Now test yourself! All sentences require a verb. The tenses are parts of verbs
How well do you know your adjectives? that tell you the time when the action referred to in the
40 sentence took place.
Positive Comparative Superlative The base form is the basic verb form. It is so called as it has
active
no inflections (i.e., no endings such as -s, -ing or -ed).
old
simple This is the form of the verb that is listed in dictionary
far entries. The base form of any verb can be changed into a
little singular or plural, present or past tense.
Test 2 E.g.
Fill in the table with the correct comparative • smile (base form)
and superlative adjectives. • smiles (third person singular, present tense)
41
• smiled (past tense)
ANSWERS 45
Test 1 In the English Language there are two tenses: the present
The sentences are incorrect as they do not follow and past. As the terms imply, the present tense refers to
the accepted order of adjectives. Here are the sentences, actions and states in the present while the past tense talks
with the correct versions: about actions and states in the past. To refer to the future,
1. Incorrect: I want to buy that ruby oval ring. we often use the present tense and modal verbs.
E.g. • I have worked in the city for the past five years.
• We leave for London tonight. Often, speakers of English make mistakes with the use of
(using the present tense) the present perfect and simple past.
• We will attend the dinner on Friday. E.g.
(using the modal verb will) • I have watched that movie on Friday.
The present tense is the most basic tense in the English The use of the simple past tense would be correct in
Language. Generally we use it to refer to present activities this instance:
or to talk about routines or habits. We also use the present E.g.
tense to refer to facts and beliefs. It is also used to make • I watched that movie on Friday.
general statements about people and things. 49

E.g. Usually the present perfect should not be linked to a

• She leaves for work at 7.30 every morning. (routine) specific time (in this case, Friday) but to a duration of time
• The sun rises in the east. (fact) such as recently, before, and since last year.
• Harry usually drinks a glass of wine with his meal. Most people have a problem with the past perfect tense.
(generalisation) A rule to remember is: when a sentence refers to two past
46 actions, you use the past perfect to indicate the action that
Regular verbs are made past tense by adding -ed. took place first.
E.g. E.g.
• The audience laughed (past tense) loudly • By the time I arrived (simple past),
at his joke. [laugh (base form) + ed ] the train had left (past perfect).
Irregular verbs differ from the base form as they have a • To my horror, I realised (simple past)
different spelling to indicate the past tense. at the airport that I had forgotten
E.g. (past perfect) to bring my passport!
• swim (base form) - swam (past tense). 50

Unlike the present tense, the form of a verb in the past Different Forms of the Verbs
BASE
tense is the same whether the subject is singular or plural. FORM
E.g. SINGULAR
PRESENT
• The girl (singular subject) drank the water.
TENSE
The girls (plural subject) drank the water. PRESENT
47 PARTICIPLE
Other parts of the verb are the present participle and past PAST
TENSE
participle. (See table on page 50: Different forms of the PAST
Verb.) The present participle and the auxiliary verb be PARTICIPLE
form the continuous tenses. begin begins beginning began begun
The present continuous indicates ongoing or future activity. bite bites biting bit bitten
catch catches catching caught caught
E.g. fall falls falling fell fallen
• The workers are repairing the burst pipe. forget forgets forgetting forgot forgotten
• I am taking my dog for a walk in an hour’s time. freeze freezes freezing froze frozen
The past continuous is used for an activity that give gives giving gave given
know knows knowing knew known
was ongoing at a certain point in the past.
run runs running ran run
E.g. sing sings singing sang sung
• She was working very hard last month. write writes writing wrote written
It is also used to indicate an ongoing situation
that was interrupted by a single past action.
Subject-Verb
E.g.
• The audience was enjoying the concert
Agreement
when the police arrived. Singular subjects go with singular verbs while plural
The present perfect tense is used when an action or subjects go with plural verbs.
situation in the present is linked to a moment in the past. Match your subject with the correct verb form.
52
It is often used to show actions that have happened up to
Have you ever wondered why we say She looks very pretty
the present but aren’t completed yet.
and not She look very pretty? The answer lies in grammar
48
The present perfect tense is formed by rules on concord, or subject-verb agreement. The basic rule
have/has + past participle; the past perfect is that singular verbs must agree with singular nouns, while
is formed by had + past participle. plural verbs must agree with plural nouns. What is a noun?
Examples of the use of the present perfect tense. It is a word to name people, places, events, things or ideas.
• We can go out now – my car has been repaired. E.g.
• teacher, Orchard Road, party, basket, beauty. 55

How do you recognise a singular or plural verb? Well, it all depends on whether we are thinking of
A singular verb is one that has an s added to it in the the team as a single collective unit or as individuals.
present tense, such as writes, plays, runs, and uses If it is the former, then the verb should be singular.
forms such as is, was, has, does. A plural verb does However, if we are considering the team as
not have an s added to it, such as write, play, run, comprising individual members who are not acting
and uses forms such as are, were, have and do. as a single unit, then we use the plural verb.
E.g. Other examples:
• Jack (singular noun) enjoys (singular verb) • My family (considered as a collective unit)
playing golf every Sunday. comes from Kuala Lumpur.
• The men (plural noun) enjoy (plural verb) • The audience (considered as individuals)
playing golf every Sunday. were clamouring for more songs
In the case of pronouns, he, she and it take a singular but the singer left the stage.
verb while you, we and they take a plural verb. • The Committee is ready to present
We (plural pronoun) think (plural verb) that she its findings this afternoon.
(singular pronoun) is (singular verb) innocent. A point to note is that American English almost always
53 treats collective nouns as singular, hence a singular verb
However, there are exceptions to the rules is used with it.
mentioned earlier. Nouns which have two parts such as spectacles, scissors
If the two nouns are conjoined and represent a single idea, or pants require plural verbs.
then the verb is singular. E.g.
E.g. • My spectacles are missing.
• Bread and butter is available on request. • These scissors need sharpening.
• Fish and chips is my favourite meal. 56

• Law and order is the new government’s priority. However, when regarded as a pair, a singular verb is used.
Problems also arise when the speaker or writer is faced E.g.
with more than one noun or pronoun in the sentence. • My pair of spectacles is missing.
E.g. • This pair of scissors needs sharpening.
• The quality of our students’ essays has There are some occasions when we should use
fallen drastically. singular verbs.
In this case, the verb has fallen agrees with the Expressions such as each of, one of, anybody, each, every
subject (first noun mentioned) or head noun of and nobody must be followed by a singular verb.
the noun phrase, quality. E.g.
E.g. • Each of the ladies has a designer handbag.
• The spokes of that wheel are broken. • Anybody is allowed to enter this hall.
In this case, the subject of the sentence is spokes • Nobody is disappointed with the results.
(plural head noun), hence the plural verb are. A singular subject with attached phrases introduced by
54 with or like or as well as is followed by a singular verb.
When a singular and a plural noun or pronoun (subjects) E.g.
are joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the • The boy, with several others, was late for school.
subject nearer the verb. • Meiling, like Johan, is tall for her age.
E.g. • Tom, as well as Fred, is on the first shift.
• The girls or their father collects 57

the newspapers every morning. Two singular nouns or pronouns separated by either ... or
In this example, the singular verb, collects, agrees or neither ... nor take a singular verb.
with the noun closer to it, the singular noun, father. E.g.
People often get confused when deciding whether • Either he or she has eaten the cake.
a singular or plural verb should agree with some • Neither Meera nor Gopal knows
collective nouns. anything about the accident.
E.g. Amounts, even if plural, have a singular verb.
Should we say E.g.
• The football team is (singular verb) • Sixty dollars is too much to pay for that dress.
ready to be photographed. • Ten kilometres is too long a distance for me to walk.
Or • Five kilogrammes of flour is all that I need for
• The football team are (plural verb) my baking.
ready to be photographed. There are some occasions when we should use plural
verbs. When two or more plural subjects are connected
by and, the verb is plural. These prepositions indicate a movement towards a goal.
E.g. E.g.
• The officers and their men were patrolling the area. • Let’s go to the market.
• Domestic cats and dogs need adequate care • The swimmers walked into the sea.
and attention. • The students eagerly ran towards the campsite.
58 Prepositions of Direction
Plural subjects separated by either ... or or neither ... nor, On is used for days and dates.
both ... and, and all but take a plural verb. E.g.
E.g. • The wedding will be on Saturday.
• Either the boys or the girls are to blame. At is used to indicate a specific time.
• Neither the contestants nor the E.g.
audience were aware of the fire. • I’ll see you at six o’clock.
• All but Sam are going to the cinema. Prepositions of Time
• Both the twins and their parents are 62
attending their graduation ceremony. From ... to and during are used to indicate a period of time.
Another problem that users of English face is this: does E.g.
the verb in a sentence agree with the noun (subject) before • The tulip festival is from March to May.
it or the noun or adjective after it (subject complement)? • During the school holidays, students
The answer is that it should agree with the subject – engage in community projects.
the noun before it. Other prepositions indicating time are before, until, after,
E.g. since and by.
• The thing (subject) we need at this E.g.
moment is (verb) more eggs. • My wife exercises before breakfast.
• The greatest benefit (subject) is (verb) • You can visit her after office hours.
the opportunities presented to our staff. • You must submit the forms by 1st July.

Prepositions • Until now, I’ve always thought that

she was a meticulous officer.
A preposition is a word that shows the • She has been making a lot of progress since
relationship between an object – a noun or she started her exercise programme.
pronoun – and other words in a sentence. 63
Memorise how prepositions are to be used. There There are times when we are unsure which preposition we
is no easy way out. Our notes here may help too! should use. These are some troublesome prepositions.
60 Beside and Besides
The preposition is placed before a noun or pronoun. It Beside means “next to”.
shows the relationship between nouns and pronouns in E.g.
the same sentence. It may be used to indicate position, • She sits beside me in the office.
place, direction or time. Besides means “other than” or “apart from”.
With regard to place, in tends to be used with larger E.g.
or enclosed areas such as cities, countries and tunnels, • Besides enjoying cooking, I like
whereas at tends to be used for smaller places, points on a reading a book when I’m free.
journey, or for activities typically associated with a place. Troublesome Prepositions
E.g. 64
• The couple will spend their money in London. Between and Among
(large area) Between is used when referring to two people, places
• Their train stops at London Paddington. or things.
(point on a journey) Among is used for three or more people, places or things.
• The boys are running around in the library. E.g.
(enclosed area) • Divide the cake among the five of you.
• They boys are at the library, reading. • The twins shared the sweets between themselves.
(reading is associated with libraries) ‘Differ with’ and ‘Differ from’
When talking about heights or levels, you use below, When you differ with someone, you disagree with that
over or under. person’s opinion or idea.
E.g. When you differ from someone, it means that you are
• The dog is sleeping under the bed. unlike that person.
• The plane flew over the hills. E.g.
Prepositions of Position • The form teacher differed with the
61 English teacher on the boy’s abilities.
• Mr Chan differed from his predecessor • She sang beautifully. (manner)
in terms of management style. • She came early for the interview. (time)
65 • I stayed here when I visited Hanoi. (place)
Sometimes you may find it hard to decide which Some adverbs also moderate or intensify adjectives
preposition you should use with a word. or adverbs.
This is a list to help you. E.g.
• according to • That was an extremely entertaining performance.
• angry with • I wouldn’t recommend it. It was a very bad show.
• ashamed of • I went to the market rather early on Saturday.
• bored with (something) • She danced remarkably well.
• comment on 69
• disagree with At the beginning of a sentence
• disappointed in (something) (usually to emphasise a point).
• disappointed with (somebody) • Finally, we found our way back to the camp.
• disgusted at (something) In the middle of a sentence.
• disgusted with (somebody) • The philanthropist rarely reveals his
• pride oneself on (something) identity when he makes his donations.
• protest against At the end of a sentence, after a verb.
• rely on • She screamed loudly.
• similar to Adverbs may be categorised into the following classes:
• write about (something) Manner : gracefully, sadly, slowly, well
• write to (somebody) Time : before, now, since, eventually
66 Place : here, there, everywhere, nowhere
Phrasal verbs – verbs used with a preposition or adverb. Degree : almost, quite, very, rather
Phrasal verbs are never hyphenated. Number : once, twice
• back away – to retreat Interrogative : where, when, how
• back down – retract or withdraw Possible Positions of Adverbs in a Sentence
(from a position or argument) 70
• back out – fail to keep an agreement Adverbs of manner tell you the way an action
• back up – make a copy of computer data is performed. They answer the question how?
• back (someone) up – to support someone Usually, the adverb follows the verb.
• fall apart – break into pieces (literally) or become E.g.
emotionally disturbed (figuratively) • The students cheered enthusiastically when
• fall behind – make little progress they were told that they were getting a holiday.
• fall out – have a bad relationship with someone Sometimes, the adverb is placed before the verb to
• (something) fall through – be unsuccessful emphasise the manner of the action.
• get across – communicate successfully E.g.
• get ahead – make progress • He deliberately tripped the rude boy.
• get along – have a good relationship with someone • She suddenly appeared out of nowhere.
• get around to – finally manage to do something Although many adverbs of manner end in -ly, not all do.
• get back at – take revenge E.g.
• put across – communicate • She’s trying hard to impress the judges.
• put (someone) down – insult someone Adverbs of Manner
• put forward – suggest or nominate 71

• put up – allow someone to stay at your Adverbs of time answer the questions when? how long?
house for a few days and how often?
• put up with – tolerate E.g.
• Lunch will be ready soon.
Adverbs • Jenny visited us twice last year but
An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, we haven’t seen her since.
adjectives, adverbs and prepositions. • Harold rarely visits his grandparents.
68 Adverbs of Time
While adjectives tell you more about a noun or pronoun, 72
adverbs do the same for verbs. Adverbs tell you, among At the beginning of the sentence, usually for emphasis.
other things, how (manner), when (time) or where (place) E.g.
an action took place. • Frankly, the job is not worth
E.g. doing for the money alone.
After the verb or at the end of a sentence. 3. It’s rude to talk so loud on the bus.
E.g. 77

• The school looked very different then. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate adverb.
Before the verb. Use the words in the box to fill in the blanks.
E.g. 4. , when I was in Bangkok on a business trip,
• The neighbours now realise what had happened. I had a strange experience. A frail-looking Thai girl,
Possible Positions of Adverbs dressed 5. in a torn dress, came up to me.
of Time in a Sentence Thinking that she was just another beggar, I took a coin
73 from my pocket and gave it to her. However, she took no
Adverbs of Degree interest in it. She placed her grubby hands 6.
Adverbs of degree answer the question how much? or to on my briefcase. When I tried to remove her hand, she said
what extent? They increase or reduce the force of the word something 7. in Thai. I was 8.
they describe. annoyed by her. She then pointed to a street food vendor
They are usually used with adjectives and are placed before and urged me to buy her some food. I 9. pay
the adjective that they describe. attention to street children but 10. I found
E.g. myself getting her some food.
• The students put up a totally shabbily
entertaining performance. surprisingly
They are used with other adverbs and are placed before the rarely
adverb they describe. recently
slightly
E.g.
frantically
• The young man walked incredibly slowly.
firmly
When used with verbs, they come before the verb. when
E.g. 78
• The audience absolutely hated the show. 1. The team played good. (good is an adjective)
74 Amended: The team played well.
Adverbs are used to indicate comparison in the same way (The adverb well modifies the verb played.)
as adjectives. They generally form the comparative or 2. The tiger stalked its prey slow and quiet.
superlative by adding more and most to the positive adverb. (slow and quiet are adjectives)
Positive Comparative Superlative
Amended: The tiger stalked its prey
early earlier earliest
long longer longest slowly and quietly. (The adverbs slowly
bravely more bravely most bravely and quietly modify the verb stalked.)
carefully more carefully most carefully 3. It’s rude to talk so loud on the bus.
greedily more greedily most greedily
(loud is an adjective)
Positive Comparative Superlative
badly worse worst Amended: It’s rude to talk so loudly on the bus.
well better best (The adverb loudly modifies the verb talk.)
Exceptions: 4. Recently
75 5. shabbily
Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. 6. firmly
Using adjectives to modify verbs, adverbs or 7. frantically
other adjectives is not Standard English. 8. slightly
E.g. 9. rarely
• He behaves strange. (not Standard English) 10. surprisingly
• He behaves strangely. (Standard English) ANSWERS
• After a few lessons Tom sang real well.
(not Standard English) Conjunctions
• After a few lessons Tom sang really well. A conjunction is a word that connects similar words or
(Standard English) group of words such as phrases, clauses and sentences.
Confusion between Adjectives and Adverbs 80
76 CONJUNCTIONS
Now test yourself! Conjunctions are connectors that link words,
How well do you know your adverbs? phrases, clauses or sentences. There are two
Re-write the following sentences so that they are main types of conjunctions: coordinating and
grammatically correct. subordinating conjunctions.
1. The team played good. Coordinating conjunctions join equivalent word
2. The tiger stalked its prey slow and quiet. classes, phrases or clauses. Joined words and
phrases should be of the same class or type, and • Neither the boys nor Sally believes her story.
joined clauses should be main clauses. • Either Meiling or Sharon is going to the
Coordination can take place between two or more airport today.
main clauses. A Choice or Alternative
E.g. 85

• Emily went to see a doctor and was given two The coordinating conjunctions so and therefore link a
days’ medical leave but went to work anyway. cause to its effect.
81 E.g.
The main coordinating conjunctions are and, but and or. • He had worked hard, so his success was
Conjunctions are useful as they help avoid unnecessary not unexpected.
repetition of words or phrases. • They heard the announcement on the radio and
E.g. therefore took another route to avoid the traffic jam.
• It is a small kitchen. It is a practical kitchen. Unlike coordinating conjunctions, subordinating
→ It is a small but practical kitchen. conjunctions join an independent clause to a
• John will inform you of the results. John’s dependent clause.
assistant will inform you of the results. The dependent clause cannot stand on its own and
→ John or his assistant will inform you of the results. often does not make sense without the main clause.
• They gave their opinions. I gave my opinions. Most subordinating conjunctions are single words,
→ They gave their opinions and I gave mine. e.g. although, as, because, since, when.
Coordinating conjunctions may be used in several ways. • Although the journey to the disaster site was
82 difficult, the volunteers want to continue to
The conjunction and connects words and phrases support the project.
that are linked in some way. • Since they refused to obey the school rules, the
E.g. boys were suspended from school for a week.
• Sam and I will not be attending the meeting. • Sarah was waiting for the bus to arrive when
The conjunctions both … and are used as a pair she fell.
for emphasis. Cause and Effect
E.g. 86
• Both the girls and I were eager to However, some subordinating conjunctions consist more
participate in the competition. than one word, e.g. except that, as long as, even if.
Addition E.g.
83 • Even if he gives me a lift, I am not going to
The conjunctions but, though and so link words, the funfair.
phrases or clauses that have contrasting meanings. • Except for Jane, all are expected at the lunch.
In the case of clauses containing a contrasting idea, • She will be allowed to keep her pet as long as
whereas and while are used. she looks after it well.
E.g. • Even if he gives me a lift, I am not going to
• Slowly but surely the ancient temple was the funfair.
painstakingly rebuilt. These are some subordinating conjunctions that convey
• Jane, though looking better, is still feeling the following ideas:
weak after the operation. Cause : since, because, so that
• Alex ate too much at the buffet lunch, so he Concession and Comparison : although, as though,
skipped dinner. even though
• Mrs Gopal is firm with her students whereas Condition : even if, unless
Mrs Chan tends to be more lenient. Place : where, wherever
• While Stanley tended the garden, his wife Time : after, as soon as, whenever
baked a cake. 87
Contrast Some conjunctions combine with other words to form
84 correlative conjunctions. They appear together, joining
You use the conjunction or to link words, phrases or various sentence elements that should be treated as
clauses that present a choice or alternative. grammatically equal.
E.g. Some examples are both…and; not only, but also; either
• Would you like to have dinner now or later? … or/neither … nor; whether … or.
• I’ll contact you by phone or email. • Whether you win or lose this competition is not
The pairs either … or and neither … nor are used the issue; it’s how hard you’ve tried.
to lend greater emphasis to the alternatives. Using “like” as a Conjunction.
E.g. Although like is often used as a conjunction, this is
regarded as rather informal and should be avoided in 1. Vast forests of trees used to cover the mountain slopes,
formal writing. but much of them have been cleared for roads.
E.g. – but introduces a contrary idea. The trees used to
• He doesn’t go out like he used to. (informal) cover the mountain slopes but no longer do so.
• He doesn’t go out the way he used to. (formal) 2. The old lady spoke to them in a soft and gentle voice.
Instead of “Like I told you yesterday, we aren’t going to – and provides a similar positive aspect of the old
the zoo today”, say “As I told you yesterday, we aren’t lady’s voice.
going to the zoo today”. 3. Are we going to walk or take the bus to town?
Instead of “It looks like it’s going to rain”, say “It looks as – or indicates the choices available to the speaker
if it’s going to rain”. and his friend/s.
Correlative Conjunctions 4. It was getting late, so I decided to take a taxi.
88 – so indicates a consequence of the preceding clause.
Misuse of “either … or” 5. Joyce enjoys listening to pop songs, whereas
This construction presents a choice between two her husband prefers classical music.
alternatives. However, the two alternatives should – whereas introduces a clause that has a
belong to the same word class. contrasting idea.
E.g. ANSWERS
• We can go to either Bangkok or Bali for 9. Wait when your mother comes back.
our vacation this year. (Both are nouns.) 10. She won’t go to the party before
• They can eat either now or after the show. she gets a lift from a friend.
(Both are adverbs.) 92
Sometimes either is placed in an incorrect position. 6. As it was raining, we decided to cancel
E.g. our plans to visit the zoo.
• She can take either the exam or ask to – As suggests that the clause provides a reason.
be interviewed. (One is a noun – exam 7. If you do not try, you will not succeed.
– and the other is a verb – ask.) – If indicates a likely possibility or condition.
The correct phrasing should be: She can either take 8. Although James knows he’s wrong, he won’t admit it.
the exam or ask to be interviewed. (Both are verbs.) – Although expresses a concession,
89 that there is something positive and
Misuse of “due to” negative in the same sentence.
Due to is often used in place of because of or as a result 9. Wait until your mother comes back.
of. However, the correct way to use it is when it follows – until indicates a specific time.
a noun or pronoun, i.e., in a sentence structure such as 10. She won’t go to the party unless
“something is due to...”. she gets a lift from a friend.
Therefore, the sentence below is incorrect: – unless indicates a condition.
• Our departure was delayed due to bad weather.
It should be recast as: Grammar
• The delay in our departure was due to bad weather.
90 Gaffes
Incorrect conjunctions have been used in the sentences A gaffe is an embarrassing mistake people make in public.
below. Choose the correct conjunction from the box to This compilation of corrections to common grammar
correct each sentence. gaffes may save you from unintended awkward moments.
Now test yourself! 94
How well do you know your conjunctions? Gaffe: When I will arrive, I will call you.
1. Vast forests of trees used to cover the mountain slopes, Correct: When I arrive, I will call you.
and much of them have been cleared for roads. Gaffe: He don’t care about me anymore.
2. The old lady spoke to them in a soft but gentle voice. Correct: He doesn’t care about me anymore.
3. Are we going to walk and take the bus to town? Gaffe: I am not speaking to nobody here.
4. It was getting late, while I decided to take a taxi. Correct: I am not speaking to anybody here.
5. Joyce enjoys listening to pop songs, and Gaffe: To gain insights on the matter.
her husband prefers classical music. Correct: To gain insights into the matter.
6. While it was raining, we decided to Gaffe: Irregardless of what she said, he
cancel our plans to visit the zoo. should not have punched her.
7. Unless you do not try, you will not succeed. Correct: Regardless of what she said, he
8. Unless James knows he’s wrong, he won’t admit it. should not have punched her.
but so as or although until if unless and whereas Gaffe: Can you borrow/loan me $2?
91 Correct: Can you lend me $2? May I borrow $2?
Gaffe: I am staying in Jurong. Gaffe: I see you last week.
Correct: I live in Jurong. Correct: I saw you last week.
Gaffe: He plays computer games everyday. Gaffe: How much you willing to let go?
Correct: He plays computer games every day. Correct: How much are you willing to sell it for?
Gaffe: I prefer green tea more than English tea. Gaffe: I want to talk on this problem.
Correct: I prefer green tea to English tea. Correct: I want to talk about this problem.
95 Gaffe: In my personal opinion
Gaffe: On hindsight, I should have attended that meeting. Correct: In my opinion
Correct: In hindsight, I should have attended that meeting. Gaffe: My fellow colleague will attend to you.
Gaffe: He stayed at Indonesia for a week. Correct: My colleague will attend to you.
Correct: He stayed in Indonesia for a week. Gaffe: I am concern about his health.
Gaffe: The fire alarm has gone on again. Correct: I am concerned about his health.
Correct: The fire alarm has gone off again.
Gaffe: He emphasised on the importance of Common Errors
being punctual for meetings.
Correct: He emphasised the importance of in Singapore
being punctual for meetings. 99

Gaffe: The commander stressed on the HEARD IN SINGAPORE

importance of being fit. Singaporean Blunder: Please on/off it.
Correct: The commander stressed the Standard English: Please turn it on/off.
importance of being fit. Singaporean Blunder: Please off the tap.
Gaffe: He travelled between 1 January to 10 January. Standard English: Please turn off the tap.
Correct: He travelled between 1 January and 10 January. Singaporean Blunder: Please off/close the light.
Gaffe: Divide the chocolates among the two of you. Standard English: Please turn off the light.
Correct: Divide the chocolates between the two of you. Singaporean Blunder: Please on/open the light.
Gaffe: He smoked despite the continuous Standard English: Please switch on the light.
warnings of his Principal. Singaporean Blunder: He likes to play cheat when
Correct: He smoked despite the continual we play card games.
warnings of his Principal. Standard English: He likes to cheat when
96 we play cards.
Gaffe: Help arrived just on time. Singaporean Blunder: With regards to the matter,
Correct: Help arrived just in time. I think ...
Gaffe: Do you have sometime to check this? Standard English: With regard to the matter,
Correct: Do you have some time to check this? I think ...
Gaffe: This phone costs a hundred over dollars. At Home
Correct: This phone costs over a hundred dollars. 100

Gaffe: This chocolate bar comprises of nuts. Singaporean Blunder: Why you never do
Correct: This chocolate bar comprises nuts. your homework?
Gaffe: Here is the details of the meeting. Standard English: Why didn’t you do
Correct: Here are the details of the meeting. your homework?
Gaffe: What does it comes with? Singaporean Blunder: You got eat already?
Correct: What does it come with? Standard English: Have you eaten?
Gaffe: It doesn’t makes sense. Singaporean Blunder: I lazy to go out.
Correct: It doesn’t make sense. Standard English: I am too lazy to go out.
Gaffe: He look very serious. Singaporean Blunder: He scored 8 upon 10
Correct: He looks very serious. for the Math test.
Gaffe: She always say I very lazy. Standard English: He scored 8 out of 10
Correct: She always says that I am very lazy. for the Math test.
Gaffe: The place I’ve been to are all in Asia. Singaporean Blunder: Lisa is taking writing classes
Correct: The places I’ve been to are all in Asia. to upgrade her skills.
97 Standard English: Lisa is taking writing classes
Gaffe: My three weeks experience in catering ... to improve her skills.
Correct: My three-week experience in catering ... Singaporean Blunder: Eric wants to apply
Gaffe: I eat fish yesterday. leave next week.
Correct: I ate fish yesterday. Standard English: Eric wants to apply for
Gaffe: What happen yesterday? leave next week.
Correct: What happened yesterday? In the Office
101 from the ATM.
Singaporean Blunder: I feedback to her. Singaporean Blunder: Got so many car here!
Standard English: I gave her feedback. Standard English: There are so many cars here!
Singaporean Blunder: Please revert to me Singaporean Blunder: I cannot ownself do.
as soon as possible. Standard English: I can’t do this myself.
Standard English: Please reply as soon as possible. Singaporean Blunder: The house sell already.
However, using revert to mean “reply to” is common Standard English: The house has been sold.
in some varieties of English, e.g. Indian English. Here, There and Everywhere
Singaporean Blunder: Today is my off day. 104
[An off day is a day when Singaporean Blunder: To make it more clearer, I will
things don’t go well for you] rewrite the proposal.
Standard English: Today is my day off. [More is redundant]
Singaporean Blunder: Don’t worry, sure can one. Standard English: To make it clearer, I will
Standard English: Don’t worry. It will surely work. rewrite the proposal.
Singaporean Blunder: So late already. Singaporean Blunder: I will reprint the document again.
Why never go back? [Again is redundant]
Standard English: It’s late now. Why haven’t Standard English: I will reprint the document.
you left for home? Singaporean Blunder: Please repeat your question again.
102 [Again is redundant]
Singaporean Blunder: Where is the in-charge Standard English: Please repeat your question.
of this shop? Singaporean Blunder: I like blue colour bags.
Standard English: Where is the person in [Colour is redundant]
charge of this shop? Standard English: I like blue bags.
Singaporean Blunder: Please give me lesser salt. Singaporean Blunder: He is big in size.
Standard English: Please give me less salt. [In size is redundant]
Less is used with uncountable nouns; few is used with Standard English: He’s big.
countable nouns. Lesser is an adjective meaning “not as Singaporean Blunder: I will return back the files to
great in size, amount or importance” (Oxford) and is a you later. [Back is redundant]
synonym for words such as “inferior” and “poorer”. Standard English: I will return the files to you later.
Singaporean Blunder: The shop is opened from Redundancies
10 am to 8 pm. 105
Standard English: The shop is open from Singaporean Blunder: We discussed about this
10 am to 8 pm. during the meeting.
Singaporean Blunder: You have key in invalid password. [About is redundant]
Standard English: You have keyed in an Standard English: We discussed this
invalid password. during the meeting.
Singaporean Blunder: You are entitle to discount. Singaporean Blunder: I didn’t include it in.
Standard English: You are entitled to a discount. [In is redundant]
Singaporean Blunder: You go where?
Standard English: Where are you going?
At the Shopping Mall
103
Singaporean Blunder: The driver behind just
horned at you.
Standard English: The driver behind just honked/
sounded his horn at you.
Singaporean Blunder: He is one kind.
Standard English: He is strange /
He behaves strangely.
Singaporean Blunder: I will fetch the kids to school.
Standard English: I will take the kids to school.
Singaporean Blunder: From the SLE, you exit
out at Yishun.
Standard English: From the SLE, you exit at Yishun.
Singaporean Blunder: I need to draw money
from the ATM.
Standard English: I need to withdraw money