UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Concept of hardware

It can also be said that hardware simply refers to all the tangible and physical
components of a computer. This includes all the components that can be seen or
touched. There are also different types of hardware. Some types of hardware, along
with their examples, are given in the table below.

1.2 Relation Between hardware and software

A computer system is divided into two categories: Hardware and Software.
Hardware refers to the physical and visible components of the system such as a
monitor, CPU, keyboard and mouse. Software, on the other hand, refers to a set of
instructions which enable the hardware to perform a specific set of tasks. The
software must be installed in the hardware to function properly and similarly, the
hardware must be present for the tasks to be performed. Both are interdependent,
yet they are also different from each other.

1.3 Fundamental building blocks of the PC

The basic building block of any computer requires the following components:

 CPU( processor)
 Motherboard
 Graphics card
 RAM sticks ( minimum 1 and maximum as your CPU supports)
 Storage device ( Hard-disk drive or solid state drive)
 PSU ( power supply as per your system requirements)
 CPU cooler or stock cooler
  Thermal paste
 Cabinet to install all these components
 Monitor
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 UPS ( if there is no steady supply of current) to prevent your PC from getting burnt
 Wifi receiver ( if needed )

1.4 Basic PC handling-techniques, concept of booting

There are many different things that could cause a problem with your computer. No matter
what's causing the issue, troubleshooting will always be a process of trial and error—in some
cases, you may need to use several different approaches before you can find a solution; other
problems may be easy to fix. We recommend starting by using the following tips.

 Write down your steps: Once you start troubleshooting, you may want
to write down each step you take. This way, you'll be able to remember
exactly what you've done and can avoid repeating the same mistakes. If
you end up asking other people for help, it will be much easier if they
know exactly what you've tried already.
 Take notes about error messages: If your computer gives you an error
message, be sure to write down as much information as possible. You
may be able to use this information later to find out if other people are
having the same error.
 Restart the computer: When all else fails, restarting the computer is a
good thing to try. This can solve a lot of basic issues you may experience
with your computer.
 Always check the cables: If you're having trouble with a specific piece of
computer hardware, such as your monitor or keyboard, an easy first step
is to check all related cables to make sure they're properly connected.

Booting

Booting happens when you start the computer. This happens

when we turned ON the power or the computer restarts. The
 system BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) makes the peripheral
devices active. Further, it requires that the boot device loads the
operating system into the main memory.

Steps of Booting

We can describe the boot process in six steps:

1. The Startup
It is the first step that involves switching the power ON. It supplies electricity to
the main components like BIOS and processor.

2. BIOS: Power On Self Test

It is an initial test performed by the BIOS. Further, this test performs an initial check
on the input/output devices, computer’s main memory, disk drives, etc. Moreover,
if any error occurs, the system produces a beep sound.

3. Loading of OS

In this step, the operating system is loaded into the main memory. The operating
system starts working and executes all the initial files and instructions.

4. System Configuration

In this step, the drivers are loaded into the main memory. Drivers are programs that
help in the functioning of the peripheral devices.

5. Loading System Utilities

System utilities are basic functioning programs, for example, volume control,
antivirus, etc. In this step, system utilities are loaded into the memory.

6. User Authentication
 If any password has been set up in the computer system, the system checks for
user authentication. Once the user enters the login Id and password correctly the
system finally starts.

1.5 CPU essentials and processor modes

How the CPU works

Let's look at the CPU in more detail. Figure 2 is a conceptual diagram of a

hypothetical CPU so that you can visualize the components more easily. The RAM
and system clock are shaded because they are not part of the CPU and are only
shown for clarity. Also, no connections between the CPU clock and the control
unit to the CPU components are drawn in. Suffice it to say that signals from the
clock and the control unit are an integral part of every other component.

Figure 2: A simplified conceptual diagram of a typical CPU.

This design does not look particularly simple, but the reality is even more
complicated. This figure is sufficient for our purposes without being overly
complex.

Processor modes

Real Mode:
 The original IBM PC could only address 1 MB of system memory, and the original versions of DOS
created to work on it were designed with this in mind. DOS is by its nature a single-tasking operating
system, meaning it can only handle one program running at a time. The decisions made in these
early days have carried forward until now, and in each new processor, care had to be taken to be
able to put the processor in a mode that would be compatible with the original Intel 8088 chip. This
is called real mode.

Protected Mode:

Starting with the 80286 chip in the IBM AT, a new processor mode was introduced called protected
mode. This is a much more powerful mode of operation than real mode, and is used in all modern
multitasking operating systems

Virtual Real Mode:

The third mode of processor operation is actually an additional capability, an enhancement, of

protected mode. Protected mode is normally used to run graphical multitasking operating systems
such as the various flavors of Windows. There is often a desire to be able to run DOS programs
under Windows, but DOS programs need to be run in real mode, not protected mode.

1.6 Over clocking

In the computer world overclocking is referred to as the act of increasing the clock
rate of a computer component like processor, ram etc.
For example, if you have a processor which has a base clock of 2.91 GHz, So,
making it run at higher clock rate than 2.91 GHz will be termed as overclocking.

1.7Types of computer: micro, mini, mainframe

A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input
according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output.
Computers are of various types and they can be categorized in two ways on the basis of size and
on the basis of data handling capabilities.

So, on the basis of size, there are three types of computers:

1.) Mainframe
2.) Mini
3.) Micro

Mainframe computer: Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that it can
support hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. It also supports multiple
programs simultaneously. So, they can execute different processes simultaneously.
 All these features make the mainframe computer ideal for big organizations like
banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in general.
Mini computer: Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this
type of computer, there are two or more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users
at one time. Minicomputers are used in places like institutes or departments for
different work like billing, accounting, inventory management etc. It is smaller than
a mainframe computer but larger in comparison to the microcomputer.
Micro computer: A mainframe computer is a large computer capable of rapidly
processing massive amounts of data at high speeds. Mainframe computers by
definition are computers that have a lot of memory and processors, so they can do
billions of transactions and simple calculations in real time. A mainframe is used for
transaction servers, commercial databases, and applications that need ample
reliability, security, and speed.
1.8 Generation of processor Intel brand
Use Class Notes

1.9Mobile processor and its configuration

Mobile processor is found in mobile computers and cellphones.
A CPU chip is designed for portable computers to run fanless, under 10-15W, which is cool enough
without a fan. It is typically housed in a smaller chip package, but more importantly, in order to run
cooler, it uses lower voltages than it desktop counterpart and has more processor capability. A mobile
processor can be throttled down to different power levels or sections of the chip can be turned off
entirely when not in use.
UNIT-2 INPUT OUTPUT PERIPHERAL DEVICES

2.1 Keyboard and pointing devices:

A keyboard is a peripheral device that enables a user to input text into a computer or
any other electronic machinery. A keyboard is an input device and is the most basic way
for the user to communicate with a computer. This device is patterned after its
predecessor, the typewriter, from which the keyboard inherited its layout, although the
keys or letters are arranged to function as electronic switches. The keys include
punctuation, alphanumeric and special keys like the Windows key and various
multimedia keys, which have specific functions assigned to them.

2.2 Keyboard controller

In computing, a keyboard controller is a device that interfaces a keyboard to a computer. Its main
function is to inform the computer when a key is pressed or released. When data from the keyboard
arrives, the controller raises an interrupt (a keyboard interrupt) to allow the CPU to handle the
input..
If a keyboard is a separate peripheral system unit (such as in most modern desktop computers), the
keyboard controller is not directly attached to the keys but receives scancodes from
a microcontroller embedded in the keyboard via some kind of serial interface. In this case, the
controller usually also controls

2.3 Super IO controller

Super input/output, or super I/O, SIO is an integrated circuit on a computer motherboard that handles the
slower and less prominent input/output devices shown below. When the super input/output was first
introduced in the late 1980s, it was found on an expansion card. Later, this chip was embedded into the
motherboard and communicated over the ISA bus. As ISA began to no longer be used with computers, SIO
communicated over the PCI bus. Today, super I/O communicates through the Southbridge and is still used
with computers to support older legacy devices.

2.4 Interrupt controller

When a peripheral or device requires attention, it raises an interrupt to the processor.

An interrupt controller provides a programmable governing policy that allows
software to determine which peripheral or device can interrupt the processor at any
specific time by setting the appropriate bits in the interrupt controller registers.
There are two types of interrupt controller available for the ARM processor: the
standard interrupt controller and the vector interrupt controller (VIC).
The standard interrupt controller sends an interrupt signal to the processor core when
an external device requests servicing. It can be programmed to ignore or mask an
individual device or set of devices. The interrupt handler determines which device
requires servicing by reading a device bitmap register in the interrupt controller.
The VIC is more powerful than the standard interrupt controller because it prioritizes
interrupts and simplifies the determination of which device caused the interrupt. After
 associating a priority and a handler address with each interrupt, the VIC only asserts an
interrupt signal to the core if the priority of a new interrupt is higher than the currently
executing interrupt handler. Depending on its type, the VIC will either call the standard
interrupt exception handler, which can load the address of the handler for the device
from the VIC, or cause the core to jump to the handler for the device directly.

2.5 Serial port and parallel port

Serial Ports: Serial Ports provide an interface to connect serial lines to prepare a serial
communication. Serial ports are typically used in modem, mouse, security cameras etc.
A Serial port uses DB-9 connector, a 9 pin D-Shaped Connector which connects to the
transmission line. A serial port provides a serial communication using one line and thus
have no dependency on other wire's speed and its length can be extended as per the
need.

Parallel Ports: Parallel ports provide an interface to connect multiple lines to prepare a
parallel communication to send large data at a time. Parallel ports are used in
connecting printers, hard-drives, CD-drives etc. All lines speed should be same to avoid
error and cross-talk issues. To avoid such issues, the wires are kept small in length. A
parallel port uses D-25 connector, a 25 pin D-Shaped connector which connects to the
transmission wires.

S. No Key Serial port Parallel port

1 Purpose Serial Port is used for serial Parallel Port is used for
data transmission. parallel data
transmission.

2 Transmission Transmission speed of a serial Transmission speed of

port is slow as compared to a a parallel port is quiet
Speed
parallel port. high as compared to a
serial port.

3 No. Of Wires Wire connections to serial port No. of wires that are
are quiet less as compared to connected to parallel
parallel port. port are quiet high as
compared to serial
port.

4 Capability A serial port is able to transmit A parallel port is able

a single stream of data at a to transmit multiple
time. data streams at a time.

5 Port Type A serial port uses Male ports. A parallel port uses
Female ports.
2.6 Monitor, CRT controller
Monitor:
A monitor is an electronic visual computer display that includes a screen, circuitry and
the case in which that circuitry is enclosed. Older computer monitors made use of
cathode ray tubes (CRT), which made them large, heavy and inefficient. Nowadays, flat-
screen LCD monitors are used in devices like laptops, PDAs and desktop computers
because they are lighter and more energy efficient.

CRT Controller:
Display Controller controls the operation of the display device. It is also called a video
controller. Working: The video controller in the output circuitry generates the horizontal and
vertical drive signals so that the monitor can sweep. Its beam across the screen during raster
scans.

2.7 Printer and its type

Printers are the most commonly used and popular output devices. They provide information in a
permanent readable from. They produce printed output of results, programs and data. Prints
text or image on paper called hard copy. The printing speed of a printer is measured in pages
per minute (ppm).Printer resolution is often measured in dots per inch (dpi).

2.8 Printer maintenance

a) Don’t overfill the paper tray and avoid them from getting damp.
b) Use right consumables i.e. paper and cartridges.
c) Every printer undergoes some wear and tear with time.
 d) The printer is a delicate machine treat it nicely and in a nice manner.
e) When opening a printer, turn it off and avoid touching parts.

2.9 Pin diagram for connectors of peripheral devices

2.10 Requirements for wireless printers

A wireless printer connects to your laptop either through a technology called Bluetooth, which requires devices to
be next to each other or, if you have access to a wireless network, using Wi-Fi (available to devices within 50 to
100 feet or so). Here’s a rundown of things you should be aware of when setting up your laptop to connect to a
wireless printer:

 Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are short-range wireless connections (meaning you have to be near the printer
to connect to it).
 To use a Bluetooth-based wireless printer, you may have to connect a Bluetooth transmitter to a USB
port on your laptop. This transmitter is a small device about the size of a stick of gum that transmits a
signal to your printer. If you have a Wi-Fi–enabled laptop, you can skip this step.
 You should run through the procedure in the previous task to set up the printer in Windows Control
Panel and install any required drivers. After you click Advanced Printer Setup in the Hardware and
Sound window, click the The Printer That I Want Isn’t Listed link, and then choose Add a Bluetooth,
Wireless, or Network Printer in the first dialog box that appears and follow the instructions.
 The Add a Printer wizard walks you through the process of pairing your laptop and printer; you may
need a passcode (provided with your printer) for this.
 After you’ve installed the printer, you should be able to print just as you would with any other kind of
printer, but without the hassle of extra wires littering your desk.
 2.11 How to connect mobile with your printer

These instructions apply only to Android mobile devices.

 From the mobile device, go to the settings menu.

 Enable Wi-Fi, and then tap Wi-Fi Direct.

 Select the printer Wi-Fi Direct name.

 Confirm the connection on the printer control panel.

UNIT-3 STORAGE DEVICES

3.1Introduction to Memory
Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information.
There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. However, this is not a flawless
process. Sometimes people forget or misremember things. Other times, information is not properly encoded in
memory in the first place.

3.2 Memory types: Primary memory and Secondary Memory

Computer memories store data and instruction. Memory system can be divided into 4
categories:
 CPU register
 Cache memory
 Primary / Main memory
 Secondary Memory / Mass Storage

They can be represented in a hierarchical form as:

Computer Memory

Primary memory Secondary memory

Primary memory is temporary Secondary memory is permanent
Primary memory is directly accessible by Secondary memory is not directly accessible
Processor/CPU. by the CPU
Nature of Parts of Primary memory varies, It’s always Non-volatile in nature
RAM- volatile in nature. ROM- Non-volatile.
The memory devices used for primary The secondary memory devices are magnetic
memory are semiconductor memories. and optical memories.
Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic
PROM, EPROM, Registers, etc. Tapes, etc.
Primary memory devices are more expensive Secondary memory devices are less
than secondary storage devices. expensive when compared to primary
memory devices

3.3Memory Card, USB, Data Card

Memory Card:A memory card is a type of storage device that is used for storing media and data files. It
provides a permanent and non-volatile medium to store data and files from the attached device. Memory
cards are commonly used in small, portable devices, such as cameras and phones.
USB (universal series bus):USB (pronounced yoo-es-bee) is a plug and play interface that allows a
computer to communicate with peripheral and other devices. USB-connected devices cover a broad range;
anything from keyboards and mice to music players and flash drives. For more information on these devices,
see our USB device section.
Data Card:A memory card is an electronic data storage device used for storing digital information, typically
using flash memory. These are commonly used in digital portable electronic devices.

3.4Organization of memory - logical and physical

Logical organization - processes are composed of modules or varying sizes, modules independently compiled,
modules with different protection needs even to the degree of sharing.
Physical organization - typically a two level organization: main memory and secondary memory. The
user/programmer cannot know how a program or process will be split across the levels.

3.5 Cache Memory: L1-cache, L2-cache

Cache memory, also called supplementary memory system that temporarily stores frequently
used instructions and data for quicker processing by the central processing unit (CPU) of
a computer. The cache augments, and is an extension of, a computer’s main memory.

3.6Memory modules, SIMM and DIMM

In computing, a memory module or RAM (random-access memory) stick is a printed circuit

[1]
board on which memory integrated circuits are mounted. Memory modules permit easy
installation and replacement in electronic systems, especially computers such as personal
computers, workstations, and servers. The first memory modules were proprietary designs that
were specific to a model of computer from a specific manufacturer.

SIMM and DIMM

 A DIMM is a double sided SIMM. SIMM can be installed in in-line pairs while DIMM is

independent of the side. Because a DIMM has separate contacts on each side of the

board, it provides twice as much data as a single SIMM.

 SIMM can have a maximum 32-bit channel for data transfer. In contrast, DIMM supports

64-bit channel.

 The amount of power consumed by SIMM is 5 volts and 3.3 volts for DIMM.

 SIMM modules can store at maximum 64 bits. On the contrary, DIMM offers up to 1 GB.

 SIMM is outdated technology. DIMM is used mainly because its performance is better

than SIMM.