02 Special Relativity
02 Special Relativity
02 Special Relativity
2
What is Modern physics?
• The study of Modern Physics is the study of the enormous revolution in our view
of the physical universe that began just prior to 1900.
• At that time, most physicists believed that everything in physics was completely
understood. Normal intuition and all experiments fit into the context of two
basic theories:
1. Newtonian Mechanics for massive bodies;
2. Maxwell’s Theory for light (electromagnetic radiation).
• However, many new experimental results made it clear that the then-existing
theoretical framework was inadequate to describe nature.
3
Newtonian mechanics
• Newton’s laws
4
Frames of reference
• Physical systems are always observed from some point of view. That is, the
displacement, velocity, and acceleration of a particle are measured relative to
some selected origin and coordinate axes.
• If a different origin and/or set of axes is used, then different numerical values
are obtained for r , v , and a , even though the physical event is the same.
5
Inertial reference frames
6
Intuition for inertial reference frame
7
Comparing inertial frames
8
Galilean (“old”) relativity
• Relativity is the invariance of the equations that express the laws of physics.
• How could we relate one frame to another one moving with constant velocity
frame1 frame2
9
Galilean (“old”) relativity
• Before Einstein
• If an object has velocity u in frame S, and its position, x(t), changes with time,
e.g.: think about a car with velocity u relative to the ground and velocity
u’= u - v relative to another car moving with v.
10
Newton’s law dynamics
• If an object has velocity u in frame S, and its position, x(t), changes with
Acceleration unchanged
Newton’s law (F=ma) is
therefore unchanged,
i.e., Galilean invariant.
11
Galilean transformations
space.
– a single universal clock time that applies throughout all of space (i.e. is the
same no matter where in space you are).
• But, now suppose that there is another person moving with constant velocity in
12
Galilean invariants
13
Galilean Transformation
14
Galilean invariants
• Galileo says:
15
Speed of light
This was considered as one of the great achievements of 19th century physics.
16
Between mechanics and Electromagnetism
• By 1900 the classical world-view was well established through two main fields:
Mechanics & Electromagnetism.
But..
failed.
Why?
- According to the Galilean transformations, c is not invariant. Hence,
electromagnetic effects will not be the same for different inertial observers.
I.e. Maxwell's equations are not conserved by the Galilean transformations,
although Newton's laws are.
17
Between mechanics and Electromagnetism
1. Galilean relativity exists both for mechanics and for electromagnetism, but the
laws of electromagnetism as given by Maxwell are not correct.
If this is correct we must be able to perform experiments show deviations from
Maxwell's laws.
2. Galilean relativity exists only for mechanics, but not for electromagnetic laws.
That is, in electromagnetism there is an absolute inertial frame ( the ether ).
18
Concept of ether
• The speed of sound in air depends on properties of the air. Most important, the
• If the ether carried light the way air carriers sound, then an observer moving
relative to the ether would measure the speed of a light wave so that it would
vary according to the observer’s speed.
19
Motion through ether
Answer : c+v
20
Measure earth’s motion through ether
21
The Michelson-Morley experiment
• The experiment was designed to measure the speed of the earth through the
22
The Michelson-Morley experiment
23
The Michelson-Morley experiment
• The time of travel for the horizontal light to and back from the mirror
• The time of travel for the vertical light (which must actually be aimed “up-
24
The Michelson-Morley experiment
• The difference in times will cause a phase difference and a certain interference
pattern with light and dark fringes. In other words if the delay can be measured
it will tell us the Earth‘s speed w.r.t the ether.
• Michelson and Morley saw nothing i.e., no difference in time between two paths.
• And this led to an important fact about reference frames: There is no such thing
as an absolute frame of reference in our universe.
• The time was ripe for a new idea. Enter Einstein in 1905 → Special theory of
relativity!
25
Special theory of relativity
• Special means that the theory applies only to inertial reference frames.
• Theory means that the concept has been confirmed by many different
experiments.
26
Einstein’s postulates of special relativity
– All laws of physics have the same mathematical form in all inertial
reference frames.
• This means:
- There is no preferred frame of reference.
- There is no a physical experiment, mechanical, electrical or optical can be
performed to determine our state of uniform motion.
- Galilean transformations are not correct for all laws of physics.
27
Einstein’s postulates of special relativity
• This means:
- The speed of light is invariant.
- The classical idea that space & time are independent had to be rejected.
(i.e. there is should be a relationship between space & time).
- As a consequence of Einstein's 2nd postulate , is the concept of Non-
Simultaneity.
• Two events that are simultaneous in one frame of reference need not
28
Additional notes on special relativity
• Einstein then simply brought this up to date, by pointing out that the Laws of
Physics must now include Maxwell’s equations describing electric and magnetic
fields as well as Newton’s laws describing motion of masses under gravity and
other forces.
• Note:
29
Additional notes on special relativity
• The Third Law, stated as action equals reaction, no longer holds because if a
body moves, its electric field, say, does not readjust instantaneously—a ripple
travels outwards at the speed of light. Before the ripple reaches another
charged body, the electric forces between the two will be unbalanced. However,
the crucial consequence of the Third Law—the conservation of momentum when
two bodies interact, still holds. It turns out that the rippling field itself carries
momentum, and everything balances.
• Demanding that Maxwell’s equations be satisfied in all inertial frames has one
30
Additional notes on special relativity
• Therefore, demanding that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial
frames implies that the speed of any light wave, measured in any inertial frame,
must be 3 10 meters per second.
• This then is the entire content of the Theory of Special Relativity: the Laws of
Physics are the same in any inertial frame, and, in particular, any measurement
of the speed of light in any inertial frame will always give 3 10 meters per
second.
31
Lorentz Transformations
• This transformation derives its name from the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz
(1853-1928).
spatial distance and a change of time interval between two inertial systems.
i.e. they are space-time transformations.
32
Lorentz Transformations
• Since c is a constant for all observers in both S and and is the same in all
directions, all observers in both frames of reference must detect a spherical
wavefront expanding from their origin.
33
Lorentz Transformations
34
Lorentz Transformations
• Where
35
Lorentz Transformations
36
Time dilation
• Since the clock is at rest in frame S’ at place one gets with the Lorentz
transformation
37
Time dilation
• If the observer is in frame S’ at rest together with the clock, he notes the proper
• If the observer is in frame S and regards the clock moving with frame S’, he
notes the time of the moving clock is
38
Time dilation
• A clock can be e.g. realised by two mirrors. The time necessary for a light pulse
on the way between the two mirrors defines the period of the clock.
39
Time dilation − Examples
• Answer:
– Proper time, (i.e., a time measured in the frame of reference stationary with
the clock) is always the shortest. Thus c) is the answer, as the only one larger
than the proper time of 5 seconds.
40
Time dilation − Examples
• 2) Alice takes a ship moving at speed 0.8c ( = 5/3) to a planet that is 8 light-
years away (as judged by Bob, who stays back home on earth). How many
years will Alice age during her roundtrip?
– Alice’s time is the proper time since it is at the same location (her
spaceship). Hence her time is shorter (running slower) than that in Bob’s
41
Length contraction
• To obtain the length contraction with the Lorentz transformation one considers
a scale at rest in frame S’
42
Length contraction
• One gets
43
Doppler effect
– The Doppler effect for sound waves travel in a medium, depends on two
velocities: the source velocity and the observer velocity with respect to that
medium.
44
Doppler effect
• And the source is moving with constant velocity v along the x-axis of the
coordinate system .
1−v ⁄
= =
1 + (v⁄ ) 1 + v/
45
Doppler effect
• The observers measure the frequency , the relative speed v, and the angle
between the source position vector & + x-axis.
⁄
• Equation = = represents a general
( ⁄ ) /
case, from which one may derive expressions for some other special cases.
• Assume that you are at the origin of S, what the measured frequency of the
source would be:
46
Some special cases
− /
=
+ /
• Note that the numerator is smaller than the denominator, giving a lowered
frequency when the source is moving away from you, just as for SOUND waves.
(However, the equation is different for sound waves.)
+ /
=
− /
47
Some special cases
• The numerator now is larger than the denominator, giving the expected
increase in frequency when the source is moving toward you.
= − ⁄ = /
– So…
Doppler shifts in the frequencies of electromagnetic waves occur not only for relative
motion toward or away from an observer, but also for transverse motion.
48
So far..
= relativity of
− /
simultaneity
• Physics behind length contraction:
ℓ=ℓ − /
• Lorentz transformation:
= −
= −
49
Relativistic Mass & Momentum
• In classical physics when two bodies collide together, the total mass, energy
and momentum before and after the collision are equal.
• Let us apply conservation laws to viewers from two different inertial reference
frames and .
50
Relativistic Mass & Momentum
∆ =2 =2 1−v /
• But the principle of relativity demands that the laws of physics are the same
in all inertial reference frames. Hence;
∆ =∆
= 1− /
• or
51
Relativistic Mass & Momentum
= =
v
1−
= =
v
1−
52
Relativistic Force
• We can use Newton's second law to define force by the relation F = dp/dt. So
we have;
• If the force is perpendicular to the velocity, the force can't do any work on the
particle, so the speed won't change. This happens in uniform circular
motion. The direction of v changes, but the magnitude of v doesn't. Therefore
doesn't change and dm/dt=0. Substituting for = , we have
=
• However, if the force is parallel to the velocity, the particle speed and mass will
change. Then;
53
Relativistic Force
=
1− /
• and
∥ =
54
Relativistic Energy
• Let's start an object from rest with a net external force F in the (+ve) x
direction. Then the work done by F will be stored in the form of kinetic energy.
• That is,
/
= = . = 1− /
• which integrates to
55
Relativistic Energy
• or most simply;
= − =∆
• Suppose a body with a rest energy of undergoes a work that increases its
KE, then its total energy will be E = E +KE or;
= −
• That is; Energy and mass are just two equivalent ways of describing the same
thing.
56
Relativistic Energy
= =
1−
• This equation shows that for objects with a nonzero rest mass, c is the upper
limiting speed. This doesn't forbid the existence of particles that have zero rest
mass and which can only move at v = c.
= +
57
Questions
58