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Inverse square law for light and radiation: A unifying educational approach

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DOI: 10.24018/ejers.2017.2.11.517

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 EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science
Vol. 2, No. 11, November 2017

Inverse Square Law for Light and Radiation: A Unifying

Educational Approach
Nikolaos Voudoukis, and Sarantos Oikonomidis

 Therefore, the power is proportional to the inverse square

Abstract—Many concepts in the physics curricula can be of the distance. Being strictly geometric in its origin, the
explained by the inverse square law. Point-like sources of inverse square law applies to diverse phenomena. Newton's
gravitational forces, electric fields, light, sound and radiation
law of gravity, Coulomb's law for the forces between
obey the inverse square law. This geometrical law gives the
ability of unifying educational approach of various cognitive electric charges, light, sound and radiation obey the inverse
subjects in all the educational levels. During the last years we square law. This geometrical law gives the ability of
have been using engaging hands-on activities to help our unifying educational approach of various cognitive subjects
students in order to understand the cohesion in Nature and to in all the educational levels. This paper describes simple
export conclusions from experimental data. The development experiments that verify the inverse square law.
of critical thinking is also stimulated by student ‘s
Students know intuitively that intensity decreases with
experimental activities. Teaching students to think critically is
perhaps the most important and difficult thing we do as science distance. A light source appears dimmer and sound gets
teachers. In this paper three activities are described, which fainter as the distance from the source increases. The
were executed by students. These activities are concerning the difficulty is in understanding why the intensity decreases as
electromagnetic radiation and the main goal is to confirm the
1/r2 rather than as 1/r or 1/r3, or even as 1/ √r, where r is the
inverse square law. We used three activities entitled as:
“Inverse Square Law-Light”, “Photometer construction” and distance from the source.
“Radioactive source”. The significant motive for this work In a recent paper [1] it is shown how to obtain the
constituted the following question: “Is it possible to find lab inverse-square law of the distance to the light intensity
activities which bring out unification and a non-piecemeal emitted from a small source in a simple, fast and with good
description of physical phenomena, helping students to think
critically?”.
precision way. In another recent paper P. Papacosta and N.
Linscheid describe a simple experiment that verifies the
Index Terms—Inverse Square Law; Light; Photometer; inverse square law using a laser pointer, a pair of diffraction
Radiation; Science Teaching. gratings, and a ruler [2].
The development of critical thinking (CT) is widely
claimed as a primary goal of science education [3]. A
I. INTRODUCTION method for development of critical thinking skills is the
The radiation intensity from a point-like source with Socratic questioning method. Its implementation provides
unlimited range, which effects in all directions, in a specific opportunity to help students in appropriate manner to
distance r is equal to the quotient of the power to the surface understand concepts and phenomena. The development of
of an imaginary sphere with radiant r. critical thinking is also stimulated by student ‘s
In the following figure, I is the intensity in r distance, that experimental activities. For the educational approach of the
corresponds to a surface A. At a 2r distance the same different actions that take place in this paper, we suggest the
amount of energy pass through the surface 4A. So the educational model that includes the following steps: 1.
intensity becomes I/4 etc. Trigger of interest 2. Hypothesis expression 3. Experiments
– Measurements, 4. Formulation of conclusions and
proposals - recording 5. Generalisation - feedback – control.
It is an important part of learning that a person sees and
engages a concept several times before mastery is attained
[4]. This is very useful in clarifying concepts, as well as
when predicting the course of the experiment and its
subsequent explanation. An example is the inverse square
law.

II. EXPERIMENTS
Fig.1. A specified physical quantity or intensity is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the source of that physical quantity. A. 1 Experiment: Inverse square law – Light
st

1) Materials
A cardboard with grid, a cardboard with a hole,
Published on November 27, 2017.
supporting clips, ruler, candle.
Nikolaos Voudoukis is with Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering Educators, School of Pedagogical and Technological Students set the device shown in the following picture so
Education (ASPETE), Athens, Greece (e-mail: [email protected]). that the cardboard with the hole to be at the middle of the
Sarantos Oikonomidis is High School Principal at Ralleio Geniko distance between the candle and the cardboard with the grid.
Lykeio Thileon Pirea (e-mail: [email protected]).

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2017.2.11.517 23
 EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science
Vol. 2, No. 11, November 2017

They observe and they count the lighted squares on the brightness B, Area A, and the amount of light (also
cardboard with the grid. called power or luminosity) L, and we can write the
following:
B = L/A for any distance and B0 = L/A0 for the standard
distance (10 cm)
So relative brightness is B/B0 = A0/A (L cancels out
because it is the same for both)
But, at a distance of 10 cm the area illuminated was 1 cm2
So, A0 = 1 and we have B/B0 = 1/A
Calculate the relative brightness for each distance, and
record it in your data table.

TABLE I: DATA TABLE OF THE 1ST EXPERIMENT

Number of
Area Relative
Distance from squares
illuminated brightness
bulb (cm) illuminated
(cm2) (cm-2)
10 4 1.00 1
Fig. 2. The apparatus used in the 1st experiment.
13 6.7 1.68 0.6
15 9.2 2.30 0.43
17 11.5 2.88 0.35
20 16.5 4.13 0.24
23 22.2 5.55 0.18
25 26 6.50 0.15
27 28.5 7.13 0.14
30 36.5 9.13 0.11

Using the data from the above table students can make the
graph of relative brightness vs distance (data as points and
plotting the theoretically line). As a conclusion we have that
the relative brightness should obeys the low B/B0 = k/ r2.
(Comment: The constant of proportionality is k = 1/100,
because for r = 10 cm, A = 1 cm2)
Fig. 3. The 1st experiment.
B. 2nd Experiment: Photometer construction
We can make, for example, the following questions to the 1) Materials
students for hypothesis expression from them. Two paraffin blocks, ruler, two similar lightings, four
What do you think will happen if we redouble the lamps and aluminium foil.
distance between the first cardboard with the hole and the Building a photometer. Verification of the inverse square
second one with the grid? law for the light. The aim is to create a photometer and to
When the distance between the candle and the hole is verify the relation between the power of light and distance.
equal to the distance between the hole and the cardboard
with the grid, how many squares are lightened? 2) Procedure
1) Put the aluminium foil between the two pieces of
2) Procedure
paraffin.
1) Keep the distance between the bulb and the card with 2) Put the two lamp holders in one-meter distance between
the 1 cm square hole constant at 10 cm. Put the bulb at them.
different distances from the graph paper and count how 3) Both lamp holders have lamps of 100W. Close all the
many squares on the graph paper are lit at each distance. other lightings and put the photometer between the two
Record the number of squares illuminated in the data lamp holders so that the two pieces of paraffin have the
table. (Comment: Be sure to measure the distance from same luminosity.
the bulb, not the card.) 4) Fill the data table.
2) Measure the size of the squares in the graph paper to 5) Replace one lamb of 100W with another of 75 W and
determine the area of each square. If you use the graph repeat the second and the third steps.
paper provided with this activity they should be 1/2 cm 6) Repeat the second and the third steps with other
on a side, and thus each has an area of 1/4 cm2. combinations of lamps and we fill the table.
Calculate the area illuminated at each distance 7) Check if the data (measurements) follows the inverse
measured, and record it in your data table. square law.
3) The amount of light received per area is called
brightness. The amount of light given off by the bulb
and passing through the hole in the card always remains
constant. So, what we want to calculate is the brightness
relative to some standard brightness (say the brightness
of the bulb on the graph paper at 10 cm). We call

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2017.2.11.517 24
 EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science
Vol. 2, No. 11, November 2017

its power).
For the second case (P1=75W, P2=100W), P1/P2=3/4.
From the experimental data it emerge that intensities are
equal at distances d1=46cm and d2=54cm. When the
intensity is the same on both paraffin blocks (as shown in
Fig. 4. Description of the 2nd experiment.
Fig. 5) then these two intensities can be put into an equation.
So we have:

Ι=k/(d1)² Ι=k΄/(d2)² k΄=3/4 k

(d1/d2)2 = (d1/d2)² = (46/54)²=0.73 ~ ¾
The same is for the other two cases.
(d1/d2)² = (39/61)²=0.41~2/5
(d1/d2)² = (43/57)²=0.57~8/15

Thus the law is verified.

(Comment: There is an error of about 7%. The theoretical
reading of the ratio of the two intensities (using light bulbs
of 40W and 75W) should be 0.53 and not 0.57 as measured.
Fig.5. The photometer with aluminum foil between two pieces of paraffin. One reason for this is that the students did not take into
What the two paraffin pieces will look like if they receive different amounts account the fact that the overall luminous efficiency (% of
of light.
light energy/heat) of incandescent light bulbs changes with
the wattage of the bulb. For example, a 40W tungsten
incandescent light bulb has a luminous efficiency of only
1.9% (only 1.9% of its 40W power is converted into visible
light). For a 60W light bulb the luminous efficiency is 2.1%
and for a 100W light bulb is 2.6%.)
C. 3rd Experiment: Radioactive source.
1) Materials
Radio-active Cobalt-60 5μCi, Geiger-Müller, ruler.
The inverse square law in a radioactive source of gamma
rays, using a Geiger- Müller is studied. The aim is to
ascertain the validity of the law also in electromagnetic
Fig.6. The photometer lightened with the two lightings. How the two blocks radiation that emits from radioactive sources.
of paraffin will appear if they receive equal amounts of light.
2) Procedure
1) Record the measurements from the Geiger-Müller
for two minutes.
2) Repeat the measurement four times and calculate
the mean rate per minute.
3) Rotate the tube of the meter 900 (it is to eliminate
any effect of Alpha and Beta particles that may distort the
reading of the Gamma rays) and repeat 2 and 3 steps.
4) Compare the results from the different directions of
the meter. This is the stand radioactivity.
5) Put the Geiger 8 cm away from the source.
6) Measure for every minute.
7) Repeat step 3 for 16 cm, 24 cm and 32 cm.
8) Check if the data (measurements) follows the
Fig.7. The 2nd experiment. inverse square law.
Using the Geiger Muller we took stand radioactivity
TABLE II: DATA TABLE OF THE 2ND EXPERIMENT
P1(W) P2(W) P1/P2 d1(cm) d2(cm) d1/d2
measurements for two minutes in two vertical directions.
100 100 1/1 50 50 1/1 There has been taken five different measurements in each
75 100 3/4 46 54 46/54 direction.
40 100 2/5 39 61 39/61 Continuously we used a radioactive source Cobalt-60
40 75 8/15 43 57 43/57 5μCi and took five measurements for 2 minutes period in
two different distances 20 cm and 40 cm. The data
P1: power of Lamp1 confirmed satisfactory the inverse square law.
d1: distance between lamb1 and photometer
TABLE III: DATA TABLE OF THE 3RD EXPERIMENT
d2: distance between lamb2 and photometer
Intensity I Distance r
The same luminosity means the same intensity I of light (lux) (m)
incident on each one of the paraffin blocks. If the intensity 160 0,42
I= k / r² (k a constant depends on source accordingly from 140 0,50

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2017.2.11.517 25
 EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science
Vol. 2, No. 11, November 2017

130 0,52 • Explain what the inverse square low is.

120 0,56 • Identify the mathematical expression of an inverse
100 0,62 square low.
87 Ο,67 • Describe an experiment for checking the inverse square
80 0,70
low for the light.
60 0,84
• Do a quick mathematical check for given data (e.g. by
40 1,12
doubling and tripling the distance and seeing if the data
30 1,40
follows an inverse square law by dropping to a quarter
and a ninth).
Measurements are with the radioactive source of Cobalt- • Predict a measurement (comparatively) for a given
60 5μCi without the background radiation. distance from the source.
• Predict the gravitational and electrostatic forces
between objects.
The intervention was performed on high school students
(17years old) in Athens, Greece during the school year
2016-2017. The number of students participating in this
study was forty seven (47) students - two (2) classes, one of
twenty four (24) students and the other of twenty three (23)
students - divided in sixteen (16) teams of three (3) students
each (there was one team of two students). For the
assessment of the proposal they took pre, post and final
tests. We find that the quality of the students' reasoning
Fig. 8. Graphic plot of intensity (I) vs distance (r). about the inverse square low is improved by this approach.
A comment of a student summarizes the main attitude of
As a conclusion we have that the intensity of gamma rays all students “These activities were particularly interesting
radiation decreases as we go away from the source of and helped us to better understand the concepts learned. All
radiation and obeys the low I=k/r2. showed interest. I think it is good all students to learn in
Safety and technical notes: Note that 5μCi is equivalent to this way.”
185 kBq. Cobalt-60 is the best pure gamma source.
However, students can use sealed radium source. This gives V. CONCLUSION
out alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Students can use it for The activities used to teach students the inverse square
this experiment by putting a thick aluminium shield in front low support a unifying approach for this low. The unifying
of it. This will cut out the alpha and beta radiations. An approach enhances learning, helping students to think
alternative is to try using a Geiger-Muller tube sideways. critically. The development of critical thinking is stimulated
The gamma radiation will pass through the sides of the tube by student ‘s experimental activities which lack strict
but alpha and beta will not. instructions.
The experiments are carried out by students and can be
III. GENERALIZATIONS used for supporting the teaching of the inverse square low in
an inquiry- based approach, as well as helping students to
For generalizations we can apply the following subjects
approach the nature of science by guiding them to realize
for further study:
the relationship of experiment and theory in scientific
1) The inverse square law for gravitational and electrical
investigations and also the way scientists work.
forces and it’s relation to the gravitons and photons
Our didactical approach seems, from the assessment, to
respectively.
be quite encouraging and we suppose that it is appropriate
2) The magnitude of a star. When the Absolute Magnitude
not only for high school students. We think that it will be
of a star is known (as in the case of standard candles)
beneficial and for non-major science university
then the distance to such a star can be calculated by the
undergraduate students too.
use of the Inverse Square Law. (As Edwin Hubble did
in 1924 and 1929. He used the Luminosity – Periodicity
REFERENCES
law of Cepheid stars discovered by Henrietta Leavitt.).
[1] L. Pereira Vieira, V. de Oliveira Moraes Lara (2014). Dayanne
The Inverse Square Law is a powerful tool for Fernandes Amaral, “Demonstration of the Inverse Square Law with
astronomers that help to calculate distances to stars and the aid of a Tablet/smartphone” Physics Education, 2014.
galaxies near and very far away (using Supernovae of [2] P. Papacosta, N. Linscheid, “The Confirmation of the Inverse Square
Law Using Diffraction Gratings” Phys. Teach. 52, 243. 2014
the Ia type). [3] Bailin, S. “Critical thinking and science education” Science &
3) The absolute magnitude of a star. Education, 11, 361–375, 2002.
4) The inverse square law for sound. The sound intensity [4] A. B. Arons, Teaching introductory physics, NY: Wiley, 1997.
[5] C. Gipps. Beyond Testing. Towards a theory of educational
from a point source of sound will obey the inverse
assessment. London. Washington, D.C.: The Falmer Press, 1994
square law if there are no reflections or reverberation.

IV. ASSESSMENT
By the end of the activity students should be able to [5]:

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2017.2.11.517 26
 EJERS, European Journal of Engineering Research and Science
Vol. 2, No. 11, November 2017

Nikolaos Voudoukis received a BSc degree in Sarantos Oikonomidis received a BSc degree in
Physics from Athens National University, Greece, in Physics from University of Patras, Greece in 1983,
1991, a BSc in Electrical and Computer Engineering his MSc degree in Physics Education from Athens
from the National Technical University of Athens, National University, in 1993, and his PhD degree
Greece, in 2012, his MSc degree in Electronics and from Athens National University, in 2010. Dr
Telecommunications from Athens National Oikonomidis is High School Principal at Ralleio
University, in 1993, and his PhD degree from Athens Geniko Lykeio Thileon Pirea.
National University, in 2013. He has worked as
telecommunication engineer in Greece. Dr.
Voudoukis now is Assistant Director at a high school
and a part-time Lecturer at the School of Pedagogical & Technological.
Education, Athens, Greece.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejers.2017.2.11.517 27

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