UNIT 2 Lesson 2.4 Structures and Functions of Modified Cells

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Lesson 2.4
Structures and Functions of Modi ed Cells

Contents
Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
Warm Up 2
Learn about It! 4

Specialized Cells and Cell Structures 4
Specialized Cells and Cell Structures in Animals 5
Microvilli 5
Cilia and Stereocilia 6
Flagella 8
Basal Infoldings and Hemidesmosomes 8
Cell Junctions 9
Red and White Blood Cells 10
Sperm and Egg Cells 12
Specialized Cells and Cell Structures in Plants 14
Trichomes 14
Root Hairs 15
Mesophyll Cells 16
Cells of Xylem and Phloem 17
Key Points 18
Check Your Understanding 19
Challenge Yourself 20
Photo Credits 21
Bibliography 21

Lesson 2.4
Structures and Functions of

Modi ed Cells

Introduction
Have you ever wondered what your special capabilities are? Have you discovered them yet?
We believe that each one of us has unique capabilities. Many of these existed since the day
we came out into this world, and these are what make us unique. Every organism that exists
on earth has special capabilities that make them, “them.” Dogs are the only ones that can
bark. Fishes are the only organisms that have gills and fins, while plants and some
unicellular organisms are the only ones that can make their own food. We can distinguish
an organism from other organisms by virtue of their special structures and abilities.

2.4. Structures and Functions of Modified Cells 1

Organisms’ special structures and abilities are developed based on what they need to
survive or to adapt in their environments. Just like other organisms, we, humans have
adapted to the fast-changing world that leads us to become technology-oriented people. We
developed skills that made us cope with the demands of the world like being computer
literate. But beyond our skills, we also have special microscopic structures inside our bodies
that help us grow, develop, and survive. Since they are microscopic, we cannot appreciate
their functions as much as we appreciate the other body parts that we can see with our
naked eye. These microscopic structures are specialized in that they carry out activities that
other structures cannot. What do these special microscopic structures look like? How do
they function?

Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the Describe some cell modifications
that lead to adaptation to carry out
following:
specialized functions (e.g.,
● Enumerate the specialized cells microvilli, root hair)
in animals and plants. (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-5).

● Locate the specialized cells in
animals and plants.

● Determine the functions of each
specialized cell in animals and
plants.
Warm Up
Peculiar Creatures 15 minutes

Are you familiar with the peculiar and unusual creatures that can be seen in anime series?
Have you heard of Ash Ketchum and his Pokémon buddy Pikachu? Pikachu is not the only
Pokémon shown and described in this anime series. There are lots of other Pokémon, and
each of them has special structures that help them use their special powers to their
opponents during battles. In this activity, you will learn about some Pokémon species, as
well as their special physical features and powers.



Materials
● 3 white cartolina
● 3 permanent markers
● 12 Pokémon cards

Procedure
1. Form groups with five members each.
2. Each group will be given three Pokémon cards with pictures and descriptions in it,
which the teacher shall prepare by accessing the link below.

Pokemon Cards.
Quipper Ltd., “Pokemon Cards.” (March 9, 2020),
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ut9Pz7LE5eg5U8qIbOf
YivMkILsYHlXpGrYv4Xq54Gs/edit#, last accessed on March
16, 2020.

3. All groups need to read and analyze the descriptions of each Pokémon species and
take note of their characteristics and special powers.
4. After reading and analyzing each Pokémon, you need to list down their special
powers and structures that enable them to do such powers in Table 2.4.1.
5. Each group must present the provided table on a white cartolina.
6. Choose two representatives of your group to present your work to the class.
7. Each group is allotted 2 minutes to present their work.
8. After the presentation, answer all the questions that follow.

Observation Table
Table 2.4.1. Pokémon species and their special features and powers
Pokémon Species Special Structure/s Special Power/s
1.


2.

3.

Guide Questions
1. What are the special structures and corresponding special powers of your assigned
Pokémon species?
2. How do the special powers of Pokémon species help them survive?
3. What do you think are the special structures in humans that other organisms do not
have? How do these help us function?
4. Why do organisms need to have different special structures?

Learn about It!

Specialized Cells and Cell Structures
Cells, as the basic unit of life, carry out different processes that help organisms to properly
function. There are tiny structures inside our cells called organelles that help cells to carry
out their specific functions. A typical cell has a nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, ribosomes, and mitochondria that are suspended in the cytoplasm. Cells are
surrounded by a cell membrane. An additional cell wall is also present in cells of some
organisms. However, there are certain cells that have different structures that cannot be
found in a typical cell. Cells with these unique structures are called modified or specialized
cells.

All specialized cells have undergone cell modification, a process in which cells develop
special structures to carry out their specific functions. Modification in cells includes an
increase in the number of organelles like mitochondria in the muscle cells or the loss of
organelles like the nucleus in the red blood cells. Moreover, some specialized structures
may be in the form of outgrowths like root hairs or numerous folds like microvilli which


can increase the surface area for the absorption of nutrients. There are various specialized
cells that can be found in animals and plants, and each type carries out specific functions
that help in the development and survival of these organisms.

What are the specialized cells in animals? What

makes them essential components of the animal

body?

Specialized Cells and Cell Structures in Animals
Microvilli
Microvilli (singular, microvillus) are specialized structures on the surface of epithelial cells.
These cellular extensions are made of actin microfilaments that serve as their structural
core. A microvillus’ average diameter and length are 0.1 and 2 micrometers, respectively.
They are found in the small intestines, kidneys, egg cells, and white blood cells.

In small intestines, microvilli are

found on the surface of simple
columnar epithelial cells (as
shown in Fig 2.4.1). It increases
the surface area for the
absorption of nutrients and
other essential substances from
the gut cavity into the underlying
tissues and blood vessels. Also,
microvilli are found on the
simple cuboidal epithelial cells in
kidneys. Furthermore, microvilli
are found on the surface of egg
cells that help sperm cells to
attach to it during fertilization. In white blood cells, microvilli serve as a motile structure
which helps them migrate. Generally, microvilli do not only increase the area of surface
absorption but also aids in the motility of cells.



Cilia and Stereocilia
Cilia (singular, cilium) are tiny hair-like
projections on the surface of epithelial cells. A
cilium’s diameter is about 0.25 micrometers,
and its length ranges from 2 to 20
micrometers; thus, it is bigger than a
microvillus. A cilium’s structural core is made
of nine pairs of microtubules on the outside
ring with 2 microtubules on the central
portion. Found in between the nine pairs of
microtubules on the outside ring of a cilium is
the dynein, a protein responsible for the
motility of the cilium. Fig. 2.4.2. shows cilia in
the bronchioles which are responsible for ensuring that the respiratory tract is free of dust,
dirt, and pathogens. The peripheral nine pairs (with dynein between) and central pair of
microtubules are evident in the figure.

Cilia are found on the respiratory tract (as
shown in Fig. 2.4.3). These hair-like
structures above the pseudostratified
epithelia of the trachea prevent mucus (from
goblet cells), bacteria, and dirt from entering
the lungs. These particles and pathogens are
either coughed out or moved to the mouth to
be swallowed into the gastrointestinal tract.
in fallopian tubes of the female
reproductive system. Cilia are mainly
responsible for motility. In the respiratory
tract, cilia brush off cells and substances like
bacteria, mucus, and dirt that may infect and
harm our lungs. Moreover, the cilia in
fallopian tubes move the egg cell to the


uterus. Cilia can also be found in some unicellular organisms like the Paramecium. Cilia aid
in the movement of these unicellular organisms in an aquatic medium.

Stereocilia (singular, stereocilium) are surface extensions of the epidermis which can be
found in the epididymis of the testis and in the inner ear (shown in Fig. 2.4.4) of humans
and animals. They are longer than microvilli with a length of 10–50 micrometers. The
structural core of a stereocilium is made of actin microfilaments. Unlike microvilli and cilia,
stereocilia do not function as a motile structure of cells, instead, they are mainly responsible
for fluid absorption and detection of sound vibrations.

Stereocilia in the epididymis (which is a duct or passageway in the male reproductive
system through which sperm cells pass) absorb the fluid that propels sperm cells from the
seminiferous tubules. Initially, sperm cells are nonmotile when they are released from
seminiferous tubules. In order to allow the sperm cells to become motile to be sent to the
epididymis, a fluid is secreted. As sperm cells become motile, the stereocilia in the
epididymis reabsorb this fluid. By contrast, stereocilia in the inner ear serve as sensors of
vibrations. Aside from sensing vibrations, stereocilia also transform these vibrations into
neural signals that will be interpreted by the brain.

Figure 2.4.4. Stereocilia in a frog’s inner ear allow it to detect sounds from its environment.
Through these, frogs have a mechanism to detect and escape from potential threats.


Flagella
The flagella (singular, flagellum) are tail-like structures that provide motility to cells. Flagella
and cilia are structurally similar because both of their outer rings are composed of nine
pairs of microtubules and another two pairs on their cores. Flagella are found in sperm cells
which help them travel from the male reproductive tract to the egg cell in the fallopian tube.
The flagellum is also found in some unicellular organisms like the Euglena (as shown in Fig.
2.4.5) and does the same function.

Fig 2.4.5. The flagellum (tail-like structure) helps unicellular organisms, such as the Euglena,
to move from one location to another in an aquatic medium. Usually, this structure helps
some photosynthetic unicellular organisms to move to locations with sufficient sunlight.

How does the location of specialized structures in

cells relate to their functions?

Basal Infoldings and Hemidesmosomes
Basal infoldings and hemidesmosomes (as shown in Fig 2.4.6) are both found at the
basement membrane of epithelial cells. Epithelial cells sit on a basement membrane that
serves as their foundation. Hemidesmosomes are the ones that anchor epithelial cells to
their basement membrane. Epithelial cells found in the salivary glands and excretory duct


contain basal infoldings in their basement membrane. These basal infoldings increase the
surface area of these cells. Moreover, basal infoldings are responsible for ion and fluid
transport. Numerous mitochondria are also found in the basal infoldings which provide
energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate, to be utilized during active transport.

Fig 2.4.6. Hemidesmosomes are specialized protein structures that anchor the epithelial
cells to their underlying basement membrane. They help the epithelial tissue provide
protection and structural support to the underlying cells.

Cell Junctions
Cell junctions are specialized structures found on the lateral membrane of the cells. They
are responsible for adhering cells to other cells or to the extracellular matrix. Tight
junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions (shown in Fig 2.4.7) are cell
junctions found in epithelial tissues. Tight junctions are found surrounding each cell and
serve as impermeable structures that prevent leakage of substances when transmitted from
one cell to another. Adherens junctions and desmosomes are specialized protein


structures responsible for connecting adjacent cells. Adherens junctions are found below
tight junctions, while desmosomes are found below adherens junctions. Furthermore, gap
junctions serve as channels of ions, water, and other essential substances needed by cells.

Fig 2.4.7. Cell junctions are found in epithelial cells and are mainly responsible for
connecting adjacent cells. In addition, they may also facilitate the transport of certain
substances between the adjacent cells of epithelial tissue.

Red and White Blood Cells
A typical animal cell contains one nucleus, numerous mitochondria, multiple Golgi bodies,
millions of ribosomes, and an endoplasmic reticulum. However, some cells lack or have an
excess of these structures like the red and white blood cells. Red blood cells or
erythrocytes (as shown in Fig 2.4.8) are blood cells that lack nuclei and mitochondria. The
absence of a nucleus and mitochondria in each red blood cell allows it to perform its work
properly. Red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen throughout the body. The
lack of nucleus in red blood cells gives more space for hemoglobin—a protein that carries
oxygen; thus, more oxygen molecules can be transported. The biconcave shape of red blood
cells is also a consequence of the absence of nuclei. This shape of red blood cells also
contributes to the diffusion of substances. Red blood cells also lack mitochondria. They


generate their energy through anaerobic respiration. If red blood cells have mitochondria,
the oxygen molecules will just be consumed for aerobic respiration. Therefore, the
transport of oxygen molecules will become less efficient.

Fig 2.4.8. Red blood cells are biconcave to aid in the diffusion of gases from the air sacs of
the lungs and into the oxygen-deprived tissues of the rest of the body.

White blood cells, also known
as leukocytes, are specialized
cells that are classified into
granulocytes and agranulocytes.
Granulocytes are white blood
cells that contain granules in
their cytoplasms which are
observable under a light
microscope. These cytoplasmic
granules are enzymes that
digest pathogens that can cause
diseases in the body.
Neutrophils, basophils, and
eosinophils are types of granulocytes. The nuclei in granulocytes are multilobed unlike that
of a typical cell’s nucleus (as shown in Fig. 2.4.9). By contrast, agranulocytes do not have
distinct granules in their cytoplasm. Also, their nuclei are not lobed as compared to
granulocytes. Lymphocytes and monocytes are types of agranulocytes. Generally, white


blood cells act as defenders of our bodies by identifying and targeting disease-causing
microorganisms and parasites and even developing cancer cells.

Sperm and Egg Cells
Gametes or sex cells are considered as specialized cells because of their distinct structures
that help them carry out their specific functions. Egg cells or ova (singular, ovum), with a
diameter of 0.12 micrometers, are the largest cells in humans. Egg cells have two outer
membrane layers namely zona pellucida and corona radiata (as shown in Fig.2.4.10).
Zona pellucida is the inner layer of the egg’s outer membrane. It assists the sperm cell
upon fusion with the egg cell. The outermost layer is the corona radiata which consists of
three layers of cells derived from follicles. The two outer membrane layers of the egg cells
prevent polyspermy—an event when an egg cell is fertilized by more than one sperm cell.

Fig.2.4.10. Egg cells are the largest cells in the human body and are necessary for sexual
reproduction. They have two outer membrane layers, namely, zona pellucida and corona
radiata which protect and nourish the egg cell.


Sperm cells, by contrast, are relatively small compared with the egg cells. Sperm cells are
specialized cells that have a flagellum. The flagella in sperm cells help them move from the
reproductive tract of males to that of females. The sperm cells have three distinct parts—
head, midpiece, and flagellum (as shown in Fig. 2.4.11). The sperm’s head contains
acrosome that helps them penetrate the egg cell’s outer membrane, while the midpiece
contains numerous mitochondria that provide energy to the flagellum. The tail-like region
in the figure is the flagellum itself which provides motility to the sperm cell.

Fig. 2.4.11. Sperm cells travel from the testes to the female’s fallopian tube
to facilitate an event called fertilization.

Sperm cells and egg cells are specialized because they are the only ones that can carry out
the fertilization process. These gametes are produced by having half of the genetic material
of the source parent organism. During the process of fertilization, the sperm and egg cells
fuse, and these halves of the genetic material are combined to restore the normal condition
in the offspring.

What are the specialized cells in plants? What

makes them essential components of the plant?


Specialized Cells and Cell Structures in Plants
Trichomes
The epidermis of plants has many outgrowths that vary in their functions. Some outgrowths
increase the plant’s surface area for absorption, while others protect plants from insects
and other herbivores and from too much sunlight. One group of epidermal outgrowths in
plants include the trichomes. Trichomes are hair-like structures that developed from the
plant’s epidermis and are mostly found on the leaves. They may be unicellular or
multicellular. Their size and functions vary from one type of plant to another. Trichomes
with glands on their tip release chemicals that prevent some insects from feeding on plants.
But trichomes may also produce chemicals that some useful products are derived from, like
mint fragrance. Trichomes may also help some plants to adapt to a hotter and drier
environment by acting as a shade on leaves, as well as on stems. Trichomes found on
insect-eating plants (shown in Fig. 2.4.12) serve as a trap as insects try to feed on them.

Fig. 2.4.12. Trichomes on insect-eating plants, such as Drosera hartmeyerorum or sundew,
act as traps to insects that are trying to feed on them. Aside from protecting them from
possible consumption, these glandular trichomes also aid in the digestion of captured
insects.


How do trichomes differ from root hairs in terms of

function?

Root Hairs
Plants need a constant supply of water to carry out their physiological functions. Water is
essential to plants as it is one of the reactants that initiate photosynthesis. Roots are the
ones responsible for absorbing water from the soil, and water is then distributed
throughout the plant’s body. Increasing the rate of the absorption of water in roots is
advantageous to plants. Root hairs (as shown in Fig. 2.4.13) are specialized cell structures
that help plants to efficiently absorb water from the soil by increasing the surface area for
absorption. Root hairs are tiny hair-like structures that originated from the epidermis of
plants. These specialized structures die off after 2 to 3 weeks but are constantly replaced by
new ones to maintain the efficiency of water absorption.

Fig. 2.4.13. Microscopic view of root hairs in a lily plant. These specialized structures in the
roots of plants facilitate the absorption of water from the substrate.


Mesophyll Cells
Leaves are among the most important parts of a plant since they serve as major sites of
photosynthesis. The composition and structures of the leaves are important features that
enable them to produce food through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis happens in the
mesophyll layer of the leaves located between the lower and upper epidermis. This layer is
the specific site of photosynthesis as it contains a large number of chloroplasts. Mesophyll
layer is composed of two types of parenchyma cells, namely palisade and spongy cells (as
shown in Fig. 2.4.14). The palisade cells are elongated and cylindrical and form a palisade
layer beneath the upper epidermis of the leaves. Because of their shape, palisade cells
accommodate 70% of the plant’s chloroplasts. The arrangement and location of palisade
cells allow them to obtain enough sunlight needed for photosynthesis. By contrast, spongy
mesophyll cells are irregularly-shaped cells found beneath the palisade layer and above the
lower epidermis of leaves, and form a spongy mesophyll layer. The term “spongy” is derived
from the arrangement of their cells in this layer. Cells in this layer are loosely packed and
have many spaces in between them. The spaces between the cells in the spongy layer allow
more efficient gas exchange during photosynthesis.

Fig. 2.4.14. Leaves have a mesophyll layer composed of palisade and spongy cells. The
mesophyll layer is the primary site of photosynthesis in the leaves of a plant.


How does the arrangement of cells in the

mesophyll layer help in photosynthesis?

Cells of Xylem and Phloem
As discussed in the previous lesson, food, water, and nutrients are transported through a
network of tubes inside the plant’s body that consists of xylem and phloem tissues (as
shown in Fig. 2.4.15). Xylem and phloem are not themselves cells, but are instead composed
of specialized cells that play a vital role in a plant’s growth and development. These are
tube-like cells that transport water, nutrients, and food throughout the plant’s body. Xylem
comprises cells that are specifically responsible for transporting water and nutrients
obtained from the soil. By contrast, the phloem comprises cells that are responsible for
transporting food, usually the by-products of photosynthesis.

Fig. 2.4.15. Xylem and phloem tissues consist of specialized cells that are responsible for
transporting essential substances, such as water, minerals, and food needed by the plants.
The figure shows a bundle of cells (beneath the group of cells stained with red dye) called
the vascular bundle. This consists of the cells of the xylem and phloem tissues.


Did You Know?

The fastest time a sperm cell can reach the egg cell is 30 minutes.

Sperm cells move from the male reproductive tract to a female egg
cell with the help of a specialized structure called flagellum.
Although some sperm cells can reach the egg cell within 30
minutes, some of them take days to do the same.

Key Points
_________________________________________________________________________________________
● Modified or specialized cells have developed structures that help them carry out
their functions.
● Specialized cells in animals include the following:
○ Microvilli are responsible for increasing the surface area for absorption.
○ Cilia and stereocilia are responsible for movement and sensation,
respectively.
○ Flagella are responsible for locomotion or motility.
○ Basal infoldings and hemidesmosomes are responsible for fluid
transport and attachment, respectively.
○ Cell junctions serve as connections between adjacent cells.
○ Red and white blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen and
protecting the body from pathogens, respectively.
○ Sperm and egg cells aid in the reproduction process.
● Specialized cells in plants include the following:
○ Trichomes serve as protection of plants from extreme temperatures and
insect or herbivore attacks.
○ Root hairs increase the surface area for the absorption of water.
○ Mesophyll cells serve as the sites of photosynthesis.
○ Xylem and phloem consist of cells that are responsible for the transport
of essential substances such as water and photosynthetic by-products.



Animals and plants have specialized cells and cell structures that ultimately contribute to
the growth, development, and survival of the organism.
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify what is being described in each of the following items.
1. These are hairlike structures responsible for protecting plants from insect attacks.
2. It is the inner layer of leaves where photosynthesis happens.
3. The cells of this tissue transport water and minerals from the soil to different parts
of the plant.
4. It increases the surface area of absorption in the small intestine.
5. These are specialized cells responsible for sensing vibrations of sound.
6. It is the specialized structure of sperm cells that aids in locomotion.
7. The cells of this tissue transport food materials throughout the plant’s body.
8. It is the layer above the lower epidermis of leaves.
9. These are specialized structures that increase the surface area of the absorption of
water from the soil.
10. It allows the transfer of materials from one cell to another.
11. This organelle is not present in red blood cells making them biconcave.


12. This is a type of white blood cell that has visible cytoplasmic granules.
13. It is the largest cell in humans.
14. It is responsible for brushing off dirt, bacteria, and mucus that may affect the lungs.
15. These refer to the multiple specialized cells that serve as the body’s defense against
pathogenic microorganisms.

B. Determine the modified cells that need to function in the following
situations and explain your answer. You may have more than one
answer in each item.
1. Pathogenic bacteria enter the trachea of the respiratory tract.

2. An indoor plant starts to desiccate.
3. Insects start to feed on plants.
4. A plant starts to be exposed to too much sunlight.
5. Entamoeba histolytica, a protist that causes amoebiasis, invades a person’s
intestines.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.
1. How does the shape of red blood cells help them carry out their function?
2. Why are palisade cells located under the upper epidermis of leaves?
3. There are some pathogenic bacteria that target tight junctions of cells. Why do you
think so?
4. What could happen if egg cells do not have two outer membrane layers?
5. Microvillus atrophy is a congenital disease characterized by a lack of microvilli in the
intestines. What are the possible effects of this disease in newborn babies?



Photo Credits
Normal Small Intestine Mucosa by Ed Uthman is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Flickr.

Euglena gracilis by naturalismus is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Flickr.

Trichomes by incidencematrix is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Flickr.

Bibliography

Campbell, Neil A. Biology. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Benjamin Cummings, 2008.

Cui, Dongmei. Atlas of Histology with Functional and Clinical Correlations. 351 West Camden
Street, Baltimore. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2011.

Mader, Sylvia S., Michael Windelspecht, and Sylvia S. Mader. Introductory Biology. United
States: McGraw-Hill Create, 2014.

Miller, Kenneth R., and Joseph S. Levine. Prentice-Hall Biology. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.

Sabile, Mary Jane G., General Biology 1. Quezon City, Philippines: Phoenix Publishing House,
Inc., 2018.


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UNIT 2 Lesson 2.4 Structures and Functions of Modified Cells

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Learn about It! 4

Key Points 18

Check Your Understanding 19

Challenge Yourself 20

Photo Credits 21

Structures and Functions of

Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

animals and plants.

Peculiar Creatures 15 minutes

Pokémon Species Special Structure/s Special Power/s

Learn about It!

What are the specialized cells in animals? What

In small intestines, microvilli are

How does the location of specialized structures in

What are the specialized cells in plants? What

How do trichomes differ from root hairs in terms of

How does the arrangement of cells in the

Did You Know?

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify what is being described in each of the following items.

1. Pathogenic bacteria enter the trachea of the respiratory tract.

Answer the following questions.

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