Stokes Theorem
Stokes Theorem
Stokes Theorem
General Information
Lecture Schedule :
18 19 R1201 26 27 R1201
Tutorials
57 58 R9132 Teaching Assistant : Mr. Andika Putra. During the tutorial there will be several Quizes and average mark of the Quizes will be one of the component of the Final Mark
Alexander A. Iskandar
Electromagnetism
Vector Analysis
VECTOR CALCULUS
Rate of Change
df/dx provides us with information on how quickly a function of one variable, f(x), changes. For instance, when the argument changes by an infinitesimal amount, from x to x + dx, f changes by df, given by
df df = dx dx
In three dimensions, the function T will in general be a function of x, y, and z: T(x, y, z). The change in T is equal to , ( , ) g q
T T T dT = dx + y dy + z dz x r T T T y + = x + z [(dx )x + (dy ) y + (dz )z ] = T d l x y z
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is a vector valued operator its acts on a function There are three kinds of vector derivatives, corresponding to the three kinds of multiplication possible with vectors:
Gradient, the analogue of multiplication by a scalar.
T
Divergence, like the scalar (dot) product.
r v
r v
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Electromagnetism
Gradient
The result of applying the vector derivative operator on a scalar function T is called the gradient of T
T = x
T T T +y +z = ei iT x y z
Geometrical meaning : the maximum change (total differentiation) occur when = 0 i e when we are moving 0, i.e. r ( d l ) in the same direction as T and the magnitude of T gives the slope of this maximal direction. Example 1.3
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Divergence
The scalar product of the vector derivative operator and a vector function is called the divergence of the vector function:
r v v y v z v = x + y + z (v x x + v y y + v z z ) = x + + = i vi x y z x y z
The divergence of a vector function is a scalar quantity. What is the divergence? r Geometrical meaning : v measure how much the r vector v spread out (diverges) f t d t (di ) from a point in question. i ti ti If two objects following the direction specified by the vector r function v increase their separation, the divergence of the vector function is positive. If their separation decreases, the divergence of the vector function is negative.
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Divergence
Example
r v ( x, y ) = xx + yy
r v = 2
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Electromagnetism
Curl
The curl of a vector function v is defined as
x r v = x vx y y vy z z = ijk j vk ei vz
r
The curl of a vector function is a (pseudo) vector. What is the curl? r Geometrical meaning : v measure how much the g r vector v curls (circulate) around at the point in question. If there were nearby objects moving in the direction of the function, and they circulate about that point, the curl will be nonzero.
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Curl
Example
r v ( x, y ) = yx + xy
r v = 2z r v = 0
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More Examples
The two previous functions had nonzero divergence and zero curl, or vice versa. The sum of the two functions, shown here, has (constant) nonzero divergence and curl.
r v ( x, y ) = ( x y ) x + ( x + y ) y
r v = 2
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r v = 2z
Electromagnetism 11
More Examples
Heres one with nonzero, nonconstant divergence and constant curl.
r v ( x, y ) = ( x 2 y ) x + ( x + y 2 ) y
r v = 2( x + y )
r v = 2z
More Examples
Heres a source with zero divergence and zero curl.
r v ( x, y ) = x x +y
2 2
x+
y x + y2
2
r v = 0
r v = 0
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Electromagnetism
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More Examples
Heres a circulation with zero divergence and nonconstant curl.
r v ( x, y ) = y x +y
2 2
x+
x x2 + y2
r v = 0
r v =
1 x + y2
2
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Electromagnetism
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More Examples
Heres a circulation with zero divergence and zero curl.
r v ( x, y ) =
y x x+ 2 y 2 x +y x + y2
2
r v = 0 r v = 0
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Electromagnetism
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More Examples
Heres a vortex with zero divergence and zero curl.
r x+ y y+x v ( x, y ) = 2 x+ 2 y 2 x +y x + y2 r v = 0 r v = 0
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Electromagnetism
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Nonzero divergence of E indicates the presence of charge; nonzero curl of B indicates the presence of current. These vector derivatives point to the sources of the E and B fields.
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) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
r r r r r r A B = B A A B
Electromagnetism
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Alexander A. Iskandar
Note that the Laplacian can operate on a scalar as well as a vector function. Curl of a gradient, it is always zero
(f ) = ei ijk j k f = 0
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appear frequently in the equations of fluid mechanics but mechanics, it never lasts long in the equations of electrodynamics. The divergence of a curl is always zero r ( A) = ijk i j Ak = 0 Curl of a curl of a vector function can be expressed in terms of the Laplacian and the gradient of the divergence of the vector function: f th t f ti
r r r A = A 2 A
) (
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Electromagnetism
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10
df ( x) dx = f (b) f (a) dx
Geometrical interpretation : Add all change in f(x) as x changes from a to b is the same as the difference of the function f(x) at the end points. Note that the format of this fundamental theorem : integral of a derivative over an interval is given by the value of the function at the boundaries
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 21
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Electromagnetism
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11
Gradient Theorem
Fundamental theorem involving a path integration of the gradient of a scalar function The gradient theorem
a, C
T d l = T (b) T (a)
where the integral is taken along the curve C, and a and b are the position vectors of the endpoints of C.
r dl
a b
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Electromagnetism
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Gradient Theorem
Geometrical interpretation : Adding up the change of the function in question as we go along a given path is the same as the difference in value of the function in question at the boundaries (irrespective of the path) example of path integration that is independent of the path. Because of this independent of path property of integral of a gradient, we may choose any path that makes our calculation simple.
r dl
a b
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Electromagnetism
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12
Gradient Theorem
Two Corollaries :
a, path
T d l
path
r T d l = 0
Example 1.9
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Stokes Theorem
The Stokes theorem, for curls:
r r r
S C
( v ) da = v d l
where the integral on the left is carried out over a surface S, and that on the right is carried out all the way around the curve C that bounds S. Integral of a derivative over an interval is given by the value o t e function at t e a ue of the u ct o the boundaries the boundary itself is integration
r dl
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r da
r da
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13
Stokes Theorem
Geometrical interpretation : v measure the twist r (circulation) of the quantity v at a particular point hence r r .S ( v ) da measure all this twist (flux of the curl) in given the area and this will be the same as going around the boundary of the area and measure how much the quantity follow the boundary. The direction of the path r integration d l has to be co s ste t t the direction consistent with t e d ect o r of da .
r dl
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r da
r da
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Stokes Theorem
It does not matter how you choose the surface, the integration just depend on the boundary of the surface example of the surface integration that does not depend on the surface but only on the boundary. Two Corollaries:
does not depend on the shape of the surface but only on the boundary. r r S ( v ) da = 0 the boundary y line shrink to zero
S
( v ) da
Example 1.11
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14
r dl
r da
points out from the page
where the infinitesimal line element r vectors on C, d l , point parallel to C in the r right-hand-rule sense (as in r r .da = d l a d lb ) relative to the area element vectors on S.
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C S
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S1
C1
C2 S2
30
15
r d l1
Si
Ci bounds Si
31
r ltop = xx
y r lbottom = xx
x
r ri
v dl = v l
i sides
Look at the top and bottom sides first. Their line element vectors are equal and opposite and lie along x, and the top lies y above the bottom. If the square is indeed small, the value of the x component of v in the center of the top side is approximately
vx, top vx ( x, y, z ) +
Alexander A. Iskandar
vx x vx + y x 2 y
32
Electromagnetism
16
r ltop = xx y r lbottom = xx
x
r ri
Take the value at the center of each face to serve as the average of vx on the face. Th th circulation contributed b th t and b tt Then the i l ti t ib t d by the top d bottom i is
v x vx y ( x ) vx, top l top + vx, bottoml bottom vx (x, y, z ) + x + x 2 y v x (x) = vx xy + vx ( x, y, z ) + x y x 2
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y 2
together
Ci
v dl = v l
i sides
r r
v y vx r r = x y xy = ( v ) ai
Rest assured that we would get the same result with the area vector in any direction; thus our claim is justified.
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17
( v ) da
v d l = ( v ) da
C S
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Electromagnetism
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Gauss Theorem
And (Gauss) divergence theorem:
( v )d = v da = v n da
V S S
where the integral on the left is carried out over a volume V, and that on the right over the surface S that bounds V. Integral of a derivative over an interval is given by the value of the function at the boundaries the boundary itself is integration.
z
da
volume V
x
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surface S
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Gauss Theorem
Geometrical interpretation : Sv da measure the quantity r v . passing outward through the (closed) surface r r v measure the spread of the quantity v at a particular point hence measure all this spread (faucets or drains) inside the volume in question.
z
da
volume V
Example 1.10
x
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surface S
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r da
where the infinitesimal area r element vectors on S da , point S, outward and are perpendicular to S. Now consider dividing V in two:
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Electromagnetism
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r da1
V1
S1
V2
S2
r da2
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Vi
Si bounds Vi
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20
r atop = zxy
z
r ri
r abottom = zxy
v da = v a
i sides
Look at the top and bottom sides first. Their area vectors are equal and opposite and lie along z and the z, top lies z above the bottom. If the box is indeed small, the value of the z component of v in the center of the top face is approximately
vz , top vz ( x, y, z ) +
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vz x vz y vz + + z x 2 y 2 z
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Electromagnetism
r atop = zxy
z
r ri
r abottom = zxy
Take the value at the center of x each face to serve as the average of vz on the face. Th th fl contributed b th t and b tt Then the flux t ib t d by the top d bottom i is
v x vz y vz vz , top atop + vz , bottomabottom vz ( x, y, z ) + z + + z (xy ) x 2 y 2 z v x vz y vz + vz ( x, y, z ) + z + ( xy ) = z xyz x 2 y 2
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and
v y , left aleft + v y , right aright =
v y y
xyz
Thus
Si
v da v a
sides
And
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( v ) d
V
r total flow of v through difference of number of faucets = bounding surface or drains within the volume
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Electromagnetism
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22
Integration by Parts
For product of two functions, transfer the derivative operation from one function to another inside an integral can be done at the cost of subtracting (or adding) a boundary (surface) term. For example integrating
d ( fg ) = f dg + df g dx dx dx
or,
a
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b dg df f dx = g dx + fg a dx dx a
Electromagnetism 45
Integration by Parts
Exploit the product rule and the appropriate fundamental theorem. For example integrating
r r r fA = f A + A (f )
( ) (
r r
S
( fA)d = fA da = f ( A)d + A (f ) d
r r r
V V V
or,
(
V
r r r r f A d = A (f ) d + fA da
V S
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Electromagnetism
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