Chapter 3 Enzymes Hormones Vitamins
Chapter 3 Enzymes Hormones Vitamins
Chapter 3 Enzymes Hormones Vitamins
ENZYMES- VITAMINS-
HORMONES
activity.
6/ Discuss the therapeutic use of enzyme inhibitors and the diagnostic utility
ORDER
EFFICIENT
METABOLISM
BRANCHING
METABOLIC SEQUENCE
PATHWAYS
- Physiologic reactions: absence of enzymes in the
body > life would be impossible.
- Almost all enzymes are proteins, although some
RNAs (ribozymes).
- In clinic: measure substrate concentrations in
biological fluids (serum, plasma), and
measurement of enzyme concentrations helpful in
the diagnosis and monitoring of many clinical
conditions.
I. ENZYMATIC REACTION:
I.1. Factors affecting enzymatic reactions
- Cytosolic
enzymes: 7-8.
- Pepsin: 1.5–2.0
- Trypsin and
chymotrypsin
have alkaline
pH optima.
- Lysosomal
enzymes: acidic
PH.
I. 2. Enzyme activity
- Enzyme unit:
+ IU or U, also E, Units, International unit of enzymes is
commonly used as the standard unit of activity (vitamin, vaccine,
hormone,...).
One international unit (IU) of enzyme catalyzes conversion
of 1 µmol of substrates to product per minute.
1 IU= 1μmol/min.
+ Katal units: 1 mole of substrates into 1 mole of product per
second (1 kat = 1 mol/s).
Examples:
+ Insulin: 1 IU = 0,0347 mg insulin of human = 45,5 μg pure
insulin.
+ Vitamin A: 1IU = 0,3 μg retinol = 0,6 μg beta- carotene.
+ Vitamin C: 1IU= 50 μg L-ascorbic acid.
Convert Enzyme unit to Katal (U to kat):
https://www.convert-measurement-units.com
- The specific activity of an enzyme is a measure of the
number of IU/mg protein (solid) or IU/ml (liquid).
µmol/min/mg of protein or IU/mg of protein
- The specific activity of enzymes varies greatly among
tissues. The enzymes for cholesterol synthesis, for
example, have a higher specific activity (IU/mg tissue)
in liver than in muscle, consistent with the role of the
liver in the biosynthesis of cholesterol.
I.3 Reaction and substrate specificity
- Most enzymes are highly specific: catalyzation and
substrates.
+ catalytic site: amino acid residues.
+ Substrate specificity: size, structure, charges, polarity,
and hydrophobicity of the substrate-binding site.
Reaction profile for enzymatic
and nonenzymatic reactions.
+ First, the acyl (R1-C=O) part of the substrate (the acid part of an ester
serine, making a new ester or amide bond and releasing the other part of
the substrate (the alcohol of an ester or the part of the peptide ending in
+ Later, in a slower step, the bond between the serine and the acyl group
- Apoenzyme
- Holoenzyme
- Coenzyme
- Cofactor
- Catalytic site
Organic Cofactor
Coenzymes
Amylase Test
- Amylase blood and/or urine test if you have
symptoms of a pancreatic disorder.
IV. MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
Comment
The most common assay for blood glucose concentration uses a mixture of glucose oxidase and
peroxidase (Fig above). Glucose oxidase is highly specific for glucose but oxidizes only the β-
anomer of the sugar, which represents ~64% of glucose in solution. The assay mixture is therefore
supplemented with mutarotase, which rapidly catalyzes the interconversion of the anomers,
enhancing assay sensitivity by ~50%. The H2O2 produced in the oxidase reaction is then used in a
peroxidase reaction to oxidize a chromogen to yield a colored chromophore. The color yield is
directly proportional to the glucose content of the sample. There are fluorometric versions of this
assay for high sensitivity, and one commercial analyzer uses an oxygen electrode to measure the
rate of decrease in oxygen concentration in the sample, which is also directly proportional to the
glucose concentration .
LABORATORY TESTING
ENZYMATIC MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD GLUCOSE
vitamin D 0.01 mg (10 μg) for oily fish, liver, eggs, margarine,
certain groups, e.g. bread, powdered milk
pregnant women.
vitamin E 3 mg for women; 4 mg plant oils (such as soya, corn and
for men olive oil), nuts, seeds, wheat
germ, some green leafy vegetables
vitamin K 0.07 mg(70 μg), or 1 μg green leafy vegetables (such as
per kg of body weight broccoli and spinach), vegetable
oils, cereals; small amounts can
also be found in meat (such as
pork), and dairy foods (such as
cheese)
Name RNI values for adults Main dietary sources
per day
Water-soluble vitamins
thiamin (vitamin 0.8 mg for women; 1 pork, vegetables, milk, cheese,
B1 ) mg for men peas, fresh and dried fruit,
eggs...
riboflavin (vitamin 1.1 mg for women; 1.3 milk, eggs, rice, mushrooms.
B2 ) mg for men
vitamin 1.2 mg for women; 1.4 liver, pork, chicken, cod, bread,
B6 (pyridoxine) mg for men whole cereals (such as oatmeal,
wheatgerm and rice), eggs,
vegetables, soyabeans, peanuts,
milk, potatoes
folate (folic acid, 0.2 mg, but 0.4 mg broccoli, sprouts, spinach, peas,
vitamin B9) extra for women who chickpeas, potatoes, yeast
are, or plan to be, extract, brown rice, some fruit
pregnant (such as oranges and
bananas),breakfast cereals,
Name RNI values for adults Main dietary sources
per day
Fat-soluble vitamins
vitamin 0.0015 mg (1.5 μg) meat (particularly liver),
B12 (cobalamin) salmon, cod, milk, cheese, eggs,
yeast extract
pantothenic acid none given – should be chicken, beef, potatoes,
(vitamin B5) sufficient in normal porridge, tomatoes, liver,
diet kidneys, eggs, broccoli,
wholegrains (such as brown rice
and wholemeal bread),...
1/ VITAMIN A: Vitamin A is a
pale yellow primary alcohol
derived from carotene.
- It includes Retinol (alcoholic
form), Retinal (aldehyde form)
and Retinoic acid (acidic form).
- Vitamin A deficiency cause
blindness,
anaemia, conjunctivitis
Xerophthalmia /dry-eye;
Children who are vitamin A-
deficient are more susceptible
to respiratory infections and
measles, cardiovascular
diseases, diabetes mellitus,
obesity, osteoporosis, skin
diseases and cancer ...
A schematic representation of the physiological roles in which vitamin A
is involved
Vision and the role of 11-cis-retinal in the process. The retina comprises
cones and rods, which mediate color and low light vision, respectively. The
vitamin A derivative 11-cis retinal is found in the rods, forming rhodopsin.
QUESTION
(2) peptides
(3) glycoproteins
(4) steroids.
Chemical derivation of hormones
III. Principles of hormone action
+ Decreased secretion
PRH
2/ Prolactin
1/ Dwarfism
2/ Gigantism
3/ Acromegaly
Gigantism
Posterior pituitary
1/ Oxytocin
Case:
A 47-year-old man presented to the emergency department with
persistent nausea, vomiting, lethargy, and generalized abdominal
pain after a bout of food poisoning. He had been able to drink some
fluids but had been unable to keep food or his tablets down. He had
a history of chronic severe asthma that was recently well controlled
with inhalers and long-term oral glucocorticoids.
On examination, there was a mild bilateral wheeze in his lungs;
his abdomen was soft and nontender, and bowel sounds were
present. His blood pressure was 115/65 mmHg lying down. Venous
blood glucose was 3.8 mmol/L 68 mg/dL (4–6 mmol/L; 72–109
mg/dL). The patient was administered hydrocortisone and fluids
intravenously and made a full recovery.
Clinical box
Acute glucocorticoid withdrawal
Comment: