Chapter 2

Resistive Circuits
Main concerns of this chapter
 State Ohm’s Law,
 Define branches, nodes, loops and meshes
 State & apply KVL and KCL
 Solve circuits (i.e., find currents and voltages of interest) by combining resistances in
series and parallel.
 Apply the voltage-division and current-division principles.
 Solve circuits by the node-voltage technique.
 Solve circuits by the mesh-current technique.
 Find Thévenin and Norton equivalents.
 Apply the superposition principle.
 Draw circuit diagram and principles of operation for the Wheatstone bridge.

Resistors and Ohm’s Law

⤿ Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current i flowing through the resistor.
⤿ The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current;
it is measured in ohms (Ω).

𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑖𝑎𝑏 𝑅
⤿ Resistance Related to Physical Parameters resistivity of the material (𝜌), cross
sectional are (𝐴) and length (𝐿)
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
⤿ A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
⤿ An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity

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 ⤿ Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in
mhos or siemens (S). Thus, 𝑖 = 𝐺𝑣

Branch, Node, Loop and mesh

 A branch is any portion of a circuit with two terminals connected to it. A branch may
consist of one or more circuit elements. In practice, any circuit element with two
terminals connected to it is a branch.
 The circuit in Fig. 1.29(a) has five branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A
current source, and the three resistors.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.29 (a). Nodes, branches, and loops.
(b).The three-node circuit of Fig 1.29(a) is redrawn

 A node is the point of connection between two or more branches. A node is usually
indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes,
the two nodes constitute a single node. Fig. 1.29(b) has three nodes a, b, and c.
 A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a
node, passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without
passing through any node more than once.

Figure 1.30 Definition of a loop

NB:
 Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected
sequentially and consequently carry the same current.
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 Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same
two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.
 A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops.

Figure 1.31 Definition of a mesh

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW(KCL)

⤿ It states that the net current entering a node is zero.
∑𝑁𝑛=1 𝑖𝑛 = 0

⤿ Alternatively, the sum of the currents entering a node equals the sum of the currents
leaving a node.
∑ Iin = ∑ Iout
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW(KVL)
 It states that the algebraic sum of the voltages equals zero for any closed path (loop) in
an electrical circuit.
∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 = 0
 Alternatively, KVL can be stated as
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒔 = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

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 (a) (b)
Figure 1.23a In applying KVL to a loop, voltages are added or subtracted depending on
their reference polarities relative to the direction of travel around the loop

Example1: For the circuit in Fig. (a) below, find voltages 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 .

Solution:
To find 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 , we apply Ohm’s law and KVL. Assume that current 𝑖 flows through the loop
as shown in Fig. (b). From Ohm’s law,
𝑣1 = 2𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 = −3𝑖
Applying KVL around the loop gives
= 20 + 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0 ⟹ −20 + 2𝑖 + 3𝑖 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖 = 4𝐴
Finally, 𝑣1 = 2𝑖 = 8𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 = −3𝑖 = −12𝑉
Example2: Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig.(a).

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Solution:
We apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. By Ohm’s law,
𝑣1 = 8𝑖1 , 𝑣2 = 3𝑖2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 = 6𝑖3
Since the voltage and current of each resistor are related by Ohm’s law as shown, we are
really looking for three things: (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 ). At node a, KCL gives
𝑖1 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖3 = 0 … (1)
Applying KVL to loop 1 as in Fig. (b),
−30 + 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 0 ⟹ −30 + 8𝑖1 + 3𝑖2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖1 = (30 − 3𝑖2 )⁄8 … (2)
Applying KVL to loop 2,
−𝑣2 + 𝑣3 = 0 ⟹ −3𝑖2 + 6𝑖3 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖3 = 𝑖2 ⁄2 … (3)
Substituting the value of 𝑖1 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞. (2)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖3 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞. (3)𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞. (1) gives
(30 − 3𝑖2 )⁄8 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖2 ⁄2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖2 = 2𝐴
Finally,
𝑖1 = 3𝐴, 𝑖3 = 1𝐴, 𝑣1 = 24𝑉, 𝑣2 = 6𝑉 & 𝑣3 = 6𝑉

Exercise: Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. below
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑖1 = 1.5𝐴, 𝑖2 = 0.25𝐴, 𝑖3 = 1.25𝐴, 𝑣1 = 3𝑉, 𝑣2 = 2𝑉 & 𝑣3 = 5𝑉

Circuit Simplification Techniques

Series Resistors and Voltage Division Rule
 The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum
of the individual resistances.
 For N resistors in series then,
𝑁

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁 = ∑ 𝑅𝑛
𝑛=1
 Note that 𝑅𝑒𝑞 is always greater than the resistance of the greatest resistor in the
series combination. If R1 = R2 = · · · = RN = R, then
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑁𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 = 𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑅2 + 𝑖𝑅3 = 𝑖(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = 𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑞 →
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
 The voltage across each resistor in Fig. 2.1 is obtained as
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑣1 = 𝑅1 𝑖 = ( )𝑣 , 𝑣2 = 𝑅2 𝑖 = ( )𝑣 ,
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3

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 𝑅3
𝑣3 = 𝑅3 𝑖 = ( )𝑣
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3

 The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their
resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop.
 This is called the principle of voltage division, and the circuit in Fig. 2.1 is called a
voltage divider.
 In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1,R2, . . . , RN) in series with the source
voltage v, the nth resistor (Rn) will have a voltage drop of
𝑅𝑛
𝑣𝑛 = ( )𝑣
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁
Example: Use voltage division rule to determine the voltage drop across
each resistor for fig below

Solution:
𝑅1 1𝑘Ω
𝑣1 = ( ) 𝑣𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ( ) 15𝑉 = 1.5𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 1𝑘Ω + 1𝑘Ω + 2𝑘Ω + 6𝑘Ω
𝑅3 2𝑘Ω
𝑣3 = ( ) 𝑣𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ( ) 15𝑉 = 3𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 1𝑘Ω + 1𝑘Ω + 2𝑘Ω + 6𝑘Ω
Show that 𝑣2 = 1.5𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣4 = 9𝑉
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Exercise: Use voltage division rule to determine the voltage drop across
each resistor for following circuits.

Solution(a):
𝑅1 5Ω
𝑣1 = ( ) 𝑣𝑠 = ( ) 120𝑉 = 10𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 5Ω + 10Ω + 15Ω + 30Ω
𝑅2 10Ω
𝑣2 = ( ) 𝑣𝑠 = ( ) 120𝑉 = 20𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 5Ω + 10Ω + 15Ω + 30Ω
𝑅3 15Ω
𝑣3 = ( ) 𝑣𝑠 = ( ) 120𝑉 = 30𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 5Ω + 10Ω + 15Ω + 30Ω
𝑅4 30Ω
𝑣4 = ( ) 𝑣𝑠 = ( ) 120𝑉 = 60𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 5Ω + 10Ω + 15Ω + 30Ω

Show that for (b) 𝑣1 = 6.05𝑉, 𝑣2 = 5.89𝑉, 𝑣4 = 8.06𝑉

Parallel Resistors and Current Division Rule
 The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistances divided by their sum.
 For N parallel resistors,
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
 Note that 𝑅𝑒𝑞 is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the
parallel combination. If R1 = R2 = · · · = RN = R, then
𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑁
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 1 1 1 𝑣
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = + + = 𝑣( + + )= →
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑒𝑞

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 1 1 1 1
=( + + )
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

 It is often more convenient to use conductance rather than resistance when

dealing with resistors in parallel.
 The equivalent conductance for N resistors in parallel is
𝐺𝑒𝑞 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑁
Where 𝐺𝑒𝑞 = 1⁄𝑅 , 𝐺1 = 1⁄𝑅 , 𝐺2 = 1⁄𝑅 , … , 𝐺𝑁 = 1⁄𝑅
𝑒𝑞 1 2 𝑁
 The current through each resistor in Fig. 2.2 is obtained as
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
𝑖1 = ( )𝑖 , 𝑖2 = ( ) 𝑖 , 𝑖3 = ( )𝑖
𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3 𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3 𝐺1 +𝐺2 +𝐺3
 The source current 𝑖 is divided among the resistors in opposite proportion to their
resistances; the larger the resistance, the smaller the current flowing.
 This is called the principle of current division, and the circuit in Fig. 2.2 is called a
current divider.
 In general, if a current divider has N resistors (R1,R2, . . . , RN) in parallel with the
source current 𝑖 , the current flowing through the nth resistor (Rn) will be
𝐺𝑛
𝑖𝑛 = ( )𝑖
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑁
Example: Find the equivalent resistance for the following circuit

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 Figure: Resistive network
Example: Use current division principle to determine the current passing through R1

Solution:

R 2R 3 30  60
R eq    20
R 2  R 3 30  60
R eq 20
i1  is  15  10 A
R 1  R eq 10  20
Exercise2.1: find the equivalent resistances at the left terminals for the following circuits.

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 Figure: finding equivalents resistance
Solution: (𝑎)𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3Ω, (𝑏)𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 5Ω , (𝑐)𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 52.08Ω , (𝑑)𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1.5𝑘Ω
Exercise2.2:Use current division principle to determine the unknown currents for the
following circuits.

Solution: (𝑎)𝑖1 = 1𝐴, 𝑖3 = 2𝐴 (𝑏) 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖3 = 1𝐴

Circuit Analysis using Series/Parallel Equivalents
(circuit simplification techniques)
1. Begin by locating a combination of resistances that are in series or parallel. Often the
place to start is farthest from the source.
2. Redraw the circuit with the equivalent resistance for the combination found in step 1.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the circuit is reduced as far as possible. Often (but not
always) we end up with a single source and a single resistance.
4. Solve for the currents and voltages in the final equivalent circuit.
Examples: Find the equivalent resistance from the source perspective. More over, find the
currents through each resistor.

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Solution:

Figure: After reducing the circuit to a source and an equivalent resistance, we solve the
simplified ckt. Then, we transfer results back to the original ckt. Note that solving the voltages
and currents starts from the simplified ckt (c).
Exercise: Find all unknowns

Solution: (𝑎)𝑖1 = 1.04𝐴 , 𝑖2 = 0.48𝐴 , 𝑖3 = 0.32𝐴, 𝑖4 = 0.24𝐴

(𝑏)𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 1𝐴
(𝑐)𝑖1 = 1𝐴 , 𝑖2 = 𝑖3 = 0.5𝐴

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 Wye-Delta Transformations
⤿ Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor in
series. Such circuits can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks.
⤿ These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in Fig. 2.8 and the 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 (Δ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖 (Π)
network shown in Fig. 2.9. These networks occur by themselves or as part of a larger
network. They are used in three-phase networks, electrical filters, and matching
networks.

Figure 2.8 Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T.

Figure 2.9 Two forms of the same network: (a) Δ , (b) Π.

Delta to Wye Conversion

Figure 2.10 Superposition of Y and Δ networks

as an aid in transforming one to the other.
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 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏
𝑅1 = 𝑅 , 𝑅2 = 𝑅 , 𝑅3 = 𝑅
𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

 Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two
adjacent Δ branches, divided by the sum of the three Δ resistors.
Wye to Delta Conversion
𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝑎 = , 𝑅𝑏 = ,
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑅3

 Each resistor in the Δ network is the sum of all possible products of Y

resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
 The Y and Δ networks are said to be balanced when
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅Δ
 Under these conditions, conversion formulas become
𝑅
𝑅Y = 3Δ 𝑜𝑟 𝑅Δ = 3𝑅Y
 We notice that the Y connection is like a “series” connection while the Δ
connection is like a “parallel” connection.
Example: Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in Fig. 2.11 and use it to find
current i.

Figure 2.11
Solution:
In this circuit, there are two Y networks and one Δ network. Transforming just one of these
will simplify the circuit. If we convert the Y network comprising the 5Ω, 10Ω and 20Ω
resistors, we may select 𝑅1 = 10Ω, 𝑅2 = 20Ω , 𝑅3 = 5Ω
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Thus, using the Y to Δ transformation stated above,
𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1 350 𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1 350
𝑅𝑎 = = = 35Ω , 𝑅𝑏 = = = 17.5Ω
𝑅1 10 𝑅2 20

𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1 350

𝑅𝑐 = = = 70Ω
𝑅3 5

With the Y converted to Δ, the equivalent circuit (with the voltage source removed for
now) is shown in Fig. 2.12(a). Combining the three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain
70∗30 12.5∗17.5
70‖30 = 70+30 = 21Ω, 12.5‖17.5 = 12.5+17.5 = 7.2917Ω ,
15∗35
15‖35 = = 10.5Ω
15+35

so that the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.12(b). Hence, we find

17.792 ∗ 21
𝑅𝑎𝑏 = (7.292 + 10.5)‖21 = = 9.632Ω
17.792 + 21
Then

𝑉𝑠 120𝑉
𝑖= = = 12.458 𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑏 9.632Ω

Figure 2.12 Equivalent circuits to Fig. 2.11, with the voltage removed.

NB: Although they are very important concepts, series/parallel equivalents and the
current/voltage division principles are not sufficient to solve all circuits.
In addition to them we will use the following methods:
 Node Voltage Analysis  Northorn Equivalent Circuits
 Mesh Current Analysis  Source transformations
 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits  Superposition method

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 Node Voltage Analysis
 In the node voltage method, each branch current is expressed in terms of one or more
node voltages; thus, currents do not explicitly enter into the equations.
 Figure 2.13 illustrates how to define branch currents in this method.
 Once each branch current is defined in terms of the node voltages, Kirchhoff’s current
law is applied at each node:

Figure 2.13
Node Voltage Analysis Method
1. Select a reference node (usually ground). This node usually has most elements tied to
it. All other nodes are referenced to this node.
2. Define the remaining n − 1 node voltages as the independent or dependent variables.
Each of the m voltage sources in the circuit is associated with a dependent variable. If a
node is not connected to a voltage source, then its voltage is treated as an independent
variable.
3. Apply KCL at each node labeled as an independent variable, expressing each current in
terms of the adjacent node voltages. Write as many current equations as you can without
using all of the nodes. Then if you do not have enough equations because of voltage
sources connected between nodes, use KVL to write additional equations.
4. If the circuit contains dependent sources, find expressions for the controlling variables in
terms of the node voltages. Substitute into the network equations, and obtain equations
having only the node voltages as unknowns.
5. Put the equations into standard form and solve for the node voltages.
6. Use the values found for the node voltages to calculate any other currents or voltages of
interest.

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 Figure 2.14: the first step in nodal analysis is to select the reference node and label
voltages at each of the other nodes

 Writing KCL Equations in Terms of the Node Voltages for Figure 2.15
𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑠
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣2 − 𝑣3
+ + =0
𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅3
𝑣3 − 𝑣1 𝑣3 𝑣3 − 𝑣2
+ + =0
𝑅1 𝑅5 𝑅3
 The number of nonreference nodes is equal to the number of independent
equations that we will derive.
 Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
 We can express this principle as
𝑣ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 − 𝑣𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑖=
𝑅
Example: Determine the voltages at the nodes in Fig. 2.16(a).
Solution: The circuit in this example has three nonreference nodes. We assign voltages to
the three nodes as shown in Fig. 2.16(b) and label the currents.

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 Fig. 2.16: (a) original circuit, (b) circuit for analysis.
At node 1
𝑣1 − 𝑣3 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
3 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑥 ⟹ 3 = +
4 2
Multiplying by 4 and rearranging terms, we get
3𝑣1 − 2𝑣2 − 𝑣3 = 12 … … … . (1)
At node 2
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑣2 − 𝑣3 𝑣2 − 0
𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 ⟹ = +
2 8 4
Multiplying by 8 and rearranging terms, we get
−4𝑣1 + 7𝑣2 − 𝑣3 = 0 … … … . (2)
At node 3
𝑣1 − 𝑣3 𝑣2 − 𝑣3 2(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 2𝑖𝑥 ⟹ + =
4 8 2
Multiplying by 8 and rearranging terms, we get
2𝑣1 − 3𝑣2 + 𝑣3 = 0 … … … . (3)
We have three simultaneous equations to solve to get the node voltages 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 . By
using elimination or Cramer’s rule, we obtain
𝑣1 = 4.8𝑉, 𝑣2 = 2.4𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 = −2.4𝑉
NB: A supernode
 Formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected
between two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.
 The voltage source inside it provides a constraint equation needed to solve for the
node voltages.
 Has no voltage of its own.
 Requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
Example: write the nodal expression for ckt in Fig 2.17 below
𝑣1 −0 𝑣1 −(−15𝑉) 𝑣2 −0 𝑣2 −(−15𝑉)
Solution: + + + =0
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅3
Page | 17
Exercise: Find the node voltages in the circuit of Fig. 2.18.
(𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝑣1 = 26.667𝑉, 𝑣2 = 6.667𝑉, 𝑣3 = 173.333𝑉, 𝑣4 = −46.667𝑉 )

Fig. 2.18
Example: Find all node voltages and branch currents for ckt in Fig 2.19 below
(𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆: 𝐼1 = 10𝑚𝐴 ; 𝐼2 = 50𝑚𝐴 ; 𝑅1 = 1𝑘Ω ; 𝑅2 = 2𝑘Ω ; 𝑅3 = 10𝑘Ω ; 𝑅4 = 2𝑘Ω )

Figure 2.19
Page | 18
Solution:
 The reference (ground) node is chosen to be the node at the bottom of the circuit.
 There are two independent variables in this circuit: 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 .
 Applying KCL at nodes 1 and 2, we obtain

 The equations finally lead to the following form:

 Solving the equations simultaneously, we obtain

𝑣1 = −13.57𝑉, 𝑣2 = −52.86𝑉,
𝑣1 −𝑣2
 𝑖10𝑘Ω = = 3.93𝑚𝐴 ; indicating that the initial (arbitrary) choice of direction
10,000
for this current was the same as the actual direction of current flow.
𝑣
 𝑖1𝑘Ω = 1 = −13.57𝑚𝐴 ; In this case, the current is negative, indicating that
10,000
current actually flows from ground to node 1, as it should, since the voltage at node
1 is negative with respect to ground.
Exercise: Use nodal analysis to find Io for (a) and v1, v2 and v3 for (b) in the network in Fig.
below. (Ans: (a)Io =3.8mA ; (b) v1=3.043V, v2=-6.956V, v3=0.6522V).

(a) (b)

(c)
Page | 19
 Mesh Current Analysis
 A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
 Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh
analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
 Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method.
 The direction of the mesh current is arbitrary(clockwise or counterclockwise)and does
not affect the validity of the solution.
Steps to determine mesh currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, . . . , in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the
mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

Example: Find the mesh currents in the circuit of Figure 2.21(a).

(𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆: 𝑉1 = 10𝑉 ; 𝑉2 = 9𝑉; 𝑉3 = 1𝑉; 𝑅1 = 5Ω ; 𝑅2 = 10Ω ; 𝑅3 = 5Ω ; 𝑅4 = 5Ω )

(a) (b)
Figure 2.21 (a) Given network (b) Mesh currents assigned for it
Solution: Assume clockwise mesh currents 𝑖1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2
From Figure 2.21(b), we write the mesh equations as:

Rearranging the linear system of the equation, we obtain

15𝑖1 − 10𝑖2 = 1 ; −10𝑖1 + 20𝑖2 = 8
Page | 20
Example: Use mesh analysis to find the current io in the circuit in Fig. 2.22.

Figure 2.22
Solution: We apply KVL to the three meshes in turn.
For mesh 1:
−24 + 10(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 12(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) = 0 ⟹ 11𝑖1 − 5𝑖2 − 6𝑖3 = 12 … … (1)
For mesh 2:
24𝑖2 + 4(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 10(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0 ⟹ −5𝑖1 + 19𝑖2 − 2𝑖3 = 0 … … (2)
For mesh 3:
4𝑖0 + 12(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) + 4(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) = 0 ⟹ −𝑖1 − 𝑖2 + 2𝑖3 = 0 … … (3)
NB: @ 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝐴: 𝑖0 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2
Writing in matrix form for equations (1), (2) and (3), we obtain
11 −5 −6 𝑖1 12
[−5 19 −2] [𝑖2 ] = [ 0 ]
−1 −1 2 𝑖3 0
Using Cramer’s rule;
Δ = 192, Δ1 = 432, Δ2 = 144 , Δ3 = 288
Δ1 Δ2 Δ3
Thus, 𝑖1 = = 2.25A ; 𝑖2 = = 0.75A ; 𝑖3 = = 1.5A ; 𝑖0 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖1 = 1.5A
Δ Δ Δ
Or we can use elimination method to solve the simultaneous equations.

Figure 2.23: (a) Two meshes having a current source in common,

(b) A supermesh, created by excluding the current source and all elements
connected to it in series.

Page | 21
A supermesh
 Results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in
common.
 The current source in it is not completely ignored;
 It provides the constraint equation necessary to solve for the mesh currents.
 Has no current of its own.
 Requires the application of both KVL and KCL.
 Must satisfy KVL like any other mesh.
Applying KVL to the supermesh in Fig. 2.23(b) gives
−20 + 6𝑖1 + 10𝑖2 + 4𝑖2 = 0 ⟹ 6𝑖1 + 14𝑖2 = 20 … … (x)
We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes intersect. Applying KCL to
node 0 in Fig. 2.23(a) gives
𝑖2 = 𝑖1 + 6 … … (xx)
Solving equations (x) and (xx), we get
𝑖1 = −3.2𝐴, 𝑖2 = 2.8𝐴

Nodal and Mesh Analyses by Inspection

⤿ When all sources in a circuit are independent current sources, we do not need to
apply KCL to each node to obtain the node-voltage equations. We can obtain the
equations by mere inspection of the circuit.
⤿ In general, if a circuit with independent current sources has N nonreference nodes, the
node-voltage equations can be written in terms of the conductances as

or simply
𝐺𝑣 = 𝑖
Where
𝐺𝑘𝑘 = ∑(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑘)
𝐺𝑘𝑗 = 𝐺𝑗𝑘 = − ∑(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗, 𝑘 ≠ 𝑗)
𝑣𝑘 = 𝑈𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑘
Page | 22
 𝑖𝑘 = ∑(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑘),
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
⤿ 𝐺 is called the conductance matrix, 𝑣 is the output vector; and 𝑖 is the input vector.
⤿ Keep in mind that this is valid for circuits with only independent current sources and
linear resistors.
Similarly, we can obtain mesh-current equations by inspection when a linear
resistive circuit has only independent voltage sources.
⤿ In general, if the circuit has N meshes, the mesh-current equations can be expressed in
terms of the resistances as

or simply
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑣
Where
𝑅𝑘𝑘 = ∑(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑘)
𝑅𝑘𝑗 = 𝑅𝑗𝑘 = − ∑(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗, 𝑘 ≠ 𝑗)
𝑖𝑘 = 𝑈𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑖𝑘 = ∑(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑘),
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
⤿ 𝑅 is called the resistance matrix, 𝑖 is the output vector; and 𝑣 is the input vector.
⤿ Keep in mind that this is valid for circuits with only independent voltage sources and
linear resistors.
Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis
 Given a network to be analyzed, how do we know which method is better or efficient?
 Mesh Analysis is used for:
 networks many series-connected elements, voltage sources, or supermeshes.
 a circuit with fewer meshes than nodes.
 analyzing transistor circuits (the only method).
 Nodal analysis is used for:
 networks with parallel connected elements, current sources, or supernodes
 a circuit with fewer nodes than meshes.
 Operational Amplifier circuits.
 The key is to select the method that results in the smaller number of equations.

Page | 23
 Superposition
Superposition principle
⤿ States that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is
the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to
each independent source acting alone.
⤿ We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources
are turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short
circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a
simpler and more manageable circuit.
⤿ Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle :
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or
current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
Example: Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit in Fig.2.24(a) below

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.24: (a) Original circuit
(b)Determining contribution of the 6V-voltage source only
(c)Determining contribution of the 3A-current source only
Solution: Since there are two sources, let v = v1 + v2
where v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A current
source, respectively.
 To obtain v1, we set the current source to zero, as shown in Fig. 2.24(b). Applying KVL
to the loop in Fig. 2.24(b) gives
12𝑖1 − 6 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖1 = 0.5𝐴 ; 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑣1 = 4𝑖1 = 2𝑉
4
Or by voltage division 𝑣1 = ( ) 6 = 2𝑉
8+4
 To get v2, we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. 2.24(c). Using current division,
8
𝑖3 = ( ) 3 = 2𝐴; 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑣2 = 4𝑖3 = 8𝑉
8+4
 Finally, 𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 2 + 8 = 10𝑉

Page | 24
Example: Find 𝑖0 in the circuit in Fig. 2.25(a) using superposition

(a)

(b) (c)
Figure 2.25: (a) Original circuit
(b)Determining contribution of the 4A-current source only
(c)Determining contribution of the 20V-voltage source only
Solution:
The circuit in Fig. 2.25(a) involves a dependent source, which must be left intact. We
let 𝑖0 = 𝑖0′ + 𝑖0′′
where 𝑖0′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖0′′ are due to the 4-A current source and 20-V voltage source
respectively.
To obtain 𝑖0′ , we turn off the 20-V source so that we have the circuit in Fig. 2.25(b).
We apply mesh analysis in order to obtain 𝑖0′ .
For loop 1,
𝑖1 = 4𝐴 … . . (1)
For loop 2,
−3𝑖1 + 6𝑖2 − 1𝑖3 − 3𝑖′0 = 0 … . (2)
For loop 3,
−5𝑖1 − 1𝑖2 + 10𝑖3 + 5𝑖′0 = 0 … . (3)
But at node 0,
𝑖3 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖′0 = 4 − 𝑖′0 … … . (4)
Page | 25
 Substituting Eqs. (1) and (4) into Eqs. (2) and (3) gives two simultaneous equations

3𝑖2 − 2𝑖′0 = 8 … … . . (5)

𝑖2 + 5𝑖′0 = 20 … … . . (6)
which can be solved to get

52
𝑖0′ = 𝐴
17
To obtain 𝑖0′′ , we turn off the 4-A current source so that the circuit becomes that
shown in Fig. 2.25(c).
For loop 4,
6𝑖4 − 𝑖5 − 5𝑖′′0 = 0 … … . . (7)
For loop 5,
−4𝑖4 + 10𝑖5 − 20 + 5𝑖′′0 = 0 . . . . (8)
But 𝑖5 = −𝑖′′0 . Substituting this in Eqs. (7) and (8) gives
6𝑖4 − 4𝑖′′0 = 0 … … . . (9)
𝑖4 + 5𝑖′′0 = −20 … … . . (10)
which can be solved to get
60
𝑖0′′ = − 𝐴
17
Finally, the total current is
8
𝑖0 = 𝑖0′ + 𝑖0′′ = − 𝐴
17
Exercise: Find i for the circuit (a) and v0 for the circuit (b) in Fig. below using the
superposition principle
4
(𝑨𝒏𝒔: (𝑎)𝑖 = 0.75𝐴 ; (𝑏)𝑣0 = 𝑉)
3

(a) (b)

Page | 26
 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

Figure 2.26: Illustration of Thévenin theorem

Figure 2.27: Illustration of Norton theorem

Thévenin Theorem:
 When viewed from the load, any network composed of ideal voltage and current
sources, and of linear resistors, may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting
of an ideal voltage source 𝑣 𝑇 in series with an equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑇 or
 A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source 𝑣 𝑇 in series with a resistor 𝑅𝑇 , where
 𝑣 𝑇 is the open-circuit voltage(𝑣 𝑇 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 ) at the terminals and 𝑅𝑇 is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Norton theorem:
 When viewed from the load, any network composed of ideal voltage and current sources,
and of linear resistors, may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal
current source 𝑖𝑁 in parallel with an equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑁 . Or
 A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
current source 𝑖𝑁 in parallel with a resistor 𝑅𝑁 , where
 𝑖𝑁 is the short-circuit current(𝑖𝑁 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 ) through the terminals and 𝑅𝑁 is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
NB:
 the Thévenin and Norton equivalent resistances are one and the same quantity
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑁
 To find 𝑅𝑇 (𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑁 ), we need to consider two cases.
 CASE 1: If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources.
𝑅𝑇 (𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑁 ) is the input resistance of the network looking between terminals.
 CASE 2: If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As
with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are
controlled by circuit variables.

Page | 27
 Steps To Determine 𝑹𝑻 (𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝑵 ) of a Network that does not
Contain Dependent Sources
1. Remove the load.
2. Zero all independent voltage and current sources.
3. Compute the total resistance between load terminals, with the load removed. This
resistance is equivalent to that which would be encountered by a current source
connected to the circuit in place of the load.
Steps in Computing the Thévenin Voltage(𝑣 𝑇 )
1. Remove the load, leaving the load terminals open-circuited.
2. Define the open-circuit voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑐 across the open load terminals.
3. Apply any preferred method (e.g., node analysis) to solve for 𝑣𝑜𝑐 .
4. The Thévenin voltage is 𝑣 𝑇 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 .
Steps in Computing the Norton Current(𝑖𝑁 )
1. Replace the load with a short circuit.
2. Define the short-circuit current 𝑖𝑆𝐶 to be the Norton equivalent current.
3. Apply any preferred method (e.g., node analysis) to solve for 𝑖𝑆𝐶 .
4. The Norton current is 𝑖𝑁 = 𝑖𝑆𝐶 .
Example: Compute the load current i by the Thévenin equivalent method in the circuit of
Figure 2.28(a)below (𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆: 𝑉 = 24𝑉; 𝐼 = 3𝐴 ; 𝑅1 = 4Ω ; 𝑅2 = 12Ω ; 𝑅3 = 6Ω)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2.28: (a) Original circuit
(b)Original circuit adjusted to find 𝑅𝑇
(c) Original circuit adjusted to find 𝑣𝑇
(d)Thevenin equivalent of the original circuit
Page | 28
Solution:
 We first compute 𝑅𝑇 . According to the method proposed earlier, we zero the two
sources by shorting the voltage source and opening the current source. The resulting
circuit is shown in Figure 2.28(b). We can clearly see that 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 ‖𝑅2 = 4‖12 = 3Ω.
 Next we determine 𝑣𝑇 . First we remove the load and label the open-circuit voltage 𝑣𝑂𝐶
as shown in Figure 2.28(c).
 Applying a single nodal analysis we arrive at the solution:
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑎 𝑣𝑎
+𝐼− =𝑜
𝑅1 𝑅2
 Using the known values, we get, 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑣𝑂𝐶 = 𝑣𝑇 = 27𝑉.
 Finally, we assemble the Thévenin equivalent circuit, shown in Figure 2.28(d), and
reconnect the load resistor. Now the load current can be easily computed to be
𝑣𝑇 27
𝑖= = = 3𝐴
𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅𝐿 3 + 6

Example: Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.29(a).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2.29: (a)Original circuit
(b)Original circuit adjusted to find 𝑅𝑇
(c)Original circuit adjusted to find 𝑣𝑇
(d)Thevenin equivalent of the original circuit

Page | 29
 Solution:
 This circuit contains a dependent source. To find 𝑅𝑇 , we set the independent source
equal to zero but leave the dependent source alone.
 Because of the presence of the dependent source, however, we excite the network
with a voltage source 𝑣0 connected to the terminals as indicated in Fig. 2.29(b).
 We may set 𝑣0 = 1𝑉 to ease calculation, since the circuit is linear. Our goal is to find
the current 𝑖0 through the terminals, and then obtain 𝑅𝑇 = 1⁄𝑖0 .
 (Alternatively, we may insert a 1-A current source, find the corresponding voltage
𝑣0 , and obtain 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑣0 ⁄1).
 mesh 1:
−2𝑣𝑥 + 2(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 0 ⟹ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2
But −4𝑖2 = 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ⟹ 𝑖1 = −3𝑖2 … … … … . . (1)
 mesh 2:
4𝑖2 + 2(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 6(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) = 0 … … … … … . (2)
 mesh 3:
6(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) + 6𝑖3 + 1 = 0 … … … … … … . (3)
 Solving equations (1), (2) and (3) gives us
1 1
𝑖3 = − 𝐴 ⟹ 𝑖0 = −𝑖3 = 𝐴
6 6
1𝑉
 Hence, 𝑅𝑇 = = 6Ω 𝑖0
 To get 𝑣𝑇 , we find 𝑣𝑂𝐶 in the circuit of Fig. 2.29(c). Applying mesh analysis, we get
𝑖1 = 5 … … … … … … . (𝑎)
−2𝑣𝑥 + 2(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) = 0 ⟹ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑖3 − 𝑖2 … … … (𝑏)
4(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 2(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 6𝑖2 = 0 ⟹ 12𝑖2 − 4𝑖1 − 2𝑖3 = 0 … … … (𝑐)
 But 4(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 𝑣𝑥 . Solving these equations leads to 𝑖2 = 10⁄3. Hence,
𝑣𝑇 = 𝑣𝑂𝐶 = 6𝑖2 = 20𝑉
 The Thevenin equivalent is as shown in Fig. 2.29(d).
Example: Determine the Norton equivalent for the circuit of Figure 2.30(a).

(𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆: 𝑉 = 6𝑉 ; 𝐼 = 2𝐴 ; 𝑅1 = 6Ω ; 𝑅2 = 3Ω ; 𝑅3 = 2Ω ).

(a) (b)

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 (c) (d)

Figure 2.30

Solution:

 Assume the reference node is at the bottom of the circuit.

 We first compute 𝑅𝑇 . We zero the two sources by shorting the voltage source and opening
the current source. The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 2.30(b).
 We can clearly see that 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 ‖𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 4Ω.
 Next we compute the Norton current. The circuit is shown in Figure 2.30(c) ready for node
voltage analysis. 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 𝑉.
 Applying KCL at nodes 1 and 2, we obtain the following set of equations:

 Next, we eliminate 𝑣1 by substituting 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 − 𝑉 in the first equation:

 Solving the two equations by substituting numerical values we get

𝑖 = 2.5𝐴 ; 𝑣2 = 3𝑉
 Finally, the short-circuit current is 𝑖𝑁 = 𝑖𝑆𝐶 = 𝑣2 ⁄𝑅3 = 1.5𝐴 as shown in fig 2.30(d).

Source Transformations
Source transformation
 It is another tool for simplifying circuits.
 Basic to these tools is the concept of equivalence. We recall that an equivalent circuit is
one whose v-i characteristics are identical with the original circuit.
 It is the process of replacing a voltage source 𝑣𝑠 in series with a resistor R by a current
source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
 The two circuits in Fig. 2.31 are equivalent—provided they have the same voltage-current
relation at terminals a-b.
 It requires that 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 ⁄𝑅 .
 Note that the arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of the
voltage source.

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 Figure 2.31: Transformation of independent sources
Example: Use source transformation to find 𝑣0 in the circuit in Fig. 2.32(a).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2.32
Solution:
We first transform the current and voltage sources to obtain the circuit in Fig. 2.32(b).
Combining the 4Ω and 2Ω resistors in series and transforming the 12-V voltage source gives
us Fig. 2.32(c). We now combine the 3Ω and 6Ω resistors in parallel to get 2Ω. We also
combine the 2-A and 4-A current sources to get a 2-A source. Thus, by repeatedly applying
source transformations, we obtain the circuit in Fig. 2.32(d).
We use current division in Fig. 2.32(d) to get
2
𝑖= (2) = 0.4𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣0 = 8𝑖 = 3.2𝑉
2+8
Exercise: Find 𝑖0 in the circuit of Fig. below using source transformation
Ans: 1.78A

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 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
 In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. While for
electric utilities, minimizing power losses in the process of transmission and
distribution is critical for efficiency and economic reasons, there are other applications
in areas such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered
to a load.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.33 (a) The circuit used for maximum power transfer.
(b) Power delivered to the load as a function of 𝑅𝐿
 We now address the problem of delivering the maximum power to a load when given a
system with known internal losses. It should be noted that this will result in significant
internal losses greater than or equal to the power delivered to the load.
 The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can
deliver to a load. We assume that we can adjust the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 . If the entire
circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent except for the load, as shown in Fig. 2.33,
the power delivered to the load is
𝑣𝑇ℎ 2
2
𝑝 = 𝑖 𝑅𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
 For a given circuit, 𝑣𝑇ℎ and 𝑅𝑇ℎ are fixed. By varying the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 , the power
delivered to the load varies as sketched in Fig. 2.33(b). We notice that the power is
small for small or large values of 𝑅𝐿 but maximum for some value of 𝑅𝐿 between
0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∞ . We now want to show that this maximum power occurs when 𝑅𝐿 is equal to
𝑅𝑇ℎ . This is known as the maximum power theorem.
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals
the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑻𝒉 ).
 To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate p in above with
respect to 𝑅𝐿 and set the result equal to zero. We obtain

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  This yields
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ (𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑)
 The maximum power transferred is given by
𝑣𝑇ℎ 2
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑇ℎ
Example: Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of Fig 2.34(a).
below. Find the maximum power.

(a)

(b) (c)
Solution:
We need to find 𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑇ℎ across the terminals a-b. To get 𝑅𝑇ℎ , we use the circuit in Fig.
2.34(b) and obtain

To get 𝑣𝑇ℎ , we consider the circuit in Fig. 2.34(c). Applying mesh analysis,

Solving for 𝑖1 , we get𝑖1 = −2/3. Applying KVL around the outer loop to get 𝑣𝑇ℎ across
terminals a-b, we obtain

For maximum power transfer,

and the maximum power is

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