AC CIRCUIT THEORY

Appliances, machines, or equipment which use electricity for operation can either use AC or DC power
supply and if its AC, it can either be single phase or three phase supply.

This topic is focusing on single phase AC circuits which can either be net resistive, inductive or capacitive
in nature.

This brings about what is called power factor correction in both domestic and industrial electrical
installations to make sure that the input power supplied (S) is almost equal to the actual useful or true
power (P), thus minimizing the reactive power (Q) as much as possible.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

1. Produce and analyse the following circuits:

 Purely resistive
 Purely inductive
 Purely capacitive
 Series RC circuit
 Series RL circuit
 Series RLC circuit
2. Perform practical calculations for the above circuits
3. Perform calculations for series resonance and deduce applications for resonance
4. Calculate Power and power factor
5. Power factor correction and Practical application of power factor correction.

PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

fig 1(a) fig 1(b) fig 1(c)

The circuit consists of a purely resistive load only, no reactance is included.

The current (IR) is in phase with the voltage (VR) , hence the circuit phase angle is 00 (fig 1b)

The waveforms are shown in fig (1c) with the current and voltage starting at the same point and
reaching their maximum values at the same time. (i.e in phase)

Current at any given instant is:

𝑣<0 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖= 𝑅
= 𝑅
= 𝑅
Note 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜃 and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑉
And the maximum value : 𝐼 =
𝑅

PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

The circuit consists only of a capacitive load and the impedance is equal to the capacitive reactance (Xc)
1 1
Where the capacitive reactance 𝑋𝑐 = =
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

The current in the circuit (IC) leads the voltage (VC) by 900 hence the circuit phase angle is 900 leading
(fig2(b).

fig 2(a) fig 2(b) fig2(c)

The waveforms (fig 2c) are out of phase from each other by 900, thus current waveform is ahead of the
voltage waveform by 900, hence it reaches its maximum value at the instant when the voltage waveform
is starting.

Current at any given instant is:

v<𝜃 Vm sin ωt
i= Xc <−90
=X
c sin(ωt− 90)

The maximum value of current:

𝑉𝐶
𝐼= 𝑋𝑐

= Isin 900 = I < 90

PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

The circuit consists only of an inductive load and the impedance is equal to the inductive reacance (XL)

Where the inductive reactance 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

The current in the circuit (IL) lags the voltage (VL )by 900 hence the circuit phase angle is 900 lagging
(fig3(b).
 fig 3(a) fig 3(b) fig3(c)

The waveforms (fig 3c) are out of phase from each other by 900, thus current waveform lags behind that
of the voltage waveform by 900, hence it reaches its maximum value 900 well after the voltage
waveform.

Current at any given instant is:

v<𝜃 Vm sin ωt
i= =
Xc <90 Xc sin(ωt + 90)

The maximum value of current:

𝑉𝐿
𝐼= 𝑋𝐿

= Isin (−900 ) = I < −90

SERIES R-C CIRCUIT

Fig 4(a) circuit diagram fig 4(b) Phasor diagram fig 4(c) voltage and impedance triangle

Fig 4(d) waveform

The phasor diagram is developed as shown in figure 4(b), starting with current as the reference since it is
the common quantity for the circuit.

The voltage across the resistance is in phase with the current and current leads Vc by 900 (fig 4d)

The supply voltage (V) is the phasor sum or resultant of VR and VC by Pythagoras theorem.

𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2

The impedance of the circuit (Z) is the total resistance due to the resistor and the capacitive reactance
Expressing the voltages in fig 4(b) in terms of the current, the voltage triangle can be transformed into

an impedance triangle of fig4(c), hence 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2

𝑉
The circuit current = 𝑍
, which leads the supply voltage by an angle called the circuit phase angle which
is determined by the magnitudes of the resistance (R) and capacitor (C).

NB: Capacitive circuits have a leading current.

From the voltage triangle or impedance triangle, the circuit phase angle (𝛼) can be determined by
applying trig ratios for small angles as follows:
VC XC
tan α = VR
or tan α = R

VC XC
sin α = V
or sin α = Z

VR R
cos α = V
or cos α = Z

VR R
NOTE: cos α = V
or cos α = Z
gives the power factor of the circuit which is always in the range
between 0 to 1, the more it is closer to unity, the better the power factor.

SERIES R-L CIRCUIT

Fig 5(a) circuit diagram fig 5(b) Phasor diagram fig 5(c) voltage and impedance triangle
Fig 5(d) waveform

The phasor diagram is developed as shown in figure 5(b), starting with current as the reference.

The voltage across the resistance is in phase with the current and current lags VL by 900 (fig 5d)

The supply voltage (V) is the phasor sum or resultant of VR and VL by Pythagoras theorem.

𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2

The impedance of the circuit (Z) is the total resistance due to the resistor and the inductive reactance
Expressing the voltages in fig 5(b) in terms of the current, the voltage triangle can be transformed into
an impedance triangle of fig5(c), hence 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2
𝑉
The circuit current = 𝑍
, which leads the supply voltage by an angle called the circuit phase angle which
is determined by the magnitudes of the resistance (R) and capacitor (C).

NB: Inductive circuits have a lagging current.

From the voltage triangle or impedance triangle, the circuit phase angle (𝛼) can be determined by
applying trig ratios for small angles as follows:
VL XL
tan α = or tan α =
VR R

VL XL
sin α = V
or sin α = Z

VR R
cos α = V
or cos α = Z

VR R
NOTE: cos α = V
or cos α = Z
gives the power factor of the circuit which is always in the range
between 0 to 1, the more it is closer to unity, the better the power factor.
SERIES RLC CIRCUITS

Fig6(a) Fig6(b) Fig6(c) Fig6(d) Fig6(e)

Fig 6(f)

Taking 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 𝑂𝑅 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 (fig 6b and 6d)

The supply voltage 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2

The total impedance of the circuit 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

𝑉
The circuit current = , which lags the supply voltage by an angle ( 𝛼) which is the circuit phase angle
𝑍
which is determined by the magnitudes of the resistance (R), Inductance (L) and capacitor (C).

NB: Inductive circuits have a lagging current.

From the voltage triangle or impedance triangle, the circuit phase angle (𝛼) can be determined by
(𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 ) (𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )
tan α = VR
or tan α = R

(𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 ) (𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )

sin α = V
or sin α = Z

VR R
cos α = V
or cos α = Z

Taking 𝑽𝑪 > 𝑽𝑳 𝑶𝑹 𝑿𝑪 > 𝑿𝑳 (fig 6c and 6e)

The supply voltage 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2

The total impedance of the circuit 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2

(𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝐿 ) (𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )

tan α = VR
or tan α = R
 (𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝐿 ) (𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )
sin α = V
or sin α = Z

VR R
cos α = V
or cos α = Z

VR R
NOTE: cos α = V
or cos α = Z
gives the power factor of the circuit which is always in the range
between 0 to 1, the more it is closer to unity, the better the power factor.

QUESTION

A coil of resistance 10Ω and inductance of 110m H in series with a 100μ F capacitor, is connected across
a 240V, 50Hz supply. Determine the:

a. The current flowing in the circuit,

b. The circuit phase angle
c. The voltage across the coil and its phase angle
d. The voltage across the capacitor
e. Prove that supply voltage is the resultant of voltage across the coil and voltage across the
capacitor.

SOLUTION

(a) 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

= 2 × 𝜋 × 50 × 110 × 10−3 = 34.56 𝛺

 1 1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶
= 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 2×𝜋×50×100×10−6
= 31.83 𝛺

𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 hence the circuit is net inductive

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

𝑍 = √102 + (34.56 − 31.83)2 = 10.37𝛺

𝑉 240
𝐼= = = 23.153𝐴
𝑍 10.37
(𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 ) (𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )
(b) Circuit phase angle: tan α = VR
or tan α = R

(34.56 − 31.83)
tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (0.23) = 12.950
10

(c ) Impedance of coil: 𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2 = √102 + (34.56)2 = 35.98𝛺

Voltage across coil = 𝐼𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 23.153 × 35.98 = 833𝑉

𝑋 34.56
The phase angle between voltage across coil Vcoil and supply current is tan−1 ( 𝐿 ) = tan−1 ( ) =
𝑅 10
0
73.86

(d) Voltage across capacitor 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶 = 23.153 × 31.83 = 736.96𝑉

(e) Supply voltage is the phasor sum of voltage across the coil and capacitor.

2
The supply voltage 𝑉𝑠 = √(23.153 × 10)2 + ((23.153 × 34.56) − (23.153 × 31.83)) = 240𝑉

OR 𝑉𝑠 = √(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 cos ∅𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 )2 + (𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝑉𝑐 )2

𝑉𝑠 = √(833 cos 73.86)2 + (833𝑠𝑖𝑛73.86 − 736.96)2

This is the phasor sum of voltage across the coil and capacitor.

Practice question

Three impedances are connected in series across a 50V, 20KHz supply: (a) an 8Ω resistor, (b) a coil of
130μ H and 5Ω resistance and a 10Ω resistor in series with a 0.25μ F capacitor. Calculate (i) the circuit
current (ii) the circuit phase angle (iii) the voltage drop across each impedance.

SERIES RESONANCE
When the applied voltage and current are in phase with each other, this is called series resonance.

Conditions for series resonance:

fig 6f: phasor diagram for a resonant series circuit

VL = VC

XL = XC, hence

Z = R (the minimum circuit impedance possible in the R-L-C circuit) implying

𝑉
𝐼 = ( which is the maximum possible in this circuit)
𝑅

1 1
Since 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 , 𝜔𝐿 = 𝜔𝐶
, 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

1
Giving 𝑓𝑟 = 𝐻𝑧 (which is the new frequency at resonance)
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

The series R-L-C circuit is called the acceptor circuit since there is maximum current flowing due to a
minimum impedance.

Frequency response with impedance, inductive reactance and capacitive reactance is shown below.

XL is directly proportional to frequency (increase in frequency increases inductive reactance)

XC is inversely proportional to frequency

R is independent of frequency, it remains constant.

Z is a minimum and I is a maximum at resonant frequency.

Practice questions

1. A coil of 5Ω resistance and inductance of 100m H is connected in series with a 60μ F

capacitor across a 120V supply. Determine the frequency at which resonance occurs, hence
find the current at this frequency.
2 The current at resonance in an R-L-C circuit is 95μ A. If the applied voltage is 10m V at a
frequency 200KHz, and the inductance is 60μ H. Find the circuit resistance and the circuit
capacitance.

Q FACTOR OF A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT AT RESONANCE

This is the quality factor of the circuit also known as the voltage magnification for a series R-L-C circuit.

If R is small compared to the two reactances, the voltages across the reactances can be many times the
supply voltage and this is the voltage magnification, where:

𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝐼𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑄) = 𝑂𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝜔𝐿 1 1
= 𝑅
𝑂𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅
Where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 at resonance and 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

𝜔𝐿 1 𝐿
Yielding: 𝑄 = 𝑅
= 𝑅 √𝐶

This ratio is the measure of the quality of the circuit or Q factor.

1. A coil of inductance 100m H and negligible resistance is connected in series with a capacitance
of 0.2μ F and a resistance of 10Ω across a 120V, variable frequency supply. Find: (a) resonant
frequency (b) current at resonance (c) how many times greater are the reactance voltages than
the supply voltage at resonance.

2. A series circuit has a coil of resistance of 5Ω, and inductance 50m H and a capacitance of 30μ F,
dertermine the Q factor of the circuit at resonance.

3. A coil of negligible resistance and inductance 100m H and negligible resistance is connected in
series with a capacitance of 2μ F and a resistance of 10Ω across a 50V, variable frequency
supply. Find: (a) resonant frequency (b) current at resonance (c) the voltages across the coil and
the capacitor at resonance (d) the Q factor of the circuit
POWER AND POWER FACTOR IN AC CIRCUITS