(S) Fereshtehpour, M., Evalutaion of Factors Governing The Use of Floating Solar System
(S) Fereshtehpour, M., Evalutaion of Factors Governing The Use of Floating Solar System
(S) Fereshtehpour, M., Evalutaion of Factors Governing The Use of Floating Solar System
Evaluation of Factors Governing the Use of Floating Solar System: A Study on Iran's
Important Water Infrastructures
PII: S0960-1481(20)31928-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.12.005
Reference: RENE 14605
Please cite this article as: Fereshtehpour M, Sabbaghian RJ, Farrokhi A, Jovein EB, Sarindizaj EE,
Evaluation of Factors Governing the Use of Floating Solar System: A Study on Iran's Important Water
Infrastructures, Renewable Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.12.005.
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6 Abstract
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8 The issue of water and energy crisis has been turned into global matters which need to be tackled jointly.
9 Floating solar power plants, in which photovoltaic modules are used on the surface of water
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infrastructures, has recently been attracting much interest. In addition to energy generation, this system
provides some additional advantages over the land-based system such as conserving the land and the water
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and increasing the efficiency of the module. This study first comprehensively reviews the literature and
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13 then proposes a practical framework to evaluate the potential of using floating solar photovoltaic (FSPV)
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14 taking important factors into account. To this end, as a specific application of the proposed framework,
15 five important dam reservoirs in Iran are selected, and the performance of the FSPV plant is analyzed in
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16 terms of energy generation, evaporation reduction, economic and environmental factors considering
17 different coverage percentages of reservoir’s surfaces. Based on the cost-benefit analysis, results showed
18 the FSPV outperforms other alternatives for energy generation and water-saving. It takes 5~6 years for the
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19 investment cost to be returned. Given Iran's vast potential for solar radiation, and its huge energy demand
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20 and critical water situation, results indicated that Iran can effectively harness solar energy through FSPV
21 systems which help conserve the water in addition to support sustainable energy production.
22 Keywords: Floating PV system, Sustainable Energy Production, Solar Power Plant, Water Infrastructures,
23 Evaporation, Water Conservation.
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24 1. Introduction
25 In recent years, water and energy resources have been tightly linked together. Water
26 resources are utilized in the procedure of electrical energy generation. On the other hand,
27 energy resources are utilized for water supply, transfer, distribution, and also for treating
28 wastewater (Bauer, 2014(. This interdependency between water and energy is the so-called
29 water-energy nexus. In the national and international scales, several water and energy
30 systems have been developed, managed, and regulated to efficiently resolve the water-energy
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31 nexus (Reinhard et al., 2017).
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Water resources systems are used to supply several demands including potable,
34 development goals. Reservoir dams in many regions of the world have a significant role in
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35 supplying water and generating energy (Javidi Sabbaghian et al., 2016). In Iran, Over the last
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36 four decades, the capacity of the constructed dams has been increased into more than 50
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37 billion cubic meters (BCM), which is almost 42 percent of the freshwater resources of the
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38 country (Mesgaran and Azadi, 2018). Moreover, many hydroelectric power plants have been
39 established inside the country with an annual generation capacity of 53000 Gigawatt hours
40 (GWh), which is about one-fifth of the electrical energy generation of the country (IWRMC,
41 2019). Accordingly, the reservoir dams can effectively control and manage the water deficit
42 crisis across the country and are necessary for generating electricity as well (Fereshtehpour,
43 2016).
44 However, there are challenges related to the reservoir dams especially in the arid or
45 semi-arid regions of the world. In Iran, the most important challenges are the low mean
46 annual precipitation (almost 250 mm/year), climate change, and the long-term increase of the
47 air temperature (about 1.5 degrees of centigrade), which cause a huge amount of evaporation )
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48 about 3 BCM/year) (IWRMC, 2019). The air temperature, heat flux, mass transfer in the
49 water surface, and wind speed are the most influential factors on the water surface
50 evaporation from reservoir dams. Several techniques have been introduced for reducing the
51 evaporative losses from reservoir dams (Craig et al., 2005). Although these methods are
52 effective to reduce the evaporation from the reservoir dams, there are still some limitations
53 such as high operation and maintenance costs, undesirable environmental impacts, and
54 especially loss of solar energy received by the water body for energy generation.
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55 Solar energy is of great importance in the water-energy nexus and is one of the most
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56 abundant, clean, affordable, and sustainable energy resources in the world, especially in arid
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or semi-arid regions. This energy is generated by the global solar radiation on the earth's
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58 surface including the continents and the water surfaces. The global solar radiation is defined
by the global horizontal irradiance (GHI) and the diffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI)
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60 (Gamarra and Ronk, 2019). The global solar radiation would be 1800 times the global
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61 primary energy consumption, whereas hydropower plants would supply the global primary
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62 consumption for just one year. Therefore, it can be used potentially as a reliable and
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63 comprehensive resource for energy generation in the near future (Dizier, 2018).
64 The potential of receiving solar radiation on the earth's surface depends on the type of
65 surface cover and the climatic conditions. Iran has a desirable potential for utilizing the solar
66 energy generated by solar radiation. The country has a mean annual 300 sunny days (almost
67 2800 sunny hours per year) in the two-thirds of its area and the solar radiation average is
68 about 4.5–5.5 kWh per square meter per day (Daneshyar, 1978; Fadai, 2007).
69 Over recent years, one of the most noticeable strategies for decreasing the undesirable
70 impacts of evaporation from the water surface of the reservoir dams and generating
71 sustainable energy is utilizing photovoltaic panels mounted on a floating platform for natural
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72 or artificial surface water resources. These systems are creating new opportunities to get the
73 most out of solar energy, particularly in regions that have a high potential of harnessing solar
74 radiation. The installation of PV panels on surface water resources in the world has grown
75 considerably, from an installed capacity of 10 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2014 to 1.1
76 gigawatts (GW) by September 2018 (Abid et al., 2019). Taking into account the success of
77 utilizing floating PV panels in the South Asian region, Abid et al. (2019) suggested that other
78 Central Asian countries such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran, where a large number of
79 water bodies are available, can effectively utilize these systems. Many researchers have
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80 shown the advantages and disadvantages of floating solar systems in comparison with the
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81 land-based ones (Table 1).
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82 Despite the benefits of the FSPV, there is an important concern about the installation
cost of these systems. However, there is evidence that in the next ten years, the global
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84 average installation cost of the utility-scale solar photovoltaics (PV) could fall by around
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85 60% (Barbuscia, 2018). In general, total system costs for utility-scale PV systems are
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86 expected to decrease from around 1.8 USD/W in 2015 to 0.8 USD/W in 2025, a reduction of
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87 57% in 10 years. The majority of the decrease in the costs is expected to come from a lower
89
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90 Table 1
91 Advantages and disadvantages of Floating Solar PV (FSPV) plant.
92
Advantages Disadvantage
Preserving land resources (Liu et al., 2017) × High initial installation, structure and 93 I
maintenance costs in comparison with terrestrial
Higher efficiency (Liu et al., 2017)
(Durkovic´ and Đurišic´, 2017 )
Not time-consuming installation, easy to n
× Challenges of designing the stable floating PV94
arrange, roll up and transport the modules
panels resisting the natural disasters (Ferrer-
(Abid et al., 2019)
Gisbert et al., 2013; Sahu et al., 2016) 95 rec
Easy cleaning and dust removal from the
× Adverse effects on panels due to the high
panel (Majid et al., 2014)
humidity (Kumar et al., 2015) ent
Conserving water due to reducing 96
× Difficult installation on the sea due to the
evaporation (Sharma et al., 2015)
constant change in the position of the solar
Decreasing algae formation due to less 97 yea
panels (Tsoutsos et al., 2005)
sunlight entering the water body (Abid et
× Water quality degradation when using silicone
al., 2019 & Liu et al., 2017)
modules and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) 98 rs,
Mitigating environmental problems such as
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thermoplastic floats (Düzenli et al., 2018)
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destruction of ecosystems (Lee et al., 2014)
× Electrical accidents and undesirable effects on
Synergy with existing electrical 99 sev
the existing ecosystem because of the
infrastructure (Liu et al., 2017)
underwater cables (Düzenli et al., 2018)
Potential incorporation of FSPV system into
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× Undesirable impacts on tourism, fishing, and 100 eral
aquaculture and fish farming (Liu et al.,
navigation.
2017)
× Stress and vibration problems due to the wind,101
Huge potential for energy production on
-waves, and other external forces, leading to
stu
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more than 400,000 km2 of man-made
micro-crack formation between modules and
reservoirs throughout the world (Liu et al., dies
thus reduction in electricity production and 102
2017)
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104 e been conducted to investigate multiple aspects of the FSPV systems including their total
105 costs, environmental impacts, energy generation, and efficiency generally in terms of the
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106 potential assessment of floating solar power plants. Choia et al. (2013) evaluated the energy
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107 generation efficiency of the FSPV plant in comparison with the ground-mounted systems and
108 showed that the FSPV system has a higher generation efficiency of more than 10%. Santafé
109 et al. (2014) investigated a floating photovoltaic cover for water irrigation reservoirs based on
110 experimental and theoretical assessment using a prototype of 20 kWh. The case study was the
111 zones near to the Spanish eastern Mediterranean coastline. They concluded that FSPV system
112 can improve the water and energy balances in areas having limited water resources,
113 especially in arid and semi-arid zones. Teixeira et al. (2015) studied the feasibility of a
114 floating PV system operating at a hydropower station for water supply in southern Brazil.
115 Their study demonstrated that there is an initial cost of USD 1715.83/kW and an energy cost
116 of USD 0.059/kWh. Hartzell (2016) evaluated FSPV potential on water management
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117 infrastructure. They modeled a small pilot installation on Lake Pleasant Reservoir, Arizona.
118 The results showed that hydropower reservoirs could be ideal locations for floating
120 Song and Choi (2016) analyzed the potential for FSPV system use on Mine Pit Lakes
121 in Korea in terms of solar site assessment, design of a photovoltaic system, and simulation of
122 a PV system based on economic and GHG emission criteria. Liu et al. (2017) examined the
123 power generation efficiency of the FSPV plant in terms of the variations in temperature and
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124 cooling effects using a finite element model. The results demonstrated that there is a potential
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125 of 160 GW, utilizing floating PV systems covering 2500 km2 water surface in China. This
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results in 2×1027 m3/year water saving from evaporation and 1.25×1012 m3/year indirect
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127 water-saving if water saved from evaporation is being used by hydropower plant.
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128 Durkovic´ and Đurišic´ (2017) conducted studies on a large Floating Photovoltaic
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129 Power Plant (FPPP) with an innovative azimuth angle control method in Montenegro. Proper
130 economic savings and a significant reduction in CO2 emissions at this recommended power
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131 plant were the results of this study. Kim et al. (2019) investigated the potential of FSPV use
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132 on 3401 reservoirs in Korea. The results of this study showed an annual power production of
133 2932 GWh. Besides, the annual reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) was estimated at about
135 A comprehensive review of the literature was conducted to derive important aspects
136 of the floating solar PV (FSPV) projects implemented since 2013. The type of the FSPV
137 system, coverage area percentage, their benefits, and costs are summarized in Table 2.
138 Previous studies have shown that floating solar PV (FSPV) plants should be
139 considered as a promising alternative for energy production and to prevent surface
140 evaporation in water bodies due to their significant benefits. To date, there is not a scientific
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141 paper focusing on the potential assessment of FSPV application in Iran and thus this study
143 The present study proposes a practical framework to evaluate the multiple aspects of
144 using FSPV systems based on their specific characteristics. The methodology is applied to
145 Iran’s water infrastructures. Five important reservoirs are selected as the representatives of
146 the water infrastructures within the five main basins of Iran and the potential for installing the
147 FSPV plant with different coverage scenarios are investigated in terms of power that could be
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148 generated, amount of water that can be saved from evaporation and the reduction in CO2
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149 emissions. Moreover, a comprehensive economic analysis is carried out to estimate the total
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investment, the operation and maintenance (O&M), and the energy production costs for each
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151 FSPV scenario of the case studies. It is implemented based on the sensitivity analysis on the
variation of the economic parameters including the interest rate, the availability factor for the
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153 FSPV system, and the exploitation period of the system. Furthermore, the expected years for
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154 returning the investment costs are estimated for each scenario. To have better insights into the
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155 benefits of the FSPV system, a comparative economic analysis is carried out in terms of
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156 energy generation and water-saving with the land-based photovoltaic (LBPV) system and
158 The paper has been organized as follows: Section 2 proposes the process of the model
159 and illustrates the methodology for evaluating the governing factors such as water-saving,
160 energy generation, economic benefits, and environmental advantages and then introduces the
161 selected study areas for the implementation of floating solar PV in Iran. In section 3, the
162 proposed approach is applied to the study areas and the results are presented and discussed.
163 Finally, in section 4 the conclusions and recommendations for future practical applications
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165 Table 2
166 Summary of studies on Floating Solar PV (FSPV) system
Lake area: Coverage area
Location FSPV system Cost Benefits Authors
(% of the lake)
1
USA PWR : 305 Wp 0.4047 km²: 0.4047 km² Value of water saving per EG4: 53 GWh/year McKay
(Silver Lake) (100%) year: $208,000 WS5: 0.32 MCM/year (2013)
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Spain PVT2: 10° (Fixed) 0.00449 km2: 0.00449 km2 Installation cost: EG: 0.425 GWh/year Santafé et al.
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(irrigation water reservoir) PVA3: 0° (Fixed) (100%) $2.37/Wp WS: 0.005 MCM/year )2014(
PWR: 240Wp $242.1/m2 GHGR 6: 72.71 ton/year
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Brazil --- Castanhão --- EG: 699.351 GWh/year Sacramento et al.
(three reservoirs – 40 km²: 2 km² (5%) (2015)
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Castanhão, Orós and Orós
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Banabuiú) 30.6 km²: 1.53 km² (5%)
Banabuiú
17 km²: 0.85 km² (5%)
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Canada Thin film FSPV 9.5 km2: 0.6857 km2 (7.2%) Installation cost: EG: 20.22 GWh/year Trapani and Millar
(McFaulds Lake) $6.62 Million GHGR: 12048.9 ton/year )2016(
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Operation cost:
ur $40,000/year
Arizona state PVT: 12° (Fixed) 17.118 km2: 0.12 km2 (0.7%) Installation cost: $33.6 EG: 27.65 GWh/year Hartzell
(Lake Pleasant Reservoir) PVA: Sun tracking Million WS: 0.247222 MCM/year (2016)
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PWR: either 43,637
modules with power
275Wp or 48,000 with
250Wp
1 3 5
The maximum electric power (PWR) Photovoltaic Azimuth angle (PVA), Water Saving (WS)
2 4 6
Photovoltaic tilt angle (PVT) Energy Generation (EG); Greenhouse Gas Reduction (GHGR)
167
168
169
170
171
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172 Table 2
173 Summary of studies on Floating Solar PV (FSPV) (continued)
Lake area: Coverage area (% of
Location FPV system Cost Benefits Authors
the lake)
2 2
India --- 12812.2 km : 2562.44 km (20%) --- EG: 909.05 GWh/year Sharma and Kothari
(large reservoirs) WS:16233 MCM/year (2016)
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Korea PVT: 40° (Fixed) 0.2254 km2: 0.0876 km2 Installation cost: EG: 0.9716 GWh/year Song and Choi
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(Ssangyong Open-Pit PWR: 215.25 Wp (38.9%) $2.73 Million GHGR: 471.21 ton/year (2016)
Limestone Mine pit lake) Operation cost:
$19,040/year
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India PVT: 12° 0.0374 km2: 0.0125 km2 (33.3%) Installation cost: EG: 2.658 GWh/year Singh et al.
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(Karasur village’s lake) PWR: 300Wp $1.6 Million GHGR: 240 ton/year (2017)
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India --- 0.7198 km2: 0.1439 km2 --- EG: 25.74 GWh/year Mittal et al.
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(lake in Kota) (20%) WS: 0.545 MCM/year GHGR: (2017)
23990 ton/year
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Australia PVT: 25°(Fixed) 3 km2: 0.42 km2 (14%) --- EG: 103.032 GWh/year Rosa-Clot et al.
(Bolivar basin) PVA: Sun tracking WS: 0.672 MCM/year (2017)
PWR: 320Wp
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Albania– PVT: 44°(Fixed) 475 km2: 5.23 km2 (1.1%) Installation cost: EG: 186.05 GWh/year Durkovic´ and Đurišic´
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Montenegro border PVA: Sun Tracking $127.8 Million WS: 5.41 MCM/year (2017)
(Skadar Lake) PWR: 300Wp Operation cost: GHGR: 83420 ton/year
$2,120,970/year
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175
176
177
178
179
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180 Table 2
181 Summary of studies on Floating Solar PV (FSPV) (continued)
182
Lake area: Coverage area (% of
Location FPV system Cost Benefits Authors
the lake)
China --- 124700 km2: 2500 km2 (2%) --- EG: 160 GW/year Liu et al.
(water surface in the eastern WS: 2 1021 MCM/year (2017)
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regions)
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Brazil PVT: 3° (Fixed) 6369.71 km2: 101.86 km2 (1.6%) Installation cost: EG: 10.5536 GWh/year Silvério et al.
(São Francisco River basin) PWR: 250 Wp (tilt angle = 0°) (2018)
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$5726.81 Million
(tilt angle = 5°)
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$6547.38 Million
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Portugal PVT: 20° (Fixed) 92200 km2: 0.00335 km2 Installation cost: EG: 0.4557 GWh/year Barbuscia
(Alqueva dam) PVA: 0° (Fixed) $3.51 Million (2018)
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PWR: 260 Wp Operation cost:
$19,412.82/year
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Taiwan PVT: 12° (Fixed) 0.03235 km2: 0.0091 km2 Installation cost: EG: 1.5433 GWh/year Dizier
(site of Sugu, south of PVA: 82&-98° (28.27%) $1.6267 Million (2018)
Taiwan) (two fixed angle) Operation cost
PWR: 295 Wp
ur $28,320/year
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Bosnia and Herzegovina PVT: 35° (Fixed) 13 km2: 0.38025 km2 (less than Installation cost: EG: 36.55 GWh/year Pašalić et al.
(Jablanica Lake) PWR: 210 Wp 3%) $68.37 Million (2018)
Operation cost:
$4.39 Million/year
USA PVT: 11° (Fixed) 21410 km2: 5780.7 km2 --- EG: 786000 GWh/year Spencer et al.
(man-made waterbodies in (27%) WS: 36403 MCM/year (2018)
the contiguous United
States)
183
184
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185 Table 2
186 Summary of studies on Floating Solar PV (FSPV) (continued)
187
Lake area: Coverage area (% of
Location FPV system Cost Benefits Authors
the lake)
Korea PV: 20° 430.6 km2: 43.06 km2 (10%) Installation cost: EG: 2931.94 GWh/year Kim et al.
(1134 reservoirs which (Fixed) $3,007.29 Million GHGR: 1294450 ton/year (2019)
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satisfy the condition of FPP PVA: South-facing Operation cost:
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in Korea) slope (Fixed) $21.83 Million/year
PWR: 210Wp
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Vietnam PVT: 11° (Fixed) 603.5 km²: 91.28 km² (15%) Installation cost: EG: 13700 GWh/year Bui
(three reservoirs – Hoa PVA: 0° (Fixed) $10300 Million WS: 136 MCM/year (2019)
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Binh, Tri An and Dau Operation cost: GHGR: 11000000 ton/year
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Tieng) $240 Million/year
India PWR: 320Wp ---: 0.12 km² Installation cost: EG: 14.97 GWh/year Goswami et al.
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(Neel-Nirjan Dam located $9.365 Million WS: 0.21 MCM/year (2019)
in Bakreswar) Operation cost: GHGR: 13632.06 ton/year
$221,075.4/year
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Brazil PVT: 10° (Fixed) 6.17 km²: 5 km² (81%) Installation cost: EG: 835.82 GWh/year Rodrigues et al.
(Gavião reservoir, located PWR: 245Wp $755 Million WS: 2.595 MCM/year (2020)
in the Northeast of Brazil) Operation cost:
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$4.674 Million/year
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Turkey PVT: 33° (Fixed) 0.00301 km2 Installation cost: EG: 0.182 GWh/year Temiz and Javani
(Mumcular Dam located in PVA: 0° (Fixed) $0.295 Million (2020)
Aegean Region of Turkey) PWR: 350Wp Operation cost:
$18,203/year
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188 2. Materials and Methods
189 To accomplish the objectives of this study, a practical framework to evaluate the
190 potential of using the FSPV system is proposed. Fig. 1 shows the schematic of the workflow
191 for the present study. The governing factors for the evaluation of the FSPV system such as (i)
192 energy generation; (ii) evaporation reduction; (iii) environmental issues, and (iv) economic
193 analysis are first investigated and their quantification models are then described. After that,
194 the case studies as a specific application of the methods are presented.
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195
197
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198 2-1 Energy Generation
199 Hourly energy generation (W ) by the FSPV can be estimated as follows (Durkovic
W I A (1)
201 where I is mean hourly insolation and A is the covered area by the floating panels of
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module temp inverter (2)
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203 where module is the degree of efficiency of a module, temp is the PV conversion efficiency,
204
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and inverter is the efficiency of the invertor. In this paper based on the selected PV panel1
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205 (polycrystalline 157 157 mm cell with peak power watts of 260 Wp and module dimensions
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206 of 1640 992 35 mm), module and inverter were adopted as 0.1601 and 0.96, respectively.
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208 Where stc is an efficiency defined for a panel when utilizing it in a standard condition (stc),
209 0.0047 is the temperature coefficient of power of PV panel (-0.47 %/°C) and T panel is the
NOCT 20 (4)
T panel T amb ( ) I
0.8
1 The trade name of the module is SSF-P60 produced by Solar Sanat Firouzeh Co. (www.ssf-solar.com)
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211 Where NOCT is the operation cell temperature that is 44° based on selected PV panel in this
212 study and T amb is the ambient air temperature that was assumed equal to the temperature of
214 It should be noted that according to Equation 1 mentioned in the paper, solar energy
215 produced by solar panels is a function of solar radiation intensity, efficiency, and area of the
216 panels and therefore water level fluctuations (Jiang et al., 2018) have no effect on energy
217 production. The significant effect of water level fluctuations may arise in changing the
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218 optimal angle of floating solar cells installed on the water surface. To avoid this situation,
219 floating solar panels are anchored through mooring systems. This system allows adjusting
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water level fluctuations while maintaining its position toward the sun. In addition, in the
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221 range of water level changes, the minimum water depth should not be less than an appropriate
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222 value for the smooth installation and operation of the floating PV.
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225 also for the entire lake’s surface. The reduction of water evaporation occurs due to the two
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226 main reasons. The first reason is the reduction in water and air interaction from the covered
227 area which directly affects the evaporation reduction. The second reason is the change in the
228 heat balance of the lake after the power plant being built which causes the lake to be colder
229 and thus reduces the total evaporation throughout the entire lake’s surface (Durkovic´ and
232 parameters influence the process for estimating water evaporation such as air saturation
233 deficit above the surface, wind speed, the amount of solar radiation reaching the water
234 surface, air pressure, and the chemical characteristics of water. The evaporation rate in water
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235 surfaces has been studied in the literature utilizing different models. Generally, water budget,
236 mass transfer, pan evaporation, Penman-Monteith model, and energy balance method are
237 used to measure evaporation. Furthermore, many empirical relations and equations have been
238 developed incorporating temperature, solar day hours, and solar radiation.
239 Penman’s method is one of the most frequently used methods among many
240 mathematical methods that have been modified in different ways (Penman, 1948; Jensen,
241 2010). Valiantzas (2006) defined this equation in a simplified way using routine weather data
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242 as follows:
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R
au 0.38 0.54u
A
R
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E 0 0.0511 R S T 9.5 2.4 S 0.052 T 20 1
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(5)
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243 where E0 is the average daily water surface evaporation (mm/day) at the sea level ( z 0 ),
244 and R S is the average sunny hours per day, calculated as follows:
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n (6)
R S R A 0.5 0.25
N
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245 where n and N are the observed average number of sunny days and the maximum possible
246 number of sunny days for the selected month, respectively. Having geographic width φ, for a
249 follows:
23.5
R A 3Nsin 0.131N 0.95 (8)
180
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23.5
R A 118N 0.2 sin 0.131N 0.2
180
250 where α denotes the reflection coefficient called albedo. It is related to the water surface that
251 ranges from 0 to 1 and is supposed to be 0.08 in this study. T is the average of extreme
253 Daily mean percentage of relative air humidity is represented by R H and u is the
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254 average value of wind speed (m/s) at an altitude of 2 m above the water surface. Eq. (6) is
255
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adjusted empirically for higher altitudes z (m) (Valiantzas, 2006):
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E E 0 0.00012 z (10)
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256 The daily volume of water evaporated can be determined by multiplying the amount
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258 To find out how much water can be saved by implementing the FSPV system, the
259 amount of evaporation ( E ) is multiplied by the FSPV coverage area ACA as follows:
260 Where k is a reduction factor determined by the type and platform's reflective functionality,
261 its coverage level with panels, and the panel’s performance. This coefficient decreases the
262 evaporation volume due to the fact that a portion of solar irradiance passes through panels
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265 One of the most important issues that should be considered to evaluate the
266 implementation of FSPV system for water infrastructures is the economic analysis (Zhou et
267 al., 2009). In this paper, the overall cost for producing 1 MWh electrical energy is considered
268 as the economic criterion. To this end, first, the most important factors including the coverage
269 area of each scenario, the relevant annual electrical energy generation, and the nominal
270 capacity of the FSPV power plant that affect the overall energy production cost are
271 determined. Then, the parameters of economic cost such as the interest rate, the exploitation
272 period, and the availability factor of the system are specified to estimate the initial cost (the
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273 total investment cost), and the running cost (O&M cost). Finally, the overall energy
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274 production cost for each scenario on the selected case studies is calculated (Ali, 2017;
275
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Durkovic and Durisic, 2017). Moreover, the sensitivity analysis of the results based on the
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276 variations of the economic parameters is carried out. In addition, to better investigate the
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277 economic aspect of using the FSPV system, a comparative economic analysis is implemented
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278 considering the energy generation and water-saving factors. In this manner, the economic
279 benefits of the FSPV system is compared with the LBPV system and other EMTs. The
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281 In this study, three physical and one chemical methods for water saving are compared with
282 the FSPV system. The four methods are (1) the Evaporation Control System E-VapCap as a
283 floating cover; (2) the NetPro cabled shade cover as a suspended cover; (3) the Raftex as a
284 modular cover; and (4) the Water$avr as a monolayer. The summary of the properties of
285 these methods is presented in Table 3 (Craig et al., 2005; Youssef and Khodzinskaya, 2019).
286
287
288
17
289
290 Table 3
291 Summary of EMTs’ performance and the related economic properties
292
Capital
Evaporation Durability O&M cost
Category Product Description cost
reduction (%) (Expected life) ($/ha/year)
($/m2)
Heavy duty polyethylene
Physical
product including
method E-
wrapped bubble with a 95% 12 years 7$ 337.5 $
(Floating VapCap
white surface and UV
cover)
stabilized layers
Physical High tension cable
method incorporating long life
NetPro 75% 30 years 8$ 337.5 $
f
(Suspended plus black monofilament
oo
cover) shade cloth
Physical
A fully enclosed
method 342 $
(Modular
cover)
Raftex rectangular plastic pipe
frame
White powdered product
-80%
pr 5 years 4.5 $
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Chemical comprised of hydrated
method Water$avr lime with an alcohol flow 30% 3 days 0.053 $ 1243 $
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293
294 Fig. 2. The proposed workflow for the economic analysis process of the FSPV plant.
295 The overall energy production cost (EPC) for the FSPV system is calculated as follows
IR 1 IR t
IC tot FSPV USD
USD 1 IR 1
t
USD
EPC FSPV OMC FSPV (13)
MW h AF E tot MW h MW h
18
297 where EPC FSPV is the total price for producing 1 MWh electrical energy by the FSPV
298 system, which is called the overall energy production cost (USD / MWh ). In Eq. (13), IR is
299 the interest rate that is considered as an internal rate of return (IRR), t is the exploitation
300 period of the FSPV plant that is also named the amortization period ( year ), and A F is the
301 availability factor that is related to the availability of grid during the exploitation period.
302 IC tot FSPV and OMC FSPV denote the total investment cost as the total initial cost (USD ) and
303 the O&M cost as the running cost during the operation period ( USD / MWh ), respectively.
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304 E tot is the annual production of electrical energy from the FSPV plant ( MWh ).
oo
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305 In order to calculate the overall energy production cost for each scenario based on Eq.
306
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(13), first, the effective economic parameters in this equation should be determined. The
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307 interest rate, which refers to the internal rate of return (IRR) (Desideri and Asdrubali, 2019),
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308 is considered as an integer number in the interval of [0,24] in term of percentage. The
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309 sensitivity analysis is accomplished over the entire range of interest rate percentage
310 (Durkovic and Durisic, 2017). The exploitation period of the FSPV system, which is started
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311 from the end of the construction phase and terminated at the end of the operation phase, is
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312 considered between 20-25 years (Sahel Ettehad Co., 2020; Durkovic and Durisic, 2017).
313 Accordingly, the sensitivity analysis is carried out for the six cases of exploitation period
314 including 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25 years. Moreover, the availability factor of the FSPV
315 system, which is related to the availability of the grid and maintaining the existing desirable
316 conditions of efficiency of the FSP panel during the exploitation period, is analyzed with the
317 six values including 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 0.85, 0.90 and 0.95 (Masters, 2004; Durkovic and
319 The total investment cost of the FSPV system ( IC tot FSPV ) for each scenario is
19
ICtot,FSPV USD Cinvertor,FSPV Cpanel,FSPV Cstructure,FSPV Cinstallation,FSPV (14)
321 where C invertor ,FSPV is the invertor cost (USD ), C panel ,FSPV is the panel cost (USD ),
322 C structure ,FSPV is the floating structure cost (USD ) and C installation ,FSPV is the installation cost
323 (USD ). Each of these costs should be determined for each of the FSPV scenarios. The four
324 items of the total investment cost in Eq. (14) could be estimated according to the economic
325 data obtained from the consultant companies that have knowledge and experience in the
326 design, construction, and exploitation processes of installing FSPV (Sahel Ettehad Co.,
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327 2020). It is noteworthy that the scale and type of FSPV plant affect the overall costs (Ferrer-
329
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The following considerations have been taken into account in order to estimate the total
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330 investment cost of the FSPV system: (1) the information about the utilized cell material
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331 (crystalline silicon), module cover (glass), array type (fixed open rack), azimuth ( 180 ) and
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332 the optimal tilt ( 25 for some of the case studies and 30 for the others) are determined; (2)
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333 the annual produced energy for the FSPV system ( E tot ) is estimated for each coverage
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334 percentage scenario; (3) for each coverage scenario of each case study, the relevant nominal
335 capacity of the FSPV is calculated by dividing E tot by the annual average sunny hours; (4)
336 according to the energy generation results and the economic information, the total investment
337 cost for unit power of FSPV power plant (1 MWp) is estimated about 650000 (USD / MWh )
338 (Sahel Ettehad Co., 2020); (5) with respect to the nominal capacity of the FSPV system as
339 well as the overall investment cost for unit power, the total investment cost ( IC tot ,FSPV ) is
340 calculated.
341 In the energy generation approach of comparative economic analysis, the overall energy
20
IR 1 IR t
IC tot,LBPV USD
USD 1 IR 1
t
USD
EPCLBPV OMCLBPV (15)
MWh AF E tot,eq MWh MWh
343 where EPC LBPV is the total cost for producing 1 MWh electrical energy by a land-based PV
344 system, which is called the overall energy production cost (USD / MWh ). In Eq. (15),
345 ICtot,LBPV and OMCLBPV indicate the total investment cost (USD ) and the O&M cost of the
346 land-based system during the operation period (USD / MWh ), respectively. E tot ,eq is the
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347 equivalent annual electrical energy produced by the FSPV plant that should be produced by
349
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The total investment cost of the LBPV system ( ICtot,LBPV ) for each scenario is
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(16)
Cland,LBPV
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351 where Cinverter,LBPV , C panel ,LBPV , C structure ,LBPV , C installation ,LBPV and C land ,LBPV are the
352 inverter cost (USD ), the panel cost (USD ), the floating structure cost (USD ), the
353 installation cost (USD ), and the land acquisition cost (USD ) of the LBPV system.
354 When considering water-saving factor for comparative economic analysis, the overall
IR 1 IR t
CCEMT USD
USD 1 IR 1
t
USD
EMC 3 OMCEMT 3 (17)
M k V M
3
M
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356 where EMC is the total price for mitigating 1 m3 of water from evaporation by EMT project
357 depending on the type of project, which is called the overall evaporation mitigation cost
358 (USD / M3 ). In Eq. (17), CC EMT and OMCEMT are the total capital cost (USD ) and the
359 O&M cost of the EMT project during the operation period ( USD / M3 ), respectively.
360 Moreover, k is the reduction factor, depending on the type of EMT project and V is the
362 To estimate the comparative economic criterion of B / C for the FSPV system for each
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363 scenario and each case study, the sum of direct annual benefit from electricity sales and
364 indirect annual benefit from reducing evaporation is calculated and divided by the overall
365
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annual cost of the FSPV system. The benefit of evaporation reduction is estimated based on
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366 the amount of annual water saved from evaporation ( V ). The indirect annual benefit of
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367 utilizing the FSPV system is equivalent to the overall annual cost of supplying the volume of
water annually evaporated before installing the FSPV system. The same procedure is also
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368
369 applied to determine the B/C ratio of the LBPV system and other EMT projects.
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370 In order to estimate the O&M costs for the LBPV and FSPV systems, recent studies have
371 been considered. The international renewable energy agency (IREA) suggested 6.5
372 USD / kWyear as the fixed annual O&M costs in evaluating the cost-efficiency for PV
373 systems (IREA, 2012). Hammad et al. (2015) considered 12 SD / kWp / year as the annual
374 O&M costs for a 20 MWp PV power plant. Bolinger and Seel (2015) expressed that the
375 mean O&M costs of the ground PV power plants have been gradually decreased from about
376 19 USD / MWh in 2011 to about 8 USD / MWh in 2014. In 2016, according to the USA
377 energy information administration, the O&M costs for one-axis solar tracker power plant
378 related to a 20 MWp power are slightly higher compared with the O&M costs of a fixed
379 inclination and azimuth angle with the same power (USA energy information administration,
22
380 2016). Whaley (2016) investigated the annual O&M costs of large and small PV power plant
381 systems and recommended 0.5% and 1% of initial costs for the small and large systems,
382 respectively. Durkovic and Durisic (2017) recommended 10 USD / MWh as O&M costs for
383 FSPV systems, which is considerably higher than the O&M costs for large-scaled ground PV
384 power plants. In this paper, regarding the previous studies and the recommendations of the
385 Iranian consultant companies, the O&M cost is estimated almost 1% of the initial costs (total
386 investment costs). Consequently, the annual benefit and the required years for returning the
387 investment costs could be estimated (Sahel Ettehad Co., 2020). Furthermore, the sensitivity
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388 analysis process on the economic results is accomplished based on the variations of the
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389 economic parameters.
-
2.4 Environmental impact analysis
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390
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391 As the operation of the FSPV is associated with some environmental consequences,
392 besides its advantages, mitigating negative effects is one of the governing factors in building
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393 procedures (Durkovic and Durišic, 2017). Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a common tool for
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394 the evaluation of the human activities’ potential outcomes (Hou et al., 2015; Raouz, 2017).
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395 Environmental impacts of constructing FSPV include the primary energy return on
397 The total life cycle energy input of the FSPV station is calculated using Eq. 18 in
398 which i denotes the life cycle stages from manufacturing to dismantling.
(18)
E tot E i , i 1,, n
i 1
399 The energy payback time (EPBT), represents the required time to produce the same
400 amount of energy that was consumed for FSPV construction (Raouz 2017). For the
401 estimation of EPBT, 𝐸tot is the total energy input during the construction of the FSPV station
23
E tot (19)
EPBT
E yr
403 Another index for addressing environmental issues in FSPV analysis is the
404 environmental impact indicator. This indicator includes eutrophication potential and global
405 warming potential (GWP) regarding the GHG reduction. A significant advantage of FSPV is
406 related to the algae bloom containment. This problem can be alleviated by covering the basin
407 partially and reducing the light below the surface (Cazzaniga et al., 2018).
f
The impact of the FSPV system on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is
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408
409 estimated using Eq. 20. It is obtained based on the generated greenhouse gases within a
410 - pr
fossil-fuel energy system producing the same amount of electricity generation (Durkovic and
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411 Durišic, 2017)
lP
G t E s G 1 β (20)
412 where G t represents the annual reduction of GHG (tCO2/year), Es is annual energy
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413 production (MWh/year), G is a standard value of GHG emissions for the country of the
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414 study area (tCO2/MWh), and is a dimensionless parameter denoting the average loss rate
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418 the country includes six main basins equal to the total area of the country, each of which is
419 itself divided into small basins. These six main basins are 1- Khazar basin, 2- Persian Gulf
420 and Oman Sea basin, 3- Urmia Lake basin, 4- Central plateau (Markazi) basin, 5- Hamoon
422 Currently, there are 383, 365, 104, 314, 71, and 40 dams in the Khazar, Persian Gulf,
423 Urmia, Markazi, Hamoon and Sarakhs basins, respectively, under operation, implementation
24
424 and study. A total of 647 reservoirs having a volume of more than 48 BCM are in operation,
425 with the Persian Gulf catchment area accounting for the largest share in the reservoir volume.
426 Besides, 683 dams are in two stages of implementation or study. If they reach the stage of
427 operation, 75 BCM will be added to the current capacity. These capacities indicate the high
428 potential for developing FSPV systems in Iran. In this study, to evaluate a portion of this
429 capacity, the five important dams in five main basins with the largest area of the reservoir are
430 selected, namely Aras, Karkheh, Shahid Kazemi, Doroudzan, Doosti dams (Fig. 3). It should
431 be noted that while the annual evaporation volume in Hamoon basin is significant, no dam
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432 has been selected from this basin since there is not enough data for conducting the research.
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433 However, the results of this study could effectively pave the way for the application of FSPV
435
436 of the coverage percentage of dam’s lake such as 2, 10, 20, 50, and 80% are adopted.
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437 Although the implementation of the scenarios 50% and 80% is economically and
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438 administratively unjustifiable, these scenarios can better highlight the theoretical potential for
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439 harvesting the solar energy from the surface of water bodies.
440 Fig. 3 represents the location of the selected dams within the six solar radiation zones,
442 (http://www.satba.gov.ir/). The amount of solar radiation varies in different parts of the world
443 and has the highest amount in the solar belt of the earth. Iran is also located in areas with high
444 radiation and studies show that the use of solar equipment in Iran is appropriate and can
445 provide part of the country's energy needs. Having 300 sunny days in more than two-thirds of
446 the country and average radiation of 4.5~5.5 kWh/m2day, Iran has been introduced as one of
447 the countries with high potential in the field of solar energy. As can be seen in Fig. 3, Iran has
448 been divided into six areas based on the potential of solar radiation. The central and southern
25
449 regions of the country receive a higher amount of solar radiation, whereas the cities in the
450 northern part near the Caspian Sea absorb the lowest amount of radiation. Three of the
451 selected dams namely Aras, Doosti, and Shahid Kazami are located at regions with minimum
452 solar irradiation of 3.8 kWh/m2day. Karkheh and Doroudzan dams receive solar radiation at a
453 higher intensity of at least 4.5 and 5.2 kWh/m2day, respectively. The specific characteristics
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26
455
456
457
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458
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459
-
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460 .
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Min Solar Irradiation
461
462
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463
464
465
466
27
467 Fig. 3. Map of potential solar radiation in the main basins of Iran and the location of the selected dams.
468 Table 4
469 Summary of the features of the selected dams for implementing FSPV.
470
f
Shahid
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Items Unit Doosti1 Aras2 Karkheh3 Doroudzan4
Kazemi5
Longitude 61.16154 45.40222 48.12611 52.41815 46.52917
Location Deg
pr
Latitude 35.94946 39.09167 32.49139 30.20783 36.42194
Agricultural- Agricultural-
-
Agricultural- Agricultural- Electricity Electricity Agricultural-
Project target -
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Drinking Electricity generation generation- generation- Drinking
Flood control Drinking
lP
Height above foundation m 79 40 127 60 50
na
Total storage of reservoir at NWL MCM 1250 1254 5600 960 650
GW/h
Annual energy generation
ur - 86 394 45.5 -
Ha
Cultivated area 32440 69152 344615 102000 66165
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28
476 3. Results and Discussion
480 (https://pvwatts.nrel.gov/) were used to calculate the amount of I (kWh/m2day) for each
481 of the studied dams at the monthly scale. The results can be seen in Fig. 4. For
calculating I, the specifications considered in the PVWatts tool were based on the SSF-
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482
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483 P60 solar cell provided by Solar Sanat Firouzeh company (http://www.ssf-solar.com/)
484
485 separately.
- pr
)See Table 5). It should be noted that the optimal tilt angle for each dam is calculated
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486
487
kWh
488 Fig. 4. Solar radiation on selected dams ( )
m 2day
489
29
490
491
492
493 Table 5
494 System information for dams in PVWatts software.
Module Tilt
Dams Cell Material Array type Azimuth(deg)
Cover (deg)
Doosti Crystalline Silicon Glass Fixed (open rack) 180 30
Aras Crystalline Silicon Glass Fixed (open rack) 180 30
Karkheh Crystalline Silicon Glass Fixed (open rack) 180 25
Doroudzan Crystalline Silicon Glass Fixed (open rack) 180 25
Shahid Kazemi Crystalline Silicon Glass Fixed (open rack) 180 30
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495 As can be seen in Fig. 4, based on the annual average, Doroudzan dam has the
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496 highest solar radiation among the other dams, which corresponds to the position of this
497 - pr
dam in the radiant region of southern Iran (Fig. 2). Although Doosti dam located
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498 northeastern Iran has the most solar radiation among the studied dams in the spring and
summer, it is in second place based on the average annual solar radiation. Karkheh dam
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499
500 is in the third place after Doosti Dam with average annual radiation of 5.13
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501 kWh/m2day. Shahid Kazemi and Aras dams, which are located in northwestern parts of
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502 Iran, have the lowest amount of solar radiation among the selected dams.
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505 dams with different coverage percentages were calculated which can be seen in Fig. 5.
30
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506
507
508 pr
Fig. 5. Annual energy production of PV panels in different dams (10 6 kWh).
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509 As can be seen in Fig. 5, the electricity generated by the selected dams is in line
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510 with the lake area behind the dams. Accordingly, Karkheh dam has the highest amount
of electricity with an annual production of 972.4 GWh and 38900 GWh for 2% and
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511
512 80% coverages, respectively. It is noteworthy that the generated electricity resulted
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513 from 2% coverage is approximately similar to the energy that is currently generated by
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514 the hydropower plant at Karkheh dam. Shahid Kazemi dam has the lowest amount
515 among the selected dams which is 161.5 GWh and 6500 GWh for 2 and 80% coverage,
516 respectively. In order to evaluate the electricity generated by the FSPV in comparison
517 with the common ways of energy generations, the equivalent fuels required to generate
518 that amount of energy has been calculated. To generate every kWh of electricity in Iran,
519 2157 kcal of energy is burned. Accordingly, burning every cubic meter of gas in Iran's
520 thermal power plants produces 4 kWh and each barrel of crude oil produces about 680
521 kWh of electricity. As can be seen in Table 6, in Karkheh and Shahid Kazemi dams,
522 which have the highest and lowest electricity generation, only 2% coverage of the lake's
31
523 surface can generate power equivalent to burning 243 and 40 MCM Gas and 1,400,000
524 and 238,000 barrels of crude oil in Iran's thermal power plants.
525 Table 6
526 Comparison of electricity generated by the solar panel system compared to conventional fossil fuel
527 methods.
FSPV coverage percentages
Type of energy Dam
2% 10% 20% 50% 80%
Doosti 235.71 591.47 972.41 282.79 161.49
Aras 1178.53 2959.22 4862.03 1413.94 807.44
Energy generated
Karkheh
f
(106 kWh) 2357.06 5918.43 9724.07 2827.89 1614.88
oo
Doroudzan 5892.64 14796.08 24310.17 7069.71 4037.20
Kazemi 9428.23 23673.73 38896.27 11311.54 6459.51
Doosti 5.08E+11 2.54E+12 5.08E+12 1.27E+13 2.03E+13
(Gas) (MCM)
Doroudzan 70.70 353.49 706.97 1767.43 2827.89
Kazemi 40.37 201.86 403.72 1009.30 1614.88
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531 reducing water evaporation. Furthermore, by changing the heat balance due to the
532 reflection of the part of the solar energy from the PV panels, the evaporation rate will
533 be reduced from the entire reservoir’s surface )Durkovic´ and Đurišic´, 2017( . For the
534 five selected dams, the monthly evaporation is calculated using the simplified
535 Penman’s model and shown in Fig. 6. As can be seen, the maximum evaporation occurs
32
536 in July for Doosti and Karkheh Dams. In July, the water level in Doosti and Karkheh
537 dams decreases more than 400 mm which is an average of 14 mm/day. For all dams,
538 the monthly evaporation in November, December, January, and February is less than
539 100 mm with December having the smallest rate. The maximum and minimum total
540 water evaporation in the selected year are 2742 mm and 1686 mm related to the
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542 Fig. 7 shows the yearly increase in the available volume of water behind the
543 selected dams after building FSPV under five coverage scenarios. Due to some energy
544 - pr
reflection from the platform, k in Eq. (12) is assumed to be 0.6. As expected, building
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545 FSPV on the Karkheh reservoir can provide a vast amount of water annually by
lP
546 preventing evaporation. However, to make the results more meaningful, the evaporation
547 reduction is divided by the adjustable volume of water (AVW) for each dam. AVW
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548 refers to the capacity of the dam to fulfill the downstream demands. As can be seen,
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549 Aras and Doosti dams have the highest ratio for all coverage scenarios which indicates
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551 covering 80% of Aras Dam with FSPV could potentially satisfy 18.9% of the
33
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553
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554 Fig. 6. Monthly evaporation of the selected dams.
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34
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ER
(MCM)
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EA
(%)
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555
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556 Fig. 7. The annual increase in the available volume of water in the selected reservoirs
557 after building FPVP (left axis) and the ratio of evaporation volume of each dam to the
558 corresponding adjustable water volume (EAR) (right axis)
562 and based on Eq. (14), Table 7 shows the results of the four components of the
563 investment costs of the FSPV system (the invertor, the panel, the floating structure, and
564 the installation costs), the annual benefit, and the required years for returning costs.
565
35
566 Table 7
567 The components of investment costs (USD Million), the annual benefit and the required
568 years for returning costs when implementing FSPV systems.
FSPV Years
Case coverage Floating Installation Annual required for
Invertor cost Panel cost
study percentage structure cost cost benefit returning
scenario investment
Sc.1:2% 6.19 25.38 14.57 6.92 9.38 6
Sc.2:10% 30.93 126.90 72.87 34.61 46.92 6
Doosti
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Sc.5:80% 247.45 1015.22 582.99 276.85 375.36 6
Sc.1:2% 6.33 25.95 14.90 7.08 11.26 5
pr
Doroudzan
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569 As can be inferred from Table 7, for all scenarios, among the four items of the
570 investment costs of the FSPV system, the highest cost is related to the panels and then
571 the floating structure. The lowest cost is obtained for the invertor. Furthermore, the
36
572 required time for returning the investments is estimated to be between 5~6 years
573 depending on the annual benefit and the amount of the investments. It is expected that
574 the costs of items in the investment part will increase by increasing the area covered by
576 The total investment costs of the FSPV system ( ICtot,FSPV ) are calculated using
577 Eq. (14) and the results are illustrated in Fig. 8. Moreover, the corresponding O&M
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578 costs ( OMCFSPV ) are represented in Fig. 9.
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579
37
580 Fig. 8. The total investment costs ($ Million) for the FSPV scenarios of the case
581 studies.
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582
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583 Fig. 9. The O&M costs ($ Million) for the FSP scenarios of the case studies
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584 As can be expected from Figs. 8 and 9, the total investment and O&M costs are
585 increased by the rise of the area covered by the FSPV systems. The highest investment
586 and O&M costs are related to Karkheh water infrastructure as it has the largest
587 reservoir area among the case studies in the NWL and thus needs more material for
588 FSPV coverage including the panel, the floating structure and installation items.
589 Furthermore, because of the higher energy produced in this dam, the higher invertor
38
592 Regarding the steps 3 and 4 of the economic analysis process (Fig. 3), the
593 overall energy production cost for each FSPV scenario of the water infrastructures is
594 calculated based on Eq. (13). The results are analyzed concerning the variations of the
595 effective economic parameters such as the interest rate, the availability factor, and the
596 exploitation period for the FSPV scenarios. Fig. 10 shows the overall energy production
597 costs of the FSPV system ( EPC FSPV ) for the 20% coverage percentage in the
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598
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599
600 Fig. 10. The variations of energy production costs based on the interest rate values
39
601 It is revealed that the increase in the interest rates caused a significant rise in the
602 energy production cost for the FSPV system. Indeed, if the higher internal rate of return
603 is requested, the higher cost is required for producing electrical energy by the FSPV
604 system. According to the results, the private or public investor could investigate the
605 economic justification for such an investment. As can be seen, among the studied water
606 infrastructures, the case study of Aras with considerable reservoir area and the least
607 annual sunny days has the highest energy production cost.
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608 In Fig. 11, the overall energy production costs of the FSPV system ( EPC FSPV )
609
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for the 20% coverage percentage in the conditions of t 25 and IR 0.16 are
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610 presented based on variations of the availability factor ( A F ). As can be seen, the
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611 availability of the grid and the existence of desirable conditions for the FSPV panel
612 during the exploitation period lead to a lower price for producing electrical energy.
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40
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613
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614 Fig. 11. The variations of energy production costs based on the availability factor
615 values.
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616 The overall energy production costs of the FSPV system ( EPC FSPV ) for the
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617 20% coverage percentage in the conditions of AF 0.95 and IR 0.16 are
618 represented in Fig. 12 based on the variations of the exploitation period ( t ). It can be
619 seen that the increase in the exploitation period caused a negligible decrease in the
620 energy production cost. In the case study of Kazemi dam, increasing the exploitation
41
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622
623 Fig. 12. The energy production costs based on the variation of the exploitation period.
624
626 To justify the use of the FSPV system with the other methodologies from two
42
629 From the perspective of energy generation, the FSPV system was compared
630 with the LBPV system. First, by using Eq. (16), the four components of the investment
631 costs of the LBPV system were determined for the 20% coverage percentage as the
633 Then, based on Eq. (15), the overall energy production cost ( EPC LBPV ) for the
634 corresponding scenario of the case studies in the same conditions was obtained. Finally,
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635 the B / C ratio was calculated for the LBPV. The results are shown in Table 8 for all
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636 case studies.
637
638
Table 8
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The comparative economic results of the FSPV and LBPV systems for the case studies
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639 under 20% coverage.
640
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641 As can be seen, the total annual investment and O&M costs of the FSPV
642 system, depending on the region, have been obtained just between 2% and 4% higher
643 than the corresponding costs of the LBPV system. It is due to the fact that the floating
644 structure cost and the installation cost for the FSPV system are considerably higher than
645 the mounting structure costs in the LBPV system. It should be noted that the inverter
43
646 and panel costs of the LBPV system are slightly more than the corresponding costs of
647 the FSPV system. Land acquisition is an additional component that becomes important
648 when establishing the LBPV system. This component imposes a significant cost on the
649 overall cost of the system. The highest difference between the total costs of the FSPV
650 and the LBPV systems belongs to the Doosti and Karkheh dams and the lowest
651 difference is related to the Kazemi dam. Furthermore, it is found that the annual benefit
652 for the FSPV system is greater than the LBPV system, because the FSPV system
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653 benefits from both the electricity sales and annual evaporation reduction. Results
654
655
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showed that the Karkheh dam has the highest difference between the annual benefit of
the FSPV and the LBPV systems. The lowest difference is related to the Kazemi dam.
re
656 Besides, the energy production cost for the FSPV system is a little higher than the
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657 corresponding cost for the LBPV system. The difference is about 2~4%. The highest
na
658 difference between the energy production cost of the FSPV and the LBPV systems is
ur
659 related to the Doosti and Karkheh dams and the lowest difference is related to the
662 the FSPV and LBPV system. The maximum difference of B/C ratio is associated with
663 the Doosti dam (0.035), while the minimum difference is related to the Karkheh dam
664 (0.0009) that is so negligible. However, from the perspective of energy generation and
665 the importance of the evaporation reduction, and the desirable environmental impacts
666 of the FSPV system in comparison with the LBPV system, it is recommended to
667 develop the use of FSPV system for water infrastructures, especially in the arid and
44
669 From the perspective of water-saving, the FSPV system was compared with the
670 four EMT projects. Based on the economic properties shown in Table 4, the total
671 capital costs ( CC EMT ) and the O&M costs ( OMCEMT ) of the EMT projects were
672 estimated for the 20% coverage scenario of the case studies under the conditions of
673 t 25 and IR 0.16 . Then, based on Eq. (17), the overall evaporation mitigation cost
674 ( EMC ) for the corresponding scenarios in the same conditions was calculated. Finally,
f
675 the B / C ratio was determined for the EMT projects as shown in Table 9.
oo
676
677
- pr
re
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678
na
679
ur
680
Jo
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
45
688 Table 9
689 The comparative economic results of the FSPV system and EMT project for the case
690 studies under 20% coverage.
Total annual investment and O&M Total annual direct and indirect
EMT costs benefits
Case study B/C
type
(Million $) (Million $)
f
Kazemi 66.24 64.37 0.972
oo
Doosti 22.98 0.66 0.029
Physical EMT
(E-VapCap)
692 With respect to the economic comparison results between the FSPV system and the
693 four EMT projects in Table 9, it can be seen that the sum of the capital and annual
694 O&M costs of the FSPV system is considerably higher than the corresponding costs of
695 the physical EMT projects (E-VapCap, NetPro, and Raftex). Contrary to the physical
46
696 EMT projects, the chemical approach (Water$avr) has the higher capital and annual
697 O&M costs than the FSPV system does. The chemical approach has a completely short-
698 time expected life (2~3 days) and needs to be refurbished every three days which
699 imposes extremely higher capital and O&M costs than the FSPV system. As expected,
700 since the FSPV system has both direct (electricity supply/sales) and indirect
701 (evaporation reduction) benefits, its annual benefit is greater than all types of the
702 aforementioned EMTs. Therefore, when it comes to the investigation of B/C ratio, there
f
oo
703 is a significant difference between the FSPV system and the EMTs for all case studies
704
705
- pr
which highly justifies the use of the FSPV system. Among the case studies, two
reservoirs of Doroudzan dam (1.194) and Karkheh (1.055) have the highest economic
re
706 efficiency, while the Aras dam has the least economic value (0.900). Furthermore, for
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707 the NetPro physical EMT project, the Karkheh water infrastructure has the most
na
708 economic justifiability (0.206) due to its considerable indirect annual benefit related to
ur
710
711 Since there is no FSPV power plant built on the studied dams yet, the average
712 total life cycle energy input is considered as 183 106 MJ in the context of the cradle to
713 grave procedure based on the previous studies in the Asia (Fu et al. 2015; Palanov
714 2014). Table 10 shows the energy payback time for each dam under different coverage
715 scenarios.
716
717
718
47
719 Table 10
720 The energy payback time for different FSPV coverage scenarios on studied dams.
EPBT (Year)
Coverage
% Doosti Aras Karkheh Doroudzan Kazemi
2% 0.776 0.309 0.188 0.647 1.133
10% 0.155 0.062 0.038 0.129 0.227
20% 0.078 0.031 0.019 0.065 0.113
50% 0.031 0.012 0.008 0.026 0.045
80% 0.019 0.008 0.005 0.016 0.028
721
f
oo
722 According to Table 10, the EPBT range of variation for Kazemi dam is 1 year
723 (about 0.03~1.13) which is the widest range among the case studies. The highest EPBT
724
- pr
corresponds to Kezemi dam, and it is followed by the Doosti, Doroudzan and Aras
re
725 dams, respectively. Installing FSP systems on the lake of Karkheh dam is highly
lP
726 recommended, where it takes less than 0.2 years to pay back the energy consumed
during its lifecycle stages. According to the results, wherever in Iran the FSPV
na
727
728 system is installed, the EPBT would be less than its lifespan (here, less than 1.5
ur
729 years). Thus, regarding the energy payback point of view, the development of these
Jo
732 environmental issue. In this context, values for G (tCO2/MWh) and (dimensionless)
733 were estimated as 0.65 and 0.13, respectively (World Bank, 2020). The annual
734 reduction of CO2 emissions is shown in Table 11. According to the results, the
736 greenhouse gas emissions at least 118 ktCO2 annually at 2% reservoir surface coverage.
737
48
738 Table 11
739 The reduction of CO2 emissions on selected dams.
Gt (ktCO2)
Coverage % Doosti Aras Karkheh Doroudzan Kazemi
2% 173.126 434.437 714.233 207.708 118.613
10% 865.629 2173.545 3571.164 1038.541 593.064
20% 1731.258 4347.089 7142.328 2077.082 1186.128
50% 4328.146 10867.723 17855.821 5192.705 2965.320
80% 6925.033 17388.356 28569.313 8308.328 4744.512
740 In the context of eutrophication, the Doroudzan dam has the highest potential
f
oo
741 because of having the highest solar radiation and this is followed by Doosti and
742
743
- pr
Karkheh dams which are threatened by algal blooms. The Aras and Kazemi dams have
the least value for eutrophication potential. Therefore, installing PV systems can highly
re
744 affect the eutrophication status and protect water quality from excessive algae growth
lP
746 Although the estimation of the environmental cost is not considered in this
ur
747 paper, the benefit of CO2 reduction is calculated. Based on the previous studies, the
Jo
748 benefit of GHG Emission Mitigation is about $2 (Wang et al., 2013), $6 (Zeinalzadeh
749 et al 2013) and $7.3 (Alphabeta, 2018) per ton of GHG for China, Iran, and Singapore,
750 respectively. Considering on average the 4.78 $/ton for CO2 reduction in the study area,
751 the benefits of using FSPV systems under different scenarios are presented in Table 12.
752
753
754
755
49
756 Table 12
757 The benefit of reduction of CO2 emissions ($ Million) on selected dams.
758
f
oo
760 As FSPV systems significantly reduce the CO2 emission where coverage
761 - pr
percentage is high, the benefit of this reduction is remarkable. Theoretically speaking,
re
762 the highest benefit of $136.6 Million is obtained when covering 80% of Karkheh
lP
763 reservoir by the FSPV system. It can be proved that if the benefits resulted from the
764 reduction of GHG are added to the cost-benefit analysis, implementation of the FSPV
na
765 system would highly be justified. However, Sustainable development would eventually
ur
768 infrastructure in the context of renewable energy is essential, especially in arid and
771 Floating PV systems have a certain environmental impact (see Table 1); the
772 environmental damage of these systems has not been studied much. Using FSPV may
773 cause adverse impacts on the biodiversity of water ecosystems (Sudhakar, 2019).
774 Although FSPV systems could successfully help reduce evaporation, preventing direct
775 sunlight reaching the aquatic species may change the ecological cycle (Song, 2018). To
50
776 ensure the safety of the electricity grid, the transformer station is equipped with a
777 lightning protection system. Therefore, it is necessary to have regular inspections right
778 after floods or heavy rain; otherwise, electricity equipment may be damaged under
780 On the other hand, one of the major concerns in the solar energy industry is the
781 shorter outdoor lifetime of the plastic components in the photovoltaic (PV) modules
f
oo
782 (Andrady et al., 2019). Based on the UV radiation, water quality could be significantly
783 deteriorated by the Silicone modules and thermoplastic floats. Then, over extended
784 - pr
periods, water ecosystems undergo a risk caused by these fragmented wastes in micro
re
785 and nano-scale size (Andrady et al., 2019). To mitigate this biodiversity threat, an
lP
787 The operating life of the PV panels is about 20 years and in operation phase,
788 does not cause pollution (ERM, 2018), but the warranty for the material is usually
ur
789 limited to 5 years due to damages from improper installation or maintenance, snow, and
Jo
790 storm, corrosion and degradation risks, etc. (Sampaio and González, 2017). When
791 damage occurs, as all junctions of the structure are connected using bolts, they can be
792 replaced in case of local damage in the structure and floating object (Choi and Lee,
793 2014). Damaged and replaced floats are collected and stored in the non-hazardous
794 waste storage area and regularly transferred to the competent waste recycling contractor
795 (ERM, 2018). However, modules that have failed during transportation, installation, or
796 operation are collected and treated as hazardous solid waste (ERM, 2018). During the
51
798 due to toxic materials contained within the cell, including cadmium, arsenic, and silica
800 As the efficiency is the main issue of FSPV, these systems are endangered by
802 dusting and shading (George & Patel, 2019; Setiawan et al., 2019). The high-salt
803 environment can cause damage due to partial shading and dusting on the PV module,
f
oo
804 and damage the wiring and the balance of system (BOS) of the PV power plant by the
805 corrosion. However, the salt contamination of the air causes corrosion as long as there
806 - pr
is no crack in the sealing of the metal part of BOS (Setiawan et al., 2019). Saltwater
re
807 corrosion is not normally a problem since most floating PV is sited on freshwater
lP
808 bodies such as lakes and reservoirs (Sahu et al. 2016). It is the salty atmosphere that
809 significantly affects the efficiency resulting in the partial shading from salt crystal
na
811 In the context of recycling and disposal of the FSPV system, managing
Jo
813 challenge. These chemicals may or may not be disposed properly based on the waste
814 management principles in the origin. Under normal operating conditions these materials
815 will not be released. In countries having a robust disposal system, encapsulation with
816 ethyly vinyl acetate (EVA) is usually utilized to reduce leaching. Chemical spills from
817 the floating facilities may contaminate the groundwater or the ground surface and deep-
818 water reservoirs which will affect the living activities of flora and fauna and are a major
819 concern (Hernandez et al 2014; Song, 2018). The salt-water might also cause
820 degradation challenges in relation to corrosion (Suzuki et al., 2015). Salt shading may
52
821 decrease the average output power up to 1.38 Watt in three days period compared to the
822 normal condition. This value can be higher based on the degree of exposer to salt-
824 O&M activities will need to be carried out more frequently, in order to keep power
825 production unaffected, while ensuring that water quality is not affected (Oliviera,
826 2020). Moreover, having good O&M practices is a key factor in survivability and pre-
f
oo
827 and post-storm measures can be applied to minimize damage and recovery time
829 4. Conclusions - pr
re
830 Over the past 10 years, a new technology called floating PV has attracted much
lP
832 large-scale installing on dams’ lakes and reservoirs. This study first provides a
na
833 comprehensive literature review on the application of FSPV and then evaluates the
ur
834 technical, economic, and environmental potential of installing FSPV plants on five
Jo
835 important water infrastructures in Iran, namely Aras, Karkheh, Doosti, Doroudzan, and
837 According to the present study, installing an FSPV plant over one square
838 kilometer of the lake’s surfaces of the selected dams could annually generate 194~257
839 GWh of electrical energy. Given the fact that the per capita annual electricity
840 consumption in Iran is 2727 kWh, the results show that covering only one square
841 kilometer of each dam with floating solar panels could meet the electricity needs of, on
842 average, about 90,000 people. One of the most beneficial ecological consequences of
843 the development of FSPV is the reduction in water evaporation. This system, if
53
844 implemented on the selected dams covering for instance 10% of each lake, would save
845 up to collectively 70.7 MCM water per year which meets the annual domestic water
846 demands of a city with one million residents. Moreover, regarding with the economic
847 evaluation results, the energy production cost is calculated based on the four items of
848 invertor, panel, structure and installation costs at 10~94 ($/MWh) depending on the
849 coverage percentage of the reservoirs’ area, interest rate, availability factor, and
850 exploitation period. Furthermore, the economic outcomes indicate that the investment
f
oo
851 costs for energy production return in 5 to 6 years. In terms of environmental
852
853
- pr
advantages, results indicated that the least EPBT value is for Karkheh dam as the most
desirable case, where it takes less than 0.2 years to pay back the energy consumed
re
854 during its lifecycle stages. The proposed FSPV would contribute to a reduction of CO2
lP
856 The study conducted here is a preliminary effort to highlight the significance of
ur
857 installing FSPV on Iran’s reservoir surfaces based on the most important governing
Jo
858 factors. Other aspects need to be thoroughly explored in future works. In addition, a
859 detailed investigation should be undertaken into all possible electrical links, including
860 the possibility of integrating FSPV with hydroelectric power plants. In conclusion,
861 FSPV is opening up a new investment path, where many factors lead to the reduction of
863 Acknowledgment:
864 The authors would like to thank Dr. Vladan Durkovíc for his valuable help at the early stages of
865 developing the methodology. They are also grateful for the comments and supports provided by Mr.
866 Vahid Fatouraee, the head manager of Sahel Ettehad Manufacturing Co., and Mr. Sadjad Rezaee, the
54
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CRediT author statement
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Evaluation of Factors Governing the Use of
Floating Solar System: A Study on Iran's
Important Water Infrastructures
a b c
Mohammad Fereshtehpour ,*, Reza Javidi Sabbaghian , Ali Farrokhi , Ehsan
d e
Bahrami Jovein , Elham Ebrahimi Sarindizaj
a,
* Postdoctoral researcher, Department of Water Science and Engineering, Ferdowsi University of
Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran, [email protected]
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Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran.
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c
Research Assistant, Department of Civil Engineering, Islamic Azad University of Mashhad,
Mashhad, Iran.
d -p
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, University of Torbat Heydarieh, Torbat
Heydarieh, Iran.
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e
Ph.D. candidate, School of Civil Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
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Evaluation of Factors Governing the Use of
Floating Solar System: A Study on Iran's
Important Water Infrastructures
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Highlights:
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A comprehensive literature review of the floating solar photovoltaic system (FSPV)
A practical framework to evaluate the governing factors that justify using FSPV
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☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:
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