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The endocrine system
The endocrine system is a network of organs and glands. It uses hormones to

control your metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth and development, and
response to injury, stress, and mood.
The skeletal system
The skeletal is the body’s central foundation and framework. It consists of bones
and connective tissue, which includes cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. The skeletal
system has many functions, one of its primary functions is to store minerals. Bones are
the main storage of calcium. Calcium ions are needed not only for bone mineralization
but for tooth health, regulation of the heart rate and strength of contraction, blood
coagulation, contraction of smooth and skeletal muscle cells.
How they are connected
The endocrine system controls the release of parathyroid hormones that triggers
osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium into the blood to maintain
homeostasis. The parathyroid gland of the endocrine system is the main receptor and
control center for blood calcium levels. The endocrine system also contains the pituitary
gland, which secretes growth hormones which control bone growth. It triggers
chondrocyte proliferation in epiphyseal plates, resulting in the increasing length of long
bones. GH also increases calcium retention, which enhances mineralization, and
stimulates osteoblastic activity, which improves bone density.
What is osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis (OP) is a health condition that weakens bones, making them
fragile and more likely to break. It develops slowly over several years and is often only
diagnosed when a fall or sudden impact causes a bone to break. It occurs most frequently in the
hip, wrist, and spine or vertebrae. Bone is living tissue that is constantly being broken down
and replaced. Osteoporosis occurs With OP the creation of new bone doesn't keep up with the
loss of old bone. Bones began to become weak and brittle, so brittle that a fall or even mild
stresses such as bending over or coughing can cause a fracture. Osteoporosis is sexually
dimorphic meaning women have a higher rate of having it than men most commonly after
menopause or the age of 50 years old. white and Asian women, are at highest risk.
What causes osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by a decrease in bone mass that occurs when the
rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of bone formation, a common occurrence as the body
ages. Bone is a living tissue that is constantly breaking down and rebuilding its structure
through a lifelong process known as remodeling. Some cells in the bone called osteoclasts
break down old, damaged bone to make way for new, healthy bone that is laid down by
another type of cells called osteoblasts. With older age, and after the menopause in women, the
remodelling process goes too quickly, and becomes unbalanced so that more bone is broken
down than can be replaced. The majority of postmenopausal women with osteoporosis have
bone loss related to estrogen de ciency. The rapid bone loss results from an increase in bone
turnover with an imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation.
Symptoms and other important information
One common thing that can be seen as a symptom for osteoporosis is the characteristic
stooped (bent forward) posture. It happens when the bones in the spine have broken, making
it di cult to support the weight of the body. Generally though osteoporosis isn’t usually
diagnosed or seen until a bone is broken. About half of women and one in ve men over the
age of 50 will have a fracture from osteoporosis at some point in their lifetime. Vertebral and
hip fractures are the most commonly encountered.
How is it treated?
The major class of drugs used to treat osteoporosis is called bisphosphonates. These
drugs stick to the surface of bones, where they can enter bone cells and prevent the osteoclasts
from breaking bone down, hence preventing bone loss and keeping the remodelling process in
balance. They have been shown to reduce the risk of hip and vertebral fractures.
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK45504/#:~:text=The%20growth%20hormone%2FIGF
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Growth hormone from the pituitary gland is also an important regulator of skeletal growth. It acts
by stimulating the production of another hormone called insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1),
which is produced in large amounts in the liver and released into circulation. IGF-1 is also
produced locally in other tissues, particularly in bone, also under the control of growth hormone.
The growth hormone may also directly affect the bone—that is, not through IGF-1 (Wang et al.
2004). Growth hormone is essential for growth and it accelerates skeletal growth at puberty.
Decreased production of growth hormone and IGF-1 with age may be responsible for the
inability of older individuals to form bone rapidly or to replace bone lost by resorption (Yakar
and Rosen 2003). The growth hormone/IGF-1 system stimulates both the bone-resorbing and
bone-forming cells, but the dominant effect is on bone formation, thus resulting in an increase in
bone mass.
Thyroid hormones increase the energy production of all body cells, including bone cells. They
increase the rates of both bone formation and resorption. Deficiency of thyroid hormone can
impair growth in children, while excessive amounts of thyroid hormone can cause too much
bone breakdown and weaken the skeleton (Vestergaard and Mosekilde 2002). The pituitary
hormone that controls the thyroid gland, thyrotropin or TSH, may also have direct effects on
bone (Abe et al. 2003).
Cortisol, the major hormone of the adrenal gland, is a critical regulator of metabolism and is
important to the body’s ability to respond to stress and injury. It has complex effects on the
skeleton (Canalis and Delany 2002). Small amounts are necessary for normal bone development,
but large amounts block bone growth. Synthetic forms of cortisol, called glucocorticoids, are
used to treat many diseases such as asthma and arthritis. They can cause bone loss due both to
decreased bone formation and to increased bone breakdown, both of which lead to a high risk of
fracture (Kanis et al. 2004).
There are other circulating hormones that affect the skeleton as well. Insulin is important for
bone growth, and the response to other factors that stimulate bone growth is impaired in
individuals with insulin deficiency (Lu et al. 2003, Suzuki et al. 2003). A recently discovered
hormone from fat cells, leptin, has also been shown to have effects on bone (Elefteriou et al.
2004, Cornish et al. 2002).
Found information
Estradiol is a known protective factor against osteoarthritis.

The use of oral estrogen was found to be associated with a decreased incidence of
radiographic hip osteoarthritis in elderly Caucasian women.
Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common form of arthritis. Some people call it
degenerative joint disease or “wear and tear” arthritis. It occurs most frequently in the
hands, hips, and knees.
With OA, the cartilage within a joint begins to break down and the underlying bone
begins to change.
Osteoarthritis is a leading cause of disability with no cure. The incidence of

osteoarthritis is sexually dimorphic: women have a higher rate of osteoarthritis than men
after the age of 50. Research has investigated the contribution of sex hormones,
reproductive factors and hormone supplementation to osteoarthritis. It has been
recognized that different joints are susceptible to different risk factors for osteoarthritis.
We reviewed the evidence for the effect of endogenous sex hormones, reproductive
factors and hormone supplementation on joint-specific osteoarthritis of the knee, hip
and hand. Although the role of these hormonal factors in the pathogenesis of
osteoarthritis is complex, data suggest that endogenous hormones and reproductive
factors have a role in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis, especially knee osteoarthritis,
with uncertainty for the effect of exogenous hormones.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2787275/

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The endocrine system

The endocrine system is a network of organs and glands. It uses hormones to

Estradiol is a known protective factor against osteoarthritis.

Osteoarthritis is a leading cause of disability with no cure. The incidence of

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