I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3

Unit 3
Transistor biasing and Stabilization circuits
Types of biasing: -
The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are
 Base Resistor method
 Collector to Base bias
 Biasing with Collector feedback resistor
 Voltage-divider bias

Factors affecting biasing techniques: -

 Temperature- Change of temp causes change in collector current (IC).
 value of beta (β)- Change in β value changes the biasing stability (Q-point).
 voltage across base and emitter terminal (VBE).
Note:
 Stability: The process of making the operating point (Q-point) independent of temperature changes or
variations in transistor parameters is known as stability.
 Thermal runaway: Thermal runaway is a self-reinforcing cycle in a transistor that occurs when an increase
in temperature leads to more current flow (IC), which in turn increases the temperature even more. This can
eventually destroy the transistor.
 The Stability Factor (S): the stability factor of a transistor circuit is a measure of its ability to maintain
the biasing conditions despite variations in temperature, transistor parameters, and other factors. A higher
Stability Factor indicates better stability.

Voltage Divider Bias:-

Among all the methods of transistor biasing, the voltage divider bias method is the most
commonly used. Here, two resistors R1 and R2 are employed, which are connected to
VCC and provide biasing. The resistor RE employed in the emitter provides stabilization.
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider formed by R1 and R2. The voltage
drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter junction. This causes the base current and
hence collector current flow in the zero signal conditions. The figure below shows the
circuit of voltage divider bias method.

Derivation for VCE & IC: -

From the circuit, it is evident that,
The voltage across resistance R2 is

𝑉 𝑅2
Vb=(𝑅 𝐶𝐶 -----------(1)
1 +𝑅2 )
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the base circuit,
Vb=VBE+VE
Vb=VBE+IERE
IERE =Vb-VBE
Vb−VBE
IE= ( )-------------------(2)
RE
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I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3
Using (1) in (2)
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑅2
(𝑅1 +𝑅2 )
− VBE
IE = ( )
RE

Since IE ≈ IC,
𝑽𝑪𝑪 𝑹𝟐
− 𝐕𝐁𝐄
(𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 )
IC= ( )
𝐑𝐄

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector side

VCC=ICRC+VCE+IERE
Since IE ≈ IC, VCC=ICRC+VCE+ICRE
VCC=ICRC+ ICRE +VCE
VCC=IC(RC+ RE) +VCE
VCE = VCC -IC(RC+ RE)

Transistor as a two-port network

h-parameter equivalent circuit:-

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I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3

Small signal CE amplifier: -

The process of increasing the signal strength is called as Amplification. When only one transistor with associated
circuitry is used for amplifying a weak signal, the circuit is known as single-stage amplifier. Since the input signal
is small in magnitude hence this type of amplifier is known as small signal amplifier.

The various circuit elements of CE amplifier and their functions are as described below.
Biasing Circuit: The resistors R1, R2 and RE form the
biasing and stabilization circuit, which helps in
establishing a proper operating point.
Input Capacitor Cin: This capacitor couples the input
signal to the base of the transistor.
Coupling Capacitor CC: This capacitor is present at the
end of one stage and connects it to the other stage. As it
couples two stages it is called as coupling capacitor.
This capacitor blocks DC of one stage to enter the other
but allows AC to pass.
Emitter by-pass capacitor CE: This capacitor is
employed in parallel to the emitter resistor RE. The
amplified AC signal is by passed through this. If this is
not present, that signal will pass through RE which
reduces the output voltage.
The Load resistor RL: The resistance RL connected at the
output is known as Load resistor

Working: When a weak input signal is given to the base of the transistor as shown in the figure, a small amount of
base current flows. Due to the transistor action, a larger current flow in the collector of the transistor. (IC = βIB).
Now, as the collector current increases, the voltage drop across the resistor RC also increases, which is collected as
the output. Hence a small input at the base gets amplified as the signal of larger magnitude and strength at the
collector output. Hence this transistor acts as an amplifier.

Frequency Response: The curve drawn between voltage gain and the signal frequency of an amplifier is known as
frequency response.
From the above graph, we observe that the
voltage gain drops off at low (< fL) and high
(> fH) frequencies, whereas it is constant over
the mid-frequency range (fL to fH).
Frequency points like ƒL & ƒH are known as
lower cutoff frequency and higher cutoff
frequency. These frequency points are also
known as decibel points. So the BW can be
defined as

BW = fH – fL

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I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3
Characteristics and uses of CE amplifier:
A CE amplifier has the following important characteristics:
 It has low input resistance (Zin) in the range of 1KΩ to 2KΩ
 It has large output resistance (Zo) of about 50 KΩ
 Its current gain (Ai or β) is very high in the range of 50 to 300
 Its voltage gain (Av) is very high of the order of 1500
 It produces very large power gain (Ap) of the order of 10000
 It produces a phase shift of 1800 between input and output. i.e. output is out of phase by 1800

Small signal CE amplifier- DC equivalent: -

The DC equivalent circuit of a common emitter (CE) amplifier is created by:
 Opening all capacitors
 Shorting all AC input sources

Small signal CE amplifier- AC equivalent:

The AC equivalent circuit of a common emitter (CE) amplifier is created by:
 shorting all capacitors
 Shorting all DC sources

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I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3
In order to analyze the AC equivalent of CE amplifier, we need to replace the transistor by re model

Derivation for Voltage gain, Current gain, input impedance, output impedance:
Voltage gain: It is defined as the ratio of output voltage (Vo) to input voltage (Vin). It is denoted by Av
𝑉
Av = 𝑉 𝑜
𝑖𝑛

But Vo = ic (𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 ), Vin = ie x re

𝑉𝑜 ic (𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 )
Av = = but ic ≈ ie
𝑉𝑖𝑛 ie x re

𝑉𝑜 ic (𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 )
Av = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 ic x re

(𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿 ) where re = 𝑟𝑒′ = AC emitter resistance

Av =
re

Current gain: It is defined as the ratio of output current (io) to input current (iin). It is denoted by Ai
𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑐
Ai = = =β
𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑏

𝑖𝑐
Ai = =β
𝑖𝑏

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I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3
Input impedance (Zin): It is defined as the ratio of input voltage (Vin) to input current (iin)
𝑣𝑖𝑛
Zin =
𝑖𝑖𝑛

𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒 𝛽𝑖𝑏 𝑟𝑒

Zin(base) = = = = = = βib
𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑏

Zin = 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝑍𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)

Zin = 𝑅1 ||𝑅2 ||𝛽𝑖𝑏

Output impedance (Zo): It is defined as the ratio of output voltage (Vo) to output current (io)

Zo = 𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿

Zo = 𝑅𝑐 ||𝑅𝐿
CC amplifier: -The Common Collector Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) configuration
where the input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output signal taken from the emitter terminal. Thus the
collector terminal is common to both the input and output circuits. This type of configuration is called Common
Collector, (CC) because the collector terminal is effectively “grounded” or “earthed” through the power supply.
The various circuit elements of CE amplifier and their functions are as
described below.
Biasing Circuit: The resistors R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and
stabilization circuit, which helps in establishing a proper operating point.
Input Capacitor C1: This capacitor couples the input signal to the base of
the transistor.
voltage.

Working: the input signal is applied to the transistor’s base terminal, and the amplified output signal is taken from
the emitter terminal. Therefore, the output signal present at the emitter is in-phase with the applied input signal at
the base. The voltage gain of CC amplifier is 1.
Advantages of CC amplifier: -
 High current gain: The CC amplifier has high current gain.
 Low output impedance: The CC amplifier has low output impedance.
 High input impedance: The CC amplifier has high input impedance.
 Output voltage nearly equal to input voltage: The output voltage of a CC amplifier is nearly identical to the
input voltage.
 Voltage gain of almost unity: The CC amplifier has a voltage gain of almost unity (1), or 0 dB.
 Impedance matching: The CC amplifier is commonly used for impedance buffering and voltage
amplification.
 Prevents overloading: When placed between two stages, the CC amplifier prevents the stage with the low
input resistance from overloading the stage with the high output resistance

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I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3

Applications of CC amplifier: -
 This amplifier is used as an impedance matching circuit.
 It is used as a switching circuit.
 The high current gain combined with near-unity voltage gain makes this circuit a great voltage buffer
 It is also used for circuit isolation.

Multistage amplifier: - In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier is usually insufficient, though
it is a voltage or power amplifier. Hence, they are replaced by multi-stage transistor amplifiers. In Multi-stage
amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage using a coupling device. These coupling
devices can usually be a capacitor or a transformer. This process of joining two amplifier stages using a coupling
device can be called as Cascading.
The following figure shows a two-stage amplifier connected in cascade.

Joining one amplifier stage with the other in cascade, using coupling devices form a Multi-stage amplifier circuit.
There are four basic methods of coupling, using these coupling devices such as resistors, capacitors, transformer

Types of Coupling:
 Resistance-Capacitance Coupling-(RC)
 Impedance Coupling-(LC)
 Transformer Coupling
 Direct Coupling

Two stage RC Coupled Amplifier: -

The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This is the mostly used coupling technique
in amplifiers.

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I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3
The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit are as follows. The two stage
amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE configuration and a common power supply V CC is used. The
potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re form the biasing and stabilization network. The emitter by-
pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the signal.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the amplifier
couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages
and prevents DC interference between the stages and controls the shift of operating point. The figure below shows
the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.
Working: When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and appears at the
collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the next stage. This becomes the input
of the next stage, whose amplified output again appears across its collector load. Thus the signal is amplified in stage
by stage action.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

From the above graph, it is understood that the

voltage gain decreases for the frequencies below
50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz.
whereas the voltage gain for the range of
frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.

Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide frequency range, hence most
suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.
Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.

Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.
 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.

Loading effect: - The important point that has to be noted in multistage amplifier is that the total gain is less than
the product of the gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage,
the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of the
second stage. This is known as loading effect.

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I BSC (Electronics) Unit-3
GBW product: -
The gain-bandwidth product (GBW) of an amplifier is the product of its open-loop gain and the frequency at which
it is measured. GBW is a figure of merit that is used to measure the performance of amplifiers and other electronic
devices. It is expressed in units of hertz
The GBW is calculated using the formula: GBW = Gain × Bandwidth

Darlington transistor: -
A Darlington transistor circuit is a configuration of two bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) that are connected in a
specific way to amplify current and gain:
Circuit: The emitter of one transistor is connected to the
base of the other, and the collectors of both transistors
are connected together.
Operation: The first transistor amplifies current, which
is then amplified further by the second transistor.
Gain: The total current gain of the Darlington pair is the
product of the current gains of each transistor. For
example, if each transistor has a current gain of 100, the
total current gain is 10,000.
Applications: Darlington transistors are used in high-
gain low noise amplifiers, cascadable gain blocks.

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