CHAPTER 12

CORALS

Definition of terms:

Corals - a sessile animal, relies on its relationship with plant-like algae to build the largest
structures of biological origin on Earth.

Zoonxanthellae - a yellowish-brown symbiotic dinoflagellate present in large numbers in the

cytoplasm of many marine invertebrates

Coral reef - is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed
of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate.

1.1. Introduction

Coastal ecosystems are dynamic interdependent

communities of marine plants and animals and their
habitats. There are three major coastal ecosystems present
in the tropics. These are mangrove wetlands, seagrass beds,
and coral reefs.

Mangrove wetlands, salt marshes and reed beds are

found in lagoons and estuaries. These are inhabited by a
variety of plant and animal species, of which the most
dominant forms are mangrove trees and other salt-loving
(halophytic) plants. Fig. 1.1. Ocean Ecosystem

Mangroves and marshes have very important ecological roles. These ecosystems 1) create and
export nutrients and organic materials to coastal waters; 2) provide habitat and spawning grounds and
nurseries for commercially valuable species such as shrimps, crabs, fishes and oysters; 3) provide
sanctuary for migratory species; 4) are buffer zones that filter silt brought down from rivers; 5) provides
protection for coastal communities by reducing coastal erosion, flooding, dampening waves and high
winds of tropical storms.

Seagrass beds are highly diverse and productive ecosystems found on sandy bottoms of coastal
lagoons. Seagrass harbor hundreds of associated species, providing food to a number of important
organisms such as dugongs, sea urchins, crabs, and fishes. Seagrass beds are nursery areas for juvenile
fishes, and provide protection against coastal erosion.

Coral reefs are complex biological communities found in tropical and subtropical regions that thrive in
nutrient-poor, shallow coastal waters.

1.2. Characteristics

Coral reefs are composed of thin plates or layers of calcium carbonate formed over thousands
of years by tiny animals called coral polyps. In most reefs, the predominant organisms are stony corals.
Corals provide the physical structure that provides the habitat for other reef organisms. Other
organisms that secrete calcium carbonate such as coralline algae and animals that leave their calcareous
skeletons when they die contribute to the build up of reefs.

Reef-building or hermatypic corals are only found in the photic zone (above 50 m depth) where
sufficient sunlight penetrates the water. Each coral polyp excretes a calcareous exoskeleton and lives in
symbiotic relationship with a host algae or zooxanthellae.

Zooxanthellae utilize nitrates, phosphates and carbon dioxide produced in the polyp and
through photosynthesis, generate oxygen and organic compounds that the coral polyp uses. Corals are
able to obtain up to 90% of their nutrients from the zooxanthellae. Reef-building corals therefore need
sufficient light to grow well and are restricted to clear, shallow waters. This is why reefs are most often
found close to land.

Although coral reefs are found in nutrient-poor tropical waters, they support a rich variety of
organisms. Coral reefs are among the most biologically productive and diverse ecosystems. This high
productivity results from their efficient biological recycling, high nutrient retention, and the constant
water movement. Coral reef communities obtain their supplies of nitrogen (essential for photosynthesis
of phytoplankton and algae) from nearby reef flats, bacteria in reef sediments, as well as sea grass beds.
Blue-green algae fix the nitrogen and flourish on the reef flats as algal mats. Surgeonfish and parrotfish
graze on these algal mats, return to the reefs and deposit nutrient there through their feces. Fragments
of algae containing fixed nitrogen break off the algal mats and are carried by currents to the reef as
detritus. The reef flats and sea grass beds are therefore essential components of coral reef ecosystems.

1.2.1. Types of coral reefs

• Fringing reef – a reef that is directly attached to a shore or borders it with an

intervening shallow channel or lagoon. Most reefs around islands are fringing reefs.

• Barrier reef – separated from a mainland or island by a deep lagoon (e.g. Great Barrier
Reef in Australia: Danajon Reef, Philippines)

• Patch reef – an isolated usually circular reef usually within a lagoon or embayment

• Atoll reef – more or less circular or continuous barrier reef formed around a lagoon
without a central island.

Fig. 1.2.1. Types of Coral Reefs

1.2.2. Forms of hard corals

BRANCHING corals are found in shallow reef flats since they are not efficient in
harvesting light although they are relatively resistant to sediment loading. Their delicate
forms limit them to areas that are sheltered from waves and currents. Branching corals
are able to deflect sediments from accumulating, are efficient in capturing plankton, and
grow relatively fast allowing large colonies to form.

PLATE-LIKE corals are efficient at gathering light hence are found in deeper areas where
light is weaker. However, these are more prone to sediment loading unless they have
mechanisms for removing silt such as the production of mucus. Plate-like corals also
form encrusting colonies on or close to the substrate in shallower areas.

MASSIVE, boulder-like corals can withstand strong wave action, and because of their
shape are not prone to accumulate sediments. These are commonly found in reef crests
where waves break.
 Fig. 1.2.2. Forms of hard corals

1.3. The coral reef community

Coral reefs are dominated by numerous species of reef-building corals which can be likened to
trees in a forest because they provide the physical framework or building block of a reef supporting
thousands of plants and animals. Corals are simple animals with a single opening connected to their
digestive tract which also serves as their reproductive chamber where eggs and sperm are stored. The
tube-like structure and benthic lifestyle of corals make them susceptible to being choked by sediments
that settle on them Corals undergo two life phases: the predominant benthic or attached form called
the coral polyp and the free-swimming medusa or jellyfish phase. Coral polyps secrete the calcareous
exoskeleton which bind polyps of the same colony together hence the name stony corals. Corals that do
not form hard skeletons are called soft corals and are sometimes referred to as flowers of the sea
because of their beautiful colors.

The color of live corals comes from the symbiotic zooxanthellae that provide them with
nourishment. Like plants, zooxanthellae require sunlight for photosynthesis thus limiting the distribution
of corals to clear, well-lit waters.

Coral reefs are home to numerous tropical or reef fish: those that live within the reef such as
parrotfish, wrasse, damselfish, butterflyfish and surgeonfish etc; and predatory fish that swim above the
reef such as barracudas, snappers, sharks, pompanos, groupers; sting rays etc. Numerous other
organisms live in the coral reef such as sponges, worms, crustaceans; mollusks, echinoderms, sea
turtles, snakes and other minute organisms. These organisms live within the coral skeleton, attach to
dead coral fragments, cover dead coral fragments, or burrow in sediment within the reef. Some feed on
corals (e.g. parrotfish) while others graze on algae that grow on the reef.

Factors that determine the species, growth form and community structure that develops within
a coral reef are: light availability, wave action, sediment load, salinity, tidal range.

1.4. Distribution

Coral reefs thrive best at temperatures between 25°C and 29°C, hence their distribution is
restricted to a belt between 20 degrees North and 20 degrees South of the equator covering an
estimated area of 617,000 km2. The Indo-Pacific region stretches from Southeast Asia through Polynesia
and Australia eastward across the Indian Ocean to Africa. This is the richest and largest cluster of coral
and fish species accounting for 91% of the total. The area from the Philippines down to Indonesia, Papua
New Guinea and the Coral Sea has the highest diversity of species and is the center of marine
biodiversity. It is commonly referred to as the Coral Triangle. Philippine reefs are estimated to cover
about 30,000 km2, roughly 5% of the world total. The Western Atlantic region stretches from Florida to
Brazil. The Red Sea is the smallest region located between Africa and Saudi Arabia.
 1.4.1. The coral triangle

The center of biodiversity, also dubbed as the “Amazon of the Seas”, covers all or part of
the exclusive economic zones of six countries: Indonesia (Central and Eastern); Timor-Leste, the
Philipines, Malaysia (Sabah), Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.

The Coral Triangle is the center of marine life with 75 % of all known coral species, 53%
of the world’s coral reefs, over 3,000 fish species, and the greatest extent of mangrove forests.
The area provides direct livelihood, income and food security to over 120 million people. It
serves as the feeding and breeding ground of a wide diversity of marine life and supports the
multi-billion tuna industry. The total annual value of near-shore habitats within the coral
triangle has been estimated at US$ 2.3 billion.

1.5. Importance of coral reefs

When corals die the abundance of reef fish quickly decreases. This is mainly due to the lack of
places for fish larvae and other organisms to settle. Due mainly to siltation from inland activities, most
of the 3 million hectares of coral reefs and seagrass beds are in poor to marginal condition. In the
Philippines only 5% of coral reefs are in excellent condition. Global estimates of the food, tourism
revenue, coastal protection and biologically active compounds that reefs provide amount to about $375
billion each year.

1.5.1. Services provided by coral reefs

SOURCE OF INCOME OF MARGINAL FISHERFOLK. Coral reefs and surrounding areas

may provide as much as 5,000 kg of fish and other marine products per fisherman per
year. The degradation of one hectare of coral reef means an annual loss of 300 kg of
fish. Together with losses from every hectare of mangrove and seagrass, about 1 ton of
fish is lost from municipal waters that are the main source of livelihood of coastal
fisherfolk.

SOURCE OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS. Sponges, giant clams, and bulk corals mined as
construction materials or as a source of lime are examples of industrial products derived
from coral reefs.

SOURCE OF POTENTIALLY USEFUL PRODUCTS FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES. Coral reefs

harbor organisms that produce active biological compounds whose applications in
medical research are now being actively pursued. Compounds that have antimicrobial,
anticancer, anticoagulant, and cardioactive properties have been isolated from reef
organisms. Examples are neurotoxic peptides (conotoxins) from the cone shell,
dolostatin from the sea hare, anticancer and antimalarial compounds from sponges, and
anti-inflammatory compounds from gorgonian corals.

COASTAL ZONE PROTECTION. Fringing and barrier reefs prevent coastal erosion and
storm damage particularly for regions with low-lying coastal plains.

TOURIST SITES, HUMAN SETTLEMENT, RECREATION, REFUGE, SANCTUARIES OF

SEABIRDS AND TURTLES. Coral reefs are popular tourist destinations because of their
beautiful variety of shapes, colors, and the unique inhabitants that they harbor.
Fishermen use coral atolls as refuge during storms. Large coral atolls are inhabited by
fishermen or are sanctuaries of seabirds and turtles.

1.6. Threats to coral reefs

Storms, typhoons and tsunamis are natural phenomena that inflict massive destruction to coral
reefs. Weather conditions like the 1998 El Niño that caused prolonged high sea temperatures have
contributed to widespread coral bleaching. Coral deaths results from expulsion of the symbiotic
zooxanthellae from the coral polyps. Without the zooxanthellae, corals have no source of nutrients to
survive.

Human activities however have caused more damage to coral reefs. Direct threats to coral reefs
from human activities include the following:

• Over fishing, dynamite fishing, and cyanide fishing are highly destructive to the coral reef
community.

• Siltation from deforested areas choke reef life.

• Pollution from fertilizer plants and oil refineries, and pesticides from agricultural runoff add
toxins and nutrients to reefs that require nutrients-free waters to survive.

• Thermal pollution from the release of warm water from power plants kills corals by changing
local ecological conditions.

• Coral damage are also caused by physical impacts such as accidental boat grounding, divers
and snorkellers touching and standing on corals, collecting shells and souvenirs, or dragging
equipment.

• Tourist, recreational, and mariculture facilities may also alter water flow around the reef,
shade the reef reducing photosynthesis and may become a source of pollution and littering.

• The introduction of species for commercial purposes may impact on the natural system by
displacing original species from their habitats and increasing competition for food.

1.6.1. Climate Change

One of the major threats to global coral loss is man-induced climate change. Climate
change is negatively affecting coral populations through at least three mechanisms:

1) Ocean warming reduces coral cover through coral bleaching. Even when water
temperatures increase only 1 – 2°C above normal levels for prolonged periods (such as
during the 1998 El Niño phenomenon), zooxanthellae are expelled from coral polyps
often leading to the coral’s death. The coral turns white after zooxanthellae loss.

2) Ocean warming can also indirectly kill corals by increasing the incidence of coral
diseases. Warm temperatures encourage the growth of bacteria and fungi such as those
causing the black band disease of corals,

3) Perhaps the greatest concern in the longer term, is that the global increase in
greenhouse gases is causing the world’s oceans to become more acidic. At least a
quarter of the CO2 produced by burning fossil fuels enters the ocean and reacts with
water to form carbonic acid, acidifying the ocean. Even with a slight pH decrease in the
order of 0.1 units, deposition of calcium carbonate to form the coral skeleton is
hampered and could lead to changes in the community structure of corals. For example,
it may reduce the ability of corals to compete with other species such as sponges and
seaweeds and to keep up with higher rates of sea level rise.

There are reports that coral reefs in several parts of the world are showing tentative
signs of recovery after years of damage. However, while some areas may be recovering from
damage, other reefs continue to be degraded.

However, scientists are optimistic that corals and coral reefs may be able to evolve to
become more tolerant of rising temperatures and be able to calcify in more acidic conditions. As
long as conditions permit and man-induced damage to coral reefs are reduced, coral reefs will
be able to recover and adapt to the changing environments. Reefs devastated by bleaching in
1998 in many countries are rapidly recovering.