Electrical Machines

CHAPTER-2
Transformer
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  INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one voltage level to ac electric power
at another volt age level through the action of a magnetic field.
 It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core.
These coils are (usually) not directly connected.
The only connection between the coils is the common magnetic flux present within the core.
 The transformer winding connected to the power source is called the primary winding or input
winding.
The winding connected to the loads is called the secondary winding or output winding.

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 Function of transformer in difference system.

 Matching the impedance of a source and its load maximum power transfer.
 Isolating one ckt from another ckt.
 Isolating direct current which maintaining ac continuity two ckts.

operation principle of a transformer.

 A transformer is an electronic device which has two or more wdgs coupled by mutual
magnetic flux.

 These wdgs are electrically separated but magnetically coupled (link).

 If one of these wdgs, 1st is connected to an ac voltage source an alternating flux is set up
in the coil.
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 Cont…

 And also link the other wdgs, the 2nd in which it produces mutually induced emf.
 The amplitude of alternating flux depends on
 Primary voltage
 Frequency of applied voltage
 Number of turns.

 The value of induce emf depends on

 Magnitude of mutual flux.

 Number of turns 2nd wdgs.

 The frequency
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 Cont…

 If the 2nd ckts is closed a current flows in it and electric energy is

transferred from 1st coil to 2nd .
 Voltage ration - r/ship of 2nd voltage to 1st voltage.
 Turns ratio - the ratio of No of turns of 2nd to the No of turns in the 1st .
 Current ratio- it is an inverse proportion to the voltage ratio.
 1st volt. > 2nd volt. are step down transformer.
 1st volt. < 2nd volt. are step up transformer.

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 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

 In order to Accurately model of transformer, there are losses to be taken into account.
1. Copper (I2R) losses:- the resistive losses in the 1st and 2nd wdgs.
2. Eddy current losses :- resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer.
 They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the transformer.
3.Hysteresis losses:- associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core during each
half-cycle, as explained in, They are a complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the
transformer.
4. Leakagef1ux:- the fluxes 1st and 2nd which escape the core and pass through only one of the
transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes produce a self-inductance in the
primary and secondary coils, and the effects of this inductance must be accounted for.

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 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
 Copper losses-modeled by placing a resistor Rp in the primary circuit of the transformer
and a resistor Rs in the secondary circuit.
 the leakage flux in the primary windings produces a voltage given by

 the leakage flux in the secondary windings produces a voltage given by

 Since the flux is directly proportional to current flow.

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cont…..

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 cont…..

 Therefore, the leakage flux will be modeled by 1st & 2nd reactance of

inductance (Xp & Xs).

 The core excitation can be modeled by a reactance Xm connected across the

1st voltage source.

 The core loss can be modeled by a resistance Rc connected across the 1st

voltage source.

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 cont…..
 Therefore, accurate model of transformer,

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 cont…..
 The equiv. ckt must be referred either to its 1st side or to its 2nd side problem solution.

 The transformer model referred to its primary voltage level:-

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 cont…..
 The transformer model referred to its secondary voltage level:-

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 Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer
 The excitation branch has(large impedance) so, a very small current
compared to the load current of the transformers.
 In fact, it is so small that under normal circumstances it causes a completely
negligible voltage drop in Rp and Xp.
 As a result, the excitation branch is simply moved to the front of the
transformer, and the primary and secondary impedances are left in series
with each other.
 In some applications, the excitation branch may be neglected entirely
without causing serious error.

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 cont…..

(a) Referred to the primary side;

(b) Referred to the secondary side;
(c) without excitation branch. referred to the primary side;
(d) without excitation branch. referred to the secondary side.
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 cont….
Example :- A 2000/200 V, single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has the following data
Rp =3.5Ω Rs = 0.015Ω
Xp =4.5Ω Xs =0.012Ω
Find
A. The equiv. (approximate) ckt referred to the 1st .
B. The equiv. (approximate) ckt referred to the 2nd .

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 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

 To d/ne the values of the inductances and resistances in the transformer model.
 We use to test, the open-ckt & short-ckt test.
open-ckt
 a transformer's secondary winding is open circuited, and its primary winding is
connected to a full-rated line voltage.

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 cont…
 all the input current must be flowing through the excitation branch of the transformer.
 The series elements Rp and Xp are too small in comparison to Rc and Xm to cause a
significant voltage drop,
 So essentially all the input voltage is dropped across the excitation branch.
 In this test Full line voltage is applied to the primary of the transformer,
 the i/p voltage, i/p current, and i/p power to the transformer are measured.
 From this information, it is possible to determine the Pf & magnitude & angle of the
excitation impedance.
 The easiest way to calculate the values of Rc and Xm is to look first at the
admittance of the excitation branch.

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 cont…
 The conductance of the core- loss resistor is given by:-

 the susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is given by:-

 Since these two elements are in parallel, their admittances add, and the total excitation
admittance is:-

 The magnitude of the excitation admittance (referred to the primary circuit) can be
found from the open- circuit test voltage and current:-

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 cont…
 The angle of the admittance can be found from ckt PF.
 The open- circuit PF is given by:-

 and the power-factor angle (θ) is given by:-

 The power factor is always lagging for a real transformer.

 So the angle of the current always lags the angle of the voltage by (θ) degrees.
 There fore, the admittance is :-

 Therefore, it is possible to determine the values of Rc and Xm directly from the open-
circuit test data. 19
 short-circuit test
 The secondary terminals of the transformer are short circuited, and the primary terminals
are connected to a fairly low-voltage source.

 The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited windings is equal to
its rated value.
 The i/p voltage, current, and power are again measured.
 Since the input voltage is so low during the short- circuit test, negligible current flows
through the excitation branch. 20
 cont…
 If the excitation current is ignored, then all the voltage drop in the transformer can be
attributed to the series elements in the circuit.
 The magnitude of the series impedances referred to the primary side of the transformer
is:-

 The PF of the current is given by:-

 The current angle is thus -ve, and the overall impedance angle (θ)is positive:-

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 cont…
 Therefore,

 It is possible to determine the total series impedance referred to the primary

side by using this technique.
 But there is no easy way to split the series impedance into primary and secondary
components.
 Fortunately, such separation is not necessary to solve normal problems.
 These same tests may also be performed on the secondary side of the transformer.

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 cont…
 Example:- The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 800/240- V, 50-Hz
transformer are to be determined. The open-circuit test and the short-circuit test were
performed on the primary side of the transformer, and the following data were taken:

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary side, and
sketch that circuit.

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 Transformer Voltage Regulation
 A real transformer has series impedances within it, the output voltage of
a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains constant.
 Voltage regulation (VR). Full-load voltage regulation is a quantity that compares the
output voltage of the transformer at no load with the output voltage at full load.
 It is defined by the equation:-

 Since at no load, Vs = Vp /a, the voltage regulation can also be expressed as

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 cont…
 it is a good practice to have as small a voltage regulation as possible.
 For an ideal transformer, VR = 0 percent.
 high-impedance and high-voltage regulation transformers are deliberately used to reduce
the fault currents in a circuit.
 How can the voltage regulation of a transformer be determined?

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 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
 To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, we must understand the voltage
drops within it.
 The effects of the excitation branch on transformer voltage regulation can be ignored.
 Because its impedance is high the i/p voltage is almost equal to the voltage drop in it.
 So only the series impedances need be considered.
 To d/ne the effect of the impedances and the current phase angles on the transformer
voltage regulation is to examine a phasor diagram, a sketch of the phasor voltages and
currents in the transformer

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 cont…
 Assume that the reference phasor is the 2nd voltage (Vs).
 Therefore, the reference phasor will be 0 degree interims of angle.
 And all other voltage & current are compared to that reference.
 By applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the equivalent circuit, the primary voltage can be
found as

 From this equation the phasor diagram can be drawn as

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 cont…
 operating @ a lagging PF.
 that Vp/a > Vs for lagging loads.
 VR with lagging loads must be > zero.

 operating @ unity PF.

 Vp/a > Vs & VR > 0

 Leading PF.
 Vs > Vp/a &
 The transformer has –ve VR 28
 cont…
 Derivation of the approximate for Vp/a

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 Transformer Efficiency
 Transformers are also compared and judged on their efficiencies & given by [these
equations apply to motors and generators as well as to transformers.]

 losses present in transformers:

1. Copper (I2R) losses. accounted for series resistance in the equiv. ckt.
2. Hysteresis losses. accounted for by resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses. accounted for by resistor Re.

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 cont…
 To calculate the efficiency of a transformer at a given load, just add the losses
 Since the output power is given by:-

 the efficiency of the transformer can be expressed by

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 cont…
Example:- A 15KVA, 2300/230 V transformer is to be tested and its series impedances are
Req,s = 0.0445 Ω & Xeq,s = 0.0645 Ω. Calculate the full load VR at 0.8 lagging pf, 1.0
pf & 0.8 pf leading. Also what is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with at 0.8
pf lagging? (Rc/a2=1050 Ω).

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 Parallel operation of transformer
 Parallel operation of transformer is performed the load to be supplied is in excess of the
rating of a single.
 Also it is advantageous to several smaller units sharing a common load rather than a
single big unit.
 In practice, smaller units of equal rating are used to facilitate interchangeability of spare
parts & maintain inventory.
Necessary conditions for parallel operation
 Single phase transformers:-
 The rating of primary voltage must be the same.
 Since primary wdgs of all transformer are connected common supply bus-bars.

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 Cont…..
 The transformation ratio, therefore, voltage ration must be equal.
 Since all secondary wdgs are connected to common load bus bar.
 They must have the same polarity (absolutely necessary).
 If the parallel with dissimilar polarity, it will result in dead sc.
 They must have the same voltage regulation, even if the impedance are not equal in
magnitude.
 When transformer of d/t KVA rating are to be paralleled it is desirable that their equiv.
impedances should be inversely proportional to their rating.
 They must have equal %age impedances, X/R ratio must be the same.
 If X/R ration are not the same they operate at d/t pf which leads to unequal sharing of
common load. 34
 Cont…..
 For satisfactory parallel operation all above conditions must be satisfied.
 If the voltage ratio slightly unequal, // operation is possible but there would be a
circulating current even if the absence of load.
 And when loaded there is a possibility of one of the unit getting overloaded and
overheating due to improper sharing of load.
 When 3-phase transformer are to be // in addition to the above condition the following
condition are also need to be fulfilled.
 The phase sequence must be same
 The phase displacement b/n the 1st and 2nd voltage must be same
 All three phase transformer in the 3-phase transformer bank will be the same
construction either core or shall. 35
 Cont…..
Example-1:- Two 1-ᶲ transformer with equal turns have impedance of (0.5+j3)Ω & (0.6+j10)
Ω wrt the 2nd if they operate in //, d/ne how they will share a total load of 100 KW at pf
0.8 lagging.
Example-2 :- A transformer of 500 KVA with 1% resistance & 5% reactance is connected in
// with a 250 KVA transformer with 1.5% resistance & 4% reactance. The 2nd volt. of
each transformer on no-load is 400 V. find how they share a load of 750 KVA at pf of
0.8 lagging.
Example-3 :- Two transf. A & B are connected in // to a load of (1+j0.75) Ω. Their
impedance in 2nd terms is ZA= (0.075 + j0.25) Ω & ZB = (0.05+ j0.3) Ω. Their no load
terminal voltages are EA = 217 @ 0 degree. & EB =215 @ 0 degree V. find the KVA
rating of each transformer. 36
 Instrument transformer
 In DC ckts when large current are to be measured, it is used to use low range ammeter
with suitable shunts.
 For measuring high voltage, low range voltmeter with high resistance in series are used.
 But it is not convenient to use for measuring AC current & voltage.
 Instrument transformer in conjunction with standard low range AC instrument are used
 Instrument transformer are two types :-
1. current transformer (CT)
2. potential transformer (VT)

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 current transformer (CT)
 Are used with low range ammeter to measure high AC currents
 Will have one or few turns of 1st wdgs & large No of turns in the 2nd
 With regard to volt. it is step-up type & current will step-dawn.
 If the 1st & 2nd current ratio is 100:5 then it step up the voltage by 20 time & step-dawn
the current to 1/20.
 Actual current = Ammeter reading*CTR, CTR = current transformer ratio.
 Most commonly used current transformer is clamp on meter.
 Since Ammeter resistance is low, CT is normally works on SC.
 By any reason ammeter is taken out, 2nd wdg must be sckted with the help of switch (S).

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 Cont……..
 If not shorted due to absence of counter amper-turns in the 2nd unopposed 1st mmf will
set up high flux which produce excessive core loss & heating (also high voltage across
2nd terminal)
Potential transformer
 Are used in conjn. With standard low range voltmeter (usually 110v) to measure high ac
voltage.
 Their operation is not much d/t from ordinary two wdg transformer.
 They are very accurate step-dawn transformer.
 1st contains large No of turns & 2nd consists few turn.
 For safety purpose 2nd wdg should be grounded (high volt. may damage the voltmeter)
 To measure power in ac ckts both CT & PT in conjn. With wattmeter is used 39