Transformers: Mochammad Ariyanto, ST, MT
Transformers: Mochammad Ariyanto, ST, MT
Transformers: Mochammad Ariyanto, ST, MT
TRANSFORMERS
1
Preliminary considerations
A transformer is a device that converts one AC voltage to another AC voltage at
the same frequency. It consists of one or more coil(s) of wire wrapped around a
common ferromagnetic core. These coils are usually not connected electrically
together. However, they are connected through the common magnetic flux
confined to the core.
The invention of a transformer can be attributed to Faraday, who in 1831 used its
principle to demonstrate electromagnetic induction foreseen no practical
applications of his demonstration.
Russian engineer Yablochkov in 1876 invented a lighting system based on a set of
induction coils, which acted as a transformer.
Types and construction
Power transformers
Core form Shell form
Windings are wrapped around two Windings are wrapped around the
sides of a laminated square core. center leg of a laminated core.
Usually, windings are wrapped on top of each other to decrease flux leakage
and, therefore, increase efficiency.
Types and construction
Lamination
types
v p (t ) Np
a
vs (t ) Ns
i p (t ) 1
is (t ) a
Ip 1
Is a
The phase angles of primary and secondary voltages are the same. The phase
angles of primary and secondary currents are the same also. The ideal
transformer changes magnitudes of voltages and currents but not their angles.
Ideal transformer
One winding’s terminal is usually marked by a
dot used to determine the polarity of voltages
and currents.
If the voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary winding at some
moment of time, the voltage at the dotted end of the secondary winding will also
be positive at the same time instance.
If the primary current flows into the dotted end of the primary winding, the
secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.
Power in an ideal transformer
Assuming that p and s are the angles between voltages and currents on the
primary and secondary windings respectively, the power supplied to the
transformer by the primary circuit is:
Pin V p I p cos p
The power supplied to the output circuits is
Pout Vs I s cos s
Since ideal transformers do not affect angles between voltages and currents:
p s
Both windings of an ideal transformer have the same power factor.
Power in an ideal transformer
Since for an ideal transformer the following holds:
Vp
Vs ;I s aI p
a
Therefore: Vp
Pout Vs I s cos aI p cos Vp I p cos Pin
a
The output power of an ideal transformer equals to its input power – to be
expected since assumed no loss. Similarly, for reactive and apparent powers:
Sout Vs I s Vp I p Sin
Impedance transformation
The impedance is defined as a following ratio of phasors:
Z L VL I L
A transformer changes voltages and currents and, therefore, an apparent
impedance of the load that is given by
Z L Vs I s
The apparent impedance of the primary
circuit is:
Z L ' Vp I p
which is
Vp aVs 2 Vs
ZL ' a a2ZL
I p Is a Is
It is possible to match magnitudes of impedances (load and a transmission line) by
selecting a transformer with the proper turn ratio.
Analysis of circuits containing ideal
transformers: Example
A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator that is
connected to the load Zload = 4 + j3 through the transmission line with Zline =
0.18 + j0.24 . a) What is the voltage at the load? What are the transmission line
losses? b) If a 1:10 step up transformer and a 10:1 step down transformer are
placed at the generator and the load ends of the transmission line respectively,
what are the new load voltage and the new transmission line losses?
a) Here:
V
I G I line I load
Zline Zload
4800
0.18 j 0.24 4 j 3
4800
90.8 37.8 A
5.2937.8
Analysis of circuits containing ideal
transformers: Example
Therefore, the load voltage:
Vload Iload Zload 90.8 37.8 (4 j3) 90.8 37.8 536.9 454 0.9V
400.18 j 300.24
500.336.88
The total impedance is now referred across T1 to the source’s voltage level:
2
1
Z 'eq a12 Zeq 500.336.88 5.00336.88
10
Analysis of circuits containing ideal
transformers: Example
The generator’s current is
V 4800
IG
Z 'eq 5.00336.88
95.94 36.88 A
Knowing transformers’ turn ratios, we
can determine line and load currents:
Iline a1IG 0.1 95.94 36.88 9.594 36.88 A
Iload a2Iline 10 9.594 36.88 95.94 36.88 A
Therefore, the load voltage is:
Vload Iload Zload 95.94 36.88 5 36.87 479.7 0.01V
The losses in the line are: Ploss I line
2
Rline 9.5942 0.18 16.7W
Note: transmission line losses are reduced by a factor nearly 90, the load voltage is
much closer to the generator’s voltage – effects of increasing the line’s voltage.
Theory of operation of real single-
phase transformers
Real transformers approximate ideal ones to some degree.
N
Therefore: d
eind N
dt
The voltage ratio across a real transformer
If the source voltage vp(t) is applied to the primary winding, the average flux in the
primary winding will be:
1
Np v p (t )dt
p m Lp
average primary flux mutual flux
s m Ls
Average secondary flux
The voltage ratio across a real transformer
Therefore:
e p (t ) Np
a
es (t ) Ns
That is, the ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage both caused by
the mutual flux is equal to the turns ratio of the transformer.
v p (t ) Np
a
vs (t ) Ns
The magnetization current in a real transformer
Even when no load is connected to the secondary coil of the transformer, a current will
flow in the primary coil. This current consists of:
1. The magnetization current im needed to produce the flux in the core;
2. The core-loss current ih+e hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Ignoring flux leakage and assuming time-harmonic primary voltage, the average
flux is:
1 1 Vm
sin tWb
Np Np
v (t ) dt V cos tdt
p m
N p
If the values of current are comparable to the flux they produce in the core, it is possible
to sketch a magnetization current. We observe:
1. Magnetization current is not sinusoidal: there are high frequency components;
2. Once saturation is reached, a small increase in flux requires a large increase in
magnetization current;
3. Magnetization current (its fundamental component) lags the voltage by 90o;
4. High-frequency components of the current may be large in saturation.
Assuming a sinusoidal flux in the core, the eddy currents will be largest when
flux passes zero.
The magnetization current in a real transformer
Core-loss current
The total no-load current in the core is called the excitation current of the
transformer:
Fnet N pi p N s is 0
The current ratio on a transformer
Lp P N p i p
permeance of flux path
eLp (t ) N p P N pi p N pP
d 2
di p
dt dt
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
di p
Primary coil: eLp (t ) Lp
dt
dis
Secondary coil: eLs (t ) Ls
dt
The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.
The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across
the primary voltage source.
The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC connected across the
primary voltage source.
Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, XM and RC are just approximations.
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
The transformer’s
equivalent circuit
However, the exact circuit is not
very practical.
From this information, the power factor of the input current and the magnitude and
the angle of the excitation impedance can be determined.
To evaluate RC and XM, we determine the conductance of the core-loss resistor is:
1
GC
RC
The susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is:
1
BM
XM
Determining the values of components
Since both elements are in parallel, their admittances add. Therefore, the total
excitation admittance is:
1 1
YE GC jBM j
RC XM
The magnitude of the excitation admittance in the open-circuit test is:
I oc
YE
Voc
The angle of the admittance in the open-circuit test can be found from the circuit
power factor (PF):
Poc
cos PF
Voc I oc
Determining the values of components
In real transformers, the power factor is always lagging, so the angle of the current
always lags the angle of the voltage by degrees. The admittance is:
I oc I oc
YE cos 1 PF
Voc Voc
Therefore:
VSC 0 VSC
Z SE
I SC I SC
Since the serial impedance ZSE is equal to
Z SE Req jX eq
Z SE Rp a 2 RS j X p a 2 X S
it is possible to determine the total series impedance referred to the primary side
of the transformer. However, there is no easy way to split the series impedance
into primary and secondary components.
The same tests can be performed on the secondary side of the transformer. The
results will yield the equivalent circuit impedances referred to the secondary
side of the transformer.
Determining the values of components: Example
1 1
Therefore: RC 159k ; X M 38.3k
0.0000063 0.0000261
The power factor during the short-circuit test is
PSC 240
PF cos 0.196lagging
VSC I SC 489 2.5
The series impedance is given by
VSC 489
Z SE cos 1 PF 78.7
I SC 2.5
38.4 j192
Therefore:
Req 38.3; X eq 192
The equivalent circuit
The per-unit system
Another approach to solve circuits containing transformers is the per-unit system.
Impedance and voltage-level conversions are avoided. Also, machine and
transformer impedances fall within fairly narrow ranges for each type and
construction of device while the per-unit system is employed.
The voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other electrical quantities are
measured as fractions of some base level instead of conventional units.
actualvalue
Quantity perunit
basevalueof quantity
Usually, two base quantities are selected to define a given per-unit system. Often,
such quantities are voltage and power (or apparent power). In a 1-phase system:
Pbase ,Qbase ,orSbase Vbase I base
Vbase Vbase
2
Zbase
I base Sbase
The per-unit system
I base
Ybase
Vbase
Ones the base values of P (or S) and V are selected, all other base values can
be computed form the above equations.
In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are selected at the
specific point in the system. Note that a transformer has no effect on the
apparent power of the system, since the apparent power into a transformer
equals the apparent power out of a transformer. As a result, the base apparent
power remains constant everywhere in the power system.
On the other hand, voltage (and, therefore, a base voltage) changes when it
goes through a transformer according to its turn ratio. Therefore, the process
of referring quantities to a common voltage level is done automatically in the
per-unit system.
The per-unit system: Example
A simple power system is given by the circuit:
Sbase1 10000
I base1 20.83 A
Vbase1 480
Vbase1 480
Z base1 23.04
I base1 20.83
The turns ratio of the transformer T1 is a1 = 0.1; therefore, the voltage in the
transmission line region is
Vbase1 480
Vbase2 4800V
a1 0.1
The other base quantities are
The per-unit system: Example
Sbase2 10kVA
10000
I base2 2.083 A
4800
4800
Z base2 2304
2.083
The turns ratio of the transformer T2 is a2 = 20; therefore, the voltage in the
load region is
Vbase 4800
Vbase 240V
a2 20
The other base quantities are
The per-unit system: Example
Sbase 10kVA
10000
I base 41.67 A
240
240
Z base 5.76
41.67
b. To convert a power system to a per-unit system, each component must be
divided by its base value in its region. The generator’s per-unit voltage is
4800
VG , pu 1.00 pu
480
The transmission line’s per-unit impedance is
20 j 60
Zline , pu 0.0087 j 0.026 pu
2304
The per-unit system: Example
The load’s per-unit
impedance is
1030
Zload , pu
5.76
1.73630 pu
The per-unit
equivalent circuit
V pu 10
I pu 0.569 30.6 pu
Z tot , pu 0.0087 j 0.026 1.73630
The per-unit system: Example
Pload , pu I pu
2
Rpu 0.5692 1.503 0.487
The actual power on the load is
Pload Pload , pu Sbase 0.487 10000487W
d. The per-unit power lost in the transmission line is
Pline, pu I pu
2
Rline, pu 0.5692 0.0087 0.00282
The actual power lost in the transmission line
Sbase
P, Q, S pu ,base2 P, Q, S pu ,base
Sbase
Vbase
V pu ,base2 V pu ,base
Vbase
2
Vbase 1 Sbase
R, X , Z pu ,base2 R, X , Z pu ,base 2
Vbase Sbase
The per-unit system: Example
Sketch the appropriate per-unit equivalent circuit for the 8000/240 V, 60 Hz, 20 kVA
transformer with Rc = 159 k, XM = 38.4 k, Req = 38.3 , Xeq = 192 .
To convert the transformer to per-unit system, the primary circuit base impedance
needs to be found.
Vbase1 8000V ;Sbase1 20000VA
2
Vbase 80002
Z base1 1
3200
Sbase1 20000
38.4 j192
Z SE , pu 0.012 j 0.06 pu
3200
159000
RC , pu 49.7 pu
3200
00
X M , pu 12 pu
3200
The per-unit system: Example
Therefore, the per-unit equivalent circuit is shown below:
Voltage regulation and efficiency
Vs ,nl Vs , fl V p a Vs , fl
VR 100% 100%
Vs , fl Vs , fl
In a per-unit system:
V p , pu Vs , fl , pu
VR 100%
Vs , fl , pu
Where Vs,nl and Vs,fl are the secondary no load and full load voltages.
Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero.
The transformer phasor diagram
A transformer operating at
a unity power factor:
It is seen that VR > 0
A transformer operating at a
leading power factor:
If the secondary current is leading,
the secondary voltage can be higher
than the referred primary voltage;
VR < 0.
The transformer efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:
Pout Pout
100% 100% (4.55.1)
Pin Pout Ploss
Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators.
Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of losses:
1. Copper (I2R) losses – are accounted for by the series resistance
2. Hysteresis losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
a. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
b. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
c. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, at 1.0
power factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor.
d. Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to full load at
power factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
e. What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8
lagging?
The transformer efficiency: Example
a. The excitation branch values of the equivalent circuit can be determined as:
Poc 50
oc cos 1 cos 1 84
Voc I oc 2300 0.21
The excitation admittance is:
I oc 0.21
YE 84 84 0.0000095 j 0.0000908S
Voc 2300
The elements of the excitation branch referred to the primary side are:
1
Rc 105k
0.0000095
1
XM 11k
0.0000908
The transformer efficiency: Example
Pout
100% 98.03%
PCu Pcore Pout
The autotransformer
Sometimes, it is desirable to change the voltage by a small amount (for
instance, when the consumer is far away from the generator and it is needed to
raise the voltage to compensate for voltage drops).
In such situations, it would be expensive to wind a transformer with two
windings of approximately equal number of turns. An autotransformer (a
transformer with only one winding) is used instead.
Diagrams of step-up and step-down autotransformers:
Series Series
winding winding
Common Common
winding winding
Output (up) or input (down) voltage is a sum of voltages across common and series windings.
The autotransformer
Since the autotransformer’s coils are physically connected, a different terminology
is used for autotransformers:
The voltage across the common winding is called a common voltage VC, and the
current through this coil is called a common current IC. The voltage across the
series winding is called a series voltage VSE, and the current through that coil is
called a series current ISE.
The voltage and current on the low-voltage side are called VL and IL; the voltage
and current on the high-voltage side are called VH and IH.
For the autotransformers:
VC N
C
VSE N SE
NC IC N SE I SE
VL VC I L I C I SE
VH VC VSE I H I SE
Voltage and Current relationships in an Autotransformer
VL NC
Therefore:
VH N C N SE
I L N C N SE
Therefore:
IH NC
The apparent power advantage
Not all the power traveling from the primary to the secondary winding of the
autotransformer goes through the windings. As a result, an autotransformer can
handle much power than the conventional transformer (with the same windings).
Considering a step-up autotransformer, the apparent input and output powers are:
Sin VL I L
Sout VH I H
It is easy to show that Sin Sout SIO
where SIO is the input and output apparent powers of the autotransformer.
However, the apparent power in the autotransformer’s winding is
SW VC I C VSE I SE
Which is: SW VL I L I H VL I L VL I H
NC N SE
VL I L VL I L S IO
N SE NC N SE NC
The apparent power advantage
Therefore, the ratio of the apparent power in the primary and secondary of the
autotransformer to the apparent power actually traveling through its windings is
S IO N SE N C
(4.71.1)
SW N SE
N SE 28
SW S IO 5 1.015MVA
N SE N C 28 110
Therefore, the autotransformer would have windings rated at slightly over 1 MVA
instead of 5 MVA, which makes is 5 times smaller and, therefore, considerably less
expensive.
However, the construction of autotransformers is usually slightly different. In
particular, the insulation on the smaller coil (the series winding) of the
autotransformer is made as strong as the insulation on the larger coil to withstand
the full output voltage.
The primary disadvantage of an autotransformer is that there is a direct physical
connection between its primary and secondary circuits. Therefore, the electrical
isolation of two sides is lost.
The apparent power advantage: Ex
A 100 VA, 120/12 V transformer will be connected to form a step-up autotransformer with
the primary voltage of 120 V.
a. What will be the secondary voltage?
b. What will be the maximum power rating?
c. What will be the power rating advantage?
a. The secondary voltage:
N C N SE 120 12
VH VL 120 132V
NC 120
Smax 100
b. The max series winding current: I SE ,max 8.33 A
VSE 12
1. Y-Y connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of
the transformer is
VLP
V P
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS 3V S
VLP 3V P
a
VLS 3V S
3-phase transformer connections
The Y-Y connection has two very serious problems:
1. If loads on one of the transformer circuits are unbalanced, the voltages on the phases
of the transformer can become severely unbalanced.
2. The third harmonic issue. The voltages in any phase of an Y-Y transformer are 1200
apart from the voltages in any other phase. However, the third-harmonic components
of each phase will be in phase with each other. Nonlinearities in the transformer core
always lead to generation of third harmonic! These components will add up resulting
in large (can be even larger than the fundamental component) third harmonic
component.
Both problems can be solved by one of two techniques:
1. Solidly ground the neutral of the transformers (especially, the primary side). The third
harmonic will flow in the neutral and a return path will be established for the
unbalanced loads.
2. Add a third -connected winding. A circulating current at the third harmonic will flow
through it suppressing the third harmonic in other windings.
3-phase transformer connections
2. Y- connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of
the transformer is
VLP
V P
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS V S
VLP 3V P
3a
VLS V S
3-phase transformer connections
The Y- connection has no problem with third harmonic components due to
circulating currents in . It is also more stable to unbalanced loads since the
partially redistributes any imbalance that occurs.
One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is
shifted by 300 with respect to the primary voltage. This can cause problems when
paralleling 3-phase transformers since transformers secondary voltages must be
in-phase to be paralleled. Therefore, we must pay attention to these shifts.
In the U.S., it is common to make the secondary voltage to lag the primary voltage.
The connection shown in the previous slide will do it.
3-phase transformer connections
3. -Y connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of
the transformer is
V P VLP
VLP V P a
VLS 3V S 3
4. - connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of
the transformer is
V P VLP (4.82.1)
VLP V P
a (4.82.3)
VLS V S
Zbase
S1 ,base Sbase
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
The line quantities on 3-phase transformer banks can also be represented in per-
unit system. If the windings are in :
VL ,base V ,base
Sbase
I L ,base
3VL ,base
The application of the per-unit system to 3-phase transformer problems is similar to its
application in single-phase situations. The voltage regulation of the transformer bank is
the same.
3-phase transformer: per-unit system: Ex
Example 4.8: A 50 kVA, 13 800/208 V -Y transformer has a resistance of 1% and a
reactance of 7% per unit.
a. What is the transformer’s phase impedance referred to the high voltage side?
b. What is the transformer’s voltage regulation at full load and 0.8 PF lagging, using the
calculated high-side impedance?
c. What is the transformer’s voltage regulation under the same conditions, using the per-
unit system?
a. The high-voltage side of the transformer has the base voltage 13 800 V and a
base apparent power of 50 kVA. Since the primary side is -connected, its phase
voltage and the line voltage are the same. The base impedance is:
Zbase 11426
Sbase 50000
3-phase transformer: per-unit system: Ex
The per-unit impedance of the transformer is:
Z eq , pu 0.01 j 0.07 pu
Therefore, the high-side impedance in ohms is:
c. In the per-unit system, the output voltage is 100, and the current is 1cos-1
(-0.8). Therefore, the input voltage is
1.051 1.0
VR 100% 5.1%
1.0
The voltage regulation in per-unit system is the same as computed in volts…
Transformer ratings
84