TRENDS IN GROUP 1 AND 2

INTRODUCTION

Group 1 and 2 elements are all, bright silvery solids when in pure.
Group 1 Group 2
Lithium Beryllium
Sodium Magnesium
Pottasium Calcium
Rubidium Strontium
Caesium Barium
Francium (radioactive) Radon(radioactive)

The physical and chemical properties depend on the ionization energies of elements in group 1 and
2.

FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY

The energy required to remove an electron from each atom in one mole of atoms in the gaseous state.

M(s) M+(g) + e-

SECOND IONIZATION ENERGY

Energy required to remove an electron from each singly charged ion in one mole of positive ions in the
gaseous state.

M+(s) M2+(g) + e-

FACTORS AFFECTING IONIZATION ENERGY

1. The nuclear charge (number of protons)

When the nuclear charge increases, force of attraction between the electron being removed and the
nucleus increases. This causes ionization enerrgy to increase.
2. The orbital in which the electron exists
When the electron is in the higher energy shell, the elctron has greater energy. This causes ionization
energy to decrease.

3. The shielding effect (repulsion between the inner shells and the elctron being removed)
When the number of filled inner shells increases, the force of repulsion on the electron being removed
also increase. It causes ionization energy to decrease.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain the trend of ionization energy shown in the tables below.
ELEMENT METALLIC RADIUS/nm FIRST IONIZATION
ENERGY/kJ mol-1
Lithium 0.152 519
Sodium 0.186 494
Potassium 0.231 418
Rubidium 0.244 402
Caesium 0.262 376

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2. Explain why the reactivity increases down the group 1 and 2.

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3. Write equations to represent the first ionization energy of beryllium and the second ionization of
barium.

4. Explain fully why beryllium is less reactive than barium.

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REACTIONS OF GROUP 1 ELEMENTS

1. Group 1 elements burns vigorously with oxygen

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2. Group 1 elements react vigourously with chlorine

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3. Group 1 elements react with water.

Obserrvations:
 Solid fizzes
 Solid disappears
 Sodium, Li and K floats on water
 It cataches fire and Lilac flame is given from K

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Since reacctions are explosive with Rb and Cs, those recations do not caarry out.
QUESTIONS

1. Write equations for the reactions

(a) Lithium with oxygen

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(b) Sodium with chlorine

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(c) Potassium with water

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2. Soon after sodium is added to water, a colourless solution is formed. Explain why it is wrong to
write the sodium is soluble in water.
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REACTIONS OF GROUP 2 ELEMENTS

REACTIONS WITH WATER

1. Magnesium burns in the air with a bright white flame and forms a white solid.
2. Other group 2 metals burn in the air vigourously.

 Reactions slow down since metal oxide layer forms over the metal and masks further reactions
with inner metal atoms.
 Since Barium is the most reactive, it is stored under oil to keep it from reactinf with oxygen and
water vapour.

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REACTIONS WITH CHLORINE

Reactions with chlorine becoems more vigorous down the group.

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REACTIONS WITH WATER

The reaction between magnesium and water is very slow or does not procced completely. But,
Magnesium reacts with hot water.

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Calcium, strontium and barium react with increasing vigour. Hydrogen gas evolves.

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Calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble in water, the solution goes cloudy precipitate of Ca(OH)2.
But, Ba(OH)2 is soluble in water.

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MAGNESIUM WITH STEAM

Mg reacts with steam producing MgO and hydrogen gas vigorously.

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QUESTIONS

1. Write an eqaution for each reaction

(a) Caalcium with oxygen

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(b) Strontium with chlorine

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(c) Barium with water

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2. Suggest why it is not good idea to use water to put out a fire involving burning magnesium.

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OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES IN GROUPS 1 AND 2

REACTIONS OF OXIDES WITH WATER

 Group 1 and 2 oxides are basic oxides.
 They react with water to form alkali where OH- ions are present.
 White colour oxides disssolve in water to form colourless solutions.

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TRENDS IN SOLUBILITY OF GROUP 2 HYDROXIDES

 Magnesium hydroxide has very low solubilty in water and relases less OH- ions.
 The solubilty of group 2 hydroxides increases down the group and hence, pH of the alkaline
solution increases down the group.

LIME WATER

Ca(OH)2 is called lime water. It reacts with CO2 is to form milky solution which contains a white
precipitate.
This white precipitate is CaCO3.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

Upon sending more CO2 the solution goes colourless since soluble Ca(HCO3)2 is formed.

CO2(g) + CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

QUESTION
1. Lime water is used to test for carbon dioxide. Why should limewater not be left exposed to air
before using it in this test?
MILK OF MAGNESIA
 Mg(OH)2 suspension is called milk of magnesia.
 A bottle contains a saturated solution of Mg(OH)2 and solid Mg(OH)2.
 The mixture acts as an antacid.
 Milk of magnesia is used to neutralise some HCl acid if somone has too much acid produced.

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 Although hydroxide ions attack human tissue, the very low solubility of magnesium hydroxide
means that the concentration of OH- ions in the medicine is also very low and is not a risk to
health.

REACTIONS OF OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES WITH ACIDS

 All oxides and hydroxides react with acids to form salts and water and the reaction is described as
neutralisation reaction.
 While the reactions are exothermic, colurless solutions are made.

Na2O + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2 O

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AGRICULTURE
Lime is calcium hydroxide and used in neutralization of excess acidity of soil.

Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O

BASIC OXIDES
Oxides of metals that react with water to form metal hydroxides, and with acids to form salts and
water
TRENDS IN SOLUBILTY OF THE GROUP 2 SULFATES

All group 2 nitrates and chlorides are soluble.

But, solubility of sulfates down the group.
 Magnesium sulfate is soluble.
 Calcium sulfate is slightly soluble.
 Strontium sulfate and barium salfate are insoluble.

TESTING FOR SULFATE IONS

Upon addition of BaCl2 or Ba(NO3)2 , sulfate gives a white precipitate of BaSO4.

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 Before adding BaCl2 or Ba(NO3)2 it is needed to add an acid such as HNO3 or HCl to prevent any
other precipitates form. (BaCO3 - white precipitate)

BARIUM MEALS

Barium meals contain BaSO4 which is insoluble and gives clear images of soft tissues in X rays. But,
barium ions are poisonous. Since BaSO4 is insoluble there is no harm.

QUESTION
1. Why is an acid added when uisng barium chloride or barium nitrate solution to test for sulfate ions?
 THERMAL STABILITY OF COMPOUNDS IN GROUP 1 AND 2

FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL STABILTY

 Thermal stabilty means a measure of the extent to which a compound decomposes when heated.

 Upon heating Group 1 nitrates except LiNO3 produce its nitrite and oxygen.

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 Upon heating Group 2 nitrates and LiNO3 produce their oxide, brown colour nitrogen dioxide
and oxygen.

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 Upon heating Group 1 carbonates except Li2CO3 do not decompose.

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 Upon heating Group 2 carbonates and lithium carbonate decompse into its oxide and CO2.

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 Thermal stability of carbonates and nitrates of group 1 and group 2 elements increases down the
group. That means they become resistant to thermal decomposition.

REASONS:
1. Cation size remains the same down the group.
2. Size of the cation increases down the group.
3. Charge density of the cation decreases down the group.
4. Polarising power of the cation on the anion decreses.
5. Anion (CO32- and NO3-) becomes resistant to break into pieces.

 Thermal stibilty decreases from group 1 to group 2 compounds.

REASONS:
1. From group 1 to group 2, the charge of the cation increses.
2. From group 1 to group 2, the size of the cation decreses.
3. The charge density increases from group 1 to group 2.
4. Polarising power of the caiton on the anion increases.
6. Anion (CO32- and NO3-) becomes less resistant to break into pieces.

QUESTIONS

1. What observations would be made when these compounds are heated in a test tube over a Bunsen
flame?
(a) Calcium nitrate
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(b) Sodium carbonate
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2. Write chemical equation for each of these reactions.

(a) The decomposition of potassium nitrate
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(b) The decomposition of strontium carbonate
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 FLAME TESTS AND THE TEST FOR AMMONIUM IONS

HOW TO DO A FLAME TEST

1. Wear safety glasses and a lab coat. Within a fume cupboard, light a Bunsen burner.
2. Using a dropper, add a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid to a solid and mix them
together.
3. Dip a clean metal wire (platinum and nichrome) or silica rod into the mixture to obtain a sample of
the compound.
4. Hold the end of the wire or rod in the flame and observe the colour.

Concentrated HCl acid is used here, because metal chlorides are formed and the metal oxides are
more volatile and give better results in the flame test)

COLOUR DESCRIPTION
METAL CATION FORMULA COLOUR
Lithium Li+ red
Sodium Na+ yellow
Potassium K+ lilac
Rubidium Rb+ red
Caesium Cs+ blue
Beryllium Be2+ No colour
Magnesium Mg2+ No colour
Calcium Ca2+ Brick red/orange
Strontium Sr2+ red
Barium Ba2+ barium

WHAT CAUSES COLOUR IN FLAME TESTS?

 Electrons in the ground state absorbs energy and move to higher energy level.
 The new situation of the electron in the higher energy level is called ‘excited state’.
 Then, the electron in higher energy level comes to lower energy levels
 When electrons are returning to the ground level, energy is released in form of radiation.
 If this radiaiton belongs to the visible light spectrum (400 - 700 nm), colour can be seen.
PROBLEMS WITH A FLAME TEST
1. Many compounds contain a little amount of sodium compounds as impurities. The intense colour
of sodium appears in flame hiding the cation colours.
2. Describing colour is subjective since people have different levels of colour vision leading to
different colours to people.

QUESTIONS:

1. Why is concentrated hydrochloric acid used in flame tests?

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2. Explain why barium compounds give a characteristic flame colour but magnesium compounds do
not.

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 TRENDS IN GROUP 7

INTRODUCTION TO THE GROUP 7 ELEMENTS

They are called halogens since they form salts called halides.

Element State at rt Melting Boiling Electronegativity

temperature/ temperature/
o
C o
C
Fluorine gas -220 -188 4.0
Chlorine gas -101 -35 3.0
Bromine liquid -7 59 2.8
Iodine solid 114 184 2.5
Astatine solid 302 337 2.2

Question 1: Explain the trend of melting and boiling point shown in the table above.

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 When bromine liquid is kept at room temperature brown colour vapour is seen.

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 Iodine undergoes sublimation, that is directly changing from solid to gas without melting.

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TRENDS IN ELECTROEGATIVITY
The ability of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond.

Factors afffecting electronegativity

1. Its nuclear charge
Greater the nuclear charge higher the electronegativity.
2. The distance between the nucleus and the bonding pair of electrons.
Shorter the distance, higher the electronegativity.
3. The shielding effect of electrons in inner energy levels
The fewer energy levels, the higher the electronegativity.

QUESTION 2:
Explain why Fluorine has the highest electronegativity by considering above factors.
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Explain why chlorine has greater electronegativity than bromine.

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TRENDS IN REACTIVITY

 Fluorine is the highly reactive element.

 Group 7 elements for anion, X- by gaining electron
F + e- F-

 Fluorine has the higghest electronegativity, hence it gains electrons easily than any other
halogens.

QUESTION 3:
Explain why reactivity of halogens decreases down the group 7.

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REDOX REACTIONS OF GROUP 7

REACTIONS WITH GROUP 1 AND 2

Group 7 elements react with metals in group 1 and 2 producing ionic compounds.
Reactions are more vigorous with the metals at the bottom of the groups.
In the salts form halogen oxidation number decreases from 0 to -1.
Group 1 element oxidation number increases from 0 to +1.
Group 2 element oxidation number increases from 0 to +1.

Example:
Li + Cl2 2LiCl
Ba + Br2 BaBr2
HALIDES DISPLACEMENT REACTION
More reactive halogen can displace less reactive halogen from a compound.
Ex:
1. Chlorine displaces bromine and iodine
2. Bromine displaces iodine
3. Iodine does not displace either chlorine or bromine.

Displaced halogens give different colours to aquous solutions and non polar solvents.
Halogen Colour in aqueous solution Colour in CCl4/
Br2 Orange Red brown
I2 brown Purple/violet

DISPROPORTIONATION REACTIONS OF CHLORINE

Disproportionation reaction is a reacction involving the simultaneous oxidation and reduction of an

element in a single species.

1. Chlorine reacting with water

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Chlorine is reduced from 0 to -1 oxidation state.

Chlorine is oxidised from 0 to +1 oxidation state.

Chlorinated water kills pathogens responsible for water borne diseases including cholera.

2. Chlorine with cold alkali

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Chlorine is reduced from 0 to -1 oxidation state.

Chlorine is oxidised from 0 to +1 oxidation state.

Sodium chlorate(I) formed here is used as a disinfenctant as well as a bleaching compound.

3. Chlorine with hot alkali

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Chlorine is reduced from 0 to -1 oxidation state.

Chlorine is oxidised from 0 to +5 oxidation state.

Sodium chlorate(V) formed here is used as a bleaching compound and a weed killer.

QUESTIONS

1. Write a chemical equation for the reaction between chlorine and potassium iodide.

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2. Write an ionic equation for the reaction between bromine and sodium astatide.

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3. Write equations and name the products of the reactions between bromine and cold dilute aquoues
sodium hydroxide.

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4. Write equations and name the productss of the reactions between bromine and hot concentrated
sodium hydroxide solution.

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REACTIONS OF HALIDES WITH SULFURIC ACID

REDUCING POWER OF HALIDES
Oxidising power Halogen Halide Redcuing power
High F2 F- Lowest
Cl2 Cl-
Br2 Br-
Low I2 I- Highest
 Concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong oxidising agent. Hence, sulfuric acid gets reduced by halides.
The extent of the reduction and products formed depend on the type of halide being used.

 The possible reduction products of sulfuric acid are

 Sulfur dioxide, SO2 (Colourless gas with chocking smell)
 Sulfur, S (yellow solid)
 Hydrogen sulfide, H2S (Colourless gas with rotten egg smell)

HALIDE OBSERVATIONS PRODUCTS Eqaution for chemical reaction

NaCl Misty fumes

NaBr Misty fumes

Brown fumes

Colourless gas
with chocking
smell
NaI Misty fumes

Purple fumes or
black solid
Colourless gas
with chocking
smell
Yellow solid

Colourless gas
with rotten egg
smell
QUESTIONS:
1. Write full ionic equation euation for the reaction between NaI and concentrated H2SO4 for the
formation of SO2

2. Write full ionic equation euation for the reaction between NaBr and concentrated H2SO4 for the
formation of H2S

3. Explain what kind of reaction occurs when concentrated sulfuric acidd is added to sodium fluoride.
TESTING FOR HALIDE IONS IN SOLUTION

METHOD
 Add aqueous nitric acid solution.
 Then, add silver nitrate.
 Test any procipitate formed with aqueous and concentrated ammonia solution.

TEST RESULTS
Steps - method Chloride ions Bromide ions Iodide ions
1. Add silver nitrate White precipitate Cream precipitate Yellow precipitate

2. Add dilute aqueous ammonia soluble Insoluble Insoluble

3. Add concentrated aqueous
ammonia soluble Soluble Insoluble

Ionic equations for the reactions mentioned in the table are as follows.

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When silver halides dissolve in ammonia solutions they form soluble comples ions.

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QUESTIONS
1. Write equations to show the formation of the cream precipitate in the test for bromide ions.

2. Write the equation to show the precipitate dissolving in concentrated ammonia.

HYDROGEN HALIDES AACTING AS ACIDS

1. Reactions with water

 All hydrogen halides readily react with water to form acidic solutions.

Hydrogen halide Acid formed Equation

Hydrogen Hydrofluoric acid
fluoride
Hydrogen Hydrochloric acid
chloride
Hydrogen Hydrobromic acid
bromide
Hydrogen Hydroiodic acid
iodide

REACTIONS WITH AMMONIA

All halides react with ammonia to form white ionic solids.

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QUESTION

1. Describe what happens when ammonia and hydrogen bromide gases are mixed together.

2. Name the product of above reaction and write an equation for its formation.