6 Some Chemical

Families

LOOKING AHEAD
You have seen the gradual changes in chemical properties that
occur across the periods in the Periodic Table. You have observed
how properties repeat regularly as you proceed from highly reac-
tive metals through metalloids, to nonmetals, and finally to noble
gases. You will now examine some of the groups in the table in
greater detail, becoming familiar with the behavior of many of the
more common elements.

When you have completed this chapter you should be able to:
■ Contrast atomic radii, ionic radii, and physical states of the
alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals.
■ Define and give examples of allotropes.
■ Distinguish between nonmetals, metalloids, and metals.
■ Describe the chemistry of representative members of certain
chemical families.
■ Account for the regularities in Groups 1, 2, 13–17; the unique-
ness of hydrogen.
■ Discuss the origin of some common air pollutants related to
elements in Group 15 and Group 16.

200
Group 1—Hydrogen and
the Alkali Metals
Although hydrogen is very different from the alkali metals, it is
often considered to be a member of Group 1. At room tempera-
ture, hydrogen is a gas while the alkali metals are solids. What
these elements have in common is one valence electron in their
outermost energy level.

Hydrogen
Hydrogen has the electron structure 1s1. Like the alkali metals,
therefore, hydrogen has a single s electron in its outermost energy
level. Unlike the alkali metals, it does not have inner energy
levels. The hydrogen atom also has a small covalent radius
(37 pm), which explains some of its unique properties.
The loss of the single electron liberates the free proton H. In
aqueous solution, H becomes hydrated, or aquated, forming
H3O, or H (aq). Since the single s electron represents a half-filled
orbital, an atom of hydrogen can also gain or share an electron to
fill the orbital. The electronegativity of hydrogen (2.1) suggests a
greater tendency to share than to gain electrons. Although hydro-
gen can gain an electron to form a hydride ion, as in LiH, hydrogen
atoms tend to share electrons with nonmetals, forming com-
pounds such as CH4 and HCl. Because of these unusual characteris-
tics, hydrogen does not fit satisfactorily into any chemical family.
Largely for convenience, it is often listed with Group 1. However, it
is best to think of hydrogen as neither a metal nor a nonmetal, but
as a unique element, with its own singular properties.
Hydrogen is an important commercial gas. It has tremendous
potential as a fuel source, although it is difficult to store because
of its flammability. Considerable quantities of hydrogen are used
to convert liquid oils into solid fats, a process called hydrogena-
tion. Hydrogen is also used to provide high temperatures in oxy-
hydrogen torches and as a source of energy in fuel cells.
Hydrogen is prepared commercially by reacting coke (C) or
natural gas (CH4) with steam.
C(s)  H2O(g) h CO(g)  H2(g)
CH4(g)  H2O(g) h CO(g)  3 H2(g)

Group 1—Hydrogen and the Alkali Metals | 201

To prepare hydrogen in the laboratory, you place a fairly active
metal, such as zinc or magnesium, in a solution of dilute
hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. A typical reaction would be
Zn(s)  2 HCl(aq) h H2(g)  ZnCl2(aq)
Because hydrogen gas is nearly insoluble in water, the gas can be
collected by water displacement, as shown in Appendix 3, on
page 584. To test for the presence of hydrogen, a burning splint is
placed in the mouth of the test tube. The hydrogen reacts with a
loud “pop” and forms water, as shown in Figure 6-1.

The Alkali Metals

The elements of the alkali metal family (Group 1) are lithium,
sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and francium. (Francium
is highly radioactive, and will not be included in our discussion.)
Some of the properties of the alkali metals are compared in the
table on page 203.
From the table, you can see that the outermost electron shell
of each alkali metal has just a single electron. In each case, the loss
of this electron produces the electron configuration of a noble gas.
(While the Group 11 metals, Cu, Ag, and Au, also have one
valence electron, they do not produce noble gas configurations

Burning splint

Water droplets

HCl (aq)
Gas
bubbles

Zn

Figure 6-1 Testing for hydrogen gas

202 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

The Alkali Metals
Property Lithium Sodium Potassium Rubidium Cesium

Atomic number 3 11 19 37 55
Electron structure 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2
2s1 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6
(2-1) 3s1 3s2, 3p6 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10
(2-8-1) 4s1 4s2, 4p6 4s2, 4p6, 4d10
(2-8-8-1) 5s1 5s2, 5p6
(2-8-18-8-1) 6s1
(2-8-18-18-8-1)
Atomic (metallic) 155 190. 235 248 267
radius (pm)
Ionic radius, 60 95 133 148 169
X (pm)
First ionization 520 496 419 403 376
energy (kJ/mole)
Electronegativity 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8
Oxidation state 1 1 1 1 1
*One picometer (pm) = 1012 meter.

when the electron is lost.) The alkali metals each have the largest
atomic radius and the lowest ionization energy in their respective
periods. The ease with which these metals lose electrons makes
them the most reactive of the metallic elements. Since the radii
increase and the ionization energies decrease as we go down the
group, the metals become progressively more active, from Li to Cs.

Sodium and Potassium Although both sodium and potassium

are among the most abundant elements in Earth’s crust, they
were not produced, as pure metals, until 1807. Both were recog-
nized in compounds long ago; the name “sodium” comes from
“soda,” the old name for baking soda, or sodium hydrogen car-
bonate. Yet they were not isolated from their compounds sooner,
because the only practical way to separate active metals from their
compounds is through the use of electricity, in a process called
electrolysis. When an electric current is passed through molten
NaCl, for example, the salt decomposes to produce sodium and
chlorine:
2 NaCl h 2 Na  Cl2.
However, scientists learned how to generate sufficient amounts of
electricity only at the beginning of the nineteenth century. By

Group 1—Hydrogen and the Alkali Metals | 203

using electrolysis, the British chemist Sir Humphrey Davy was
able to discover sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and
barium—five new elements—in the space of just one year.
Sodium and potassium are both soft, silvery metals that are
easily cut with a knife. Because they are so active, they are nor-
mally stored under kerosene; they would rapidly form oxides or
hydroxides if exposed to air. Both metals react vigorously with
water. If a small piece of sodium is dropped into water, it instantly
begins to react, forming hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide.
2 Na(s)  2H2O(l) h 2 NaOH(aq)  H2(g)
Because sodium is less dense than water, the metal floats, and the
hydrogen bubbles act like little propellers, moving the sodium
around in the water. (See Figure 6-2.) If too large a piece of sodi-
um is used, the heat generated by the reaction can be sufficient to
ignite the hydrogen gas, resulting in a violent explosion.
Potassium, with its larger radius and smaller ionization energy,
is more reactive than sodium. When potassium is placed in water,
the hydrogen produced immediately bursts into flame. The flame
produced by the reaction is violet in color. The flame produced by
sodium is a bright yellow-orange. One of the interesting properties
of the alkali metals is that their compounds impart characteristic
colors to a flame. The flame colors of lithium, sodium, and potas-
sium are red, yellow, and violet, respectively. Can you predict the
color produced by rubidium? If you predicted red, you were correct.

Na

H2
bubbles

H2 O

Figure 6-2 The reaction of sodium metal with water

204 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

 All the alkali metals react similarly with water, producing
hydrogen and a hydroxide, as shown previously for sodium. The
hydroxide compounds of these metals are strong bases, also
called alkalis—hence the name of the group: the alkali metals.
(The general properties of bases are discussed in Chapter 12.)

PRACTICE
6.1 Write a balanced equation for the reaction that occurs
when potassium is placed in water.
6.2 Write a balanced equation for the reaction that occurs
when hydrogen gas burns in oxygen.
6.3 Of the following terms
(1) single replacement (2) double replacement (3) decom-
position (4) combination (5) exothermic (6) endothermic
(a) Which TWO terms best describe the reaction between
sodium and water?
(b) Which TWO terms best describe the reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen?
6.4 The vapor of an alkali metal is often used in street lamps.
Which metal is it? How do you know?
6.5 Both sodium and potassium will react with dilute
hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen, yet neither metal
is ever used in the laboratory preparation of hydrogen.
Why not?

Group 2—The Alkaline Earth Metals

The elements of the alkaline earth metal family are beryllium,
magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. Beryllium
and magnesium have properties that are somewhat different from
the properties of the other alkaline earth metals. Radium is
radioactive.

Group 2—The Alkaline Earth Metals | 205

 Compare each of the alkaline earth metals with the alkali
metal directly to its left in the Periodic Table. You will notice that
each alkaline earth metal has an atomic number one higher than
the alkali metal next to it, in Group 1. The increase in positive
charge in the nucleus of the Group 2 element produces a greater
attractive force on the electrons. This force tends to shrink the
atom. The atomic radii of the alkaline earth metals are therefore
smaller than those of the corresponding alkali metals.
Ions of the alkaline earth metals have a charge of 2. Ions of
the alkali metals have a charge of 1. The nuclei of the alkaline
earth metal ions therefore attract the remaining electrons more
strongly than do the nuclei of the alkali metal ions. This means
that the radii of the alkaline earth metal ions are smaller than the
radii of the corresponding alkali metal ions. The following table
summarizes some important properties of the alkaline earth
metals.
Like their neighbors in Group 1 of the Periodic Table, the
metals in Group 2 lose electrons too easily to be found uncom-
bined in nature. With their smaller atomic radii, and higher ion-
ization energies, the Group 2 metals are slightly less active than
the Group 1 metals. The difference in chemical activity between
the two groups is demonstrated by comparing the reactions of
the metals with water. Recall that sodium and potassium react
explosively with water to produce hydrogen and a metal
hydroxide. When a strip of magnesium is placed in water, no
apparent change occurs. However, when the acid-base indicator,
phenolphthalein, is added to the solution, it gradually turns
pink, indicating a basic solution. The reaction: Mg  2 H2O h
Mg(OH)2  H2 does take place, although quite slowly at room
temperature. Like the Group 1 metals, the Group 2 metals form
bases in water; hence the name “alkaline earth” is given to the
group.
How would you expect calcium to behave in water? With its
larger radius and smaller ionization energy, calcium should be
more active than magnesium. Calcium does react quite vigorously
with water, producing hydrogen and calcium hydroxide. If suffi-
cient calcium is used, a white precipitate will form in the water,
because calcium hydroxide is only slightly soluble. The com-
pounds of the Group 2 metals are generally less soluble than
those of the Group 1 metals.

206 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

 The Alkaline Earth Metals
Property Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Strontium Barium Radium

Atomic number 4 12 20 38 56 88
Electron structure 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2
2s2 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6
(2-2) 3s2 3s2, 3p6 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10
(2-8-2) 4s2 4s2, 4p6 4s2, 4p6, 4d10 4s2, 4p6, 4d10, 4f 14
(2-8-8-2) 5s2 5s2, 5p6 5s2, 5p6, 5d10
(2-8-18-8-2) 6s2 6s2, 6p6
(2-8-18-18-8-2) 7s2
(2-8-18-32-18-8-2)
Atomic (metallic) 112 160. 197 215 222 233
radius (pm)
Ionic radius, X2 31 65 99 113 135 152
(pm)
First ionization 900 736 590 549 503 503
energy (kJ/mole)
Electronegativity 1.6 1.3 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9
Oxidation state 2 2 2 2 2 2

Group 2—The Alkaline Earth Metals

| 207
 Alkaline Earth Metal Compounds
Formula Name Source Properties Uses

208
|
MgSO4  7H2O Epsom salts Epsomite Forms a variety of hydrates 1. Medicinal purgative
(a mineral) 2. Weighting cotton and silk
3. Fireproofing muslin
CaCO3 Limestone Natural deposits Thermal decomposition yields lime 1. Source of many calcium
or marble formed by CaCO3(s) S CaO(s)  CO2 (g) compounds
shells of 2. Building material
sea animals 3. Metallurgy of iron
CaO Lime Decomposition Reacts with water to produce slaked 1. Production of slaked lime,
or quicklime of limestone lime and considerable heat Ca(OH)2
in a kiln CaO  H2O S Ca(OH)2  67 kJ 2. Smelting of metals
3. Drying agent
Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime or Reaction of lime, 1. Common base 1. Preparation of mortar

Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

limewater CaO, with 2. Reacts with halogens to form 2. Manufacture of
water oxyhalogen compounds bleaching powder
3. Purification of sugar
CaSO4  2H2O Gypsum Natural deposits Partial dehydration yields plaster 1. Source of plaster of Paris
of Paris 2. Building material
2 CaSO4  2H2O S
(CaSO4)2  H2O  3 H2O
CaCl2 Calcium By-product in Absorbs and holds water vapor 1. Drying agent
chloride the Solvay process (hygroscopic material) 2. Freezing mixtures
for making NaHCO3
BaSO4 Barite Natural deposits and 1. Stable against heat 1. Paint pigment and filler
by reaction and atmosphere 2. X-ray diagnosis
BaO2  H2SO4 S 2. Absorbs X rays
H2O2  BaSO4(s)
Sr(NO3)2 Strontium SrCO3  2 HNO3 S Produces characteristic Fireworks and red flares
nitrate Sr(NO3)2  H2O  CO2(g) red color in a flame
 Calcium and Magnesium Ions and Our Water Supply
Our drinking water, especially if it comes from underground
streams, is often rich in calcium and magnesium ions. Water that
contains significant concentrations of either of these ions is
called hard water. Hard water is perfectly safe to drink. However,
recall that the solubilities of the compounds formed by the Group
2 metals are lower than those in Group 1. Both magnesium and
calcium ions form an insoluble compound with the stearate ion,
(C17H35COO) an ion contained in most soaps. The formation of
insoluble compounds, such as calcium stearate, interferes with
the washing action of the soap.
Ca2(aq)  2 C17H35COO(aq) h (C17H35COO)2Ca(s)
Mg2(aq)  2 C17H35COO(aq) h (C17H35COO)2Mg(s)
Since Ca2(aq) and Mg2(aq) cause hardness, the amount of
these ions in the water must be decreased to soften it. This can be
done by adding chemical agents to the water. Compounds that
contain the carbonate ion (CO32)—washing soda (Na2CO3), for
example—may be added. The carbonate ion reacts with the metal
ions and forms the insoluble compounds CaCO3 or MgCO3,
which settle out of the water. The equations for these reactions
are as follows:
CO32(aq)  Ca2(aq) h CaCO3(s)
CO32(aq)  Mg2(aq) h MgCO3(s)
Water may also be softened on a larger scale by the use of ion-
exchange resins. Ion-exchange resins are able to substitute a
desired ion for an undesirable one. In the case of hard water, the
resins remove the calcium and magnesium ions from the water,
replacing them with sodium ions. Sodium stearate is soluble in
water, so the resulting solution is “soft” water; it will permit soap
to lather normally.

Hydroxides of Calcium and Magnesium

We have seen that both the alkali metals and the alkaline earth
metals form hydroxides in water; these compounds are called
bases, or alkali. Less active metals tend to form weaker bases, so
Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are weaker than the corresponding bases of
Group 1, KOH and NaOH. Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye, is

Group 2—The Alkaline Earth Metals | 209

an extremely toxic substance, which is lethal if swallowed, and can
cause permanent skin damage if touched. Magnesium hydroxide,
also known as milk of magnesia, is a mild enough base to be med-
ically useful, both as a laxative and as an antacid. Calcium hydrox-
ide, also called lime, is used by gardeners to “sweeten” acidic soil. It
is a mild enough base not to damage the plants around it.
The sources, properties, and some additional uses of some
compounds of the alkaline earth metal family of elements are
summarized in the table on page 208.

Flame Tests
Like the metals of Group 1, many of the Group 2 metals form
compounds that will impart a color to a flame. Calcium ions color
a flame orange-red, strontium a bright intense red, and barium
a yellow-green. The flame colors are often used in the laboratory
to test solutions for the presence of these ions. A platinum wire
with a small loop at its end is dipped into the solution to be
tested, and then placed in the flame of a Bunsen burner.
(See Figure 6-3.) The resulting color can be used to confirm the
presence of sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, barium, stron-
tium, or any of several other ions in the solution.

Glass or
wooden
handle

Colored
flame

Pt wire

Burner
Solution
to be tested

Figure 6-3 Flame test procedure

210 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

PRACTICE
6.6 What two ions are most commonly found in hard water?
6.7 Element X is an alkali metal. Element Y is an alkaline earth
metal in the same period. Compare these two elements
with regard to
(a) ionization energy
(b) electronegativity
(c) atomic radius
(d) size of their ions
(e) charge of their ions
(f) chemical activity
6.8 Why are alkali metals and alkaline earth metals never
found uncombined in nature?
6.9 Write a balanced equation for the reaction that occurs
when barium metal is placed in water. Would you expect
this reaction to be faster or slower than the reaction of cal-
cium with water? Explain your answer.

Group 13—The Aluminum Family

The elements in Group 13 include boron, aluminum, gallium,
indium, and thallium. The properties of the elements in Group 13
fit into the trends that were noted for the alkali metals and the
alkaline earth metals. Each element in Group 13 has two s elec-
trons and one p electron in the outer energy level. The elements
thus have a 3 oxidation state. The heavier elements may lose
only the single p electron. They then have an oxidation state of
1. An example is thallium in TlCl.
The elements in Group 13 are less reactive than the elements
in Group 1 and Group 2. The ionization energies of Group 13
atoms are higher and the tendency to form ions is weaker than in
Group 1 and Group 2. Thus boron, which has the smallest atomic

Group 13—The Aluminum Family | 211

radius in Group 13, forms only covalent compounds, such as
boron trifluoride, BF3.

As the atoms become larger in Group 13, the tendency to lose

electrons becomes stronger. The elements thus become more
metallic from boron to thallium.
Aluminum is the most important element in Group 13.
Aluminum is a malleable and ductile metal about one-third as
dense as iron. For its weight, it has unusually high tensile strength
and is used as a structural metal in aircraft, automobiles, and build-
ings. Aluminum is also an excellent conductor of heat and electric-
ity and is used in many household appliances and in alloys.
Aluminum is a reactive metal. It tarnishes easily in air, form-
ing a protective oxide coating. The oxide coating prevents further
damage to the metal, so that objects made of aluminum remain
structurally sound upon exposure to air and moisture. Iron,
though less active than aluminum, does not form a protective
coating and so may eventually rust through.
Aluminum reacts readily with acids. Cola beverages, which are
often sold in aluminum cans, are very acidic and would react with
the aluminum if the inside of the can were not specially coated to
prevent the beverage from coming in contact with the metal.

Group 14—The Carbon Family

Group 14 includes carbon, a nonmetal; silicon and germanium,
which are semimetals or metalloids; and tin and lead, which are
metals. Carbon is unlike all the other elements in one way. Atoms
of carbon can bond together in an almost endless variety of open,
chainlike structures and closed, ringlike structures. Structures like
these form compounds in organic chemistry, the subject of
Chapter 14.
Carbon also forms some compounds, such as carbon dioxide
and carbonates, that are not usually studied in organic chemistry.

212 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

These compounds and compounds that do not contain carbon
are generally called inorganic.
Carbon dioxide is constantly being generated and released
into the atmosphere as a result of the process of respiration in liv-
ing things. Carbon dioxide is also constantly being removed from
the atmosphere by green plants, which use the gas in the manu-
facture of their food, a process called photosynthesis. Carbon
dioxide is also released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels,
such as coal and oil, are burned.
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been
gradually increasing. This increase is at least partly the result of
the increasing use of fossil fuels as population and industrializa-
tion have grown and spread throughout the world. At the same
time, plants that can remove excess carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere are being destroyed. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the
atmosphere, and the temperature of the Earth has been rising
slightly. Scientists suspect that there is a connection between the
increase in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and the
increase in global temperatures, but there is much disagreement
about how significant that connection is. Global warming has
become a serious concern of many environmentalists, who fear
that dramatic climatic changes may occur in the next century if
we do not decrease our use of fossil fuels. Other scientists dis-
agree, pointing out that in the past Earth has been both much
colder and much warmer than it is now, long before humans
began to burn fossil fuels.
The laboratory preparation of CO2 is given in Appendix 3.
Silicon is the second most abundant (next to oxygen) element
on Earth. It is not found free in nature. It makes up a major
proportion of sand, sandstone, clay, silica rock, quartz, and other
common minerals. Silicon carbide, SiC, is one of the hardest sub-
stances known. It is therefore very useful as an abrasive.
Carborundum is a commercially produced form of silicon car-
bide. Like carbon, silicon forms chainlike molecules of varying
lengths. These molecules, called silicones, consist of atoms of Si,
C, O, and H. The short-chain molecules act like oils, the medium
chains act like greases, and the long chains are rubberlike. Hence
silicones have a variety of interesting uses.
Germanium is a typical metalloid. It is useful as a semiconduc-
tor in electronic devices, such as transistors.

Group 14—The Carbon Family | 213

 Tin and lead are metals that are widely used in the home and
in industry.

Group 15—The Nitrogen Family

Group 15 includes the nonmetals nitrogen and phosphorus; the
semimetals, or metalloids, arsenic and antimony; and the metal
bismuth. Some of the important properties of the members of the
nitrogen family are shown in the table on page 215.
Each member of the nitrogen family has five valence elec-
trons—two s electrons and three p electrons. The ionization
energies of nitrogen and phosphorus are relatively high.
Therefore they do not form positively charged ions. However,
antimony and bismuth can lose their three p valence electrons
and form Sb3 and Bi3 ions. This illustrates the tendency of the
Group 15 elements to become more metallic with increasing
atomic number. The shielding effect of the inner electrons leads
to an increasing tendency to lose outer electrons, as shown by
decreasing ionization energy values. In combinations with the
very reactive elements of the alkali metal family, nitrogen and
phosphorus may form 3 ions: N3 (nitride ion) and P3 (phos-
phide ion).
With the exception of the nitrides, such as AlN, and the
phosphides, such as K3P, the members of the nitrogen family
form covalent bonds. They also form polyatomic ions, such as
NO3 and PO43, with oxygen. The bonding within these ions,
however, is covalent, as shown in the following diagram of a
nitrate ion:

Nitrogen
The nitrogen molecule has a triple covalent bond between
the two N atoms. Nitrogen is therefore exceptionally stable and
is difficult to convert into compounds. Yet, nitrogen is present

214 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

 The Nitrogen Family
Property Nitrogen Phosphorus Arsenic Antimony Bismuth

Atomic number 7 15 33 51 83
Electron structure 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2
2s2, 2p3 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 3p6 2s2, 2p6
(2-5) 3s2, 3p3 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10
(2-8-5) 4s2, 4p3 4s2, 4p6, 4d10 4s2, 4p6, 4d10, 4f 14
(2-8-18-5) 5s2, 5p3 5s2, 5p6, 5d10
(2-8-18-18-5) 6s2, 6p3
(2-8-18-32-18-5)
Atomic radius (pm) 92 128 139 159 170.
First ionization energy 1402 1012 944 831 703
(kJ/mole)
Electronegativity 3.0 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.0
Oxidation states All states from 3, 2, 3, 3, 3,
3 to 5 1, 3, 3, 5 3, 5 3, 5
4, 5

Group 15—The Nitrogen Family

| 215
in proteins, which form the cells and tissues of living things,
and is a valuable part of fertilizers and other important com-
pounds.
Molecular nitrogen, N2, must be converted into nitrogen com-
pounds before it can be used by living things. In nature, the
energy of lightning and the action of certain bacteria that live in
the roots of some plants change nitrogen into usable nitrogen
compounds. This process is called nitrogen fixation.
Some of the oxides of nitrogen are listed in the table below.

Oxide Oxidation
of N Name Number of N

N2O Nitrous oxide 1

(dinitrogen monoxide)
NO Nitric oxide 2
(nitrogen monoxide)
N2O3 Dinitrogen trioxide 3
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide 4
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide 4
N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide 5

NO2 is a dark brown, extremely poisonous gas. It is formed

when heat (such as the heat produced by the combustion of gaso-
line in an automobile engine) causes a reaction between atmo-
spheric nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen dioxide is itself a serious
air pollutant. It also is responsible for the formation of ozone, one
of the harmful components of smog.
N2O3 dissolves in water and forms HNO2, nitrous acid.
N2O3  H2O h 2 HNO2
N2O5 dissolves in water and forms nitric acid, HNO3.
N2O5  H2O h 2 HNO3
The laboratory preparation of nitric acid is given in
Appendix 3.

Ammonia One of the most important nitrogen compounds is

ammonia, NH3. Ammonia is used in the manufacture of many
chemical products, including fertilizers, medicines, dyes, and
explosives. Some ammonia is formed by fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen by lightning. However, most of the ammonia used is

216 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

made synthetically from its elements. The reaction between
nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia can be written as
N2(g)  3 H2(g) s
r 2 NH3(g).
The air is 80 percent nitrogen, and hydrogen is readily available,
so there would seem to be no problem in producing large quanti-
ties of ammonia. Unfortunately, the reaction is so slow at room
temperature that it produces no observable yield of ammonia.
The reaction becomes faster at higher temperatures, but it also
changes direction, going predominantly from ammonia to hydro-
gen and nitrogen. In 1911, the German chemist Fritz Haber was
able to produce useful quantities of ammonia by heating the
gases under very high pressure, in the presence of iron and alu-
minum oxides. The oxides act as catalysts. They speed up the
reaction without being permanently changed by the reaction.
(Catalysts are more fully discussed in Chapter 9.) This process is
called the Haber process.
In the laboratory, ammonia is generally prepared through the
reaction of a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide, with an
ammonium salt, such as ammonium chloride.
NH4Cl  NaOH h NaOH  H2O  NH3 c
(An upward arrow, or ( g), is often used in a chemical equation to
indicate production of a gas.) A suitable apparatus for carrying
out this process is illustrated in Appendix 3.
Ammonia is used to prepare nitric acid commercially by the
Ostwald process. Ammonia is oxidized in the presence of a cata-
lyst to form an oxide of nitrogen. The oxide is then converted
into nitric acid.
(1) 4 NH3(g)  5 O2(g) h 4 NO(g)  6 H2O
(2) 2 NO(g)  O2(g) h 2 NO2(g)
(3) 3 NO2(g)  H2O h 2 HNO3  NO(g)
The NO in step 3 is recycled and reused in step 2.

Phosphorus
Under ordinary conditions, the element phosphorus exists as
a P4 molecule. Two different models of the phosphorus molecule
are shown in Figure 6-4 on page 218.

Group 15—The Nitrogen Family | 217

 P

P
P
P

Ball-and-stick model Space-filling model

Figure 6-4 Two models of the P4 molecule

Phosphorus is an allotropic element. Allotropic elements or

compounds exist in two or more forms in the same physical state.
Each form has its own physical and chemical properties. White
phosphorus consists of individual P4 molecules bonded by van
der Waals forces. Red phosphorus consists of chains of P4 mole-
cules covalently bonded in a giant molecule. These structural
differences are thought to account for the differences in the prop-
erties of the two forms of phosphorus.
White phosphorus forms a vapor readily (is volatile) at room
temperature and catches fire so easily that it must be kept and
handled under water.

P4  5 O2 h P4O10
tetraphosphorus
decoxide

Red phosphorus is much less volatile and much less reactive than
the weakly bonded white phosphorus.
Phosphorus is used largely in the manufacture of phosphate
fertilizers, organic phosphates, and matches. It is also used to
make special bronze alloys.

Other Elements of Group 15

Arsenic is a metalloid. Small quantities of arsenic are used
with lead to form an alloy that is harder than lead alone would
be. Arsenates, AsO43, are used as insecticides. Since these com-

218 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

pounds are poisonous, any food that has been in contact with
such an insecticide spray must be washed carefully.
Antimony is also a metalloid. An alloy of antimony, lead, and
tin is used to make type for printing. This alloy is unusual in that,
unlike most liquids, it expands on solidifying, thus ensuring
sharp impressions. Certain fabrics are treated with antimony
compounds before being dyed.
Bismuth is a metal. It is used in the preparation of alloys that
melt at low temperatures and are therefore useful in automatic
fire sprinklers. Bismuth compounds are used as medicinals.

PRACTICE
6.10 All of the Group 13 elements except boron can readily
form 3 ions. Why do they tend to form 3 ions? Why
doesn’t boron form similar ions?
6.11 In Group 14, carbon is a nonmetal, while tin and lead are
metals. Explain this difference in behavior.
6.12 Account for the exceptional stability of nitrogen gas.
6.13 All of the Group 15 elements show a maximum oxidation
state of 5. Why?

Group 16—The Oxygen Family

The members of Group 16 are oxygen, sulfur, selenium, telluri-
um, and polonium. The most important members of this group
are oxygen and sulfur. These two elements and selenium are non-
metals. Tellurium and polonium are metalloids. Polonium is the
first of the naturally occurring elements in the Periodic Table
(with atomic number 84, it follows bismuth) that has only
radioactive isotopes. Polonium will not be further discussed. The
table on page 220 lists some properties of the other elements in
Group 16.

Group 16—The Oxygen Family | 219

The Oxygen Family
Property Oxygen Sulfur Selenium Tellurium

Atomic number 8 16 34 52
Electron structure 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2
2s2, 2p4 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6
(2-6) 3s2, 3p4 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10
(2-8-6) 4s2, 4p4 4s2, 4p6, 4d10
(2-8-18-6) 5s2, 5p4
(2-8-18-18-6)
Atomic radius 65 127 140. 142
(pm)
First ionization 1314 1000. 941 869
energy (kJ/mole)
Electronegativity 3.5 2.6 2.6 2.1
Oxidation states 2, 1, 2, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4,
1, 2 6 6 6

All the elements in the oxygen family have six valence elec-
trons. The size of each atom increases with increasing atomic
number. This indicates that the number of occupied energy levels
is increasing. As in the Group 15 elements, the shielding effect of
inner electrons allows electrons to be lost more easily as the cova-
lent radius increases. The ionization energies therefore decrease
with increasing atomic number. Generally, the ionization poten-
tials are too high to permit the formation of a 6 ion (except in
polonium and tellurium). Thus, with increasing atomic number,
the nonmetallic properties of the elements of the oxygen family
decrease and the metallic properties increase. These are the trends
that were noted in Group 15.
When compared with H2S, H2Se, and H2Te, H2O has abnormal
properties, as noted on pages 138–140. This can be explained by
the presence of hydrogen bonding in water, a result of the high
electronegativity value of oxygen.

Oxygen
Making up about 20 percent of the atmosphere and a part of
many different compounds, oxygen is the most common element
on Earth. It is essential to nearly all living things. In addition,
oxygen is used in the production of iron and steel, in producing
the hot flames necessary for cutting and welding metals, and as
an oxidizer for liquid rocket propellants. Oxygen is obtained from

220 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

natural sources, either by the fractional distillation of liquid air or
by the breakdown of water by an electric current (electrolysis).
The laboratory preparation of oxygen is given in Appendix 3.
Oxygen is the second most electronegative element (after flu-
orine). Thus, in nature, it is found combined with many other
elements. It takes electrons from these other elements and
becomes negatively charged, existing either as a 2 ion in ionic
compounds or in the oxidation state of 2 in compounds with
three elements (ternary oxygen compounds). Oxygen is thus an
excellent oxidizing agent.
In the peroxide structure, oxygen has an oxidation number of
1. The best-known peroxide compound is hydrogen peroxide,
H2O2. The electron-dot diagram for H2O2 is

Notice that each oxygen atom, being more electronegative than

the H atom, has attracted one hydrogen electron. Each O atom
therefore has an oxidation number of 1.
Oxygen exists in another gaseous molecular form, O3, called
ozone. Oxygen and ozone are allotropes. Ozone is prepared by
passing an electric discharge through oxygen.
3 O2(g)  286 kJh 2 O3(g)
Ozone is also formed from the air pollutant NO2, in a series of
reactions that require light (photolysis).
NO2  sunlight h NO  O
O  O2 h O3
Ozone is generally found 16 to 40 kilometers above sea level,
in the region of the atmosphere called the stratosphere. It acts as
a shield against the penetrating and dangerous ultraviolet radia-
tion of the sun. Ozone in the upper atmosphere therefore pro-
tects living things on Earth.

Sulfur
Next to oxygen, sulfur is the most common member of the
oxygen family. At room temperature, sulfur is a yellow, odorless

Group 16—The Oxygen Family | 221

solid. Like phosphorus and oxygen, sulfur exists in several differ-
ent allotropic forms. One form, a commercial variety of sulfur, is
called roll sulfur. If a solution of roll sulfur in carbon disulfide,
CS2, is allowed to evaporate slowly, crystals of rhombic sulfur
appear. Crystals of rhombic sulfur are eight-sided. Below 96°C,
rhombic sulfur remains stable. If roll sulfur is melted and kept
between 96°C and 120°C, needle-shaped crystals of sulfur are
formed. This allotrope is called prismatic sulfur or monoclinic
sulfur.
Both rhombic and monoclinic sulfur seem to consist of units
of S8 molecules. Each unit has its own geometric shape in the
crystal. A unit consists of eight atoms of sulfur joined in a puck-
ered ring, as shown in Figure 6-5. The sulfur atoms are joined to
one another in the ring by covalent bonds.
Sulfur is less reactive than oxygen. It unites with metals to
form ionic compounds. It unites with nonmetals to form cova-
lently bonded compounds. Examples of these reactions are
(1) 2 Na(s)  S(g) h 2 Na  S2
(2) S8(s)  8 O2(g) h 8 SO2(g)
The oxidation number of sulfur changes from 0 to 2 in reaction
1. Sulfur acquires a 2 oxidation state in metal sulfides, because
sulfur has a higher electronegativity than the metals. In reaction
2, the oxidation number of sulfur changes from 0 to 4. Sulfur
acquires a positive oxidation state when bonding to oxygen,
because sulfur has a lower electronegativity than oxygen.
Most of the sulfur mined in the world is converted into sulfur
compounds, mainly sulfuric acid, H2SO4. Some sulfur is used to
vulcanize rubber. Sulfur is also used as an ingredient in insecticides.

S
S
S
S S

S
S
S

Figure 6-5 A model of the S8 molecule

222 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

Sulfur compounds The most common sulfur compounds are
hydrogen sulfide, H2S; sulfur dioxide, SO2; sulfuric acid, H2SO4;
and a variety of sulfur-oxygen compounds, including sodium sul-
fate, Na2SO4; magnesium sulfate, MgSO4; and sodium thiosulfate,
Na2S2O3.
Sulfur dioxide and various sulfites are used to bleach materi-
als, such as wool and silk, that would be destroyed by chlorine
bleaches. You will also find the words “contains sulfites” on
most wine bottles sold in the U.S. Sulfites are added to wines to
prevent deterioration that might otherwise occur as the wines
age.
Sulfur dioxide is a gas with a pungent, irritating odor. The
odor of burning sulfur, or of a struck match, is due to sulfur diox-
ide. SO2 is a serious air pollutant. Most of the sulfur dioxide in the
air comes from the burning of petroleum products and coal from
which sulfur has not been sufficiently removed. Oil low in sulfur
content is more expensive than “cleaner” oil, but its use decreases
the dangers of sulfur dioxide to the well-being of people, animals,
and plants. The laboratory preparation of sulfur dioxide is given
in Appendix 3.
In the presence of moisture, such as mist in the air, SO2 is con-
verted to H2SO4. Some of this sulfuric acid then returns to Earth’s
surface as “acid rain.” Acid rain has made some of the lakes in
New York State too acidic to support life. Sulfuric acid in air also
damages buildings that contain marble or limestone. The reaction
between sulfuric acid and marble or limestone is
H2SO4  CaCO3 h CaSO4  H2O  CO2
On the other hand, sulfuric acid is probably the most impor-
tant compound of sulfur and is one of the world’s most widely
used industrial chemicals. Sulfuric acid is used at one stage or
another in many chemical processes. The major uses of sulfuric
acid include
1. Production of fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate and
superphosphate of lime.
2. Removal of rust and scale from steel (pickling) before steel is
plated with protective metal coatings.
3. Refining of petroleum to remove undesirable compounds
from lubricating oils.

Group 16—The Oxygen Family | 223

 Sulfuric acid is a very corrosive liquid. It is also a powerful
dehydrating agent—a substance that removes water or the ele-
ments that make up water from matter with which the substance
is in contact. The dehydrating action of concentrated sulfuric
acid is shown in the following reaction. The acid reacts with a car-
bohydrate (a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), such
as sugar (sucrose) or cellulose (wood, cotton).
C12H22O11  11 H2SO4 h 12 C  11 H2SO4  H2O
sucrose

This reaction accounts for the charring that occurs when concen-
trated sulfuric acid comes into contact with carbohydrates.
When a sulfur atom replaces an oxygen atom, the name of the
resulting particle has the prefix -thio. Hence SO42 is the sulfate
ion, and S2O32 is the thiosulfate ion.
Compounds made up of silver and halogen (silver halides) dis-
solve in sodium thiosulfate and form stable complex compounds.
AgBr(s)  2 Na2S2O3(aq) h NaBr(aq)  Na3Ag(S2O3)2(aq)
In photography, silver bromide, AgBr, that has not been acted on
by the developer is removed from the film by this reaction.
Removing the AgBr is called “fixing” the film. Sodium thiosulfate
is sold commercially as “hypo” and is called a photographic fixer,
or fixing agent.

Other Elements of Group 16

The remaining common elements of the oxygen family, sele-
nium and tellurium, resemble sulfur chemically.
Selenium occurs naturally in sulfide ores. Like sulfur, it has
allotropic forms. Selenium forms a number of compounds com-
parable to sulfur compounds, such as hydrogen selenide, H2Se,
and selenic acid, H2SeO4. When selenium is exposed to light, its
conductivity increases considerably. Because of this property,
called photoconductivity, selenium is useful in some photoelec-
tric cells. Selenium is also used to tint glass.
Tellurium occurs in nature as a telluride of lead, silver, and
gold. Tellurium forms compounds comparable to compounds of
sulfur and selenium, such as H2Te and H2TeO4. Tellurium is used
as an additive to steel and as a coloring agent in glass. In general,
however, tellurium has limited usefulness.

224 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

Group 17—The Halogens
The halogen family—fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and
astatine—makes up Group 17. Astatine is a radioactive halogen
not found in nature and is omitted from this discussion. Some of
the important properties of the other halogens are listed in the
table below.

The Halogens
Property Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine

Atomic number 9 17 35 53
Electron structure 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2
2s2, 2p5 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6
(2-7) 3s2, 3p5 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10
(2-8-7) 4s2, 4p5 4s2, 4p6, 4d10
(2-8-18-7) 5s2, 5p5
(2-8-18-18-7)
Atomic radius 57 97 112 132
(pm)
Ionic radius, 136 187 195 216
X (pm)
First ionization 1681 1251 1140. 1008
energy
(kJ/mole)
Electronegativity 4.0 3.2 3.0 2.7
Oxidation states 1 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1,
5, 7 3, 5 5, 7

All halogens have two s electrons and five p electrons in the

outermost energy level. Each of the halogens can acquire the
same electron configuration as the noble gas next to it (in Group
18) by one of the following methods (X represents a halogen):
1. Formation of a covalent bond between halogen atoms.

2. Formation of a halide ion.

Group 17—The Halogens | 225

 3. Formation of a covalent bond with hydrogen, carbon, or
nonmetals.

Of all the halogens, fluorine has the greatest attraction for

electrons, according to electronegativity values. Iodine has the
least. This means that F is an extremely stable ion. I is the least
stable of the halide ions. Fluorine has the smallest nuclear charge
of the halogens. It also has the smallest atomic radius. As a result,
electrons are attracted to the valence shell of fluorine with great
ease. This is the reason for the very high electronegativity value of
fluorine.
Fluorine is also the most electronegative of all the known ele-
ments. This means that fluorine is the most chemically reactive
nonmetal. Because of its high electronegativity, fluorine can have
only a negative oxidation state (1). The other halogens also
have an oxidation state of 1. However, in combination with ele-
ments that are more electronegative, chlorine, bromine, and
iodine may attain positive oxidation states as well.
The values for the ionization energies are high in the halo-
gens. Thus it is very difficult to remove an electron from a halo-
gen atom. In any given row of the Periodic Table, the halogen has
the highest ionization energy except for that of the stable noble
gas in the row. As the atomic radius of a halogen atom increases,
the distance from the nucleus to the outer electrons increases.
Thus, the shielding effect of the layers of electron energy levels
increases, and the ionization energies therefore decrease.
Recall that intermolecular attractions increase as the molecu-
lar size of related substances increases. At ordinary conditions,
fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is
a solid. When heated at ordinary pressure, iodine changes directly
from solid to gas. Recall that this process is called sublimation.
Elements that gain electrons are called oxidizing agents.
Fluorine is the strongest oxidizing agent in Group 17. Chlorine,
however, is a more common oxidizing agent. When chlorine is
added to drinking water and swimming pools, it destroys harmful

226 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

microorganisms by oxidizing them. The fluoride ion, F, is added
to drinking water or toothpaste as a protection against tooth
decay. Two compounds commonly used for this purpose are tin
(II) fluoride (stannous fluoride), SnF2, and sodium fluoride, NaF.
Excessive amounts of these substances must be avoided, however,
because excess F ion can cause mottled teeth and can also
destroy bone.
It has already been mentioned that the halogens can assume
different oxidation states. Using chlorine as a typical example,
the following table summarizes the oxidation states of the halo-
gens in representative compounds.

Oxidation
State H Compound K Compound

1 HCl, hydrochloric acid KCl, potassium

chloride
1 HClO (HOCl) hypochlorous acid KClO, potassium
hypochlorite
3 HClO2 (HOClO), chlorous acid KClO2, potassium
chlorite
5 HClO3 (HOClO2), chloric acid KClO3, potassium
chlorate
7 HClO4 (HOClO3), perchloric acid KClO4, potassium
perchlorate

The electron-dot diagrams below show the structures of the

oxychlorine acids mentioned in the table. These acids vary in
strength, with HClO the weakest and HClO4 the strongest.

The halogens are so active they do not occur uncombined in

nature. Cl2, Br2, and I2 are prepared by oxidizing their negative
ions, Cl, Br, and I. F ions can be oxidized only by a direct
electric current, that is, by electrolysis. (Why?) Cl ions can be
oxidized by electrolysis or by a stronger oxidizing agent.

Group 17—The Halogens | 227

 Seawater and salt wells are important commercial sources of
the halogens. The laboratory preparation of the halogens is given
in Appendix 3.
Chlorine is the most common halogen. However, all the ele-
ments of Group 17 are useful, as shown by the following table.

Halogen Some Uses

Fluorine Refrigerant (Freon), aerosol propellants, Teflon, antidecay

additive to toothpastes and drinking water
Chlorine Bleaches, disinfectants, insecticides, dyes, and medicines
Bromine Tranquilizers and sedatives, antiknock additives to gasoline,
manufacture of AgBr (used in photography)
Iodine Germicides and antiseptics, iodized salt to prevent goiter

The Hydrogen Halides

The hydrogen halides HF and HCl are commonly used halo-
gen compounds. Hydrogen fluoride is used to etch glass. The glass
is first covered with a thin layer of paraffin. The design is then
scratched through the paraffin so that the surface of the glass is
exposed. The exposed glass is then treated with HF vapors or a
solution of HF. The HF reacts with the sand (SiO2) in the glass and
forms SiF4, which evaporates. The reaction is
SiO2  4 HF h SiF4(g)  2 H2O
HF in any form produces painful, slow-healing sores when it
comes into contact with the skin.
Hydrochloric acid is used in the manufacture of metallic chlo-
rides, dyes, and medicines. It is also used to pickle metals—that is,
to dissolve metal oxide coatings before electroplating. The labora-
tory preparation of hydrochloric acid is given in Appendix 3.
The hydrogen halides are all gases at room temperature. They
form acid solutions when they dissolve in water. The melting
points and boiling points of the hydrogen halides are listed in the
table that follows. Notice the trends in the melting points and
boiling points of HCl, HBr, and HI. The increasing trends in both
melting and boiling points of these compounds reflect increasing
intermolecular attractions with increasing molecular size. If the
trends continued for HF, the melting and boiling points of HF
would be lower than those of HCl. Instead, the melting and boil-
ing points of HF are higher than those of HCl.

228 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

 The higher melting and boiling points of HF may be
explained by the large difference in electronegativity between
hydrogen and fluorine. This difference favors the formation of
hydrogen bonds, which link HF molecules together (remember
the hydrogen bonds in water). Energy is first needed to break
these hydrogen bonds. Thus more energy is needed to effect the
change of state.

Hydrogen Melting Boiling

Halide Point ( C) Point (C)

HF 83 19.4
HCl 112 85
HBr 86 67
HI 51 36

Group 18—The Noble Gases

The members of the family of noble gases, Group 18, are helium,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. These gases were discov-
ered at the close of the 19th century, although their existence was
suspected at least 100 years earlier. They used to be called the
inert gases because they did not form compounds. Since 1962,
however, compounds of some of the inert gases have been pre-
pared. The gases are now known as the noble gases. Some impor-
tant properties of the noble gases are shown in the table on page
230.
Helium has a complete s sublevel. Each of the other noble
gases has a complete s and p sublevel in the outermost energy
level. Atoms that have eight electrons in this energy level are
extremely stable.
Molecules of the noble gas elements are monatomic (have
only one atom). Most gaseous elements are diatomic (have two
atoms), as are H2, O2, and Cl2, for example. This suggests that the
noble gases have little or no tendency to form bonds. The atoms of
these elements also have relatively high ionization energies. This
property, too, is related to the tendency not to form bonds. The
boiling points of the noble gases are all well below 0°C (273 K).
Thus there cannot be strong attractive forces among the atoms.
Of the elements, helium has the lowest boiling point, 4.1 K.

Group 18—The Noble Gases | 229

230
|
The Noble Gases
Property Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon

Atomic number 2 10 18 36 54 86
Electron structure 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2
(2) 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6 2s2, 2p6
(2-8) 3s2, 3p6 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10 3s2, 3p6, 3d10
(2-8-8) 4s2, 4p6 4s2, 4p6, 4d10 4s2, 4p6, 4d10, 4f 14
(2-8-18-8) 5s2, 5p6 5s2, 5p6, 5d10
(2-8-18-18-8) 6s2, 6p6

Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

(2-8-18-32-18-8)
Melting point (C) 271.9 248.7 189.3 157 111.5 71
(at 26 atm)
Boiling point (C) 268.9 245.9 185.7 152.9 107.1 62
First ionization energy 2372 2081 1521 1351 1170 1037
(kJ/mole)
Abundance in Earth’s 5.2 18.2 9430. 1.1 0.09 6  1014
atmosphere (parts
per million by
volume)
 Compounds of radon, xenon, krypton, and argon with oxygen
and fluorine have been prepared. Recall that fluorine and oxygen
are the two most electronegative elements. Chemists therefore
used fluorine and oxygen to try to form stable bonds with the
noble gases. It is also logical to assume that the noble gases whose
outermost electrons are farthest from the nucleus and thus most
loosely held might form bonds with other elements. The s2p6 elec-
tron configuration in the valence shell is exceptionally stable, but
these electrons can be “loosened up” to form bonds.
Compounds of the lighter noble gases—neon and helium—
have not yet been prepared. The valence electrons of these ele-
ments are closer to the nucleus and are more tightly held than are
those of the heavier noble gases. Bond formation is therefore more
difficult, or perhaps is not even possible, with neon and helium.

PRACTICE
6.14 What is the most active nonmetal in Group 16?
6.15 Which element in Group 18 has the highest boiling point?
6.16 Hydrogen gas is half as dense as helium gas, and so has
more “lifting power” when used in balloons and blimps.
Despite this, why is helium always used in airships, rather
than hydrogen?
6.17 What are the formulas of two different allotropic forms of
oxygen?

CHAPTER REVIEW

The following questions will help you check your understanding

of the material presented in the chapter.
1. A sodium ion, Na, has the same electron structure as which
of the following particles? (1) Mg2 (2) S2 (3) Cl (4) Ar
2. Which of the following metals reacts explosively in cold
water? (1) K (2) Mg (3) Al (4) Be

Chapter Review | 231

 3. Which of the following is not correct as you go from the top
to the bottom of Group 1 (1) Electronegativities decrease.
(2) Ionization energies increase. (3) Oxidation states are the
same. (4) Ionic radii are less than their atomic radii.
4. Which of the following is not correct in comparing Group 2
metals with the corresponding Group 1 metals? (1) Group 1
atoms have larger radii. (2) Group 2 ions have smaller radii.
(3) Group 2 metals have higher first ionization potentials.
(4) Group 2 metals have smaller electronegativity.
5. Because the nuclear charge of an alkaline earth metal is one
unit greater than it is for the corresponding alkali metal, the
alkaline earth metals (1) have larger atoms (2) have smaller
ionic radii (3) are more active (4) are softer.
6. Element X forms a base with the formula X(OH)2. Element X
is most likely to be (1) an alkali metal (2) an alkaline earth
metal (3) a halogen (4) a noble gas.
7. A nitrogen molecule (1) is polar (2) contains three pairs
of shared electrons (3) is unstable (4) is very soluble in
water.
8. Nitrogen fixation refers to the (1) decomposition of nitrogen
compounds (2) formation of nitrogen atoms (3) liquefaction
of nitrogen (4) conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to useful
nitrogen compounds.
9. Scientists determined that the formula for the phosphorus
molecule is P4 because (1) all nonmetals have four atoms in
the molecule (2) the molecular mass is found to be four
times the atomic mass (3) phosphorus has four valence elec-
trons (4) phosphorus has four allotropic forms.
10. The compound in which sulfur has the highest oxidation
state is (1) H2S (2) Na2SO3 (3) H2SO4 (4) Na2S2O3.
11. The two allotropes of oxygen differ in (1) the number of neu-
trons (2) the number of valence electrons (3) the number of
atoms in the molecule (4) electronegativity.
12. To complete the equation
MnO2  2 Br  ____ h Mn2  Br2  2 H2O
the necessary term in the blank space is (1) 4 H2O (2) 4 H
(3) 4 OH (4) 4 HBr.

232 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families

13. Which of the following statements is not correct for the halo-
gen elements? (1) Halogen elements form covalent bonds
with nonmetals. (2) Halogen elements in oxyhalogen com-
pounds usually have a positive oxidation number. (3) The
electronegativities of the halogens increase with increasing
atomic radius. (4) The halide ion has two s and six p elec-
trons in its valence shell.
14. Element X is a metal that forms an oxide with the formula
X2O. Element X is in Group (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 16 (4) 17
15. Which is an alkaline earth metal? (1) Na (2) Ca (3) Ga
(4) Ta
16. Which is the atomic number of an alkali metal? (1) 10 (2) 11
(3) 12 (4) 13
17. Flame tests are most useful in identifying the elements in
Groups (1) 1 and 2 (2) 2 and 13 (3) 16 and 17 (4) 1 and 18
18. Which halogen would not be expected to have a positive oxi-
dation state when combined with oxygen? (1) F (2) Cl (3) Br
(4) I
19. Which is the electron configuration of an alkali metal?
(1) 2-8-1 (3) 2-8-5
(2) 2-8-2 (4) 2-8-8
20. Which element has an ionic radius that is larger than its
atomic radius? (1) Li (2) Cl (3) Mg (4) Al
21. Which is an example of a metalloid? (1) B (2) Br (3) Ba
(4) Rb
22. When a fluorine atom becomes an ion, it will (1) gain an
electron and decrease in size (2) gain an electron and
increase in size (3) lose an electron and decrease in size
(4) lose an electron and increase in size.
23. If the elements are considered from top to bottom in Group
16, the number of electrons in the outermost shell
(1) decreases (2) increases (3) remains the same.
24. Which group in the periodic table contains the alkali metals?
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 13 (4) 14
25. A nonmetal that exists in the liquid state at room tempera-
ture is (1) aluminum (2) mercury (3) hydrogen (4) bromine.

Chapter Review | 233

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE
1. For each of the following, give the symbol of the element
described.
(a) An alkaline earth metal found in Period 4.
(b) The atom in Period 4 that has the highest ionization
energy.
(c) The most metallic element found in Group 15.
(d) An element that is stable due to the triple bonds in its
molecules.
(e) Hydrogen reacts with this element to form an acid used
to etch glass.
(f) This element reacts with hydrogen in the Haber process.
(g) In the solid state, molecules of this element contain 8
atoms.
2. How is “acid rain” formed?
3. How might the burning of fossil fuels contribute to global
warming?
4. You are given two beakers, each containing a clear, colorless,
aqueous solution. You are told that one of these solutions is
KBr while the other is NaBr. Explain how you could test the
two solutions to determine which was which. Include the
probable results of your tests.

234 | Chapter 6: Some Chemical Families