Unit 1 Basic Concepts

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UNIT 2
MAPS

Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.6 Map Drawing Equipments
Expected Learning Outcomes 2.7 Summary
2.2 Definition and Types of Maps 2.8 Terminal Questions
2.3 History of Maps 2.9 Answers
2.4 Basic Elements of Maps 2.10 References and Suggested
2.5 Importance and Usage of Maps Further Reading

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied the basic concepts of cartography in the previous
Unit-1. In this unit, you will study about maps including their types, history,
basic elements, and usage of maps. Map is a pictorial representation of the
whole earth or a part of the earth on plane surface to scale. From the ancient
periods to the present, it is considered as one of the important and effective
tools. You will study about the maps and their history in Sections 2.2 & 2.3.
Basic elements of maps and usage of maps are discussed in Section 2.4 &
2.5. In Section 2.6, we will explain about the various equipments generally
used in the process of map making.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the definition, evolution and types of maps;

 describe the basic elements of map;

 discuss the importance and usage of maps; and

 depict the map drawing equipments.

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2.2 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF MAPS

Definition

A map is a pictorial depiction of whole earth or its part into two dimensional
surface involving geometrical objects, colours, symbols and texts. The term
map has been derived from the Latin term ‘mappa’ meaning the cloth-paper on
which early maps were inscribed. It has been defined by various geographers
and scholars from time to time. The most important definitions are as given
below:

According to Erwin Rais (1938), “a map is, in its primary conception, a

conventionalised picture of the earth’s pattern as seen from above.” L. Dudley
Stamp has defined as “map is a representation of the earth’s surface or a part
of it, its physical and political features, etc. or of the heavens, delineated on a
flat surface of paper, or other material, each point in the drawing corresponding
to a geographical or celestial position according to a definite scale of
projection.” The definition by F.J. Monkhouse is “map is a representation on a
plane surface (paper, card, plastic, cloth or some other material) of the
features of part of the earth’s surface, drawn to some specific scale.” Harley
and Woodward (1987, p. xvi), defines map as ‘graphic representations that
facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, processes or
events in the human world.’

It may be understood that maps have been very useful tools from ancient
times concerned with the demarcation of territory, expansion of territory,
exploration of new continents/lands, navigation, resource locations, etc. Now
the maps are useful in day to day life. It begins with the record of property as
every land owner, be it geographer or non-geographer, literate or illiterate, tries
to keep the map record of his or her property. It goes very advanced and
sophisticated way in public navigation and strategic usage. Maps represent the
locations and features of earth surface and their attributes or properties
attached to them. The advantage is that it presents in visual form the reality of
an area, large or small, in terms of its objects, features and phenomena in
spatially arranged relationships. It helps in viewing and reading the topographic
features and properties of them on the earth surface drawn on simple small
paper. In turn, it also helps in locating distance, direction and bearing,
connectivity and contiguity/neighbourhood and proximity, etc. Besides, it also
helps in observing and understanding the spatial relationships among all
features and their properties on the earth surface and its environment. “A map
lets us see the broader spatial relations that exist over large areas or the
details of microscopic particles. It is said that a map saves thousand words by
its own symbolic language or communication efficiency (Robinson, p. 10). Let
us now discuss various types of maps.

Types of Maps

The classification of maps is done based on various criteria. These criteria

are: scale, theme and purpose, and techniques of representation.

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Maps
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1. Scale

The types of maps based on the scale are as follows:

a. Large Scale Maps

The maps drawn on or larger than 1:10,000 scale are considered as large
scale maps. It goes to as high as very large scale maps to a scale of 1:500.
Such kind of maps includes cadastral or land parcel maps, settlement maps,
etc. and topographical maps (Fig. 2.1).

Cadastral maps: Cadastral maps are the maps of land properties or land
parcels/plots. The term cadastral has been derived from the French term
‘Cadestre’ meaning the ‘register of territorial property.’ There are various terms
of these maps used in India like Khasra/Jamabandi/Girdwari/Khatauni Map, etc.
where the term Khasra number denotes the plot or parcel number. These
maps are drawn to demarcate the parcel or plot boundaries or houses by the
government agencies mainly the department of Revenue and Land Records
for taxes and other revenue and development purposes accompanied with the
tabular information called khatian or khatauni. These both- Cadastral Maps and
Khatian make the record of property rights, where the records match in both
documents- map and khatian. The map contains the parcel/plot wise khasra
number and the khatian keeps the record of size, location, extent, type, uses
and ownership details. The scale of cadastral maps are generally 1:3990 or 1:
4000 scale and the settlement maps go upto as large as 16, 32 and 64 inches
to one mile. These may be called very large scale maps.

Topographical maps: Topographical maps are prepared to depict earth’s

surface features including natural and cultural. These two kinds of features
form the physical and cultural landscapes showing relief, mountains, drainage,
waterbodies, agricultural land, forest, etc., and settlements, roads, railways,
location of schools, post offices, other services and facilities, etc., respectively.
The scale of topographical maps varies from one inch to one mile to quarter
inch to one mile. Different national agencies in various countries prepare the
survey based topographical maps on various scales accurately. These maps
vary in scale ranging from 1:25,000 to 1:2,50,000. Survey of India prepares
topographical maps on various scales, for example 1:25,000, 1:50,000 and 1:
2,50,000. International maps or one million maps are the other products in this
category, which represent the world in 2,222 sheets adopted in 1909 using
modified polyconic projection.

b. Small Scale Maps

Wall maps: Wall maps are drawn on a smaller scale to show the whole world,
a hemisphere, a continent or a country. The scale also varies depending on the
area of interest.

Atlas maps: These are very small scale highly generalized maps of the world
or different regions of the world. These map show major physical features,
settlements, transport networks and important landmarks. In India, various
types of atlases are prepared by various government agencies like National
Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO), National Bureau of Soil Survey

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(NBSS), All India Land Use & Soil Survey (AILU&SS), National Remote
Sensing Centre (NRSC), Census of India, etc.

(a)

(b)

(b)
Fig. 2.1: Examples of large scale map a) cadastral map and b) topographical
map.

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Maps
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2. Theme and Purpose

The maps are also classified based on their themes and functions or
purposes. These may further be divided as natural and cultural maps based on
broad themes (Fig. 2.2).

Physical maps: Physical maps are those maps which represent different
physical features. The example of this category of maps are the astronomical
maps showing astronomical or heavenly features, orographic or relief maps
showing relief features of the earth surface (comprising lowest and highest
surfaces, slope, drainage, waterbodies, etc.), geological maps showing
geological features (interior of the earth, fold, fault, structure, etc.), weather or
climatic maps showing temperature, pressure, wind direction, rainfall, diurnal
maps, seasonal maps etc.), vegetation maps showing forest species, type
and boundaries, soil map showing soil type, boundaries and land development
plan, hydrological maps, slope map, etc. These maps are also prepared in 3D
models on paper, plastic or clay.

Cultural maps: Cultural maps are those which represent the cultural
landscapes of the earth surface. The human beings have modified the pristine
natural landscape by building their settlements, industries, transport networks,
health and education facilities, dams and bridges, etc. The features created by
humans are categorised as cultural features. Depending on the purpose, these
are further subdivided as thematic maps. These are historical maps, political
maps, administrative maps, military or strategic maps, population maps,
socio-cultural maps, land use maps, transport and communication maps, etc.
Historical maps show historical events and reigns through boundaries and
locations, political maps show political boundaries, administrative maps show
various administrative boundaries, military or strategic maps show various
strategic points, routes and battle plans etc., population maps show various
aspects of population like population size, distribution, density, sex ratio,
literacy and education, employment, fertility, etc., socio-cultural maps show
ethnicity or races, tribes, castes, religion, languages, etc., under relevant
titles, land use maps show the utilizations of land parcel by parcel or in a
regionalized way, transport and communication maps show transport and
communication, resource maps show various resources, economic maps
show economic activities and development over the space, etc.

3. Techniques of Representation

The maps may also be classified based on the representation techniques.

These classifications are choropleth, chorochromatic, choro-schematic,
isopleths, and dot maps, etc (Fig. 2.3). Choropleth maps are those maps
which show the physical and cultural features by various colour/grayscale
shades or patterns. Chorochromatic maps show the non-quantitative
properties of any feature or phenomena over the space like presence or
absence. For example, the racial or linguistic distribution map, land use map,
etc. The maps showing the location and distribution of something over the
space through alphabets are called Choroschematic maps. For example, iron
ore is shown by I, gold is represented by G and so on. The maps using regular
line showing a uniform value of something like rainfall, temperature, pressure,
etc. are called isopleths maps. When distribution of something like population, 23
Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
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trees, animals, etc. are shown by dots representing definite number or
quantity, such maps are called dot maps.You may also refer to Block 5 for
understanding these maps.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 2.2: Examples of a) physical and b) cultural maps.

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Maps
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SAQ 1
What is map? What are the bases for classification of maps?

2.3 HISTORY OF MAPS

Maps have been in existence since historical times. It evolved from a very
rudimentary shape to the highly sophisticated smart maps in contemporary
times. It has evolved from pictorial form without scale to a sophisticated virtual
form, which is very close to reality with third dimension. Early maps were of

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 2.3: Representation of maps a) choropleth, b) chorochromatic, c) choro-schematic, and d) dot.
(Source: Baraik, V.K. (2020): “Languages”, Space and Society in Human Geography, IGNOU: New Delhi).

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very notional kind without proper measurements. Egyptians have been the
pioneers in making systematic maps for the purpose of revenue. However,
Greek geographers prepared the early modern cartographic maps after 16th
Century. The oldest maps were from Babylonian civilization engraved on the
clay in about 2300 B.C.

The Greek geographers like Hecataeus (500 BC), Aristotle (384–322 BC),
Eratosthenes (276-194 BC), Ptolemy (98-168 AD), etc. in early times
discovered the earth’s shape and size, poles, equator, tropics, climatic zones,
graticules and projections. Various maps including that of world drawn by
Ptolemy in his great work ‘Geographia’ is the landmark of Greek cartography.
He has tried to show the entire world using mathematical aspects of
geography, though, the maps were not refined ones. The Romans prepared
the disc maps for administrative and military purposes. They prepared
‘Peutinger Table’ showing major roads with military posts. The Arab
geographers also prepared maps after publication of Geographia with world
map in 15th Century AD (1482).

“The discovery of Geographia during 15th Century, the invention of printing and
engraving, and the age of discoveries, all these exerted a great force in ushering
towards the renaissance of map-making. The Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese,
the Germans and the Dutch with their successive efforts perfected the art of
drawing maps to such an extent that map publishing became a very lucrative
business during 16th Century.” Till this time, a great influence on map making
was from Ptolemy’s Geographia. Followed by this, Mercator also contributed
with greater accuracy than Ptolemy to make the maps.

The French cartographers further excelled in cartography with much greater

accuracy with the perfection of triangulation survey and measurement of
meridians. Due to the necessity of accurate topographic maps by the army, a
cartographic centre was developed in London under army for strategic
purpose as the Europe had become the most powerful in maritime. The
National Survey was initiated in France by C.F. Cassini and the “Carte
Geometrique de La France” was prepared on 1:86,400 scale in 1789. Italy,
Germany and Egypt also started the surveys and the Britain commenced its
Ordinance Survey in 1791. 1 inch to 1 mile map in England was prepared in
1801. Other European countries also started the National Surveys.

In the medieval period a map called T-O or T and O Map was also popular with
religious importance where Jerusalem was placed at the Centre of the world.
The world was shown as divided into three schematic parts: Asia, Europe, and
Africa. You may see some of these early maps in Fig 2.4.

During 19th and 20th Centuries, the map-making techniques further got
accelerated due to remarkable advancements in science and technology,
representation techniques of the earth and also the printing technology. Mono
colour maps have been replaced by the multicolour maps. A number of
national atlases were prepared during this phase. These were further
accentuated by the aerial photography during the First World War, which kept
progressing with the refinement of computing, computer graphics and printing
technology. All these are supported by the rapid advancements in the satellite
26 remote sensing and other surveying tools and technologies. Now also with the
Unit 2
1 Basic Concepts
Maps
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Eratosthese Map (220 BC)

Hecataeus Map (500 BC)

Ptolemy’s World Map (98-168 AD) T-O Map of the World

Fig. 2.4: World maps prepared by various geographers.
(Source: a) b)https://etc.usf.edu/maps/pages/10400/10489/10489.htm, c) https://www.britannica.com/
science/map/Maps-and-geography-in-the-ancient-world d) https://www.princeton.edu/~his291/T-
O_Map.html)

advancements of GIS technologies, the maps have got transformed into smart
maps. These maps have the ability to answer end number of spatial questions.
The geo-database has enabled maps to retain the behavioural properties of a
geographical feature in the maps and respond to the questions accordingly.

In India, the survey of Raja Todarmal for revenue collection has been regarded
as the early beginning in the field of survey and mapping. The Survey of India
was established in 1767 by the East India Company and carried forward by the
Government of India from the Imperial Government after independence for
survey and mapping of the country. First modern survey was started in 1802
with the beginning of Geographical and Mathematical Survey in India by
Colonel William Lambton, a Geographer and Geodesist. This survey was later
on designated as Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS) in 1818 and led by Albert
Everest after Lambton.

SAQ 2
How has the map evolved historically? Explain.
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2.4 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MAPS

There are some basic elements of maps based on which these are drawn.
Without these basic elements, maps cannot be complete. These basic
elements are scale, projection, reference grid, symbols and legends, neatline,
titles, and accuracy, etc. (Fig. 2.5).

Scale

Scale is the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance on the
ground. The representation of earth or even a piece of area cannot be done on
a piece of paper practically without fixing a proportional geometric shape or
symbols representing the features on the earth as paper cannot always be of
the same size of the area under representation. For this reason, the maps are
drawn on small piece of papers of varying sizes using some representative
proportions where certain distance or size of representing features on the
paper is true to the fixed proportionate size on the ground. For example one
centimetre line on paper may represent one kilometre distance on the actual
ground. This is exactly called ‘Scale.’ The formal or scientific definition of scale
is the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance on the
ground. It is expressed as:
Map distanace between two points
Scale =
Ground distance between the same points
The map scales are of three types: statement, numeric and graphic. You will
study the same in details in the next unit 3.

Title

North
Arrow

Neatline

Symbol

Colour

Text

Legend

Scale

Map
Source

Fig. 2.5: Map showing various elements of the map.

28 (Source: Baraik, V.K. (2020): “Languages”, Space and Society in Human Geography, IGNOU: New Delhi).
Unit 2 Earth – A Living Planet
Maps
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Projection
Map projection is the mathematical and geometrical transformation of
spherical surface of the earth into two dimensional flat surface to show the
whole or part of the globe in the form of a map. In this process, the boundaries
of whole world or any part is transferred on the plane surface with graticule or
latitudes and longitudes based on certain scale. Through certain mathematical
formula or model, the surface geometry is transformed from spherical to two
dimensional plane. Since the earth is spherical in shape, no projection is
perfect in terms of representation of area, shape, and bearing or direction. In
all types of projections, any of these properties are compromised in terms of
accuracy. The concept of projection has been in use since the time of Strabo
and Ptolemy. However, the first systematic map on projection systems was
equidistant polar zenithal map developed by Glareanus in 1510. Later on,
Gerhard Kremer prepared the maps of Europe on conical projection with two
parallels (1554) and world map in Mercator projection (1595). The development
of projection system moved forward with the era of navigations and
explorations. Consequently, a number of projections based on various
approaches and objectives came into existence. The number was further
added due to the need based modifications and improvements. The mapping
of world in 2222 independent sheets on modified polyconic or international
projections has also been one of such products. Classification of map
projections may be done based on the aspects of projection techniques,
developable surface, global properties and source of light. You will study more
about map projections in Block 2 of this Course.

Reference Grid

Though references to the spatial locations are of different types, these may
include pin code, distance and direction from a known point, house number
(alpha-numeric). Grid reference defines location of any spatial features on the
map. It may be latitude and longitude and also in the form of alpha-numerical
grids for reference.

Symbols and Legends

Different symbols are used in the map to represent spatial features and
phenomena along with their properties. Legend presents the index of the
symbols used in a map with self explanatory description of relevant line,
polygon, point, colour, pattern, texture, intensity, alpha-numeric letters or tags,
etc.

Conventional signs or map symbols are widely or technically or universally

accepted signs, symbols or colours used to represent or show various
features, elements and properties of maps. It enables anyone to read and
interpret the map anywhere in the world irrespective of languages used due to
internationally used system of signs and symbols. This way the information is
accurately conveyed by the map makers to the users. Conventional map
symbols are the graphics either independent or mixed of geometric and alpha-
numeric features with colour and patterns representing physical as well as
cultural features of the earth surface and its environments shown in the maps.

It is very essential, therefore, to have knowledge about the conventional signs,

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symbols and colours for map making as well as map reading or interpretation.
There are definite signs for roads, rails, bridges, footpaths, cart track, pack
track, milestones, road or highway numbers, spot heights, contours, rivers,
river channels, canals, waterbodies like lakes, tanks, wells, etc. For each
category of features also there are different signs or symbols for its types like
broad gauge and narrow gauge for railways, national highways, state
highways, district roads and rural roads under the category of roads; perennial
stream/channel or seasonal stream under river, etc. Similarly, colours are
also internationally defined like blue for water, brown for heights, green for
vegetation, red for roads or settlements, etc. You may see some of the
examples of conventional signs, symbols and colours, etc. (Fig. 2.6). For more
details, you may refer to Unit 11 of Block 4.

Fig. 2.6: Conventional symbols of topomap.

(Source: http://www.surveyofindia.gov.in)

Neatline

Neatline is the line bordering the geographical data (outline) of the area of
representation. It may be called the outer boundary of the map having various
designs of lines.

Titles

Titles and sub-titles are the identities of any map written normally on the top of
a map. It consists of region name, theme and year/time period, etc.

Accuracy

Accuracy is a prime concern in map making, without which map cannot

represent the area of interest properly. The aspects of accuracy are positional
or planimetric, thematic and conceptual. Positional accuracy is the correct
relative positions of features on the map with same positions of the
corresponding features on the ground. It may be between the two maps as
well. Without positional accuracy, all calculations of area, distance, and
direction, etc. may be wrong and may not correspond exactly with the ground
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Maps
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reality. Thematic accuracy means the correct representation of the ground
reality in the map. In this, if the area or location of something is correctly
shown but the property is not shown correctly, there will be inaccuracy. For
example, if the playground is shown as rice field, it is thematic inaccuracy.
Conceptual accuracy or logical consistency is the whole concept from data
under representation, temporal variation of data to projection and symbology.

SAQ 3
What is the importance of conventional signs, symbols and colours?

2.5 IMPORTANCE AND USAGE OF MAPS

Humans have been modifying the earth surface consistently and especially
after the development of science and technology more than ever. With some
negative alteration to the nature, some are done in positive direction with
proper planning like urban planning and design, location, industrial plan, mining
plan, plantation and afforestation, agriculture, construction of dams for
electricity, potable water and irrigation, construction of transport network and
so on. For these activities, the information of the earth surface under interest
is essential which is fulfilled in terms of various maps. Any kind of such
activities over the earth surface need the maps of various types. Regional
comparison is also possible when relevant maps are available.
The globe represents the earth without distortions in terms of relative
distances, angles, areas, azimuths, rhumbs and great circles at a certain
scale. However, the globe is expensive, time taking in reproduction, storage
and carrying inconvenience and difficulty in measurements as only about half
of the globe is visible at a time. Therefore, maps get importance over the
globe. All these disadvantages are eliminated with the production of maps on a
flat surface primarily paper or plastic.
Advantage of map is that it shows all the features or phenomena under interest
in systematic and legible manner for easy and meaningful communication but
the demerit is that it does not represent the phenomena as it is in the picture.
On the other hand, the demerit of the picture is that it shows everything visible
under the area of interest irrespective of their relevance. Secondly, the pictures
cannot show the phenomena which are not visible but measurable through
various techniques and scales.
In nutshell, maps are essential tools to understand our world’s spatial
variability and character for all the activities we do. Now, smart maps do not
only give answer to our spatial query, but also retain the spatial behaviour of
the features and inter-relationship among themselves in answering the spatial
questions. And due to the new capabilities of maps as smart maps, these
have increasingly become the part of our every day life in various forms.

SAQ 4
What is the importance of map?

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Block 1 Introduction to Cartography
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2.6 MAP DRAWING EQUIPMENTS
There are two modes of cartography and therefore two types of map drawing
equipments-Traditional and Digital. The traditional map drawing equipments
are less in practice now after the rapid revolution in survey, computing,
graphics and printing technologies in the digital formats. However, the modern
or digital technologies are primarily based on the traditional techniques only.
Therefore, it is inevitable to know the traditional techniques and equipments for
understanding the modern tools and techniques. The list of equipments given
below is generally used for map making.

Traditional Map Drawing Equipments

 Drawing Table/Drawing Board

 Tracing Table/Light Table
 Papers- Plain and Graph
 Geometrical Instruments
 French Curves
 Pencil and Pens
 Ink and Colours
 Tints and Patterns

Digital Map Drawing Equipments

Hardwares: Computer and Peripherals

 Input Devices (Scanner, Digitizer, Keyboard and Mouse, Global Positioning

System (GPS)/Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)/Electronic
Total Station (ETS).

 Processing Devices (CPU or Central Processing Unit)

 Display Devices (Monitors)

 Printing Devices (Printers and Plotters)

 Internet Connection for Online Data Sharing, Viewing, Analysis, Map

Composition and Sharing

Softwares:

 Data Transformation from Digital Survey Devices

 Map Making

 Web Mapping

Since last one decade, the rapid technological developments are gradually
replacing the traditional map making equipments.

SAQ 5
What are the map drawing equipments?

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Unit 2
1 Basic Concepts
Maps
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2.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied so far:

 Definition of maps and map types based on scale, projection and purpose
or usage.

 History and evolution of maps from ancient time to the modern period
characterized by sophisticated technologies.

 Basic elements of maps starting from scale and projection to symbology.

 Conventional signs, symbols and colours used in mapping and map

interpretation without which any map is incomplete and meaningless.

 Importance and usage of maps which have become the inevitable part of
our everyday lives in some form or the other.

 The list of conventional or traditional and digital map drawing equipments.

2.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by maps? Describe the importance and types of
various maps.

2. Describe the historical evolution of maps.

3. Explain the basic elements of maps.

4. What are the importance and usage of maps?

2.9 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. A map is a pictorial depiction of whole earth or its part into two dimensional
surface involving geometrical objects, colour, symbols and texts. The
bases of classification of maps are scale, projection and purpose or usage
of maps.

2. Map has evolved from rudimentary to conventional, then to digital and now
smart maps in the digital category.

3. Conventional signs, symbols and colours are the graphics either

independent or mixed of geometric and alpha-numeric features with colour
and patterns to depict various physical and cultural features of the earth’s
surface and its environments shown in the maps.

4. Maps have become the part of everyday life in deciding what is located
where and what has to be done where.

5. Two broad types of map drawing equipments are traditional/conventional

and digital.

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Terminal Questions
1. Give definitions of map and discuss the importance and types of various
maps. Refer to the Section 2.2.

2. Write about the evolution of maps since early period to the contemporary
time period. Refer to the Section 2.3.

3. List and explain the basic elements of maps and also write about their
importance in a map. Refer to the Section 2.4.

4. Discuss why maps are important and useful. Refer to the Section 2.5.

2.10 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING
 Singh, L.R. and Singh, R. (1973). Map Work and Practical Geography.
Allahabad: Central Book Depot.

 Misra, R.P. and Ramesh, A. (1986). Fundamentals of Cartography. New

Delhi: McMillan.

 Sarkar, A. (2008). Practical Geography: A Systematic Approach. Kolkata:

Orient BlackSwan.

 Robinson, A., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimerling, A.J. and Guptill,
S.C. (2011). Elements of Cartography, 6th edition. New York: Wiley.

 Khullar, D.R. (2003). Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New

Academic Publishing Co.

 Deb Roy, R. (1986). The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in a

Historical Perspective, Indian Journal of History of Science, 21(1): 22-32.

 https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/
Vol21_1_4_RDRoy.pdf.

 https://etc.usf.edu/maps/pages/10400/10489/10489.html
 https://www.britannica.com/science/map/Maps-and-geography-in-the-
ancient-world
 https://www.princeton.edu/~his291/T-O_Map.htmll

34