CHAPTER 1

WEEK 1-2: Historical Accounts and Evolution of Criminology

Criminology is the scientific study of criminals, criminal behavior, and its causes. Criminologists
attempt to build theories that explain why crimes occur and test those theories by observing
behavior. Criminological theories help shape society’s response to crime both in terms of
preventing criminal behavior and responding to it after it occurs.
Criminology
● study of crimes, criminals, and criminal behavior (Webster)
● the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon (Edwin H.
Sutherland)
● a scientific and humanistic study of the social process of identifying crimes,
criminals , and the compatible solutions (Mannle and Herschel)

Origin of the word “Criminology”

● it originates from the Latin word “Crimen” meaning crime and Greek word
“Logos” which means study
● In 1885, Rafael Garofalo, an Italian Law Professor coined the term
Criminology ¬ In 1889, Paul Topinard, French Anthropology, used the
term criminology in French Criminologie for the first time

• Brief History of Criminology

● Study of Criminology started in “Europe”.
● 19th Century - Cesare Lombroso advocated the theory that crime can
be attributed to heredity predisposition. According to Lombroso, a criminal
person by birth is a distinct type. It can be recognized through his own
personal stigmata or anomalies
● Latter part of 19th Century
● Criminology was accepted as field of study by the department of sociology in
the U.S.
● 1915 – environmental factors became popular as the causes of crime.

The discipline of criminology has evolved in three phases, beginning in the 18th century.
Although crime and criminals have been around for as long as societies have existed, the
systematic study of these phenomena did not begin until the late 1700s. Prior to that time, most
explanations of crime equated it with sin — the violation of a sacred obligation.
Theological Criminology
The first phase involved when scholars first distinguished crime from sin, they made possible
explanations of criminal behavior that were not theological (religious). This,
Modern Criminology
The second phase, which began in the 19th century, is referred to as modern criminology.
During this era, criminology distinguished itself as a subspecialty within the emerging
disciplines of psychology, sociology, and economics. Scholars formed criminological societies
and founded criminology journals. Criminologist in turn, allowed for the dispassionate, scientific
study of why crime occurs. The development of this study is now known as the era of classical
criminology.
conducted empirical tests (observations or experiments) of their theories, rather than relying
solely on speculation, and consequently developed a wide range of theories.
Independent Criminology
The third phase, beginning in the second half of the 20th century, may best be called independent
criminology. During this period, criminology began to assert its independence from the
traditional disciplines that spawned it. In Western Europe, the United States, and Canada,
criminologists expanded their
professional associations and published an increasing number of journals. A number of
universities developed graduate programs in criminology: Criminological theories have become
more multidisciplinary (spanning various fields of study) because independent criminologists
seek to understand
crime itself rather than study crime as one aspect of an overall sociological or psychological
theory.

EVOLUTION OF CRIMINOLOGY
Note: In 1885, Italian law professor Rafaelle Garofalo coined the Italian term criminologia. The
French anthropologist Paul Topinard used it for the first time in French “Criminologie” around
the same time. The word “Criminology” was also first used by Paul Topinard.
- the Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo coined the term criminologia in 1885.
- the French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the term criminologie in 1887.
- The word “Criminology” was derived from the Latin word “Krimen” which can be
translated to offense, crime or accusation and “Logos” - which means “to study”.
WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?
▪ Criminology is the scientific study of criminals, criminal behavior and its causes.
▪ Criminology, is a body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social
phenomenon.
▪ In its broadest sense, criminology is the entire body of knowledge regarding crimes,
criminal and the effort of society to prevent and repress them.
▪ In a narrower sense, criminology is the scientific study of crimes and criminals.

SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITION OF CRIMINOLOGY: refers to the body of knowledge

regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon.
SCOPE OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. The making of laws - This pertains to the examination of the nature and structure of
laws in the society which could be analyzed scientifically and exhaustively to learn crime
causation and eventually help fight them.
2. The breaking of laws - It is concentrated in the scientific analysis of the causes of crimes.
3. The reaction towards the breaking of laws - This involves the study of the reaction of
people and government towards the breaking of laws.

• Nature of Criminology… Science or Art??

● Science – from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge. It refers to any
systematic knowledge or practice.
● Art – refers to the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic
objects, environment or experiences.
 • Edwin H. Sutherland
¬ Hoped that it will become a science in the future since the causes of crimes
are almost the same which may be biological, environmental or combination of
the two.

•Generally, it is not an absolute science because its principles have not yet
acquired universal validity and acceptance. However, it is a science in itself when
under the following nature:

● Applied Science – The study of Criminology involves the use of knowledge

and concept of other sciences and field of study which makes the study
of criminology
● Social Science – crime is the creation of men who are members of the society
¬ Dynamic – the body of knowledge about crimes and criminals changes as
the social condition change
● Nationalistic – study of criminology must be in relation with the existing penal
law within a specific territory.

IS CRIMINOLOGY A SCIENCE?
▪ According to Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey (American Authors) claimed that
criminology at present is not a science, but it has hope of becoming a science.
▪ George L. Wilker- argued that criminology cannot possibly become a science.
▪ Cirillo Tradio- criminology is a science
*Forensic Science, sometimes referred to Criminalistics, is therefore covered in the broad field
of criminology.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN CRIMINOLOGY AND A CRIMINALISTICS
CRIMINOLOGY IS:
▪ social science
▪ deals more on theories
▪ study of criminal people
CRIMINALISTICS IS:
▪ applied science
▪ use practical and technological theories
▪ study of criminal things

IMPORTANT AREAS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY

▪ The development of criminal law and in defining crime;
▪ The cause of law violation; and
▪ Methods used in controlling criminal behavior.

Why do we study CRIMINOLOGY?

▪ In reality, there are many and varied purpose of studying criminology.
▪ However, all these purposes fall on either of the two (2) primary aims of studying
criminology.
▪ To understand crimes and criminals.
▪ To prevent the occurrence of crime.
*BRANCHES OF CRIMINOLOGY
▪ A. CRIMINAL DEMOGRAPHY- study of the relationship between criminality
and population.
▪ B. CRIMINAL ECOLOGY- study of the relationship between environment and
criminality.
▪ C. CRIMINAL PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY- study of criminality in
relation to physical constitution of men.
▪ D. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY- study of human behavior in relation to
criminality.
▪ E. CRIMINAL PSYCHIATRY- study of human mind in relation to criminality.
▪ F. CRIMINAL VICTIMOLOGY - deals with the victimization of crime which
is considered by political society as any act or omission punishable by law. (Victimless
Crimes)
NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology is:
1. An Applied Science - It is useful. Sciences like anthropology, psychology, sociology and
other natural sciences may be applied in the study of the causes of crime while chemistry,
medicine, physics, mathematics, etc. may be utilized in crime detection.
2. A Social science - In as much as crime is a societal creation and it exists in society, its
study must be considered as part of social science.
3. Dynamic - The progress of criminology is concordant with the advancement of other
sciences that have been applied to it. Criminology changes as social condition changes.
4. Nationalistic - The study of crime must always be in relation with the existing criminal
law with in the territory. The study of crime and/or criminology must always conform to
the existing criminal law of the land.

PRINCIPAL COMPONENT OF CRIMINOLOGY

In studying Criminology, there are three important components namely:
1. Criminal Etiology
● the scientific analysis of the causation of crimes and the criminal behavior
● Criminal etiology involved the application of scientific analysis of the causes of crime.
An individual perpetrating a crime had no single reason; hence, there is no single and
only explanation of causes of crimes. A different theory has evolved in studying the
causes of crime such as Biological, Psychological, and Sociological Theories.
What is a crime?
-An act committed or omitted in violation of law, commanding or forbidding it.
-An act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of the society
-It is generic term that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor

What is an offense?
-An act or omission that is punishable by special laws

What is a felony?
-An act or omission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code
 Delinquency/Misdemeanor
-Acts that are in violation of simple rules and regulations

Classes of Crime
Mala in Se (singular: malum in se)
-is a term that signifies crime that is considered wrong in and of itself.
-inherently evil

Mala Prohibita (singular: malum prohibita)

-wrong because they are prohibited

2. Sociology of Law
● refers to the investigation of the nature of criminal law and its administration
● Sociology of law entails the importance of law or the criminal law as a process of formal
social control. Criminal law seeks to protect the public from harm by inflicting
punishment upon those who are tempted to do harm. Thus, criminal law often strives to
avoid harm by forbidding conduct that may lead to harmful results.

3. Penology
● the study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of offender
● Penology, the study of criminal punishment, is a sub-field of criminology. Criminologists
theorize about why people commit crimes and deviate from society s norms of behavior.
They also study how society punishes criminals because different methods of punishment
may cause people to alter their
behavior in different ways. Thus, criminologists devise theories that not only explain the
causes of crime but also addresses its prevention, control and treatment. Today, one more
concern in Criminology is crime detection and Investigation. Criminologists are also
engaged in studying the criminal things.
▪ Penology is the study of punishment for crime or of criminal offenders. It includes the
study of control and prevention of crime through punishment of criminal offenders. It is a
term derived from the Latin word “poena” which means pain or suffering.
▪ Also known as Penal Science

PUNISHMENT VS. PENALTY

▪ PUINISHMENT: It is the redress that the state takes against an offending member of
society that usually involves pain and suffering. It is also the penalty imposed on an
offender for a crime or wrongdoing.
▪ PENALTY: Is defined as the specific suffering inflicted by the state against an offending
member for the transgression of law with limitations provided for by law.

Three Elements of Punishment

1. Swift/Celerity
2. Certain
3. Severe
The Criminal Formula
C=T+S
R

C- Crime/Criminal Behavior (Act)

T- Criminal Tendency(Desire/Intent)
S- Total Situation(Opportunity)
R-Resistance to Temptation(Control)

Anatomy of Crime
Motive-refers to the reason why a person will commit a crime
Instrumentality-the means or instrument used in the commission of the crime
Opportunity- chance of a person to commit the crime

Elements of Crime
1. There must be an act or omission
2. The act must be in violation of the public law
3. The act is committed either by dolo or culpa

Dolo/Deceit
– When the act was with deliberate intent

Fault /Culpa
– When the wrongful act results from imprudence, negligence, lack of foresight or lack of
skill.

CHAPTER 2

WEEK 3: Understanding the development and process of making scientific theories

Scientific Method
A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based on making falsifiable
predictions (hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing peer-reviewed theories that
best explain the known data.
The scientific method was first outlined by Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) to provide logical,
rational problem solving across many scientific fields.
Social Science
Sciences concerned with the social behavior of individuals and groups (e.g., sociology,
anthropology, or psychology) and that are often considered more subjective due to the focus of
study.

Natural Science
Sciences concerned with predicting and describing natural phenomena (e.g., biology, physics, or
chemistry), using systematic data collection and performing controlled experiments.

TWO KEY CONCEPTS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. THEORY- A theory is used to make predictions about future observations.
2. HYPOTHESIS- A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a
theory.

The Basic Principles of the Scientific Method

VERIFIABILITY

Verifiability means that an experiment must be replicable by another researcher. To achieve

verifiability, researchers must make sure to document their methods and clearly explain how
their experiment is structured and why it produces certain results.

PREDICTABILITY

Predictability in a scientific theory implies that the theory should enable us to make predictions
about future events. The precision of these predictions is a measure of the strength of the theory.

FALSIFIABILITY

Falsifiability refers to whether a hypothesis can be disproved. For a hypothesis to be falsifiable,

it must be logically possible to make an observation or do a physical experiment that would show
that there is no support for the hypothesis. Even when a hypothesis cannot be shown to be false,
that does not necessarily mean it is not valid. Future testing may disprove the hypothesis. This
does not mean that a hypothesis has to be shown to be false, just that it can be tested.

To determine whether a hypothesis is supported or not supported, psychological researchers must

conduct hypothesis testing using statistics. Hypothesis testing is a type of statistics that
determines the probability of a hypothesis being true or false. If hypothesis testing reveals that
results were “statistically significant,” this means that there was support for the hypothesis and
that the researchers can be reasonably confident that their result was not due to random chance.
If the results are not statistically significant, this means that the researchers’ hypothesis was not
supported.
FAIRNESS

Fairness implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a hypothesis. A researcher
cannot pick and choose what data to keep and what to discard or focus specifically on data that
support or do not support a particular hypothesis. All data must be accounted for, even if they
invalidate the hypothesis.

The Basic Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it

2. Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question

3. Test the hypothesis

4. If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence

5. If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again

6. Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and no result is ever
considered perfect

Causes of Crime According to Early Theologians

St. Augustine
– He expressed the early church’s position on crime. The church thought of an individual as a
God. When one surrenders to evil, the result is often crime. Early theologians located the cause
of crime in the relationship between humankind and evil.

St. Thomas Aquinas

– He stated that people by nature tried to perform good acts. Sin or crime took place when their
power to reason failed.

Causes of Crime According to Early Philosophers

Plato
-stated that certain social and political factors encouraged crime.
Aristotle
- stressed the ability of the law to improve social condition, the distribution of the right and
requirements for strict obedience to the state.

Voltaire and Rousseau

- argued that all people have equal rights. Behavior (crime of otherwise) was to be based on
one’s ability to reason. Philosopher at this period stated that an unjust legal system encourages
crime. When the government begins to take away legal rights, it is committing a crime and
revolution is justified.

Theories of Crime Causation

1. Subjective Approach - Deals with the biological explanation of crimes, focused on
the forms of abnormalities that exist in an individual before and after the commission
of crime.
2. Objective Approach – Deals with the study of groups, social processes and
institutions as influenced to behavior.
3. Contemporary Approach – It is the combination of different approaches to explain
the reasons or causes for the commission of crimes which focuses on the
psychoanalytical, psychiatric and sociological theories.

Subjective Approaches
1. Anthropological – deals with the study of physical characteristics of an
individual offender with non – offenders in an attempt to discover differences covering
criminal behavior.
2. Medical Approach – Application of medical examination for the explanation of
mental and physical condition of the individual prior and after the commission of the
crime. 3. Biological Approach – according to Taft, heredity is one major factor why a
person commits crime
4. Physiological Needs – Maslow explained that the deprivation of the primary needs is
a strong factor in the commission of crime
 5. Psychological - Concerned in the deprivation of psychological needs of man
which constitute the development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to
repulsive sentiment and action

6. Psychiatric – this approach explains that mental disease is the reason why a
person violates norms and laws of the land
7. Psychoanalytical – According to Freud, the imbalance condition of Id, Ego and
Superego causes deviation of the individual to the norms of society

Objective Approaches
1. Geographical Approach
– Considers topography, natural resources, Geographical location, and climate lead
an individual to commit crime. Founder Quetelet, “Thermic Law of Delinquency”,
crimes against person prevail in the South Pole and during warm season while
crimes against property predominate in the north pole and cold countries.

2. Ecological Approach
– according to Park, this is concerned with the biotic grouping of men resulting to
migration, competition, social discrimination, division of labor and social conflict as
factors to crime.

3. Economic Approach
– Merton believed that poverty or economic difficulty pushes a person to commit
crime in order to support his needs.

4. Socio-Cultural
– Cohen affirms that institutions, education, politics and religion are major factors in
the commission of crimes.
5. Biological Factors
-Men as living organism have been the object of several studies which has the
purpose of determining the causes of crimes
● Physiognomy
 -this is the study of the relationship between the facial features and human conduct
of a person in relation to his crime.
● Phrenology or Craniology
-This is the study of external formation of the skull that indicates the conformation
of the brain and the development of its various parts in relation to the behavior of
the criminal advocated by Franz Joseph Gall & Spurzheim.
6. Heredity Factors
-The common household expressions like “it is in the blood” and “like father like son” are
usually heard and said whenever there are several members of the family who are criminals.
The old biblical injunction that “the sins of the fathers shall be visited on the sons”.
Kallikak Family Tree
Martin Kallikak was a soldier of the American revolutionary war and while stationed in
a small village he met and had illicit relations with a feeble – minded girl.
About 489descendants from this lineage where traced which included 143 feeble-minded
and only 46 were normal. Thirty-six were illegitimate, 3 were epileptic, 3 criminals, 8
kept brothels and 82 died in infancy.

At the closed of the war, Martin Kallikak, Sr. returned to his home and married a
quaker of good family. Out of this marriage, 4, 967 of the descendants has been traced and
all but I was convicted of religious offense, 15 died in infancy and no one become criminal
or epileptic.

• Juke Family Tree

The Juke family consisted of 6 girls some of whom were illegitimate. One of the
six sisters, Ada Juke was known as “Margaret”, the mother of criminals. Dugdale traced
the 1, 200 descendants for 75 years from its origin and found 280 as paupers, 140-
criminals, 60 habitual thieves, 300 infants prematurely born, 7 murders, 50 prostitutes,
440 contaminated with sexual diseases, and 30 were prosecuted for bastardly. Studied by
Richard Dugdale.
 • Sir Jonathan Edwards Family Tree

Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher during the colonial period. When his
family tree was traced, none of the descendants was found to be criminal. On the other
hand, many become presidents of the United States, governor, members of Supreme
Court, famous writers, preachers and teachers.

7 Psychoanalytic & Psychiatric Factors

● Psychoanalytic- analysis of human behavior
● Psychiatric-study of human mind

CHAPTER 3

The following are the basic theories in Criminology used in explaining the etiology of crime,
criminal behavior, deviant behavior, and human behavior.

●PRE-CLASSICAL THEORY:
▪Demonological Theory — it maintains that criminal behavior was believed to be the result of
evil spirits and demons something of natural force and controls behavior.
−During the medieval period, the most common explanations for the commission of wrong act is
said to be caused by the devil. From this account, method uses in the determination of truth
(trial) were arbitrary and unreasonable. Although through the Middle Ages (1200-1600),
superstition and fear of satanic possession dominated the thinking. People who
violated
social norms or religious practices were believed to be witches or possessed by demons.
The prescribed method for dealing with the possessed was burning at stake, a practiced
that survived into the 17th Century.

Pre 20
th
Century (1738-1798)

FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES IN CRIMINOLOGY:

•Classical Theory — it asserts that human beings are endowed with absolute free will to
choose right from wrong. Human beings are fundamentally rational, and most human
behavior is the result of free will coupled with rational -choice.
•Pain and suffering are the two central determinants of human behavior
•It was introduced by Cesare Beccaria (Essay on Crimes and Punishment) and Jeremy Bentham
(Utilitarian Hedonism)

Classical School of Thought

•Advocates are Cesare Beccaria (Cesare Bonesara Marchese de Beccaria) who is known as
Founder of Classical School of Thought and Jeremy Bentham.
•Beccaria in his book “An Essay of Crime and Punishment” presented key ideas on the
abolition of torture as legitimate means of extracting confession.
•Beccaria graduate of a law degree from the University of Pavia returned home to Milan and
joined a group of radial intellectuals, and organized themselves into the ACADEMY OF
FISTS. Their purpose was to investigate the type of reforms that were needed to modernize
Italian Society.

• Beccaria believed that:

•People want to achieved pleasure and pain.
• Crime provides some pleasure to the criminal.
• To deter crime, he believed that one must administer pain in an appropriate amount to
counterbalance the pleasure obtain from crime.
• Famous in sayings “Let the punishment fit the crime”
Characteristics of Classical School

•The basis of criminal liability is human free will and the purpose of penalty is
retribution
•Man is essentially a moral creature with an absolute free will to choose between right and
wrong.
• That every man is therefore responsible for his act.
• The law, or the judge, should determine the punishment to be attached to a criminal act
and should provide a scale of punishment to all persons committing the same crime,
irrespective of age, sex, color, creed, or circumstances.

PURPOSE OF PUNISHMENT (CLASSICAL)

Jeremy Bentham
•Proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism or Felicific Calculus or Penal Pharmacy” which explains that
person always acts in such a way to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
•Bentham devoted his life to developing scientific approach to the making and breaking laws.
He borrowed from Beccaria the notion that the laws should provide “the greatest happiness
shared by the greatest number”. His work has governed by utilitarian principles.

Arguments against Classical School

•It treats all person as if they were machines without considering their individual differences and
surrounding circumstances during the
•Commission of crime.
•The punishment imposed upon the first-time offender and recidivist is equal.
•The nature and definition of penalty is not individualized.
•It does not consider the mental condition of the perpetrator rather it focused on the injury
caused.
•It became the Magna Carta or pattern of the criminal, since he knows what will be the penalty
in case he will be arrested, thus he can calculate the pleasure and pain.

NEO- CLASSICAL SCHOOL

Neo-classical Theory
•This maintains that there are some situations or circumstances that made it impossible to
exercise freewill thus, humans are not always responsible for their actions.
•This school argued that situations or circumstances that make it impossible to exercise
freewill are reasons to exempt the offender from conviction.
•The Classicists believed in the absolute free will of men to choose between pleasure and
pain. The person is always totally responsible for the
•Consequences of his acts. On the other hand, the Neo-Classicists argued that it is not always,
since the free will of a person in not absolute.

REACTIONS TO CHOICE THEORIES

REACTIONS TO CHOICE THEORIES

Positivist Italian School or Positivist Theory

•This school of thought emphasizes scientific treatments of criminals, not on the penalties to
be imposed because it is believed that man is subdued occasionally by a strange and morbid
phenomenon which constrains him to do wrong in spite of or contrary to his own volition.
•Maintains that crime as any act is a natural phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or
calamity. That crime is a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and
checked by the imposition of punishment rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of
individual measures.

Positivist Italian School or Positivist Theory

•Proponents of this school are: Dr. Cesare Lombroso (Father of Modern Criminology);
Enrico Ferri (Best known Lombroso’s associate, brilliant lawyer, accomplished editor,
scholar, public lecturer and a great parliamentarian); and, Raffaele Garofalo (Italian
nobleman, magistrate, professor of law and senator).

•The term Positivism refers to a method of analysis based on the collection of observable
scientific facts. It maintained that crime as any other act is a natural phenomenon and is
comparable to disaster or calamity. Crime is a social and
moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked by the imposition of
punishment but rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual measures.

•Dr. Cesare Lombroso – Father of modern Criminology. Wrote “Crime: Its Causes
and Remedies” which contains the classification of criminals:
 •Born Criminal – based on the belief the criminal behavior is inherited Criminal by
Passion – a person who commits crime due to extreme emotion, impulse of the moment,
fit of passion, great anger or jelousy
•Criminaloid – an individual who commits crime because of weak self-control or less
physical stigmata
•Insane Criminal – a person who commits crime by reason of his psychological disorder or
mental abnormalities
•Occasional Criminal – one who commits crime due to insignificant reasons that pushed
them to do at a given occasion
•Pseudo Criminal – an individual who kills a person in self-defense • Lombroso’s most
important work was “L’oumo Delinquente (The Criminal Mind), first published in 1876.

Theory of ATAVISM
•Lombroso was highly influence with the Theory of Evolution of Charles Darwin which led
him to the development to theory of ATAVISM – criminals were throwbacks to an
earlier and more primitive evolutionary period. Such criminals could be identified by
certain physical stigmata, outward appearance particularly in the face.

Enrico Ferri (1856-1929)

•An Italian, born 1856, author of “The Theory of Imputable and the Denial of Free Will”
published in 1878.
•He agreed with Lombroso on the biological basis of Criminal’s behavior but his interest in
socialism led him to recognize the importance of social, economic, and political
determinants.
•His greatest contribution was his attack on the classical doctrine of free will, which argued
that, criminals should be held morally responsible for their crimes because they must have
a rational decision to commit these acts.
•He believed that criminals could not be held morally responsible because they did not
choose to commit crimes, but rather were driven to commit crimes by conditions in their
lives.

Raffaele Garofalo

• He treated the roots of the criminals’ behavior not to physical features but to their
psychological equivalent, which he referred to as moral anomalies.
• He rejected the doctrine of freewill.
• Classify criminals as Murderers, Violent Criminals, Deficient Criminals, and Lascivious
Criminals.

Somatotyping Theory/Constitutional Theory – William Sheldon

●Physical attributes and criminal personality are related.
William Sheldon (1898 – 1977), US
●William Sheldon (1942) proposed a strong correlation between personality and somatotype (i.e.
physique).
●Identified another three body types (AMERICAN SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF
CRIMINOLOGY)

●Mesomorphic (Somatotonic) – physically powerful, aggressive, athletic physique

●Endomorphic (Viscerotonic) – predominance of soft roundness throughout the body
●Ectomorphic (Cerebrotonic) – fragile, thin and delicate
●*People with predominantly mesomorphic traits has higher criminal tendencies than other body
types.

Each body types was associated with a particular personality:

●Ectomorph - introvert, quiet, fragile, sensitive
●Endomorph - relaxed, sociable, tolerant, peaceful
●Mesomorph - aggressive, assertive, and adventurous.
●Sheldon noted that the vast majority of criminal were mesomorphs. One explanation for
this is that a solid muscular person becomes involved in crime at an early age due to their
intimidating appearance.

ERNST KRETCHMER (1888 – 1964), Germany

●Distinguished three principal types of physiques (European SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF
CRIMINOLOGY):

(European SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY):

●Aesthetic- (lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders)

●Athletic- (medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse bones)
●Pyknic- (medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face)
LESSON 1: CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES

*2 THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

I. SUBJECTIVE
A. ANTHROPOLOGICAL
B. MEDICAL
C. BIOLOGICAL
D. PHYSIOLOGICAL
E. PSYCHOLOGICAL
F. PSYCHIATRIC
G. PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL

II. OBJECTIVE
A. GEOGRAPHICAL
B. ECOLOGICAL
C. ECONOMICAL
D. SOCIO-CULTURAL

*FOUR ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

A. REPLICABILITY
- others should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific study
and obtain similar.

B. PRECISION
- Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must be defined with
such precision that others can use those definitions to measure those concepts and test
that theory.

C. FALSIFIABILITY
- A theory must be stated in a way that it can be disproven.
- Theories that cannot be tested or falsified are not scientific theories and any
such knowledge is not scientific knowledge.

D. PARSIMONY
- This concept is called parsimony or “Occam’s razor.”
- Parsimony prevents scientists from pursuing overly complex or outlandish
theories with endless number of concepts and relationships that may explain a little
bit of everything but nothing in particular.
- - When there are multiple explanations of a phenomenon, scientists must always
accept the simplest or logically most economical explanation.

*CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
- advocated by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham

*FREE WILL
 - view youths are in charge of their own destinies and are free to make personal
behavior choices unaffected by environmental factors.

*UTILITARIANISM
- a concept which argues that people weigh the benefits and consequences of their
future actions before deciding on a course of behavior.

*CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
- holds that decisions to violate the law are weighed against possible punishments
and to deter crime the pain of punishment must outweigh the benefit of illegal gain; led to
graduated penalties on crime based on seriousness of the crime.

*PURPOSE OF PUNISHMENT (CLASSICAL)

*GENERAL DETERRENCE
- punishment of delinquents and criminal offenders will strike fear in the hearts
of other people, thus making them less likely to commit acts of delinquency or crimes.

*SPECIFIC DETERRENCE
- punishment will strike fear in the hearts of wrongdoers thus making them less
likely to offend others again.

*INCAPACITATION
- the simplest form of justification; wrongdoers should be locked up in jail
since while they are imprisoned in an institution, they cannot commit offense against
he other people in the outside world.

*RETRIBUTION
- this reason contradicts or objects the idea that anything good or useful will
follow or result from punishing offenders.
- Criminals should be punished because they deserve it; a punishment is morally
right and just in light of the harm and damage caused by the offense.

*ELEMENTS OF DETERRENCE
A. CELERITY
- Celerity refers to how quickly an individual is punished after committing a
crime.

B. CERTAINTY
- Certainty refers to how likely it is that an individual will be caught and
punished for a crime that he or she has committed.
- most important of the three elements.

C. SEVERITY
- Severity refers to how harsh the punishment for a crime will be.
- In classical criminology, it is important to remember that a punishment must fit
the crime.
- If a punishment is not severe enough, it will not deter crime.
- If it is too severe, it is unjust and can lead to more crime.
*RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
- This is the 1980s formulation of classical criminology.
- Can be traced back to eighteenth-century philosopher Cesare Beccaria, this version
adds a new dimension that emphasizes the expanding role of the economist in
criminological thought.
- The emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime, and other
associated costs and benefits surrounding criminal activity.

*EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE

- Economic theory which states that people will act in a manner that increases their
benefits and reduces their losses.
- This ties in closely with classical criminology and, by definition, rational choice theory,
where people seek to increase their pleasure and reduce their pain.

*ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY

- This theory states that for crime to be committed, three elements must be present: an
available target, a motivated offender, and a lack of guardians.
- Cohen, Lawrence E. & Felson, Marcus are the one who developed the routine

*BROKEN WINDOWS THEORY

- Wilson and Kelling
- Poor physical appearance of a neighborhood = attraction of criminals of all types.

*NEO-CLASSICAL SCHOOL
- A group of intellectuals headed by Sir William Blackstone
- recognized the existence of free will but argues that certain individuals cannot exercise
free will intelligently by reason of age, mental condition, or circumstances such as minority ,
insanity ,or duress.

*CRIME PATTERN THEORY

- Paul & Patricia Brantingham
- Potential targets and victims have activity spaces that intersect the activity spaces of
potential offenders.

*POSITIVIST THEORIES BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL

*CARTOGRAPHIC SCHOOL
- Adolphe Quetelet (1796 – 1874) - Belgium
- Andre Michael Guerry ( 1802 – 1866) - France

*FIRST INDEPENDENTLY REPUDIATE THE CLASSICISTS FREE WILL

DOCTRINE:
1. POVERTY
2. AGE
3. SEX
4. RACE
5. CLIMATE
NOTE: “NOT THE DECISIONS OF INDIVIDUALS”, determine criminal behavior.

*BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
A. ATAVISM
- Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a “born
criminal.”
- Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution,
and will commit crimes against society unless specifically restrained from doing so.

B. BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL
- A view of crime, also referred to as biological positivism, that claims that
criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn defects or abnormalities.
- This view directly conflicts with classical criminology, which claims that
criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a biological perspective, deterrence is
of little value.

C. BORN CRIMINAL
- This type of criminal is the most dangerous
- can be identified through their stigmata or identifying characteristics.

D. INSANE CRIMINAL
- These criminals are unable to control their actions; however, they do not
possess the stigmata or identifying characteristics of the born criminal.

E. CRIMINALOID
- The criminaloid is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts
under the proper circumstances.

F. DETERMINISM
- In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the view that an
individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic inheritance or
biological predisposition.

G. SOFT DETERMINISM
- explained by Matza
- examines the role of determinism, but also acknowledges that other factors, from
environmental to choice, may be part of the equation.
- This assumes that behavior is not completely and strictly determined by the
individual’s genetic or biological makeup.

H. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
- A broad-based view that certain types of criminal behavior are genetic and
passed down from one generation to the next through evolutionary processes of
natural selection and survival.
I. GENE-BASED EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
- A general approach that suggests that the process of natural selection has
resulted in criminal genetic tendencies that are passed down from generation to
generation.

a) KLINEFELTER SYNDROME
- XXY
- A man with an extra female X chromosome.

b) STIGMATA
- claimed by Lombroso that could be used to identify the “born criminal.”
- They include things such as extra fingers or toes, large lips, receding chins,
excessive skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.

c) THE SUPER-MALE CRIMINAL

- XYY
- This theory of crime claims that men born with an extra Y chromosome.
- are more likely to commit criminal acts.
- believed that the presence of this extra chromosome provides the individuals
with extra testosterone, making them more aggressive and violent.

J. GIAMBATTISTA DELLA PORTA (1535-1615), ITALY

- A polymath who pioneered the study of Human Physiognomy.

a) PHYSIOGNOMY
- facial features and their relations to human behavior.
- earliest positivist approach in the study of crime.
- His writings on the subject later influenced Johann Kaspar Lavater.

K. FRANZ JOSEPH GALL (1758-1828) & KASPAR SPURZHEIM (1776-1828),

GERMANY
- Founded the science of Phrenology.

a) PHRENOLOGY
- bumps in the head are indications of “psychological propensities”.

L. AUGUSTE COMPTE (18th CENTURY), FRANCE

- physical sciences to the social sciences in his book Cours de Philosophie
Positive.
- He argued that there could be no real knowledge of social phenomena unless
it was based on positive (scientific) approach.

M. CESARE LOMBROSO (1836-1909), ITALY

- Italian criminologist who wrote L’uomo Delinquente (The Criminal Man) and
advanced the theory that “crime can be attributed to a hereditary predisposition in
certain individuals”.
 - He argued that offenders are BORN CRIMINALS.
- The opposite of Charles Darwin’s theory of Evolution through natural
selection, Lombroso posited that certain individuals digresses back to their animalistic
origin in a phenomenon called Atavism.

N. ENRICO FERRI
- One of Lombroso’s students, he accepted the existence of a criminal type but
also focused on factors other than inherited physical characteristics as predictors of crime.
- He considered social factors such as: population trends,religion, and the
nature of the family. Crime is social accountability.

O. RAFAEL GAROFALO
- Italian lawyer, major contribution to modern criminology is the concept of
natural crime, which he argued was the principal concern of criminologists.
- The true criminal is is a distinct biological or psychic type and one who
lacks the basic altruistic sentiments of pity and honesty.
- moral anomaly rather than physical stigmata.

P. CHARLES BUCKMAN GORING (1870-1919), ENGLAND

- Medical officer of Parkhurst Prison in England who collected data on 96 traits
of more than 3,000 convicts and a large control group of Oxford students, hospital
patients and soldiers assisted by KARL PEARSON, famous statistician.
- He refuted Lombrosian theory of anthropological criminal type.
- His evaluation stands as the most cogent critical analysis of the theory of
Born Criminals.
- He rejected the claim that a specific stigmata identify the potential criminal
but is convinced that poor physical condition plus defective state of mind were
DETERMINING FACTORS IN CRIMINAL PERSONALITY.

Q. ERNST KRETCHMER (1888-1964), GERMANY

- Distinguished three principal types of physiques.

*(EUROPEAN SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY):

1) AESTHETIC - lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders.

2) ATHLETIC - medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse bones.

3) PYKNIC - medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face.

R. WILLIAM SHELDON
- Identified three body types

*3 BODY TYPES (AMERICAN SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY:

A. MESOMORPHIC (SOMATOTONIC) - physically powerful, aggressive, athletic
physique.
 B. ENDOMORPHIC (VISCEROTONIC) - predominance of soft roundness
throughout the body.

C. ECTOMORPHIC (CEREBROTONIC)
- fragile, thin and delicate.
- People with predominantly mesomorphic traits has higher criminal
tendencies than other body types.

*PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
A. FREUDIAN
- This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development.
- It claims that criminal activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego,
and superego, which can be traced back to a conflict in early childhood.

B. EGO
- The ego is referred to as the executive or rational part of the personality, and
it acts to keep the id in check.
- Deals with Reality

C. ID
- The id contains basic instincts and drives, such as the need for food, water,
sex, and pleasure.
- Little Devil

D. SUPEREGO
- This part of the personality contains the conscience of the individual.
- Conscience works
- Little Angel

E. OEDIPUS COMPLEX
- This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6).
- boy develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred and fear of his
father.

F. ELECTRA COMPLEX
- This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6)
- girl develops a desire to possess her father and a hatred and fear of her
mother.

G. PERSONALITY THEORY
- This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant,
or inadequate personality.
- Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness,
aggression, and sensation-seeking.
 H. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
- A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal behavior can be
found in the mind of the individual.
I. PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING
- The process by which an underlying mental issue can be addressed.
- The assumptions are that only by treating an individual who has committed a
criminal act as someone who is sick and in need of treatment can the problem truly be
addressed; punishing the criminal act without addressing the root mental cause is of little
or no value; and counseling is the only way in which the root mental cause can be dealt
with adequately.

J. PSYCHOPATHIC
- A general term referring to a variety of antisocial personality disorders.

*BEHAVIORISM
A. BEHAVIOR THEORY
- Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and included elements of
behavior theory and behavior modification.
- This expansion allowed them to identify the learning process, and included
elements such as operant behavior,respondent conditioning, discriminative stimuli, and
schedules of reinforcement.

B. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

- In general, social learning theory proposes that both criminal and conforming
behavior are acquired, maintained, or changed by the same process of interaction
with others.

C. SOCIAL LEARNING
- Looks at the thought process of the individual and external sanctions
- By observing others, they can imitate aggression
- Bobo Doll Experiment
- Reinforcement and sanction are important

D. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION
- This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps.
- Criminality is basically the result of engaging in inappropriate behaviors
exhibited by those with whom we interact.
- Criminal behavior can be learned thru interaction to intimate others.

E. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT
- The concept refers to the potential rewards and punishments for committing
or not committing a criminal or deviant act.
- This process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards that have
been received in the past, as well as present and future rewards and punishments (C. Ray
Jeffrey)
 F. DIFFERENTIAL IDENTIFICATION
- A modification of differential association theory.
- people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that it will lead to
acceptance by and approval of these important people in their lives. (D. Glaser)

G. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
- This refers to an individual escaping something painful such as a punishment
or reprimand by committing a certain act.

H. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
- This refers to an individual receiving something of value for committing a
certain act.
- This may include things such as money, food, or approval

I. OPERANT CONDITIONING
- The view that voluntary actions and decisions made by an individual are
influenced and shaped by punishments and rewards found in the external world.

*AKERS, RONALD
- Sociologist and criminologist
- He and Robert Burgess developed the differential reinforcement theory
- He wrote Deviant Behavior: A social Learning Approach (1973-1977)

*BURGESS, ROBERT L.
- Behavior sociologist
- collaborated with Ronald Akers to develop a “differential association reinforcement”
theory of criminal behavior.

*BANDURA,ALBERT
- Psychologist and child development expert
- examined stages of development and concluded conduct develops at particular
stages when certain interaction stimuli are present.

*ELLIOT, DELBERT
- Developed an integrated theory
- wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985)

*SITHERLAND, EDWIN
- Developed the differential association theory
- wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of Criminology (1947).

*WILLIAM HEALY - that crime is a product of a mental content of an individual (low IQ)

*ALFRED ADLER - Inferiority Complex

*BROMBERG - mental immaturity is the cause of crime.

*ERIC ERICKSON - Identity Crisis

*CARL GUSTAY JUNG - Introvert & Extrovert

*AUGUST AICHORN - wayward youth (JD)

*DAVID ABRAHAMSEN - C = CT + S over R

*SIR CYRIL BURT - Submissive Individual

*ISAAC RAY - insanity is not liability

*HENRY MAUDSLEY - criteria for legal responsibility

*SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES

A. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY
- Clifford Shaw & Henry McKay
- Posits that delinquency is a product of the social forces
existing in inner city, low income areas.

1) GENTRIFIED
- the process of transforming a lower class area into a middle class enclave through
property rehabilitation.

2) POVERTY CONCENTRATION EFFECT

- William Julius Wilson
- the consolidation of poor minority group members in urban areas.

3) COLLECTIVE EFFICACY
- the ability of communities to regulate the behavior of their residents through the
influence of community institutions, such as the family and schools.
- Residents in these communities share mutual trust and willingness to intervene in
the supervision of children and the maintenance of public order.

*POVERTY
- Development of isolated poor neighborhoods.
- Lack of conventional social opportunities.
- Racial and ethnic discrimination.

*SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION
- Breakdown of social institutions and organizations use as school and family.
- Lack of informal social control.

*BREAKDOWN OF SOCIAL CONTROL

 - Development of gangs and groups.
- Peer group replaces family and social institutions.

*CRIMINAL AREAS
- Neighborhood becomes crime prone.
- Stable pockets of delinquency develop.
- Lack of collective efficacy.

*CULTURAL TRANSMISSION
- Order youths pass their norms (focal concerns) to younger generation.

*CRIMINAL CAREERS
- Most youths “age out” of delinquency, marry, and raise families.
- A few remain in the culture of crime.

B. TRANSITIONAL NEIGHBORHOOD
- Areas undergoing a shift population and structure, usually from middle class
residential to lower class mixed use.

C. CULTURAL TRANSMISSION
- Cultural norms and values that are passed down from generation to the
next.

D. SOCIAL CONTROL
- Ability of social institutions to influence human behavior.
- the justice system is the primary agency of formal social control.

*URBAN ECOLOGY
- This work done by Park and Burgess influenced the social disorganization theory
developed by Shaw and McKay.
- views a city as analogous to the natural ecological community of plants and animals.
- This relationship is understood through the use of concentric zones that spread from
the center to the outer regions of a city.

*CONCENTRIC ZONE THEORY

- Factory zone, Residential Zone, Zone in transition, Working men’s homes zone,
Commuter zone

*ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY
- explains the effect of Industrial Revolution with the increased complexity of society,
which leads to weakened social bonds and disruption of the normative structure.

*ANOMIE
- A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society.
- coined by Emile Durkheim to explain suicide in French society.
 - later applied by Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in
American society.

*MERTON’S ANOMIE THEORY (STRAIN THEORY)

- when an individual realizes that not everyone can achieve the American dream of
equal opportunity for economic success.

*FIVE ADAPTATIONS
1. The CONFORMIST accepts the goals of society, and the means for achieving them: the
college student.
2. The INNOVATOR accepts the goals of society, but rejects the means of achieving them: the
drug dealer.
3. The MODE OF REBELLION refers to one who rejects both the goals and means of society,
and wants to replace them with new goals and means: the militia member.
4. The RETREATIST gives up on both the goals and means, and withdraws from society: the
alcoholic.
5. the RITUALIST rejects the goals, and accepts the means: this person has given up on the
promotion, nice car, etc., and simply punches the time clock to keep what they have.

*CULTURAL DEVIANCE THEORY (ANOMIE STRAIN)

- examines juveniles.
- juveniles are measured against the standard of the middle class.
- Cohen is in agreement with Merton that blocked goals produce strain, his theory looks
at status as opposed to material gain.

a) WORKING CLASS SOCIALIZATION + MIDDLE CLASS

b) FAILURE IN SCHOOL
c) LOW SELF ESTEEM
d) DROPS OUT OF SCHOOL
e) INCREASED RESENTMENT TOWARDS MIDDLE CLASS VALUES
f) TURN MIDDLE CLASS VALUES UPSIDE DOWN
g) SELF IMAGE ENHANCED BY BREAKING MIDDLE CLASS RULES
h) DELINQUENCY

*DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY (MILLER)

- one may be denied legitimate opportunity, that does not mean that one has access
to illegitimate opportunity.
- draws from anomie and the work of Merton and Cohen; the social disorganization
theory of Shaw and McKay; and the differential association theory of Sutherland.

*SUBCULTURE
- Focal Concerns of the Lower-Class Culture.
- Walter Miller developed the list of focal concerns or values believed to be prevalent
among lower-class males.
- According to Miller, the behavior of these juveniles was an adaptation to lower-
class culture.
 - This culture valued things such as: trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fatalism,
and autonomy.

*GENERAL STRAIN THEORY (ROBERT AGNEW)

- Criminality is the direct results of negative affective states anger, frustration, and
adverse emotions that emerge in the wake of negative and destructive social relationships.

A. SOURCES OF STRAIN - Failure to achieve goals, Removal of positive stimuli,

Presentation of negative stimuli, Disjunction of expectations and achievements.

B. NEGATIVE AFFECTIVE STATES - Anger, Frustration, Disappointment,

Depression, Fear

C. ANTI SOCIAL BEHAVIOR - Drug Abuse, Delinquency, Violence, Dropping out

*THREE MAJOR TYPES OF DEVIACE PRODUCING STRAIN

1) FAILURE TO ACHIEVE POSITIVELY VALUED GOALS
2) REMOVAL OF POSITIVELY VALUED STIMULI
3) CONFRONTATION WITH NEGATIVE STIMULI

*INSTITUTIONAL ANOMIE (MESSNER AND ROSENFELD)

- American society is set up in such a way so as to give prestige and priority to
economic institutions.
- accumulation of wealth and individual success are people’s highest priorities.
- Prioritizing economic institutions weakens the ability of other social institutions
(family, education, government) to control crime that occurs in response to the lack of access to
or failure in the economic sphere.
- Therefore, a high level of criminal activity is a natural result of the setup of
American society.

*SOCIAL CONTROL AND BONDING THEORIES

A. SOCIAL CONTROL
- refers to those elements that keep an individual from committing a criminal
or deviant act.

B. SELF-CONTROL THEORY
- specific type of control theory developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi.
- self-control is the key factor in understanding criminal and deviant acts.

C. CONTROL THEORIES
- claim to ask not why do people commit criminal acts, but why do they not
commit criminal acts?
- assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts, and
seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so.

*TYPES OF CONTROL
A. EXTERNAL CONTROL
- agents outside the control of the individual are responsible for keeping that
individual from committing criminal or deviant acts.

B. INTERNAL CONTROL
- explains why a person will not commit a criminal act by reference to the
person internally monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior.
- feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint others.
*SOCIAL BONDING THEORY
- individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to
society are weakened or have broken.
- When the bonds are strong, an individual will refrain from criminal activity.

I. CONFORMING BEHAVIOR
A. ATTACHMENT - Family, Friends, Community

B. COMMITMENT - Future, Career, Success, Personal Goals

C. BELIEF - Honesty, Morality, Fairness, Patriotism, Responsibility

D. INVOLVEMENT - School Activities, Sports Teams, Religious Groups, Social

Clubs

*CONTAINMENT THEORY
- people can ‘drift’ or float back and forth between obeying and breaking the law.
- These techniques are justifications and excuses for committing delinquent acts,
which are essentially inappropriate extensions of commonly accepted rationalizations found in
the general culture.
- People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when other
forms of social control are weak.
- These techniques are rationalization, ways to justify their behavior.

I. CONFORMING BEHAVIOR
A. INNER CONTROL - Self-concept, Goal orientation, Frustration tolerance,
Norm retention.

B. OUTER CONTROL - Reasonable limits, Meaningful roles & activities,

Supportive relationships.

*PERSONALITIES UNDER SOCIAL CONTROL

A. GOTTFREDSON, MICHAEL - Co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990)
with Travis Hirschi

B. HIRSCHI, TRAVIS
- Criminologist, developed the social bond theory.
- wrote The Causes of Delinquency (1969).

C. MATZA, DAVID
- developed drift theory of delinquency in 1964.

D. SYKES, GRESHAM - Collaborated with David Matza in 1957 and proposed

“techniques of neutralization.”

E. NYE F. IVAN
 - Wrote Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior (1958).
- expanding on Reiss’ definitions of social controls.

F. RECKLESS, WALTER - Proposed the containment theory of delinquency and

crime.

G. REISS, ALBERT J. - In 1951, identified delinquency as resulting from the failure

of “personal” and “social” controls.

*SOCIAL REACTION THEORIES

- explains crime in way society reacts to individuals and the way the individuals react
to society determines behavior.

A. STIGMATIZED
- people who have been negatively labeled because of their participation or
alleged participation in deviant or outlawed activities.

B. LABELING THEORY
- formal and informal application of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or
tags applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future deviant
or criminal acts.

*THE LABELING PROCESS

A. INITIAL CRIMINAL ACT
B. DETECTION BY THE JUSTICE SYSTEM
C. DECISION TO LABEL
D. CREATION OF A NEW IDENTY
E. ACCEPTANCE OF LABELS
F. DEVIANCE AMPLIFICATION

*LABELING THEORY
- These label include “troublemaker”, “juvenile delinquent”, “mentally ill”, “junkie”
and more.
- It views label as the dependent variable when it attempts to explain why certain
behavior is socially defined as wrong and certain persons are selected for stigmatization
and criminalization.
- views that youths may violate the law for a variety of reasons, including poor family
relations, peer pressure, psychological abnormality, and pro-delinquent learning experiences.
- Regardless of the cause of individuals’ delinquent behaviors are detected, the offenders
will be given a negative label that can follow them throughout life.

*LABELING THEORY (F. TANNEMBAUM)

A. DUALISTIC FALLACY
- Refers to the error in the presumption that the processes that produces
criminal or antisocial behavior is DIFFERENT from the processes that produces law
abiding or conventional behavior.
*LABELING THEORY (E. LEMERT)
*LEMERT
- claimed that not all persons labeled criminal or delinquent accept these roles.
How receptive they are to such levels depends on their social class.
- Lemerts was also critical of rehabilitation efforts.
- He saw them only as promoting recidivism.

A. PRIMARY DEVIATION
- deviance that people engage in occasionally.
- It is rationalized or otherwise dealt with as part of a socially acceptable role.
- youth will have to choose new roles, which may be more deviant or less
deviant than the old ones.

B. SECONDARY DEVIATION
- dynamic relationship between the person’s deviation and the society
reaction to it.
- If the individual is eventually stigmatized, efforts at control will shift from
informal to formal, legal and the individual will be redefined as delinquent.

*LABELING THEORY
A. ORIGINAL DELINQUENT ACT
B. LABEL APPLIED
C. A DELINQUENT SELF IMAGE
D. FUTURE DELINQUENCY

*LABELING THEORY (E. SCHUR)

*EDWIN SCHUR
- He supported what he called “radical non-intervention” meaning that
children should be left alone whenever possible.

*THREE ELEMENTS IN THE LABELING PROCESS

A. STEREOTYPING
- quick mental classification of individuals or groups and exaggerates the differences
among people.
- involves jumping to conclusions – that is, taking a single cue and making a sweeping
judgment on it.

B. RETROSPECTIVE INTERPRETATION
- involves labeling individuals in a certain way and then viewing them in an entirely
new light.

C. NEGOTIATION
- occurs often in criminal courts, where defense and prosecution bargain with each
other over the charge, plea and sentence.
*LABELING THEORY (H. BECKER)
*BECKER
- focused on how people acquire their labels.
- He argued that whether an activity is deviant depends on how other people react to
it, not on the nature of the activity itself.

*BECKER CONSIDERED THE PROCESS OF BECOMING DEVIANT

1) The first step is to commit a deviant act (even if it is unintentional). The offenders may
have no idea that others see it as deviant.
2) The next crucial step in the process is getting caught, which put the person in a new light
and gives him or her a new status or label.
3) Once labeled, a person is presumed likely to engage in such behavior again and again.
4) The final step in the process of pursuing a deviant career is to join an organized deviant
group where each member learns to rationalize deviant activities.

*LABELING THEORY (J. BRAITHWHITE)

A. REINTEGRATIVE SHAMING
- individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant
act, but done in a way that the individual who is shamed is brought back into the
larger community and restored to a position of respectability.

B. DISINTEGRATIVE SHAMING
- The process by which an individual is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame
for committing a deviant act in a manner that degrades and devalues the individual.
- This occurs without an attempt after the offenders have been punished to
reconcile them with or restore them to the larger community.

*REACTIONS TO LABELING THEORY (SOCIAL POLICIES)

A. DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION
- removal of juveniles from jails, detention centers, and institutions.
- Removing juveniles from these facilities, and when possible removing status and
minor offenders from the juvenile justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of
diversion.

B. DIVERSION MOVEMENT
- The intent is to reduce the stigma of formal delinquent or criminal labels on
the individuals and to reduce or avoid the costs of formal processing of the crime.
- refers to all those efforts to divert individuals, primarily youth but also
adults who are suspected of or have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and
formal process of the juvenile or adult justice system.

C. FAITH-BASED PROGRAMS
- religiously based programs which can be operated within the institution or
the larger community.
- They can be run by inmates or religious leaders, and use spiritual beliefs
and values to change offenders’ attitudes and behavior.
D. NETWIDENING
 - occurs when offenders who would have been released from the system are
placed in a program simply because a program exists.
- This often occurs in diversion programs.

E. RESTORATIVE JUSTIVE
- refers to programs which are designed to make offenders take responsibility
for their actions and restore them and their victims, as much as possible, back to
things as they existed before the offense.
- Often offenders will apologize to the victims and to the community,
and attempt to financially compensate the victims for their losses.

*PERSONALITIES IN LABELING THEORIES (SOCIAL REACTION)

A. BECKER, HOWARD
- Criminologist and social psychologist, primary theorist in labeling.
- wrote Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963).

B. LEMERT, EDWIN M.
- Sociologist, collaborated with Howard Becker to extend the labeling theory to
include both primary and secondary deviance.
- wrote Social Pathology (1951) and Human Deviance, Social Problems, and
Social Control (1967).

C. BRAITHWHITE, JOHN
- Wrote Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation (2002).
- His concept of reintrogrative shamming remains at the core of restorative
justice.

D. COOLEY, CHARLES HORTON

- Sociologist who developed the concept of “looking- lass self.”

E. TANNENBAUM, FRANK
- Criminologist, coined the phrase “dramatization of evil.”
- wrote Crime and the Community (1938).
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF LAW, CRIME, CRIMINOLOGY, CRIMINAL
JUSTICE, DEVIANCE AND DELINQUENCY

LAW & JUSTICE

- A rule of conduct, just and obligatory laid down by the legitimate authority for the
common welfare and benefit of the people.
- Lady Justice is the symbol of the judiciary.
- Justice is depicted as a goddess equipped with three symbols of the rule of law:

LAW & JUSTICE

 A sword symbolizing the court’s coercive power;
 A scale representing the weighing of competing claims; and
 A blindfold indicating impartiality.

CRIME DEFINED
A crime is an act committed or omitted in violation of a law forbidding or commanding it and for
which a punishment is imposed upon conviction. In the Philippines, the Revised Penal Code
(Act No. 3815) serves as the basic law that defines criminal offenses and provides the penalties
for the commission of such.
Due process of law
 which hears before it condemns
 which proceed upon inquiry and
 render the judgment only after trial
SUBSTANTIVE VS. PROCEDURAL
SUBSTANTIVE LAW
- Establishes the rights and obligations that govern people and organizations; it includes all
laws of general and specific applicability.

PROCEDURAL LAW
- Establishes the legal rules by which substantive law is created, applied and enforced,
particularly in a court of law.

PILLARS OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

Law Enforcement, Prosecution, Courts, Correction, Community

EARLY LEGAL CODES

CODE OF UR- NAMMU (2100–2050 BCE)

- Oldest Code known to man
- Institutes fine of monetary compensation for bodily damage, as opposed to the later lex
talionis (‘eye for an eye’) principle of Babylonian law; however, murder, robbery,
adultery and rape were capital offenses.
- Provides the first caste system

CODE OF ESHUNNA
- (Ca 1930 BC)
 - a Sumerian code which forbids accepting money or objects “from the hands of a slave”
or making loans (that is, any transactions with a slave.). Moneylenders are likewise
forbidden taking hostages, whether freemen or slaves.

CODE OF LIPIT-ISTHAR
- (Ca 1860 BC)
- A more popular version the Sumerian law which chronicles the rights of citizens,
marriages, successions, property rights and penalties.

CODE OF HAMMURABI
- First discovered in 1901, these laws are currently the earliest known complete set of
codified laws. Once thought to be the earliest laws until the discovery of a portion of the
Code of Lipit-Ishtar (circa 1868 B.C.E.) in the 1930's.
- These laws are originally scripted on an eight-meter monolith stone tablet in the
Akkadian language. The monolith is currently part of the Near Eastern Antiquities
Collection at the Lourve Museum in Paris, France. Hammurabi was the King of Babylon
from about 1792 B.C.E. to 1750 B.C.E.

LEX TALIONES
“An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”

CODE OF DRACO
- Greek Code of Draco (621 BC)
- In Greece, around 621 BC, the Code of Draco was enforced, a harsh code that provides
the same punishment for both citizens and the slaves as it incorporates primitive concepts.
The penalty for many offenses was death; so severe, that the word "draconian" comes
from his name and has come to mean, in the English language, an unreasonably harsh law.
- The Draco laws were the first written laws of Greece. These laws introduced the state's
exclusive role in punishing persons accused of crime, instead of relying on private justice.
Thus, the Greeks were the first society to allow any citizen to prosecute the offender in
the name of the injured party.

SOLON’S LAW
- Solon’s Law (530 BC)
- This law repealed Draco’s laws and allowed capital punishment only for a limited
number of serious offenses, such as murder or military or political offenses against the
state. It also gave the right of representation, of every person to claim redress on behalf of
another to whom wrong was being done

MOSAIC CODE
- The Law of Moses is a biblical term first found in the Book of Joshua 8:31-32 where
Joshua writes the words of "the Law of Moses" on the altar at Mount Ebal.
- The text continues "And afterward he read all the words of the law, the blessings and
cursings, according to all that is written in the book of the law." (Joshua 8:34).
TWELVE TABLES
- The Law of the Twelve Tables (Duodecim Tabulae) was the ancient legislation that stood
at the foundation of Roman law.
- Compilation of existing customary/unwritten law of Rome
- The Twelve Tables came about as a result of the long social struggle between patricians
and plebeians. After the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, the
Republic was governed by a hierarchy of magistrates.

JUS CIVILE
- “Civil Law”

JUSTINIAN CODE
- Corpus Juris Civilis or the Justinian Code, was the result of Emperor Justinian's desire
that existing Roman law be collected into a simple and clear system of laws, or “code. “
- Tribonian, a legal minister under Justinian, lead a group of scholars in a 14-month effort
to codify existing Roman law. The result was the first Justinian Code, completed in 529.

BURGUNDIAN CODE
- Burgundian Code (500 A.D)
- Also known as Lex Burgundionum, published in about 475 in Burgundy, now
Southeastern France. The codification married German to Roman law as well as
advancing other unique and novel aspects of written private laws which influenced the
course of the laws of Europe.

SECULAR CODES
- Secular Laws (4th AD)
- Were advocated by Christian philosophers who recognizes the need for justice. Some of
the proponents these laws were St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. During this period,
three laws were distinguished: External Law (Lex Externa), Natural Law (Lex
Naturalis), Human Law (Lex Humana). All these laws are intended for the common
good, but the Human law only becomes valid if it does not conflict with the other two
laws.

JUDEAN CHRISTIAN THEORY

- 30 C.E.
- The canonical courts refuse to recognize State courts and allowed jurisdiction over crimes
of heresy, blasphemy, and witchcraft.

MEASURING CRIME, AND THE ESSENTIAL CONCEPT OF CRIMINAL

VICTIMIZATION AND VICTIMOLOGY

CRIME STATISTICS
 - Crime statistics refer to systematic, quantitative results about crime, as opposed to crime
news or anecdotes. Notably, crime statistics can be the result of two rather different
processes:
- Scientific research, such as criminological studies, victimization surveys; Official figures,
such as published by the police, prosecution, courts, and prisons.

CRIME RATE
- The number of crimes that are committed during a period of time in a particular place.

CRIME VOLUME
- The number that totals all crimes committed in an area over a period of time. Crime
volume is computed by adding the total number of index and non-index crimes together.

INDEX CRIMES VS. NON-INDEX CRIMES

- Index Crimes are crimes that the PNP considers “serious” and which occur with
“regularity” across all cities so much so that its number can become an index or guide to
determine how crime-infested an area is. Index crimes are crimes against persons and
property. They consist of murder, homicide, physical injury, carnapping, cattle rustling,
robbery, theft, and rape.
- Non-index crimes, on the other hand, are violations of special laws such as illegal
logging or local ordinances.

VICTIMOLOGY
- Is the scientific study of the causes of victimization, which observes the process on how
criminal justice response, and sectors of the community deal with the crime victim.
- Is the study of victimization, including the psychological effects on victims, the
relationship between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and
the criminal justice system—that is, the police and courts, and corrections officials—and
the connections between victims and other social groups and institutions, such as the
media, businesses, and social movements.

VICTIM
- Persons who individually or collectively, have suffered harm, which include physical or
mental injury, emotional suffering or economic loss or substantial impairment of
fundamental rights through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws
operative within member states, including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power.

EARLY VICTIMOLOGISTS

HANS VON HENTIG

- German criminologist HansVon Hentig (1948) developed a typology of victims based on
the degree to which victims contributed to causing the criminal act.
- Examining the psychological, social, and biological dynamics of the situation, he
classified victims into 13 categories depending on their propensity or risk for
victimization. His typology included the young, female, old, immigrants, depressed,
wanton, tormentor, blocked, exempted, or fighting.
 - His notion that victims contributed to their victimization through their actions and
behaviors led to the development of the concept of “victim-blaming” and is seen by many
victim advocates as an attempt to assign equal culpability to the victim.

BENJAMIN MENDELSOHN
- Benjamin Mendelsohn (1976), an attorney, has often been referred to as the “father of
victimology”. Intrigued by the dynamics that take place between victims and offenders,
he surveyed both parties during the course of preparing a case for trial. Using these data,
he developed a six-category typology of victims based on legal considerations of the
degree of a victim’s culpability.
- This classification ranged from the completely innocent victim (e.g., a child or a
completely unconscious person) to the imaginary victim (e.g., persons suffering from
mental disorders who believe they are victims).

MARVIN E. WOLFGANG
- The first empirical evidence to support the notion that victims are to some degree
responsible for their own victimization was presented by Marvin E. Wolfgang (1958),
who analyzed Philadelphia’s police homicide records from 1948 through 1952. He
reported that 26% of homicides resulted from victim precipitation.
- Wolfgang identified three factors common to victim-precipitated homicides:
(1) The victim and offender had some prior interpersonal relationship,
(2) there was a series of escalating disagreements between the parties, and
(3) the victim had consumed alcohol.

STEPHEN SCHAFER
- Moving from classifying victims on the basis of propensity or risk and yet still focused
on the victim– offender relationship, Stephen Schafer’s (1968) typology classifies victims
on the basis of their “functional responsibility.” Victims’ dual role was to function so that
they did not provoke others to harm them while also preventing such acts.
- Schafer’s seven-category functional responsibility typology ranged from
no victim responsibility (e.g., unrelated victims, those who are biologically weak),
to some degree of victim responsibility (e.g., precipitative victims),
to total victim responsibility (e.g., self-victimizing).

MENACHEM AMIR
- Several years later, Menachem Amir (1971) undertook one of the first studies of rape. On
the basis of the details in the Philadelphia police rape records, Amir reported that 19% of
all forcible rapes were victim precipitated by such factors as the use of alcohol by both
parties; seductive actions by the victim; and the victim’s wearing of revealing clothing,
which could tantalize the offender to the point of misreading the victim’s behavior.
- His work was criticized by the victim’s movement and the feminist movement as
blaming the victim.
 CONCEPTS OF VICTIMIZATION

VICTIM PRECIPITATION
- Expounds to the stretch of the accountability or contribution of the victim to his or her
own victimization. It acknowledges that during the victimization process, both the
offender and the victim are in action (“Introduction to Victimology”, n.d.).

VICTIM FACILITATION
- This happens when the victim accidentally creates an opportunity for the offender to
conveniently perpetrate his crime (“Introduction to Victimology”, n.d.).

VICTIM PROVOCATION
- This happens when the victim provokes or tempts the offender to commit a crime against
him. Without the provocation initiated by the victim’s behavior, the crime may not have
transpired (“Introduction to Victimology”, n.d.).

THEORIES OF VICTIMIZATION

THE VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY

- This was first used by Wolfgang to explain that the victim was the first to exhibit
unlawful aggression against the offender which caused the situation that the supposed
victim reacted and eventually became the offender (Petherick, 2017).
- The victim precipitation theory, views victimology from the standpoint that the victims
themselves may actually initiate, either passively or actively, the criminal act that
ultimately leads to injury or death. During passive precipitation, the victim unconsciously
exhibits behaviors or characteristics that instigate or encourage the attack.

THE VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY (CONT'D)

- Siegel (2006) lists job promotions, job status, successes, love interests, and the like as
examples of these unconscious behaviors and characteristics. Additionally, political
activists, minority groups, those of different sexual orientations, and other individuals
pursuing alternate lifestyles may also find themselves as targets of violence due to the
inadvertent threat they pose to certain individuals of power.

THE LIFESTYLE THEORY

- This theory purports that individuals are targeted based on their lifestyle choices, and that
these lifestyle choices expose them to criminal offenders, and situations in which crimes
may be committed. Examples of some lifestyle choices indicated by this theory include
going out at night alone, living in "bad" parts of town, associating with known felons,
being promiscuous, excessive alcohol use, and doing drugs.

DEVIANT PLACE THEORY

- The deviant place theory states that greater exposure to dangerous places makes an
individual more likely to become the victim of a crime (Seigel, 2006). Unlike the victim
precipitation theory, the victims do not influence the crime by actively or passively
encouraging it, but rather are victimized as a result of being in "bad" areas. In order to
 lower the chance that one will become the victim of a crime, the individual should avoid
the "bad" areas of town where crime rates are high.
- For example, South Central Los Angeles is notorious for its gangs, and high crime rate.
The more an individual ventures into South Central, the more likely they are to become
the victim of a crime there.

ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY

- The routine activity theory explains the rate of victimization through a set of situations
that reflect the routines of typical individuals.
1. The availability of suitable targets
2. The absence of capable guardians
3. The presence of motivated offenders.
According to this theory, the presence of one or more of these factors creates a higher risk of
victimization. For example, leaving one's home during vacation creates a suitable target. Leaving
a home for vacation in an urban area creates an even greater risk; and leaving one's home on
vacation in an urban area in which there is a high number of teenage boys, known felons, or
other "motivated offenders" creates an even higher risk for victimization.
- Communities with ample police protection, alarms and other security devices, and
community watch teams, lower their risk by creating guardianship, which is noted under
this theory to reduce crime rates.

TYPOLOGIES OF VICTIMIZATION ACCORDING TO SELLIN AND WOLFGANG:

PRIMARY VICTIMIZATION
- Primary victimization is personal victimization (Meadows, 2007). What this means is
that an actual person or group of people become first hand victims of a crime.
- This can be done because of a personal vendetta against a single person or a specific
group of people, such as someone getting revenge for a significant other cheating with a
person.

SECONDARY VICTIMIZATION
- Secondary victimization is when a person gets victimized inadvertently as a result of a
crime (Meadows, 2007). An example of this could be murder. When a family member
has met their death due to a heinous act the victim is not around, but the living relatives
have become victims because of the crime.
- Another example of this could be a person donating money for a nonprofit organization
just for one of the employees of the organization to embezzle the money. The person was
not a direct victim of this crime but since it was their donated money that was embezzled,
they are now secondary victims.

TERTIARY VICTIMIZATION
- Tertiary victimization is society as a whole becoming victims (Meadows, 2007). As
Meadows (2007) points out, crimes committed by the government would be in this
category.
- An example of this is an elected official buying votes.
MUTUAL VICTIMIZATION
- Mutual victimization is when a criminal is retaliated against and becomes a victim him or
herself (Meadows, 2007). This would be when an offender commits armed robbery,
causing psychological damage to the clerk. The father of the clerk becomes
overwhelmingly upset and decides to “get even” with the robber. He attempts murdering
the robber but instead badly wounds him. The robber has then been a victim of mutual
victimization.

NO VICTIMIZATION
- No victimization is victimization that is hard to define (Meadows, 2007). Meadows
(2007) states the “victimless” crimes fall into this category.
- An example is crimes where people grow marijuana in their own homes for personal
use. No one was actually harmed but a crime has been committed.

UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPTS OF PUNISHMENT, SENTENCING AND

REHABILITATION

PENOLOGY
- The study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of offender.
- Penology, the study of criminal punishment, is a sub-field of criminology. Criminologists
theorize about why people commit crimes and deviate from society's norms of behavior.
- They also study how society punishes criminals because different methods of punishment
may cause people to alter their behavior in different ways. Thus, criminologists devise
theories that not only explain the causes of crime but also addresses its prevention,
control and treatment. Today, one more concern in Criminology is crime detection and
Investigation. Criminologists are also engaged in studying criminal things.
- Is the study of punishment for crime or of criminal offenders. It includes the study of
control and prevention of crime through punishment of criminal offenders. It is a term
derived from the Latin word “poena” which means pain or suffering.
- Also known as Penal Science

PUNISHMENT VS. PENALTY

PUNISHMENT
- It is the redress that the state takes against an offending member of society that usually
involves pain and suffering. It is also the penalty imposed on an offender for a crime or
wrongdoing.

PENALTY
- Is defined as the specific suffering inflicted by the state against an offending member for
the transgression of law with limitations provided for by law.

PENAL MANAGEMENT
- refers to the manner or practice of managing or controlling places of confinement such as
jails or prisons.
 JUSTIFICATIONS OF PUNISHMENT
RETRIBUTION
- During the primitive days, punishment of the transgressor was carried out in the form of
personal vengeance.

EXPIATION OR ATONEMENT
- An offense committed by a member against another member of the same clan or group
aroused the condemnation of the whole group against the offending member. Expiation is
therefore, group vengeance as distinguished from retribution which is personal vengeance.

DETERRENCE
- It is commonly believed that punishment gives a lesson to the offender.

PROTECTION
- Protection as a justification of punishment came after prisons were fully established.

REFORMATION
- Under this theory, society can best be protected from crime if the purpose of
imprisonment is to reform or rehabilitate the prisoner.

LIMITATIONS TO PUNISHMENT
 Makes the criminal cautious in concealing his criminal activities resulting in unsolved
crimes;
 Stigmatizes the criminal and isolates him from society;
 Makes him a martyr or a hero
 Develop in the criminal, anti-social grudge and strong resentment to authority;

CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF PUNISHMENT

Imprisonment – based on degree of severity of crime
Parole – (After minimum term)
Probation – (No imprisonment)
Fine – According to set amount
Destierro - (25 kms away)

REHABILITATION
- Rehabilitation is a central goal of the correctional system. This goal rests on the
assumption that individuals can be treated and desist from crime. Rehabilitation was a
central feature of corrections in the first half of the 20th century. The favorability of
rehabilitation programming declined in the 1970s and 1980s but has regained favor in
recent years.
- Rehabilitation includes a broad array of programs, including mental health, substance
abuse, and educational services.
- Specialty programs have also been developed for women, people who have been
convicted of sex offenses, and individuals supervised on parole. Rehabilitation has also
been introduced in the court system through the creation of specialized courts.
 ALLIED DISCIPLINES/FIELDS OF CRIMINOLOGY AND THE PHILIPPINE
CRIMINOLOGY PROFESSION AND CAREER PATHS

The universal classification of science recognizes 3 groups of sciences:

1. social
2. humanistic
3. natural-technical sciences.

The classification of sciences on branches

Criminology is differently understood by many scientists. Combining different theory
standpoints into categories, criminology can be understood as a:
1. Synthetic science or
2. Group science.

MEANING OF CRIMINOLOGY
- Criminology uses a wide range of research methods. The choice of research methods in
criminological research will entirely depend upon research questions.
- There are 4 different types of research questions. Research questions are:
a) descriptive,
b) exploratory
c) explanatory
d) evaluative.

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN CRIMINOLOGY

Methods in social sciences are usually divided into two categories:
1. Quantitative research methods
2. Qualitative research methods (Introduction to criminology problems when defining
criminology)

WHAT TO RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY?

 CRIME CAN BE ANALYZED FROM VARIOUS ASPECTS, AND LEVELS OF
ANALYSIS ARE:
1.1 Delinquency as a phenomenon 2.1 criminals
1.2 Types of crimes 2.2 victims
1.3 Individual crime

CRIMINAL SOCIOLOGY
- Researches criminality and asocial behaviors as phenomenon’s which are results of certain social
conditions.

CRIME POLICY
- Is an interdisciplinary science, organization and system of government, other entities and institutions
through planned and joint system of measures and procedures which effect in the prevention and
 repression of crime or delinquency. In other words, the crime policy is an instance which determines the
direction where the whole system of anti-criminal measures should be directed.

PENOLOGY
- (Latin "poena" and Greek "logos") is etymologically defined as a science about a punishment. Penology
is a section or part of theoretical criminology that researches effectiveness of criminal sanctions and
executions of punishments using knowledge of criminology.

CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
- Studies personality of delinquents and victims in order to understand, predict and change their behavior.

CRIMINAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
- Studies crimes which are related to mental disorders.

CRIMINAL BIOLOGY
- Studies biological functions of a man as causes and results of criminal behaviors.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES FOR BS IN CRIMINOLOGY GRADUATES

BS IN CRIMINOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
- The Bachelor of Science in Criminology is a 4-year college degree program intended for individuals
who wish to have a career in the fields of law enforcement, public safety, security administration, crime
detection and investigation, forensic sciences, and correctional administration.
COURSE COVERAGE
- Criminal Jurisprudence and Procedure
- Forensic Sciences -Criminology
- Criminal Detection and Investigation
- Law Enforcement Administration
- Correctional Administration

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
 Police Officers
 Forensic Photographers
 Court Peace Officer
 Discipline Officer
 Forensic Science Technicians
 Forensic Document Examiners (FDEs)
 PDEA Agents
 Fingerprint Examiner
 Parole Officer
 Probation Officer
 Bureau of Immigration Officer
 Bureau of Customs Officer
 Coast Guard Airport Security
 A CRIMINOLOGY GRADUATE WOULD MOST OFTEN LOOK FOR JOBS
IN THE FOLLOWING PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT AGENCIES:
1. Philippine National Police (PNP)
2. Bureau of Jail Management & Penology (BJMP)
3. Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)
4. Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)
If we talk about what Philippine government agencies, Criminology graduates can
also work for:
5. Parole & Probation office (PPO)
6. Bureau of Corrections (BUCOR)
7. Commission on Human Rights (CHR)
8. Bureau of Customs (as customs police)
9. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA)
10. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)
11. Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) (as document examiners and investigators)
12. Department of Finance Investigation Division (DOF)
13. Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) (as security and investigation department)
14. Immigration and Deportation Bureau
15. National penitentiary across the country like provincial jails under the provincial
governments
16. Maritime Industry Authority (MARINA) (as investigators or maritime police)
17. Land Transportation Office (LTO) (as investigators and field inspectors or officers)
18. Department of Labor and Employment (as sheriff)
19. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) (as forest officers or
guards)
20. Philippine Coast Guard
21. Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA)

YOUR CAREER CHOICES, TOO, ARE ACTUALLY NOT LIMITED TO

BEING A POLICE OFFICER. HERE ARE THE OTHER POSITIONS YOUR
COURSE IS BEST SUITED FOR:
1. Professor, instructor or teacher in Criminology in any state university, college or
school duly recognized by the government. You can teach the following subjects:
- Law Enforcement Administration
- Criminalists
- Correctional Administration
- Criminal Sociology and allied subjects, and
- Other technical and specialized subjects in the Criminology curriculum
provided by the Commission on Higher Education.
2. Law enforcement administrator, executive, adviser, consultant or agent in any
government agency
3. Dactylographer
4. Ballistician
5. Questioned document examiner
6. Law enforcement photographer
7. Lie detection examiner
8. Probation officer
9. Security officer
10. Criminal investigator
11. Police laboratory technician
12. As correctional officer or administrator, executive supervisor, worker or officer in
any correctional and penal institution.
13. Counselor, expert, adviser, researcher in any government agency on any aspects of
criminal research or project involving the causes of crime, juvenile delinquency,
treatment of offenders, police operations, law enforcement administration, scientific
criminal investigation or public welfare administration.

MEANWHILE, IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR, CRIMINOLOGY GRADUATES

USUALLY APPLY FOR POSITIONS IN THE SECURITY INDUSTRY SUCH
AS:
1. Security officers,
2. Security guards and
3. Private detectives or investigators.
But the reality is you can also apply for the following positions:
4. In-house mall investigators
5. International air lines ground officers and investigators
6. International airport security officers and plain clothes investigators
7. Private commercial bank credit and loan investigators
8. General managers and directors of private security industry
9. Security chiefs and supervisors in international industry
10. Commercial airlines ground investigators
11. Forensic ballistics expert
12. Asset Protection Associate
13. Security Manager
14. Loss Prevention Supervisors
15. Inspectors