Unit 1 Emergence of Psychology

UNIT-1 EMERGENCE OF
PSYCHOLOGY
DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB

UNIT-1 EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
What is Psychological thought in some major Eastern Systems: Bhagavad Gita,

Buddhism, Sufism and Integral Yoga ?
The Psychological thought in some major Eastern Systems: Bhagavad Gita,

Buddhism, Sufism and Integral Yoga
The Bhagavad Gita is the best philosophical confluence of karma, bhakti and gyan
yoga as Krishna‟s solution to Arjuna‟s problem is comprehensive, involving the
behavioral (karma yoga), the emotional (bhakti yoga) and the intellectual (gyan
yoga).The religious and philosophical importance of the Gita is well known. It is not
only a well organized form of Indian life but also is considered a humanistic religion of
the world.
Its universal importance is established by its translation in all recognized languages of

the world. Some scholars consider it as greatest ideal of dharmashastra, some of
ethics and of philosophy. A depth study of the Gita affirms that it embodies all the
above mentioned aspects. Therefore, all these opinions of the scholars are
complementary to each other. The philosophical approach does establish its
importance but it has another approach that is psychological.
Psychological depiction is not confined to any race, time or space. It is perennial

source of inspiration for all humans in all times. Gita darshan has been stabilized on
the ground of psychology. Therefore, it is a unique achievement in the field of
psychology.
After entering the war field, Arjuna‟s hesitation for performing his duties in place of
showing enthusiasm for war, is obviously a depiction of psychological situation. All
individuals are caught into social and religious bondages. These bondages become
part of life as these are inborn and cannot be easily broken. It is easily understood
one‟s feeling of violence towards his elders, teachers and brothers as a momentary
excitement but it cannot be given a definite form of violence.
The driving force in a human being is not his body and senses but his soul. Similarly,
Arjuna could not attain that self confidence with which he can experience emptiness of
his aspirations and desires. The Bhagavad Gita‟s depiction of how one can control
one‟s impulses emotions, desires and other bodily activities is a pure psychology. Now,
we need to focus on the situation how does Arjuna, the great warrior embrace
cowardice?
Why and how does he adopt renunciation (tyagavriti) of Brahamana- dharma after
deserting kshatriya swabhava? The psychological answer to this question is given in
27th chapter of Udhyoga Parva of Mahabharata.
It is a psychological fact the nothing happens without a reason and its background.
Sanjay had already prepared the background of Arjuna‟s cowardice. Before
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commencement of war, Sanjay, as a messenger of Dhritrastra requests Yudhisthra not

to wage war. Arjuna who is present there during the conversation attentively listens to
him. Sanjay Says:
He says that human life is momentary, full of sorrow and fickleness. Therefore,
Yudhisthra should not wage the war; it is not according to his fame. Here, Sanjay tries
to dishearten „Dharmprana‟ Arjuna making him consider war as sin.
It implies that the desires hindering right conduct (dharmacharna) draw an individual
towards themselves. Therefore, an intelligent person first destroys these desires and
thereafter attains fame and admiration. Here Sanjay clearly points out that desire for
kingdom is an obstacle to right conduct (dharmacharana). If this desire is deserted,
there will be no war. Moreover, Sanjay‟s next sentence makes Arjuna feel weak and
confused.
It means the one who considers right conduct (dharma) as prime ideal among all three
ideals- dharma, artha, and kama and leads his life accordingly, he gets fame and
shines like sun. But the one who is devoid of dharma and whose intellect is associated
with sin, he, despite owning the whole earth, suffers continuously. The next sentence
of Sanjay again weakens Arjuna‟s heart as:
In this way, the war appeared before Arjuna as a form of a sin. His thought like „a
desire for kingdom‟, „sacrifice for others‟ and „Kaurava must kill me‟ etc. are symbols
of inferiority caused by Sanjay‟s statements. Generally, attachment is considered as
the greatest enemy of human being but the psychological perspective states that the
greatest enemy is that power which induces the feeling of inferiority in the human
being.
Here we find Sanjay in a role which weakens Pandavas side and strengthens Kaurava
side with his politics. If we look at Arjuna‟s character, he was not a coward, due to his
inferiority complex, he started to feel disheartened.
There is a need of a teacher who is superior, restrained and knows yoga to uplift
Arjuna and the need was fulfilled by Sri Krishna. He came to know the inferiority of
Arjuna after listening to his statements in no time. He tries to convince him as follows:
It is necessary to remind person‟s bravery, duties etc. in order to erase thoughts of
inferiority and steers him to work patiently.
He tells Arjuna that his enemies are afraid of him, they tremble with fear, they get
disheartened after seeing his bravery, they are almost dead and he is just an
instrumental cause. Krishna, also, clarifies the form of soul as eternal entity- to kill or to
be killed.
The attachment to body is not right because it is not eternal. The eternal soul never
dies. Therefore he would not acquire sin of killing Kauravas and their people. But, if he
deserts his Swadharma and will not involve in war then he will acquire sin. In chapter

second, his preaching about ‘Isthitpragyata’ prepared the background to stabilize

Arjuna‟s state of mind. At this Arjuna says:
चञ्चलं हि मनः कृ ष्ण प्रमािथ बलवद्द ृढमद ।
तस्याहंंं िनहरं मन्ये वायोररव सु द्ुष्करमद ।।
It is very difficult to subdue mind which is restless, turbulent, and obstinate even more
difficult than controlling the wind. But at the same time, Sri Krishna elevates. Arjuna‟s
spirit after motivating him. He says:
Buddhiyoga
Buddhi yoga (purpose of the Gita) is another worthy concept to look into.
Buddhi (intellect) is an ability to learn. A person has three abilities namely adjustment,
learning and abstract thinking which are complementary to each other.
In the Gita Sri Krishna identifies himself with his intellect and he has defined an ideal
person as 'Isthirbhuddhi'. If it is necessary to have trained and enlightened reason for
spirituality, the loss of reason and logic causes downfall and the loss of reason lead to
destruction of the person. Sri Krishna imparts Buddhiyoga to Arjuna enlightening him
with the light of his knowledge.
Arjuna gets illumined and accepts humbly that his illusion has now gone and he has
regained memory.
He is now firm and free from doubt and is prepared to act according to His instructions.
It means the faculty that is helpful in determination is called intellect. A person first
should determine that the supreme soul is the complete entity everywhere. Such an
intelligent person treats alike all creatures of world. The same idea is expressed in the
following verse It means a truly wise person is one whose intellect treats equally a
brahmana, an outcaste, a cow, an elephant, a dog and he considers others as his
equal.
The concept of „Isthitpragya’ is reflected upon in a unique manner that is not found in
the discussion of „intelligence‟ of modern psychologists.
GITA AND HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY

Etymologically, the word ‘psychology’, with its origin attributed to the Greek psyche,
means ‘study of the soul’. In the modern parlance, it means the science of mind and
behaviour. Now, this inter-related triad of soul, mind and behaviour also constitutes the
central concern of the BhagavadGita, which ultimately charts the course of
harmonising the self (soul) with the absolute (Brahman), involving inter-alia an in-depth
analysis of human mind and behavioural types.
The Freudian structural model of the psyche comprises three parts: the id, the ego and
the super-ego. The id represents in-born tendencies, the instinctive drives and

impulses ‘inherited at birth’ and ‘laid down in the constitution’ of a personality; it acts on
the ‘pleasure principle’, seeking satisfaction of instinctual needs.
The ego acts on the ‘reality principle’, seeking to channel and meet the id’s drives of
passion in realistic ways, factoring in the influence of the environment through reason
and common sense, constantly conflicted by and constantly seeking to mediate among
the id, the super-ego and the external world, with a latent predisposition for the id.
Originally Freud termed ego to mean a sense of self, but later modified the meaning as
a set of psychic functions, such as judgement, tolerance, reality testing, control,
planning, defence mechanism, intellectual functioning and memory. Super-ego is the
urge to perfection and represents internalised societal and parental standards of right
and wrong behaviour – a type of conscience that punishes misbehaviour with sense of
guilt. Freud stressed on the dominance of sexual drive in the subconscious id.
This part of his theory was however contested by his one-time colleague, Carl Jung,
whose work on himself and on his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual
purpose beyond material goals and that spiritual experience is essential to our well
being.
According to Jung, man’s principal task is to discover and fulfill his deep innate
potential in much the same way the caterpillar fulfills its potential to become a butterfly.
Based on his study of Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism and other traditions,
Jung suggested that ‘individuation’ – a journey of transformation to meet the self and
also to meet the divine – is at the mystical heart of all religions.
includes Jung’s postulation of individuation as an integrated transformational process

encompassing the ‘collective unconscious’, representing a deeper collective or social
level of psychic functioning underlying the Freudian ‘personal unconscious’; people at
an advanced stage of individuation tend to be harmonious, mature, humane and
socially responsible, having a good understanding of the human nature and the
universe.
In addition to these classical models of Freud and Jung, in contemporary psychology

we come across other models, such as the Five Factor Model (FFM), listing the “big
five” of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism to
describe human personality.
Another notable post-Freudian model is Eric Berne’s Transactional Analysis, also
called the Parent-Adult-Child model, integrating the psycho-analytic and cognitive
approaches.
As expressly stated in all these psychological theories, these are all ‘models’ to
understand and characterise human mind and behaviour. Now, as we would try to
explore here, Gita is also concerned with classifying personalities based on models: of

the good, passionate and dull modes of mind; of the divine and demoniac
endowments; of the devotee and nondevotee; of the steady and non-steady.
In science, the underlying hypothesis in modeling is that a super-imposition of plural

models may provide a better understanding of the truth of nature. The same applies to
understanding the truth of the human nature and spirit and its causal and driving
principles.
In science, Niels Bohr propounded the Complementarity principle to get beyond the
conundrum of duality: that some characteristics of an electron are explicable by its
particle nature (deterministic model) while some others are explained by its wave
nature (probabilistic model). Similarly, Gita makes the case that the human mind can
be best understood as a super-imposition of the models of impressions (vāsanās),
modes (guṇas), endowments (sampadas), and faiths (śraddhās).
The Holy Geeta entered my life in the autumn of 1993. I was sitting in Chennai’s Taj
Coromandal one evening not knowing what to do when I happened to see the Holy
Geeta by Swami Chinamayanandji. Something attracted me and I got down to reading
it. In eight years am on my third read now. It has become my best friend. When I am
feeling low, confused or lonely I open the Gita, read a few pages and feel content
thereafter. The beauty is that the interpretation of various slokhas is different every
time I read it. May be it has to do with the stages and situations in my life.
The one by Swamiji is very good for a spiritually evolved person. What I like in the one
by Swami Rama is that it easy to understand, very good for a person who is reading
the Geeta for the first time.
A bit about Swami Rama
Swamiji founded the Himalayan International Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy,
the Himalayan Institute Hospital Trust in India and many centers across the world. A
student of both Himalayan cave monasteries European universities, he founded the
Himalayan Institute to create a bridge between the ancient teachings of the East and
modern scientific approaches of the West.
Some people associate the Holy Geeta with Sanathan Dharam. To my mind it has
universal application, shows us how to handle the problems of life, be happy inspite of
ups and downs, perform duty without being attached to the fruits of action etc. The
Geeta is eternal, as relevant today as it was thousands of years ago.
For your convenience I have reproduced the book verbatim. The format is as follows. It
starts with an introduction followed by excerpts from individual chapters. Each chapter
consists of slokhas with commentaries. Besides explaining the slokha, the commentary

highlight the comparison between eastern and western psychology. It has my

comments in brackets to help you distinguish it from the original text.
“The Bhagawad Gita is the fountainhead of eastern psychology and this commentary is
designed to draw out its psychological concepts and make them accessible to all
students. These profound insights are intertwined with philosophical concepts, so the
task undertaken here is to separate the psychological principles and to explain them
their practical application.
Psychological thought in Buddhism
Buddhist psychology is primarily about self-knowledge- finding out more about who you
are, understanding your decisions, actions, thoughts, feelings, etc. It is an expression
of the Delphic dictum Know Thyself and the injunction that transformative spiritual
paths throughout time and geography have demanded as the central ingredient in
authentic happiness.
Buddhist psychology is ‘radical,’ as it aims to challenge your worldview (as all authentic
spirituality and psychology does). It is radical in that it addresses the basis or
foundation of our psychological functioning, our sense of who we are, and our
relationships with others and with the world. As a result, the fruit of applying the
psychological insights of the Buddha requires diligence, perseverance and
discernment as they will naturally encounter the resistances and obstacles inherent in
our conditioned nature.
It is not a coincidence that Buddhism finds itself so welcome in the western world since
the last decades of the preceding century.
While the appeal certainly includes those who have converted to Buddhism as a faith
and have adopted the practices, liturgies and meditations of whatever form of
Buddhism speaks to them, the more unique and far-reaching impact of Buddhism, as a
psychology, has taken place in academia and among clinical researchers, who have
observed that the Buddhist understanding of consciousness, mind, behavior,
motivation, personality and psychopathology bear a close resemblance to perspectives
held in western psychology and psychotherapy.
Goal of Buddhist Psychology

Buddhist psychology, simply put, is concerned with the alleviation of human suffering,
distress, and dissatisfaction. However, the Buddhist idea of suffering much broader
than what is usually the focus of western psychology. The notion of suffering includes
the entire range of human dissatisfaction and anguish and not the clinical disorders
described by psychiatry.

And it is also important to note that for the most part the Buddha is referring to
emotional suffering rather than physical suffering, per se. The emphasis is on the
mental aspects of physical pain rather than the pain itself. The Buddha’s practical
project of the understanding and relief of human anguish was also a potent
counterforce to metaphysical speculation which the Buddha eschewed.
The pursuit of metaphysical, logical or theoretical issues for their own sake was
avoided.
The Buddha does not ask that his claims be taken on blind faith, although some faith is
necessary to even begin self-exploration. Examine his words on the basis of your
reason, experience, and intuition. All of us have the seed of Enlightenment, of
authentic happiness, bliss waiting to ‘blossom’ if nourished.
Buddhist Psychology as a Science of Consciousness

We pay extreme attention to our physical bodies (vanity, cosmetics, clothes). We can
invest incredible amounts of time towards achievements such as careers, sports, art,
money and social standing. We pursue social relationships as a key aspect of our
happiness. One can make the argument that our sciences and technologies are
devoted to increasing comfort, convenience, pleasure, and so on.
Modern scientific views of mind and behavior have tended toward reductionist
explanations, explaining mind in terms of physical structures and brain processes.
Olendzki has argued that the reductionist approach doesn’t explain lived human
experience, the qualia of experience. The absence of the brain in the Buddha’s
account of mind leaves a place for the contribution of western science but also
suggests that to understand the mind, in the manner that the Buddha discusses, does
not require contributions of neuroscience. The Buddha, through his advocacy of a
meditative approach to wisdom, points to a process view of experience consisting of
several interdependent processes, functions, and events (i.e. dharmas).
Five Insights of Buddhist Psychology:

(i) Centrality of consciousness/ subjectivity
The radically psychological nature of Buddhist psychology is evidenced by the need to
explore the mind through meditation and other forms of contemplation. It is not
necessary to explain it, where it comes from, which part of the brain and so on, which
is a major focus of many western scientific disciplines. Our subjectivity consists of
moments of awareness that appear seamless but with attention placed on it, within the
present moment, can reveal how our cognitive processes culminate in the mental
phenomena we experience. Investigating this moment, right here, right now, is where
wisdom can arise.
(ii) Human experience manifests through 6 sense systems

Along with the 5 senses and their corresponding experiences, mind is considered to be
a sense organ, and cognitive events are sense objects. The traditional account of
consciousness describes its emergence from interaction of sense organ (e.g., eye) and
sense object (e.g., visual object) creating sensory experience (e.g., visual
consciousness). Everything we know depends on the activity of these 6 senses.
While later developments in Buddhist philosophy posits additional senses, the
traditional scriptures focus on these six.
(iii) All experience is constructed

The radically psychological nature of Buddhist psychology can be observed in the
emphasis on what appears. What appears is a transformation or translation of the
external environment into an internal language of consciousness (e.g., photons >>
sight; chemicals >>taste, smell; vibration >>> hearing; pressure >> touch; brain activity
>>> cognition).
The transformation of raw sensory activation into sensory experience is so radical that
no way to know what pre-constructed reality is. All we can know is our own
subjectivity. Any discussion of what ‘reality’ is will always be limited by what our senses
will permit and what our mind can conceive. The study of reality is the study of the
human construction of experience. And whatever such reality may be is irrelevant to
the real purpose of the Buddha’s message, to transform delusion into wisdom. This
project requires us to explore our inner world. Of course, each individual has their
unique, subjective, constructed reality.
(iv) Experience is constantly changing- an incessant succession of events

Each perception, sensation, cognition, image, memory, feeling is a process that can
never be experienced identically again. Every moment is unique. Our brains have
evolved to reduce our awareness of such flux to increase our ability to survive. For
reasons of adaptation sensory reality is filtered thus distorting our experiences. Three
major forms of perceptual distortion are described by the Buddha: perceptions of
permanence (perceptual-linguistic), satisfaction (cognitive) and self (metacognitive) are
examples of this distortion-tendency.
(v) Mind/body (the self) revealed through 5 inter-dependent processes

Five processes or ‘aggregates’ define the self (i.e., mind/body). These five processes
consist of physicality, consciousness, perception, affect, and habit. The Buddhist
posits a view of self an interaction among these five processes to produce the coherent
sense of identity and ‘I’-ness that defines who we are. It is not accurate to claim that
there is no self within Buddhist psychology.
This would be absurd. What the Buddha clarifies is that the self we experience has no
essence or substance but consists of these 5 constantly arising, abiding and subsiding.
BUDDHISM AND WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY

Assessment of Buddhism in terms of modern western psychology started when British

Indologist Rhys Davids translated Abhidhamma Pitaka from Pali and Sanskrit texts in
1900. She published the book entitled it, “Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics”.
In 1914, she wrote another book “Buddhist psychology: An inquiry into the analysis
and theory of mind”.
The mid-twentieth century saw the collaborations between many psychoanalysts and
Buddhist scholars as a meeting between “two of the most powerful forces” operating in
the Western mind. A variety of renowned teachers, clinicians and writers in the west
such as Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Alan Watts, Tara Brach, Jack Kornfield, Joseph
Goldstein, and Sharon Salzberg among others have attempted to bridge and integrate
psychology and Buddhism, from time to time, in a manner that offers meaning,
inspiration and healing to the common man's suffering.
Buddhism and phenomenological psychology

Any assessment of Buddhism in terms of psychology is necessarily a modern western
invention. Western and Buddhist scholars have found in Buddhist teachings a detailed
introspective phenomenological psychology. Rhys Davids in her book “Buddhist
Manual of Psychological Ethics” wrote, “Buddhist philosophy is ethical first and last.
Buddhism set itself to analyze and classify mental processes with remarkable insight
and sagacity”.
Buddhism's psychological orientation is a theme Rhys Davids pursued for decades as

evidenced by her other writings.
Abhidhamma Pitaka articulates a philosophy, a psychology, and ethics as well; all
integrated into the framework of a program for liberation. The primary concern of
the Abhidhamma (or Abhidharma in Sanskrit), is to understand the nature of
experience, and thus the reality on which it focuses is conscious reality.
Dialogue with the Dalai Lama” noted; “since the time of Gautama Buddha in the
5 th century BC, an analysis of the mind and itsworkings has been central to the
practices of his followers. This analysis was codified during the first millennium, after
his death within the system called Abhidhamma (or Abhidharma in Sanskrit), which
means ultimate doctrine”.
Buddhism and psychoanalytical psychotherapy

Psychoanalyst Carl Jung wrote the foreword to Zen's scholar Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki's
introduction to Zen Buddhism, first published together in 1948. In his foreword, Jung
highlights the enlightenment experience as the unsurpassed transformation to
wholeness for Zen practitioners. “The only movement within our culture which partly
has, and partly should have, some understanding of these aspirations for such
enlightenment is psychotherapy”.

Psychoanalysts like Karen Horney and Fritz Perls studied Zen-Buddhism. Karen
Horney was intensely interested in Zen Buddhism during the last years of her life.
Richard Wilhelm was a translator of Chinese texts into German language of the I
Ching, Tao Te Ching and ‘the secret of the golden flower’, with a forward written by
Carl Jung. R D Laing, another noted psychoanalyst, went to Ceylon, where he spent
two months studying meditation in a Buddhist retreat.
Later on, he spent time learning Sanskrit and visiting Govinda Lama, who had been a
guru to Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert. Suzuki, Fromm and other psychoanalysts
collaborated at a 1957 workshop on “Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis” in
Cuernavaca, Mexico. In his contribution to this workshop, Fromm declared:
“Psychoanalysis is a characteristic expression of the Western man's spiritual crisis,

and an attempt to find a solution. The common suffering is the alienation from oneself,
from one's fellow men, and from nature; the awareness that life runs out of one's hand
like sand, and that one will die without having lived; that one lives in the midst of plenty
and yet is joyless”.
From continues: “Zen is the art of seeing into the nature of one's being; it is a way
from bondage to freedom; it liberates our natural energies; and it impels us to express
our faculty for happiness and love.
” “What can be said with more certainty is that the knowledge of Zen, and a concern
with it, can have a most fertile and clarifying influence on the theory and technique of
psychoanalysis.
Zen, different as it is in its method from psychoanalysis, can sharpen the focus, throw
new light on the nature of insight, and heighten the sense of what it is to see, what it is
to be creative, what it is to overcome the affective contaminations and false
intellectualizations which are the necessary results of experience based on the subject-
object split”.
Referencing Jung and Suzuki's collaboration as well as the efforts of others,

humanistic philosopher and psychoanalyst Erich Fromm noted; “there is an
unmistakable and increasing interest in Zen Buddhism among psychoanalysts”. Erich
Fromm also wrote the forward to a 1986 anthology of Nyanaponika Thera's essays on
Buddhist philosophy.
There have been many other important contributors, to the popularization of the
integration of Buddhist meditation with psychology, including Kornfield, Joseph
Goldstein, Tara Brach, Epstein and Nhat Hanh..

Buddhism and existential psychology
Buddha said that life is suffering. Existential psychology speaks of ontological

anxiety (dread, angst). Buddha said that suffering is due to attachment.
Existential psychology also has some similar concepts. We cling to things in the hope
that they will provide us with a certain benefit. Buddha said that suffering can be
extinguished. The Buddhist concept of nirvana is quite similar to the existentialists’
freedom.
Freedom has, in fact, been used in Buddhism in the context of freedom from rebirth or
freedom from the effects of karma. For the existentialist, freedom is a fact of our being,
one which we often ignore. Finally, Buddha says that there is a way to extinguish
suffering. For the existential psychologist, the therapist must take an assertive role in
helping the client become aware of the reality of his or her suffering and its roots.
Likewise, the client must take an assertive role in working towards improvement–even
though it means facing the fears they’ve been working so hard to avoid, and especially
facing the fear that they will “lose” themselves in the process.
Buddhism and cognitive-behavior therapy principles

Buddhistic mindfulness practices have been explicitly incorporated into a variety of
psychological treatments. More specifically psychotherapies dealing with cognitive
restructuring share core principles with ancient Buddhistic antidotes to personal
suffering.
Fromm distinguishes between two types of meditative techniques that have been used
in psychotherapy:
(i) auto-suggestion used to induce relaxation; and
(ii) meditation “to achieve a higher degree of non-attachment, of non-greed, and of
non-illusion; briefly, those that serve to reach a higher level of being”. Fromm attributes
techniques associated with the latter to Buddhist mindfulness practices.
Two increasingly popular therapeutic practices using Buddhist mindfulness techniques

are Jon Kabat-Zinn's Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR), and Marsha M.
Linehan's dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT). Other prominent therapies that use
mindfulness include mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) and Steven C.
Hayes’ Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT).
Mindfulness-based stress reduction

Kabat-Zinn developed the 8-week MBSR program over a 10-year-period with over
4,000 patients at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center. Describing the
MBSR program, Kabat-Zinn writes: “This ‘work’ involves above all the regular,
disciplined practice of moment-to-moment awareness or mindfulness, the complete

‘owning’ of each moment of your experience, good, bad, or ugly. This is the essence of
full catastrophic living.”
Kabat-Zinn, a one-time Zen practitioner, goes on to write: “Although at this time,

mindfulness meditation is most commonly taught and practiced within the context of
Buddhism, its essence is universal. Yet it is no accident that mindfulness comes out of
Buddhism, which has as its overriding concerns the relief of suffering and the dispelling
of illusions”.
Not surprisingly, in terms of clinical diagnoses, MBSR has proven beneficial for people
with depression and anxiety disorders; however, the program is meant to serve anyone
experiencing significant stress.
Dialectical behavioral therapy

In writing about DBT, Zen practitioner Linehan states: “As its name suggests, its
overriding characteristic is an emphasis on ‘dialectics’ – that is, the reconciliation of
opposites in a continual process of synthesis. This emphasis on acceptance as a
balance to change flows directly from the integration of a perspective drawn from the
practice of Buddhism with Western psychological practice.”
Similarly, Linehan writes:

“Mindfulness skills are central to DBT. They are the first skills taught and are reviewed
every week. The skills are psychological and behavioral versions of meditation
practices from Eastern spiritual training. Linehan has drawn heavily from the practice of
Zen. Controlled clinical studies have demonstrated DBT's effectiveness for people with
borderline personality disorder.”
Dr. Albert Ellis, has written that many of the principles incorporated in the theory of
rational-emotive psychotherapy are not new; some of them were originally stated
several thousands of years ago, by Taoist and Buddhistic thinkers. To give one
example, Buddhism identifies anger and ill-will as basic hindrances to spiritual
development.
A common Buddhistic antidote for anger is the use of active contemplation of loving
thoughts. This is similar to using a CBT technique known as “emotional training” which
Ellis described.
The school of Behaviorism describe (or reduce) human functions to principles of

behavior, which can be manipulated to create positive effects in the life of the patient.
In the Noble Eightfold Path we see reflections of this approach in the exhortations to
Right Action, Right Speech and Right Livelihood. One may consider the story of the
Buddha who was approached by a rich but miserly man who wanted to develop his
spiritual life but was constrained by his seeming inability to share his wealth with

others. The Buddha addressed this problem by telling him to get into the habit of using
his right hand to give his left hand items of value and in doing so learn the art of giving!
Cognitive and cognitive-behaviorists focus more on training the mind to review and
question assumptions, phobias, fears and beliefs. These therapists are typically
associated with such techniques as visualization and positive self-talk designed to
teach, or unlearn, principles that are, respectively, helpful or unhelpful. Again, the
noble eightfold path and its focus on right mindfulness and right thinking are the
corollary in Buddhist thought.
Buddhism and other psychotherapy principles

Gestalt Therapy is an approach created by Fritz Perls, based heavily on existentialist
philosophy and significantly, Zen Buddhism (among other influences). In Gestalt, the
premise is we must work with the whole person, the “gestalt” in German, which echoes
the wisdom of Right Understanding. Its techniques encourage Right Mindfulness, and
the focus on the immediate, phenomenological and experiential reality of the here and
now, in the physical, emotional and mental realms.
David Brazier in his book Zen Therapy makes a thoughtful comparison of some
principal Buddhist concepts and person-centered (rogerian) Therapy. Developed by
Carl Rogers, this therapeutic approach includes virtually all effective therapy, either in
principle or technique. In basic terms, its goal is to provide the patient a safe place, an
environment where he or she may express their problems. The therapist does not
direct the process, but works on the assumption the patient has the resources to deal
with their own “cure” and self-growth, provided the environment is supportive of them.
CONCLUSION
Buddha was commonly referred to as “the great physician” and like any therapist,
made it his aim to identify, explain and end human suffering. All therapists do have
similar aims. Four Noble Truths are the method to adopt a diagnostic format to explain
suffering and its cure; the 1st Noble Truth identifies the disease, the 2nd provides
etiology, the 3rd gives a prognosis, and the 4th suggests a remedy.
Psychological thought in Sufism
From the 9th century onwards, Sufism has encapsulated Islamic spirituality. This is the
loving heart of Islam, still alive, thriving and widely influential today. It is not the Islam of
fundamentalists: quite the reverse.
From the earliest days, ascetic Muslim contemplatives practised fasting, praying
and meditation in seclusion, just like the desert mothers and fathers of the Christian
tradition, the earliest monks and nuns. Perhaps because they wore rough garments
made of wool (suf in Arabic), these people came to be known as ‘Sufis.’

Sufism soon became the name of a mystical path by which people seek the truth of
divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. Sufis are said to
take precious care of the ‘spiritual heart’ through ‘muraqaba,’ a practice akin to
meditation. Their aim and ambition is to grow increasingly attuned to the ever vigilant
Divine Presence within. Dedicated Sufis are constantly meditating on the words of
the the Islamic holy book, the Qur’an (Koran).
Sufism is often considered external to the mainstream doctrine of Islam, and has at
times encountered opposition and hostility. Many of the great Muslim thinkers were
Sufis, however, as were the most successful missionaries. In addition, these humble
living examples of wisdom, compassion and love were held in great esteem and
affection by ordinary people, those less capable of disentangling the legal and
theological intricacies of more formal religion. Two aspects of Sufism well known in
western culture are, of course, Rumi and the ‘whirling dervishes’.
Jalaladdin Rumi (1207–1273) went through a most powerful spiritual awakening as a

young man. Influenced by his beloved teacher, Shams of Tabriz, his heart full of divine
light, he became a supreme poet and faithful interpreter of the truths to be found in
the Qur’an. By means of sometimes mysterious language, he was able to guide others
to a love of God. The Qur’an statement, that ‘Allah loves them and they love him’
quickly became the basis for love-mysticism championed Rumi, as in the following
quatrain:
‘Love is here like the blood in my veins and skin,

It has emptied me of myself and filled me with the Beloved,
His fire has penetrated all the atoms of my body.
Of “me” only my name remains; the rest is Him.’
Rumi, known too by the honorary title ‘Mawlana’, also favoured and promoted
‘whirling’. This is a form of extended rotatory dancing to sacred music in formal groups
while repeating inwardly the name of ‘Allah’. It induces a trance-like state of
consciousness, and is a central aspect of Sufi worship performed by the renowned
Dervishes, some of whom are still practising their traditional ‘Sama’ (whirling)
ceremonies today. Whirling, meditation, prayer, ‘dhikr’ (regular study and remembrance
of the Qur’an) and reciting poetry, especially love poetry, are all integral to devotional
Sufi spiritual practice.
It is not true that Sufism is a men-only tradition. A woman called Rabi’a (d. 801) who
lived in Iraq was, for example, one of the best loved of all the early Sufis. Revered Sufi
teacher, Ibn al-Arabi (d. 1240), was first taught the spiritual path in his native Spain by
two female Sufis. Later there were Sisterhoods among the different orders of Sufism,
as well as Brotherhoods. And women attended Bektashiyya ceremonies, without even
wearing veils. Many women follow the Sufi tradition today.

At the heart of Sufism is the idea that humankind, the most honourable of creatures, is
bound by covenant to carry the Divine Trust. It follows that if the ego forgets the Divine
purpose of creation, viewing itself as existing independent of its Creator, it is betraying
that sacred Trust.
Now, the modern ego continually quests for self-satisfaction and self-adoration. Sufi
practices, like those of many other world religions, enable people to combat this
tendency, seeking to discover and bring forth the higher or ‘true’ self, that spark within
each person, constantly attuned to the spiritual dimension.
The Sufi seeks to live according to eternal, selfless spiritual values, rather than
transient, mercenary worldly ones. Neuro-scientific studies reveal that practices like
meditation, chanting and whirling all improve harmony between the dualist, verbal,
intellect of the brain’s left hemisphere and the holistic, silent, poetic intuition of the
right. That Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, Zen, Taoism, and Hinduism’s Vedanta all
promote similar practices, aimed equally at conquering the tyranny of the ego,
indicates a comforting degree of uniformity among travellers along the pathway to
spiritual maturity, whatever their religious origin.
The term "Sufi psychology" is probably a deceptive one, because it implies that there is
a relatively homogenous doctrine of the psyche the majority of the Sufis would
subscribe to. It is not the case. However, one can point out the terms most frequently
used and expound on the meanings of these notions.
Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish between Nafs, Qalb, Sirr
and Ruh. These concepts designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, sometimes,
faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception.
Nafs
Nafs is usually translated as soul or psyche. Its etymology is rooted in "breath" (similar
to Biblical or Kabbalistic nefesh and is common to virtually all archaic psychologies
where the act of breathing was connected with life, animating otherwise lifeless object.
In this respect, ancient notions of "Atman" in Hinduism (cf. German noun "Atem",
breath, respiration) or Greek "pneuma" (as well as Latin "spiritus")-all equate the basic
visible process of breathing with energizing principle that confers existence to an
individual human being.
Some Sufis consider under the term "Nafs" the entirety of psychological processes,
encompassing whole mental, emotional and volitional life; however, the majority of
Quranic-based Sufis are of the opinion that Nafs is a "lower", egotistical and
passionate human nature which, along with Tab (literally, physical nature), comprises
vegetative and animal aspects of human life.

Synonyms for Nafs are devil, passion, greed, avarice, ego-centredness etc. The
central aim of the Sufi path is transformation of Nafs (technical term is "Tazkiya-I-Nafs"
or "purgation of the soul") from its deplorable state of ego-centredness through various
psychospiritual stages to the purity and submission to the will of God. Although the
majority of the Sufi orders have adopted convenient 7 maqams (maqams are
permanent stages on the voyage towards spiritual transformation), and some still
operate with 3 stages,
The picture is clear: the Sufi’s journey begins with Nafs-I-Ammare (self-accusing soul)
and ends in Nafs-I-Mutma’inna (satisfied soul)-although some Sufis’s final stage is, in
their technical vocabulary, Nafs-I-Safiya wa Kamila (soul restful and perfected in God’s
presence). In essence, this is almost identical to Christian paradigm of "vita purgativa"
and various stages the spiritual aspirant traverses in the journey towards God.
Qalb
The next term, Qalb, stands for heart. In Sufi terminology, this spiritual heart (not to be
confused with the pump in the breast ) is again variously described. For some, it is the
seat of beatific vision. Others consider it the gate of Ishq or Divine love. Yet, for the
majority, it is the battleground of two warring armies: those of Nafs and Ruh or spirit.
Here, one again encounters terminological confusion: for the Sufis influenced by
Neoplatonism, a "higher" part of Nafs is equated to the Aql or intellect (called Nafs-I-
Natiqa) or "rational soul" and is the cental active agent in spiritual battle:
Ruh or spirit, notwithstanding its name, is rather passive in this stage. In short,
cleansing of the Qalb or heart is a necessary spiritual discipline for travellers on the
Sufi path. The term for this process is Tazkiah-I-Qalb and the aim is the erasure of
everything that stands in the way of purifying God’s love or Ishq.
Sirr
The third faculty is Sirr, or "the secret", located for the majority in the middle of the
chest. Emptying of the Sirr (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) is basically focusing on God’s names and
attributes in perpetual remembrance or Dhikr, hence diverting one’s attention from the
mundane aspects of human life and fixing it on the spiritual realm. The "emptying"
signifies negation and obliteration of ego-centred human propensities.
Ruh
Ruh or spirit is the fourth "entity" and the second contender in the battle for human life.
Again, opinions on Ruh differ among Sufis. Some deem it coeternal with God; others
consider it a created entity. Be as it may, Ruh is the plateau of consensus for the
majority of Sufis, especially the early ones ( before 11th/12th century C.E. ). For those
Sufis with Gnostic leanings (which can be found in Bektashi or Mevlevi orders), Ruh is
a soul-spark, immortal entity and transegoic "true self", similar to the Christian
concepts of "synteresis" or "Imago Dei", or Vedantist notion of "jiva", as well as Tibetan
Buddhist "shes-pa", principle of consciousness and Taoist "shen" or spirit.

But, the majority of the Sufis would consider this an unnecessarily extravagant
speculation and would stick to the more orthodox notion of dormant spiritual faculty
that needs to be worked upon by constant vigil and prayer in order to achieve the
Tajliyya-I-Ruh, or Illumination of the spirit. Ironically, this spiritual faculty is frequently
referred to in terms one encounters in connection with Nafs- "blind" life force or life
current that needs to be purified by strict religious observances in order to achieve
illumination.
So, in these four "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Sirr and Ruh, and the purificative
activities applied to them, the basic orthodox Sufi psychology is contained. The
purification of elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of
the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-
Qalb) and become the receptacle of God’s love (Ishq), fortified by emptying of egoic
drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God’s attributes (Dhikr), gloriously ending
in illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh)- this is the essential Sufi spiritual journey.
Other spiritual faculties, like Khafi (the arcane) and Akhfa (the most arcane) are
employed in other Sufi orders like Naqshbandi, but this is beyond general basic
consensus.
The need to know Sufism
Historical background of Sufism

The term Mysticism had its beginning in the mystery cults of the Greeks, which
involved a close circle of devotees who because of their innate capacity were believed
to have the knowledge of the divine revealed to them.
Etymology aside, mysticism has been practiced since ages across all the cultures and
has been a vital part of the major religions of the world. Perhaps it represents an innate
desire of the man to understand himself and the world around. All forms of mysticism
aspire for a union with the divine and believe that it is only possible through the
purification of soul to receive direct knowledge and revelation from the divine.
Islam began in 610 AD and established itself through the teachings of Muhammad
believed to be revealed to him by God through the archangel Gabriel primarily among
the Arab pagan and Christian communities. The close contact between the Muslim and
the Christian communities during the formative years of Islam had its influence on the
development of the Sufism – the mystic traditions of Islam.
Sufism established itself within the traditions of the Islam as laid down in the Quran
believed to be revealed to Muhammad by God. The Sufis believe that communion with
God is possible through Muhammad, who was the recipient of the knowledge of the
heart (Ilm-e-Sina) besides the outer knowledge (Ilm-e-safina).

Ali, one of the Muhammad's companions and son-in-law, is considered to be the first
Sufi to whom the Ilm-e-Sina was revealed by Muhammad to be taught to those capable
of understanding it. Contrary to the mainstream, some schools of thought in Islam
denounce Sufism as heretical and consider it an innovation in Islam.
However, the concept of God, the possibility of esoteric knowledge and the ways to
access God through purification of self by means of prayer, fasting and repentance that
form the foundations of Sufism find their source in the Quran and the teachings of the
prophet known as Hadith.
Sufism in the beginning was primarily an individual endeavor. The Sufis would usually
live in isolation practicing self-mortification and were distinguished by a cloak of wool
(Suf), a tradition of Muhammad, which is believed to be the origin of the word Sufi.
A group of such devouts lived a life of poverty and incessant prayer and fasting on a
stone bench in front of Muhammad's mosque. These people of the bench (Ashab-e-
suffa), 45 to over 300 in number, were given to much weeping and repentance and are
believed to be the origin of the Sufism.
However, the name Sufi was given to such ascetics only around the second century of
death of Muhammad. The Sufis in the early period were primarily ascetics and Sufism
had not yet evolved into a fully developed system of theosophical doctrines, which
became the core feature of the later Sufism.
The companions of Muhammad like Bilal, Salman Farsi, Ammar bin Yasir were the
early mystics. Later with the spread of Islam Sufism flourished in Iraq, Syria, Egypt,
Persia and Central Asia and gave birth to the renown Sufis like Rabia Basri, Hasan
Basri, Junayd Baghdadi, Dhun Nun Misri, etc., around the 9th and 10th century.
As the early Sufi masters started teaching those in search of divine, a distinct tradition
in the form of closely-knit communities centered around these masters flourished. The
transformation of such communities into those, which shared a spiritual lineage, took
place around the 11th century and led to the formation of Sufi orders (silsilas), chains
through which they would eventually link their disciples to Muhammad.
The early Sufi orders like Muhasibis, Qassaris, Junaydis, Nuris, Sahlis, Hakimis,
Kharrazis, Sayyaris, and Tayfuris though limited to particular geographic locales were
influential in the development of Sufi thought.
Later major Sufi orders with a wider appeal were established around Sufi masters like
Qadri by Abdul Qadir Jilani (Baghdad), Chishti by abu Ishaq Shami (Syria), Suharwardi
by abu Najib Suharwardi, Yasavi by Ahmed Yasavi (Kazakhstan), Kubrawiya by
Najmuddin Kubra (Central Asia), Rifai by Ahmed Rifai (Iraq), Shadhili by abul Hasan
Shadhili (Morocco), Mevlavi by Jalal ud Din Rumi (Konya), Naqshbandhi by Bahauddin

Naqshband (Bukhara), Nimatullahi by Nuruddin Muhammad Nimatullah (Syria) and

Tijani by Abbas Ahmad ibn al Tijani (Algeria). The Sufi orders practiced presently run in
hundreds but most of these represent the off shoots of the earlier ones.
The 13th century considered the golden age of Sufism was marked by the development
of comprehensive mystical and theosophical doctrines of Sufism by the Sufi scholars
like ibn ul Arabi of Spain, ibn ul Farid of Egypt and the popular Persian Sufi poet Jalal
ud Din Rumi After the golden era the Arab-Muslim world produced only few notable
Sufi scholars though the influence of Sufi orders continued to grow.
PSYCHIC EXPERIENCES IN SUFISM

Different perspectives
Spiritual or psychic experiences are a quite common occurrence across cultures and
religions. Though there are no specific studies related to Sufism, surveys reveals the
percentage of people having had psychic experiences to range from 20% to 45%; the
frequency varying with the time, gender, religion, etc.
Surprisingly the experiences share many features notwithstanding the differences in

practices, beliefs, and cultures within which they occur. The psychic experiences occur
in the domains of thought, perception and feeling (a complex perceptual experience)
and share certain features regardless of the domain. The psychic experiences, partly
based on individual accounts of Sufis, are immediate, usually transient, ineffable,
unanalyzable, involving intimate association with a unique other self, transcending
time, space and person, and felt as a deep sense of bliss.
Historically, psychic experiences have been attributed to divine experiences,

possession by demons, regarded as heresy and even insanity. The interpretations
have varied with the political and religious environs of the times and have been
influenced by the societal class of the claimant, the content of the experiences vis-à-vis
the existing political and religious norms, gender, etc.
The experiences have been interpreted to promote or discredit a particular political

thought and even used as a plea for insanity. The case of two famous Sufis who
claimed extreme forms of mystical experiences, Mansur al Hallaj and Bayazid Bastami
needs a mention here. Both were and are considered as great Sufis on one hand and
as heretics on the other and were even sentenced to death during their times for
heresy.
Psychic experiences involve some experiences beyond the normal and Sufis claim
these to be the source of ultimate knowledge (marifa or gnosis). The possibility of such
knowledge yielding experiences has been questioned from philosophical and scientific
perspectives. Kant rejected the possibility of the knowledge of ultimate as falling
outside the sphere of human experience and hence its irrational nature. Sufi

philosophers have argued for the possibility of such experiences as being only an
extension of normal human experiences.
The Sufi philosopher Fakhruddin Iraqi considered the possibility of these experiences
as located in different orders of time and space (divine time and space) consequent to
changes in the level of human consciousness.
The greatest impediment in the study of psychic experiences has been the subjective
nature of these experiences, which contrasts with the classical objective nature of
science.
Sufism and psychotherapy

Spiritual and religious beliefs form an important means of coping with stress for a large
number of people but unfortunately this has received little attention by the mental
health professionals. Recently, however, religion and spirituality have been
incorporated into the therapeutic process and have shown promising results.
The assimilation of spirituality into the psychotherapeutic processes has been either in
the form of an augmentation of an already existing therapeutic technique – spiritually
augmented cognitive behavior therapy or the development of new techniques where
spirituality itself forms the core – transpersonal psychotherapy. Though Sufi beliefs and
practices have been incorporated into the transpersonal psychotherapy but there exists
no literature about the incorporation of these into the cognitive behavior therapy
models.
Spiritually augmented cognitive behavior therapy

Spiritually augmented cognitive behavior therapy is primarily a cognitive behavior
therapy which incorporates the individual's belief system, specifically the spiritual, to
focus on the existential issues. The therapist works with the individual's spiritual beliefs
and practices like meditation, prayer, etc. but at no point attempts to instill his own
beliefs or beliefs never held by the patient into the therapeutic process.
The therapy spans over 10-16 sessions, each session lasting 45-70 min conducted
once a week. The therapy has demonstrated efficacy in controlled trials with reduction
of relapse and re-hospitalization in the treatment group.
The Sufi themes of patience (sabr), trust in God (tawwakul), contentment (rida), and
God as the ever-forgiver may have a significant impact in changing the negative
cognitive schemas and coupled with the Sufi practices of remembrance of god (zikr)
and thankfulness (shukr) may provide an appropriate framework for spiritually
augmented cognitive behavior therapy for the Sufi believers.
Transpersonal psychotherapy

Transpersonal psychotherapy is based on the premise that human beings are

essentially spiritual beings and hence the core qualities associated with spirituality form
the goals of transpersonal psychotherapy.
The role of the therapist in transpersonal psychotherapy has been seen variously as
ranging from a spiritual guide to a “fellow spiritual sojourner.” The therapist does not
promote any specific spiritual philosophy and it is the client who leads and determines
the spiritual content of the therapy.
Different spiritual practices, including Sufism, yoga, qigong, aikodo have been
incorporated into the transpersonal psychotherapy. Transpersonal psychotherapy has
been used for the treatment of abnormal grief, spiritual crises, psychotic disorders and
substance use disorders. Transpersonal psychotherapy can provide the basis for
engagement of traditional faith healers with the mental health care services and given
the magnitude of people who seek traditional faith healers this can have significant
public health impact.
Sufism and mental health care services

A vast number of the mentally ill people in the community go untreated or seeks the
help of spiritual healers in most of the developing countries. The reasons lie in the
belief systems of the people which foster a spiritually oriented explanation of the
mental illnesses and the practically non-existent mental health care services in most of
the rural settings.
The large number of mentally ill people thronging the shrines (dargah) of Sufi saints to
seek cure is a testimony to this. The Erwadi (India) fire at the shrine of the Sufi saint
Shaheed Valiyullah leading to the death of 28 mentally ill people should be a grim
reminder of the cost of neglecting the incorporation of people's spiritual beliefs into the
mental health care services. The incorporation of spiritual/Sufi elements into the mental
health care services needs to be a two-fold process:
1. Incorporation of the spiritual/Sufi healers into the mental health care delivery
system which may include basic training in identification of mental illnesses and
appropriate referrals when needed.
2. Incorporation of the spiritual/Sufi beliefs and practices into the therapeutic

process which may increase the utilization of mental health services by a largely
spiritually oriented population.
The integration of spiritual beliefs and practices into the mental health care delivery
system needs efforts both at the organizational and individual level. Sensitization of the
trainees in the mental health profession to spiritual issues needs to be given an
impetus. The focus of the training should be on understanding of spirituality as an

important part of the individual seeking help and a thorough understanding of the belief
systems of the people in the practice area.
Psychological thought in Integral Yoga
The Perpetual Discovery While physical and life-sciences have made rapid advances
and known Nature to some extent, psychologythe science of human thought - has not
made similar progress. It has yet to know the many hidden possibilities of our mind.
Modern Western psychology basically suffers from the materialistic error of making the
study of the mind dependent upon our knowledge of the body.
Itsuffers, too, from "a sceptical error which prevents any bold and cleareyed
investigation of the hidden profundities of our subjective existence; the error of
conservative distrust and recoil which regards any subjective state or experience that
departs from the ordinary operations of our mental and psychical nature as a morbidity
or a hallucination, - just as the Middle Ages regarded all new science as magic and a
diabolical departure from the sane and right limits of human capacity; finally, the error
of objectivity which leads the psychologist to study others from outside instead of
seeing his true field of knowledge and laboratory of experiment in himself. "!
It must study all the facts of consciousness or, rather, all the planes of consciousness
as well as the processes of the Inconscient, the subconscient and the superconscient
self. To discover, possess and utilise them all should be the aim of psychology. Our
deeper and greater self which is the source of all the facts of our consciousness is not
inconscient in its nature, it is essentially superconscient and concealed from our
waking self. It is this supreme discovery that opens before the individual the possibility
of endless evolution.
Yoga: The Psychology of Self-Perfection

Yoga is one of the means of knowing man and the workings of cosmic forces through
Nature and life. It is the study of the human mind , and of the greater mind expressing
itself in all beings and things. It leads to the perception of the divine Intelligence and
Will working through individual and cosmic evolution.
Yoga is a powerful and perfected method of union with this divine Intelligence and Will.
It provides a path of quick and conscious seeking and union with the Divine on one or
more planes of our being. While the physical and vital mind looks upon outer things,
Yoga penetrates the surface appearances and reaches the reality within them. It is a
conscious method of turning within by the practice of three movements, - purification,
concentration and identification. The mind as it is constituted deforms Reality and
reflectes only the physical reality; it reflects even the physical universe not very
perfectly and accurately because of its inherent limitation and incapability. The object
of purification is to enable the mind to receive the light from above and reflect the Truth
fully and perfectly.

The method of Yoga apart from being ethical is essentially psychological. It implies or,
rather, necessitates "the consummate practice of a perfect psychological knowledge.'?"
It is this practice that transforms philosophical abstraction into spiritual concreteness
and the Yogin becomes 'a channel of God-consciousness and Godaction' . This perfect
self-perfection which ensures a fundamental oneness with the Divine both in his being
and nature is termed as siidrsya-mukti.
"mana eva manusyiiruim

kiiranam bandha-moksayoh"
Liberation lies in the perfect control of mental modifications, cittavrttis. It therefore

becomes necessary to know clearly the mechanism of the mind - its structure and its
functions. Mind or antahkarana, according to most schools of Indian philosophy, is
composed of three vehicles, manas, ahamkara, and buddhi. Vedanta describes it as
the antahkarana-catustaya.
The Psychological Crisis and the Superconscient

Humanity today is passing through a crisis; it is a crisis 'more mental than material.' We
are mentally diseased, morally deplete and spiritually uprooted. It is a crisis of
consciousness, a crisis of the soul. Our present crisis, as one American sociologist put
it, is 'total, epochal and global'. Our civilisation is on the decline, its disintegration is
imminent.
The challenge calls for a consciousness-response capable of comprehending

problems of cosmic dimensions. Psychological counselling and surface therapeutic
treatments are absolutely insufficient to cure our deeper malaise. There is a serious
inner cleavage that calls for a total integration of personality. Our mental ill-health is the
index of our psychological disintegration.
Our individual ego is matched only by our group or nationego in its blind self-
aggrandisement. Though science has succeeded in breaking physical barriers
between nations, the psychological distances still remain almost unaffected. There is,
therefore, a genuine need to have a new centre of integration in our individual and
group awareness, a new dimension of consciousness to take charge of personal,
national and international affairs.
"Modern psychology is an infant science , at once rash , fumbling and crude. As in all
infant sciences the universal habit of the human mind - to take a practical or local truth,
generalise it unduly and try to explain a whole field of nature in its narrow terms - runs
riot here. Moreover, the exaggeration of the importance of suppressed sexual impulses
is a dangerous falsehood and it can have a nasty influence and tend to make the mind
and vital more and not less fundamentally impure than before. "

Integral Yoga Psychology

(i) Man by his very nature is spiritual. He is a dynamic psyche ever evolving,
always integrating with the universe around him. He is a self-conscious
mode of the infinite and the eternal though at present limited because of
the compulsions of Nature's evolutionary process. He is a dual expression
of both Being and Becoming, and manifests simultaneously the static and
dynamic aspects of Reality.
The static truth of his inmost existence - the impersonal eternal dimension -
sanctions and supports, as it were, his creative nature, the historical
dimension. The two dimensions, though distinguishable , are in fact
inseparable. Integral Yoga Psychology aims at integrating the two
dimensions with a view to intensify and advance the present evolutionary
process. It attempts to bridge the gap between the distant ideal and the
present human reality, - between the Superconscient wholeness and the
existing limited selfawareness.
(ii) Man is essentially a psychological phenomenon. If psychology has to study

man, it should reach and comprehend all the levels of his being, both inner
and outer, and not limit itself to the mind. It is the Yogic approach to the
phenomenon of man that gives an adequate account of human personality
and carries with it a clarity and a certitude of its own. Man is not limited to
his physical existence alone, he is beyond body, life and even mind .
Psychology should therefore not restrict itself to the observation of his superficial
nature. A whole world of supra-physical and spiritual phenomena have to be
discovered and brought under control before psychology can hope to be a perfect and
dynamic science. Our surface existence is only a part of our being , there are many
other planes below and above that support and succour our external personality. For
below our conscious nature is the massive Inconscient out of which life emerges. The
basic insights of Integral Yoga Psychology as set forth in the writings of Sri Aurobindo
include:
(1) The integral fullness or wholeness of the human-personality.

(2) The widest spectrum of experience ranging from the Inconscient to the
Superconscient.
(3) The synthesis and fulfilment of all yogic methodsin the Integral Yoga of Sri
Aurobindo.
(4) The crowning vision of Integral Reality, and the realisation of the supreme potential
of man.
(5) The experience of the many planes or levels of consciousness reflecting the
different dimensions of Reality .
(6) The dynamic and creative union with the Supreme being resulting in the mounting
selfmanifestation of the Spirit.

What is Academic psychology in India: Pre-independence era; post-independence

era; 1970s: The move to addressing social issues; 1980s: Indigenization; 1990s:
Paradigmatic concerns, disciplinary identity crisis; ?
Academic psychology in India: Pre-independence era
The term Indian Psychology refers to the Psychologically relevant materials in ancient
Indian thought. Usually this term does not cover modern developments in Psychology
in India.
Modern Psychology at the beginning of the century emphasized sensation, perception

and psychologists in India took out Indian theories of sensation and perception from
the classics and created an Indian Psychology. For example Indian theories
emphasise the notion that in perception the mind goes out through the senses and
assumes the shape of the objects.
In 1934, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Indian theories of perception. As soon as

Western Psychologists started studying cognition, Indian Psychologists started looking
for Indian theories of cognition. In 1958, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Cognition.
Later on modern Psychology started emphasising emotions, and in 1981, Jadunath
Sinha wrote a book on Emotions and the Will.
The major part of ancient Indian scriptures (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain) emphasise self-
realization, samadhi or nirvana. After 1960 Humanistic Psychology emerged and
Psychologists became interested in paranormal dimensions of growth. Maslow's theory
of self-actualization and transcendental self-actualization established the link to the
major part of ancient Indian theories and methods and almost the whole of ancient
Indian writings became psychologically relevant.
Psychology of Consciousness, Parapsychology, Psychology of Mysticism, Psychology

of Religion and Transpersonal Psychology borrow extensively from Indian writings.
The terms Oriental Psychology, Buddhist Psychology, Yoga Psychology , Jain

Psychology, etc. are frequently found in modern psychological literature now. Many
book lists in Psychology now include books on Yoga, Buddhism and Zen. There seems
to be a paradigm shift in Western Psychology, a shift from the notion of mental disease
and healing to personal growth, the reference point shifting from the statistical average
or "normal" to the ideal or upper limits of man's potentiality.
The pre-independence Era

The Indian National Congress first convened in December 1885, though the idea of an
Indian nationalist movement opposed to British rule dated from the 1850s. During its
first several decades, the Congress Party passed fairly moderate reform resolutions,
though many within the organization were becoming radicalized by the increased
poverty that accompanied British imperialism.
In the early 20th century, elements within the party began to endorse a policy
of swadeshi (“of our own country”), which called on Indians to boycott of imported
British goods and promoted Indian-made goods. By 1917 the group’s “extremist” Home
Rule wing, which was formed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant the previous
year, had begun to exert significant influence by appealing to India’s diverse social
classes.
In the 1920s and ’30s the Congress Party, led by Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi, began
advocating nonviolent noncooperation. The new change in tactics was precipitated by
the protest over the perceived feebleness of the constitutional reforms enacted in early
1919 (Rowlatt Acts) and Britain’s manner of carrying them out, as well as by the
widespread outrage among Indians in response to the massacre of civilians
in Amritsar (Punjab) that April. Many of the acts of civil disobedience that followed
were implemented through the All India Congress Committee, formed in 1929, which
advocated avoiding taxes as a protest against British rule.
When World War II began in 1939, Britain made India a belligerent without consulting
Indian elected councils. That action angered Indian officials and prompted the
Congress Party to declare that India would not support the war effort until it had been
granted complete independence. In 1942 the organization sponsored mass civil
disobedience to support the demand that the British “quit India.”
British authorities responded by imprisoning the entire Congress Party leadership,

including Gandhi, and many remained in jail until 1945. After the war the British
government of Clement Attlee passed an independence bill in July 1947, and
independence was achieved the following month. In January 1950 India’s constitution
as an independent state took effect.
Psychology as an academic discipline made a new beginning in India in the first

decade of this century. Review of research shows that Western theories and concepts
still constitute the core of research and teaching programmes in most of the Indian
universities.
This chapter argues that Indian psychologists live in two parallel worlds: one of west-
oriented academic psychology to advance professional growth; and another of less
formalized scholarship to satisfy their creative urges. As a result, academic psychology
did not get enriched from diverse expertise and lifeexperiences of Indian psychologists.

One, which is more charitable, is the lack of a supportive intellectual climate. In a

country where a vast population lives in a condition of subhuman poverty, and
decisions about social developmental programmes are politically motivated, any
scholarly pursuit is considered peripheral.
The academic institutions plagued by a rising student population, political

manipulations and lack of funds have gradually become non-performers. There is no
premium placed on excellence in teaching and research. Adair, Pandey, Begam,
Puhan, and Vora (1995) conducted a study on 64 Indian psychologists through a
mailed questionnaire. The survey revealed three major impediments to research
productivity:
(a) lack of supportive intellectual climate,

(b) poor professional support, and
(c) inadequate research funding.
Ostensibly, the lack of an academic culture and a non-supportive socio-political
environment are greatly responsible for the prevailing state of affairs. It does explain
the overall decline in the academic standards in the country.
It, however, throws no light on 'why is psychology in India lagging behind other sisterly
disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology and economics?' It brings forth the second
line of argument that there are some inherent limitations in psychology as a scientific
discipline.
In recent years there have been several good publications which enable a critical
evaluation of the development of psychology in India. Some of these writings (Dalal,
1990, 1996, 2002; Misra & Gergen, 1993; D. Sinha, 1986, 1996; J.B.P. Sinha, 1993)
have critically evaluated the progress of psychology.
The five surveys of research in psychology (Mitra, 1972; Pareek, 1980, 1981; J.
Pandey, 1988, 2001, 2004) cover important research contributions since the beginning
of the last century. Pareek and T.V. Rao (1974a), Pestonjee (1986), and NCERT
(1981) compiled psychological measures developed in India. Reports prepared by the
University Grants Commission (UGC, 1968, 1982, 1999) deal with teaching and
research programmes in universities.
Some empirical studies (Adair, 1989) have examined the professional status of the
discipline of psychology. More recently, Misra (in press), K. Kumar (2005, 2008),
Pandey and Singh (2005), Paranjpe (2006) and Varma (2004) have provided incisive
understanding of the current status of psychology in India. These publications have
formed the basis of preparing this review chapter.
Post-Independence History of Psychology in India

The history of the Republic of India began on 26 January 1950. The country had earlier
become an independent dominion within the British Commonwealth on 15 August
1947.
At the time of granting independence, the Muslim-majority northwest and east of British
India was separated into the Dominion of Pakistan, by the partition of India. The
partition led to a population transfer of more than 10 million people between India and
Pakistan and the death of about one million people. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first
Prime Minister of India and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the Deputy Prime
Minister and Minister of Home Affairs. The new Constitution of 1950 made India a
secular and a democratic State.
Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi: The celebrations of independence had hardly

died down when on 30 January 1948, a radical minded Hindu, Nathuram Godse,
assassinated Gandhiji at Birla House, just before his evening prayers.
Refugee Problem: The Indian government had to stretch itself to the maximum to give
relief to and resettle and rehabilitate the nearly six million refugees from Pakistan. By
1951, the problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees from West Pakistan was fully
tackled.
However, the task of rehabilitating and resettling refugees from East Bengal was made
more difficult by the fact that the exodus of Hindus from East Bengal continued for
years. While nearly all the Hindus and Sikhs from West Pakistan had migrated in one
go in 1947, a large number of Hindus in East Bengal had stayed on there in the initial
years. However, as violence against Hindus broke out periodically in East Bengal,
there was a steady stream of refugees from there year after year until 1971. Providing
them with work and shelter and psychological assurance, remained a continuous and a
difficult task.
Because of linguistic affinity the resettlement of the refugees from East Bengal could
take place only in Bengal and to a lesser extent in Assam and Tripura. As a result, a
very large number of people who had been engaged in agricultural occupations before
their displacement were forced to seek survival in semi-urban and urban contexts as
the underclass.
Political Integration of India: At the time of independence, India was divided into two
sets of territories—the first being the territories of “British India”, which were under the
direct control of the Governor-General of India, and the second being the “Princely
States”, the territories over which the Crown had suzerainty, but which were under the
control of their hereditary rulers. In addition, there were several colonial enclaves
controlled by France and Portugal.

The Instruments of Accession were limited, transferring control of only three matters—
Defence, Communication and External Affairs—to India, and would by themselves
have produced a rather loose federation, with significant differences in administration
and governance across the various States.
First General Elections:

Democracy took a giant step forward with the first general election held in 1951-52
over a four-month period. These elections were the biggest experiment in democracy
anywhere in the world. The elections were held based on universal adult franchise,
with all those twenty-one years of age or older having the right to vote. There were
over 173 million voters, most of them poor, illiterate, and rural, and having had no
experience of elections. The big question at the time was how would the people
respond to this opportunity.
Reorganisation of States:
Potti Sreeramulu’s fast-unto-death, and consequent death for the demand of an
Andhra State in 1953 sparked a major re-shaping of the Indian Union. Pt Nehru
appointed the States Reorganization Commission, upon whose recommendations, the
States Reorganization Act was passed in 1956. Old states were dissolved and new
States created on the lines of shared linguistic and ethnic demographics. The
separation of Kerala and the Telugu-speaking regions of Madras State enabled the
creation of an exclusively Tamil-speaking State of Tamil Nadu. On 1 May 1960, the
States of Maharashtra and Gujarat were created out of the Bombay State.
Post-Nehru India:
Jawaharlal Nehru died on 27 May 1964. Lal Bahadur Shastri succeeded him as Prime
Minister. In 1965 India and Pakistan again went to war over Kashmir, but without any
definitive outcome or alteration of the Kashmir boundary. The Tashkent Agreement
was signed under the mediation of the Soviet government, but Shastri died on the night
after the signing ceremony. A leadership election resulted in the elevation of Indira
Gandhi, Nehru’s daughter, as the third Prime Minister.
Birth of Naxalism:
The CPM had originally split from the united CPI in 1964 on grounds of differences
over revolutionary politics, (equated with armed struggle) and reformist parliamentary
politics. A section of the party, consisting largely of its younger cadres and inspired by
the Cultural Revolution then going on in China, accused the party leadership of falling
prey to reformism and parliamentary politics and, therefore, of betraying the revolution.
They argued that the party must immediately initiate armed peasant insurrections in
rural areas, leading to the formation of liberated areas and the gradual extension of the
armed struggle to the entire country. To implement their political line, the rebel CPM
leaders launched a peasant uprising in the small Naxalbari area of northern West
Bengal.

India goes nuclear:

India achieved a major success in terms of a breakthrough in science and technology
when the Atomic Energy Commission detonated an underground nuclear device at
Pokhran in the deserts of Rajasthan on 18 May 1974. The Indian government,
however, declared that it was not going to make nuclear weapons even though it had
acquired the capacity to do so. It claimed that the Pokhran explosion was an effort to
harness atomic energy for peaceful purposes and to make India selfreliant in nuclear
technology.
Green Revolution and Operation Flood:

India’s long-standing food crisis was resolved with greatly improved agricultural
productivity due to the Green revolution. The government-sponsored modern
agricultural implements, new varieties of generic seeds and increased financial
assistance to farmers that increased the yield of food crops such as wheat, rice and
corn, as well as commercial crops like cotton, tea, tobacco and coffee.
Increased agricultural productivity expanded across the States of the IndoGangetic
plains and Punjab. Under Operation Flood, government encouraged production of milk
and improved rearing of livestock across India. This enabled India to become self-
sufficient in feeding its own population, ending two decades of food imports.
Emergency:
Economic and social problems, as well as allegations of corruption caused increasing
political unrest across India, culminating in the Bihar Movement. In 1974, the Allahabad
High Court found Indira Gandhi guilty of misusing government machinery for election
purposes.
Leading strikes across India, that paralyzed its economy and administration, Jay
Prakash Narayan even called for the Army to oust Mrs. Gandhi. In 1975, Mrs. Gandhi
advised President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to declare a state of emergency under the
Constitution, which allowed the Central government to assume sweeping powers to
defend law and order in the nation. Many civil liberties were suspended and elections
postponed at national and State levels. Non-Congress governments in Indian states
were dismissed, and nearly 1,000 opposition political leaders and activists were
imprisoned and programme of compulsory birth control was introduced.
Although, India’s economy benefited from an end to paralyzing strikes and political
disorder, many organs of government and many Congress politicians were accused of
corruption and authoritarian conduct. Police officers were accused of arresting and
torturing innocent people.
Post Emergency:
Mrs. Indira Gandhi called for general elections in 1977, only to suffer a humiliating
electoral defeat at the hands of the Janata Party, an amalgamation of opposition
parties. Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India. The

Desai administration established tribunals to investigate Emergency-era abuses, and

Indira and Sanjay Gandhi were arrested after a report from the Shah Commission. But
in 1979, the coalition crumbled and Charan Singh formed an interim government. The
Janata Party become intensely unpopular due to its internecine warfare, and the fact
that it offered no leadership on solving India’s serious economic and social problems.
Ultimately, the Janata Party split in to its original constituents. The January Sangh
emerged in its new avatar as Bhartiya Janata Party.
Indira Gandhi and her Congress party splinter group, Congress (Indira) were swept
back into power with a large majority in January 1980. But the rise of an insurgency in
Punjab jeopardized India’s security. In Assam also there were many incidents of
communal violence between native villagers and refugees from Bangladesh, as well as
settlers from other parts of India. When Indian forces, undertaking Operation Blue Star,
raided the hideout of Khalistan militants in the Golden Temple—Sikhs’ most holy
shrine— in Amritsar, in June 1984, the inadvertent deaths of civilians and damage to
the temple building inflamed tensions in the Sikh community across India. Northeast
India was also paralyzed owing to the ULFA’s clash with government forces.
On 31 October 1984, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s own Sikh bodyguards

assassinated her, and anti-Sikh riots erupted in Delhi and parts of Punjab, causing the
deaths of thousands of Sikhs.
Post Indira Gandhi:

After the assassination of Mrs Indira Gandhi, the Congress party chose Rajiv Gandhi,
her older son, as the next Prime Minister. The Parliament was dissolved and Rajiv led
the Congress party to its largest majority in history (over 415 seats out of 545 possible)
in the general elections, reaping a sympathy vote over his mother’s assassination.
Rajiv Gandhi initiated a series of reforms—the license raj was loosened, and
government restrictions on foreign currency, travel, foreign investment and imports
decreased considerably. This allowed private businesses to use resources and
produce commercial goods without government bureaucracy interfering, and the influx
of foreign investment increased India’s national reserves. Rajiv’s encouragement to
science and technology resulted in a major expansion of the telecommunications
industry, India’s space program and gave birth to the software industry and information
technology sector.
Post Rajiv Gandhi: On 21 May 1991, while former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi
campaigned in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), a Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam (LTTE) female suicide bomber assassinated him and many others. In the
elections, Congress (I) won 244 Parliamentary seats and put together a coalition,
returning to power under the leadership of Mr P.V. Narasimha Rao.

This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual
process of economic liberalisation and reform, which opened the Indian economy to
global trade and investment. India’s domestic politics also took new shape, as
traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small,
regionally-based political parties.
In 1992, India was rocked by communal violence between Hindus and Muslims that
killed over 10,000 people, following the Babri Mosque demolition by Hindu extremists
in the course of the Ram Janmabhoomi dispute in Ayodhya. The final months of the
Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 suffered the effects of several major political
corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the
Congress Party in its history as Bharatiya Janata Party emerged as largest single
party.
Era of Coalitions: The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged from the May 1996
national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without enough
strength to prove a majority on the floor of the Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal
Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all political parties
wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal
emerged to form a government known as the United Front. A United Front government
under former Chief Minister of Karnataka H.D. Deve Gowda lasted less than a year.
Congress (I) withdrew support in March 1997.
Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister
of a 16-party United Front coalition. In November 1997, the Congress Party again
withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP
the largest number of seats in Parliament (182), but this fell far short of a majority. On
March 20, 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Mr
Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister.
First Sikh Prime Minister of India: In January 2004, Prime Minister Vajpayee
recommended early dissolution of the Lok Sabha and general elections. The Congress
Party-led alliance won an surprise victory in elections held in May 2004. Manmohan
Singh became the first Sikh Prime Minister of India.
First Female President of India: In 2007, Ms Pratibha Patil became India’s first
female President. Long associated with Nehru–Gandhi family, Pratibha Patil was a low-
profile Governor of Rajasthan before emerging as the favoured Presidential candidate.
2009 Elections: In the 2009 General Election, the Congress-led United Progressive
Alliance won a convincing and resounding 262 seats, with Congress alone winning 206
seats. Mr Manmohan Singh was re-elected as the Prime Minister.

2014 Elections: On 16 May 2014, ending the BJP’s 10-year political ‘vanvaas’,
Narendra Damodardas Modi scripted a never-before win for the party, helping it cruise
to power on its own steam at the Centre by breaking a three-decade old trend of
fractured mandates. BJP attained a comfortable majority of 282 seats on its own.
20th century psychology in India:

A western implant Indian scriptures dating back thousands of years extensively dealt
with the analysis of states of consciousness and contents of mental activities. The
important feature of this early exposition is that it is mostly experiential and is a
culmination of centuries-old tradition of self-verification. In the ancient Indian scriptures
no rigid distinction among religion, philosophy, and psychology was maintained.
The overriding consideration was to help individuals in their pursuit of selfrealization

and liberation from the miseries of life. In this world-view, the source of all suffering
was presumed to be within the person, and thus the emphasis was on exploring the
'world within', to alleviate the suffering. The goal was to seek enduring harmony of
spirit, mind and body for everlasting happiness. The yoga system evolved very
sophisticated mind-control techniques in this pursuit. In contemporary literature this
broad field of inquiry is referred to as „Indian Psychology‟.
These rich traditions, however, had little bearing on academic psychology implanted in
India as a Western science during the British rule. Scientific psychology with laboratory
work was a novel approach, not having any parallel in traditional Indian psychology.
Psychology was first introduced as a subject in the Philosophy Department at Calcutta
University.
Brojendra Nath Seal who was the then King George V Professor of Mental and Moral
Philosophy drafted the first syllabus for experimental psychology and established a
laboratory for demonstration purpose in 1905. Eleven years later this laboratory was
upgraded as the first psychology department, the Department of Experimental
Psychology.
Two worlds of Indian psychologists

The concepts and theories in Western psychology have their genesis in the social
upheavals in Europe in the 19th Century with the metamorphosis from an agrarian to
an industrial society. The discipline evolved to comprehend the complex social realities
and the problems of industrialization. With the imperial expansion of modern
capitalism, the influence of western knowledge in the colonized societies was
inevitable. The popularity of English-medium education made writings of western
thinkers accessible to Indian scholars.
A large body of this knowledge was alien, even in contradiction to that which was
prevalent in the colonized traditional societies. The contradictions were more glaring in
colonies, like India, having a strong sense of cultural identity and a rich heritage of

scholarly work. In the West, psychology had moved away from theology and
philosophy, and had developed its own methods of inquiry based on the natural
science models.
Indian psychologists saw that in applying western psychology there was an opportunity
of developing a secular identity distinct from that of religion and philosophy, which was
not possible within indigenous intellectual traditions integrating philosophy, spirituality
and psychology.
Moreover, due to the neglect of many centuries, Indian psychology was not well
equipped to examine the contemporary world and did not have tools to explain the
existing social and moral decay of the Indian society. There were no new concepts,
theories and methods in Indian psychology applicable to the changing individual and
social order.
How Indian psychologists before Independence lived in two different worlds can be
illustrated with some examples. Sir Brojendra Nath Seal, who established the first
psychology laboratory in the country to promote experimental psychology, was a great
historian of ancient Indian science and was the inspiration for Jadunath Sinha to bring
out his monumental work on Indian psychology. N. N. Sengupta who was trained to be
an experimental psychologist had a large number of non-empirical papers in scientific
journals.
The 1970s crisis: the core debates
Since the growth of knowledge is socially conditioned, the developments of psychology

in India including its theories and concepts need to be appreciated in the local and
global historical and sociocultural matrix in which the country has been positioned.
Being a developing country with millennia-old culture, a richly diverse society, and a
two-century-long colonial past, India is currently aspiring to emerge as a self-reliant
and economically strong nation. Faced with the challenge of socioeconomic
transformation, the country has been engaged in efforts toward industrialization,
modernization, and globalization.
Navigating through this difficult terrain has been a complex challenge and has shaped
the developments in the academic disciplines also. India has been engaged with rapid
growth of higher education and rapid expansion of professional institutions to meet the
increasing demand for trained personnel in various service sectors like health,
administration, banking, police, military, and management. The cultural complexity of
India due to diversity in ecology, language, religion, family structure, and uneven
introduction of technology has put a challenge before the planners to ensure social
welfare through democratic processes.
Early Efforts

Keeping in mind the colonial background of modern learning in India, the mandate of
initiating scientific psychology in the prevalent Wundtian tradition and subsequently in
the behaviorist tradition was a natural choice. The eagerness to attain an independent
identity for the discipline constituted the package of academic delivery consisting of
empirical work, positivist metatheory, a universalistic stance, and the presumption of
cultural immunity of psychological concepts and theories.
Early researchers did attend to the theoretical issues and noted the importance of
traditional knowledge but did not reject modern theories. It is interesting to note that
even during the early part of the development in India, many indigenous lines of inquiry
were also prevalent. Examples that highlight this trend include Asthana’s (1950) work
on Sāṁkhya theory of personality and Indra Sen’s (1986) elaboration of the integral
psychology of Sri Aurobindo. E.G. Parameshwaran started research on the Triguṇa
(sattva, rajas, and tamas) theory (Uma et al. 1971) which has been followed by several
studies (see Salagame 2011).
We also find works on the Indian typology of personality (Krishnan 1976/2002) and
tantra (Mukerji 1926). Some notable works were undertaken from the Western tradition
for further study. For instance, Asthana (1960) proposed that perceptual distortion is
the function of the valence which an object acquires from the field structure in which it
exists.
In this way he tried to resolve the differences between gestalt and learning theories
and incorporated Lewin’s field theory. In the area of learning theories, the S-R theory
was challenged by Kothurkar (1968).
A Socially Relevant Psychology In the 1980s, several lines of investigation across

many domains of social psychological processes showed that many of the phenomena
reported in Western research literature required different explanations rooted in the
Indian cultural milieu. Examples of this kind are found in the areas of social cognition.
Thus predictions from attribution theory with socially and culturally specific causal
categories were tested for understanding achievement, health, and other aspects of
human behavior (Dalal 1988).
Psychology of poverty and deprivation:

The study of poverty and deprivation has been an important area of research where
researchers in different parts of the country (e.g., Rath at Bhubaneshwar, A.K. Singh at
Ranchi, D. Sinha at Allahabad, L.B. Tripathi and G. Misra at Gorakhpur) moved in
many directions and have mapped the diverse effects of poverty, social disadvantage,
and deprivation (for a comprehensive review see Misra and Tripathi 2004). Most of
these studies have situated deprivation in the experiential-environmental context and
have traced its detrimental influences back to aspects of development. The detrimental
effects of poverty are accentuated by the unfavorable proximal environment of the
child.

Thus, intervention should address not only the cognitive-attentional drawbacks of the
children but also the conditions prevailing in the family and school settings. They
should be planned to create in the people a sense of empowerment to effect change in
their life conditions. Unfortunately, the planning rooted in the Western model of
development often ignores the traditional attitudes, beliefs, and values, and considers
them antithetical to development ideology. There is growing evidence that social-
psychological problems of Indian society are now being increasingly addressed by
psychologists.
The challenge of achievement:

The economic and social development was an important concern for a developing
country like India. The theoretical analysis by McClelland underscored the significance
of achievement motivation (n-Ach) as a driving engine for development. The lack of
emphasis on individualistic and competitive spirit and independence were identified as
the main causes of underachievement. This became the basis for a major intervention
program at Kakinada in Tamil Nadu, as reported in Motivating Economic Achievement
(McClelland and Winter 1969). It provided impetus for promoting entrepreneurship.
The relevance of achievement motivation theory was, however, Indian challenged

(e.g., Sinha 1968). The perceived value of various achievement goals is determined by
the expectations of significant others. The concepts of “extension motivation” (Pareek
1968), “dependency proneness” (Sinha 1968), “achievement value” (Mukherjee 1974),
and “dissatisfaction-based achievement motivation” (Mehta 1972) are important
contributions.
Move Toward Indigenization

The indigenous thought systems remained neglected because there was a strong
aversion toward them owing to doubts regarding their scientific status,
contemporaneous relevance, and ontological suppositions (see Gergen et al. 1996).
Psychological theories and constructs were taken as intrinsically biological,
materialistic/objective in content, and quantitative in methodological approach.
Therefore psychology, like other natural and physical sciences, was thought to be
culture and psychological processes as distributed/shared uniformly across diverse
cultures and sub-cultures. This spurred the need for a radical change in cross-cultural
psychology’s universalist stance, and its almost exclusive focus on the discovery of
panhuman patterns of behavior.
Problems of method
The 1970s crisis was a multifaceted one, involving several interrelated and contentious
issues. Not everyone felt a crisis was at hand, and those that did could not agree on
the central problems of the field or the causes of those problems. Nonetheless, the first

and perhaps most visible concern leading up to a declaration of crisis was a

dissatisfaction with the dominance of laboratory experimentation.
Psychologists, modeling their approach on that of the natural sciences and particularly
German physiology and psychology, had adopted experimentation in the late
nineteenth century and by the start of the twentieth century, more than 40
psychological laboratories had been established (Benjamin, 2000; Danziger, 1990).
Problems of relevance
Related to discussions of method was the debate regarding the social relevance of
social-psychological findings. In a 1974 survey of graduate students and faculty
members in psychology, half of the respondents indicated that psychology’s lack of
relevance to real-world social problems was one of its gravest difficulties (Lipsey,
1974).
In this same vein, the first public diagnosis of a disciplinary crisis came in an article
titled ‘‘Crisis in social psychology: The relevance of relevance’’ (Silverman, 1971). In
this article, Irwin Silverman noted that despite serious external pressures to produce
results relevant to pressing social problems, ‘‘social psychologists have not provided
much data that are relevant to social ills’’ (p. 583). Silverman went on to argue that the
problem of relevance was in fact a direct result of problems of method: data from social
psychology gathered in artificial laboratory experiments ‘‘may relate very much to the
motives and feelings and thoughts of subjects about their role in the experiment and
very little to their lives outside of it’’ (p. 584).
Problems of theory and approach

As the crisis wore on, many authors began to argue that problems of method and
relevance were simply symptoms of a set of much larger and far more substantive
issues, including the theoretical approach of the field, the disciplinary orientation, and,
according to some, the inadequacy of the entire philosophy on which social psychology
had been founded.
Some discussions of theoretical orientation were focused on the simplicity of social-

psychological theory. It was believed that social psychology had become too
consumed with theories built on small, repeatable effects, resulting in theories with a
very limited scope. This focus had resulted in a lack of integrative theories that could
unite social-psychological findings and capture the complexity of social individuals in
complex social systems (Back, 1963; McGuire, 1969, 1976; Pepitone, 1976).
Sociological social psychologists also employed survey methods to examine the

relationships between psychological processes and attributes, such as personality or
self-image, and macrosocial phenomena, such as social class and race (House, 1977).
Diagnosing disciplinary crisis

The 1970s crisis in American social psychology provides an interesting case study of a
discipline in the midst of a self-diagnosed crisis and raises interesting questions
regarding how and why such crises are diagnosed. During and after the crisis, some
scholars suggested that the issues raised in the context of the crisis were not new
issues at all:
Contemporary scholarship on the history of social psychology likewise demonstrates

that many of the same issues that were debated during the crisis had been contentious
ones throughout the discipline’s history.
The Progress of the Indigenization of Psychology in India in 1980s:
A Review Sinha 0994) claimed that "indigenization is a global phenomenon" (p.180),

i.e., it is a necessity in all countries and across all disciplines. In India, there have been
repeated, aperiodic calls for indigenization of psychology following the initial call of
Durganand Sinha 0973) to make psychology relevant to the Indian context and to
serve the needs of the Indian people. In the past decade much has been written about
the state of, type of, extent of, sources of indigenization of psychology in India, and of
the positive and negative factors influencing its progress.
The writings of Adair, Puhan, and Vohra 0993), Dalal 0996), D. Sinha 0994), andJ.B.P.
Sinha (2000) among others have each concluded that indigenization in India is slowly
but steadily progressing.
Taking their reality into account, Indian psychologists have imported the concept and
suited it to serve the purpose of indigenization process. J. B. P. Sinha (2000) has
argued that given the pluralistic nature of the Indian society and its people, the
openness to diversity among Indians, and the relative comfort with dissonance of an
Indian scholar, no single route is best for the growth of psychology in India; rather a
number of approaches to making psychology relevant will not only help but also ensure
the survival of the indigenization movement.
Three routes have been identified as possibilities for Indian psychology to travel to
make research in psychology more relevant. The first and commonly accepted route is
the use of Indian traditional knowledge, categories, and d1eories to exp la in basic
psychological phenomena such as motivation and personality.
However, indigenization in India has not been limited to the development of a cultural
psychology or of unique principles heavily based on language, as has been the case in
the Philippines, Taiwan, and Mexico. Ethnic or cultural psychology has been
recognized as a source for an indigenous psychology in India, but it is only treated as
one of several routes that indigenization may take and is the least popular route.
The Present Study

This chapter repo1ts on the extent of cultural/socially-relevant research by each route

based on the abstracts published in the Indian Psychological Abstracts and Reviews
from 1998 to 2002 (Volume 1).
Each year two issues of this journal were published thus nine issues were included in
this study. The journal divides the published abstracts into specializations: Cognitive,
Personality, Cross-Cultural and Indigenous Psychology, Life Span and Developmental
Psychology, Women and Family Studies, Educational Psychology, Organization
Behavior and Industrial Psychology, Social psychology, Clinical Psychology, Research
Methods and Psychometrics, Experimental Psychology, Physiological Psychology, and
General Psychology.
The abstracts for experimental and physiological psychology and research methods
and psychometrics were not included in this study. For each of the other sections
abstracts were rated by the author on whether the article was theoretical or empirical,
and if empirical, whether it fell under any of the three categories of socially/culturally
relevant research:
(a) Research that was cultural in nature, being based on indigenous conceptualization
or theory. This included, for example, the work on the role of outcome orientation vs.
process orientation on motivation and stress derived from the Bhagwad Gita, an
ancient Hindu text; the giving theo1y of motivation derived from the ancient Vedas, and
the role of practicing yoga and meditation in developing the self and its relation to the
workplace.
(b) Socially relevant research that was undertaken on countty- specific topics such as
crowding or population explosion, epidemiological surveys of, for example, the
incidence of violence towards women in a certain region, or substance abuse among
college students. This category also included research on HIV/AIDS and on caste, and
(c) Western concepts and theories that were tested and their findings were compared
to those obtained in Indian settings. For example, the work on learned helplessness, its
application, or validity tested within Indian samples, the use of Somatic Inkblot Series
for diagnosing schizophrenia or other mental illnesses presented by Indian patients;
Piagetian conservation among Indian children; or studies on procedural and distributive
justice.
Quantitative Ratings of b1dig enous Research Developments
A total of 2,531 articles were included in this study of which 636 were theoretical, with
the rest (n-1895) or 75.6 percent of the total articles being empirical. The largest
proportions of empirical articles were in the clinical psychology section (21.3 percent)
followed by social psychology 05.6 percent) and organizational behavior and industt"ial
psychology (15.1 percent).

Table 1 presents the number and percentage of empirical articles that were rated as
being socially or culturally relevant under each route. Overall, approximately one
quarter of the articles in the last five years were rated as being culturally/socially
relevant using one of the three routes. :rhere were also variations in the extent to which
a panicular route was used. The largest volume of research was in the category of
socially relevant topics.
1990s: Paradigmatic concerns

Mind and consciousness are the most fascinating and wonderful phenomena in the
universe. It has fascinated man throughout history. Questions about mind, self and
consciousness have been raised not only by psychologists and philosophers but also
by thinkers from diverse fields e.g. Physics, Biology, and Neuroscience. Their work
within their own disciplines inevitably brought the urgency to look into the place of mind
and consciousness in the entire scheme of creation. Several writings by great thinkers
like Shroedinger, Sherrington, Penfield, J Eccles, Kothari, etc. eloquently testify it.
Questions about mind, self and consciousness were at the heart of Indian psychology
which we find shrouded in the religio-philosophical traditions of India dating back to
more than two thousand years. However it remained largely unrecognized and
unappreciated in mainstream psychology both in India and other parts of the world.
There is only an occasional reference to Indian psychology. According to Hall &
Lindzey “One of the richest sources of well formulated psychologies are Eastern
religions... Most major Asian religions have at their core a psychology little known to
the masses of adherents to the faith, but quite familiar to the appropriate professionals,
be they yogis, monks or priests”
Why these rich and profound knowledge systems about the inner world have largely
remained unrecognized by mainstream psychology? Why there is a resistance in
psychologists both in India and foreign lands to even acquaint themselves with Indian
psychology to examine its value. Both these questions need to be examined if
psychology is to really evolve and get enriched by the insights of Indian Psychology.
There are three reasons for Indian Psychology remaining unknown to mainstream
Psychology:
1. Insights about the inner world were a part of the religio-philosophical traditions of
India which have profound knowledge systems as their foundation. However, the
foundational knowledge systems were very complex and due to the metaphysical
or spiritual nature of its subject matter it was inaccessible to masses unless they
had the necessary inclinations for it. Moreover, it required deeply questioning
mind, introspective nature and existential orientation. Traditionally it was
imparted by the teacher to only those who were prepared enough to fathom its
depths. Thus, the knowledge systems remained confined to limited number of

scholars and sages. However, it is important to note that the vision which
emanated from it had widely influenced the Indian culture.
One is in awe of the mighty foresights and understanding of the sages and seers of
this country who found ingenious methods to communicate such a profound knowledge
and wisdom to common man. Indian culture, its festivals, folk traditions, mythology, art,
music, religious practices, rites and rituals of the community are testimony to it.
2. Psychology adopted the paradigm of physical sciences including its methods.

The antithesis between science and religion, as witnessed by last two centuries,
have made the followers of science including psychologists sceptical of religio-
philosophical systems of knowledge. Though hard core science like Physics has
revolutionized its world view but other disciplines including psychology has
remained unaffected by such changes.
The thinkers in the field of Psychology have been feeling a sense of dissatisfaction at
its limited view of man and it is being increasingly realized that its paradigm is of limited
value to its subject matter and its ultimate goals. It has not yet found revolutionary
ideas and insights as in Physics to break the limits of its horizon.
3. The writings of Indian Psychology are largely inaccessible in a format familiar to

psychologists. It is shrouded in religio-philosophical traditions of India which is
ignored by modern day scholars who are seeped into scientism. It is considered
by large majority of us as unscientific and religious orthodoxy and therefore no
effort is made to acquaint oneself and examine the rich literature that exists in
these traditions.
The problems of scientism in Psychology
Following the model of scientific method, Psychology presumed that it can identify all
the factors/causes that influence man’s mind and behaviour. Vast number of empirical
studies have been done investigating every possible factor that may influence and
shape personality and behaviour. However, it has often confirmed at best the common
sense knowledge which did not sharpen the skills for prediction and control — the
ultimate goal of science. It has not given us tools to bring desirable changes in one-
self.
Though insights emerging from Clinical Psychology have made valuable contribution in
understanding the inner workings of mind and personality at conscious, sub-conscious
and unconscious levels but it has failed to guide and even define what could be the
possibilities of human perfection.
Looking at the contributions of mainstream Psychology one can broadly put it in two
categories:

(a) mind as an instrument of cognition

(b) understanding the forces that shape our personality and behaviour. It has quite
ingeniously applied experimental method to study the cognitive functions of the mind
and gathered important insights about the cognitive processes of the mind.
Indian Psychology
Mainstream Psychology has its origin in the western cultures. It is interesting to note
that thinkers of the west made great strides in knowing and understanding the
mysteries of the outer world whereas the thinkers in India pursued with great passion
the inquiry into the mysteries of the inner world.
Insights about the inner workings of mind forms a central core of Indian psychology. It
has the potential of revolutionizing our understanding of man in the same way as
Modern Physics did to our understanding of the universe.
The questions around which Indian Psychology is woven, may be broadly formulated
as follows:
o What is the nature of I/self? What is its relation to the entire creation, i.e.
Universe?
o What is birth and death of “me”? How “I” begin and end?
o How can one free oneself from the vicissitudes of life and its sufferings called
‘samsara’
o How to choose amongst multiple options that life presents to each one of us. In
Bhagvad-Gita the dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna starts with this issue;
o How to live at peace with oneself, others and the larger world including insentient
and sentient beings?
In brief we can sum up the above questions as “what is the nature of “I”/self (called
Atman) viz a viz the nature of phenomenal world” and “how do we maximize ours as
well as others well being.”
Such questions in Indian psychology led to deep analysis of mind, problems of identity
and complexities of human life.
The deliberation on these issues resulted into insights and vision which encompassed
not only man and his life but the whole creation. This was a holistic picture which saw
connectivities operating in the entire creation/nature. It had the potential of
transforming man’s life in a manner which is the ideal of every human being, variously
termed as “sthitpragya” or “Samatvayoga”(unshakeable mental equilibrium).
Insights into the nature of self in Indian psychology revealed the witnessing nature of
“I” called Atman. Upanishads say that Atman or Brhaman alone is the fundamental
reality whose nature is pure awareness. This is the substratum of the whole creation
including mind. Mind is called Antahkaran, i.e. instrument of knowledge of inner world.
It consists of four-fold constituents:
o Manas: Perceptions, feelings, desires, thoughts

o Buddhi: intellect which is the faculty of discrimination and choice.

o Chitt: Memory
o Ahankar: Ego, Sense of individuality or Dehatma-buddhi
Manas is by nature extremely unsteady. It can be disciplined by intellect whose
capacity of choice and discrimination can be enhanced by introspection, knowledge
and education. Ahankar (ego) or Dehatma-buddhi is a case of misplaced identity which
is the root cause of ignorance about the real nature of Self leading to sufferings in life.
The relationship amongst self, mind, intellect and ego is beautifully brought out in the
following sloka of Kathopanishad:
Atmanam rathinam vidhi shariram rathmev tu

Buddhi tu sarathim vidhi manah pragrhamev cha!
Know the Self/soul as the rider, the body as the chariot, the intellect as the charioteer,
and the mind as the reins; the organs are the horses and the sense objects the roads;
the soul with the body, organs and mind is designated by the sages as the relisher of
experience.
Subject-Object Analysis.
“I” or “Self” is intimately experienced as the subject or knower of everything external as
well as internal world. All modifications of mind e.g. perceptions, thoughts and
emotions are only objects of knowledge and not the subject. In the words of Sri
Radhakrishnan “the body, the sense organs, the mind and the ego all lay claim to
being the self of man. Before enquiry man takes one or other of them as self. But
philosophical enquiry reveals their non-self character, it reveals each one of them as
an object and not a subject.”
Who is the subject then? To know the subject / knower means to objectify it and
necessitating yet another knower leading to regress ad infinitum. Yet all forms of
knowledge necessitate the existence of knower. Upanishads call this subject / knower
as “Atman” whose nature is pure consciousness.
After showing the dissimilarity between knower (self) and known (mind) it analyzes the
relationship between the two. The knower and the known are the two apparent aspects
of one basic reality. Known is not independent of knower because its existence
depends on the knower. Just as pot’s existence is not independent of the clay; pot is
only name and form of the same basic substance, i.e. clay. Similarly known is not an
independent reality, known and knower are one only. Thus the whole world, inner and
outer, is resolved in one alone; Upanishads call it “atman”, the resolving point of
knower and known whose nature is pure consciousness. Atman = Brhaman is the most
profound statement of the Upanishads indicated by the following Mahavakyas:
o aham brhamasmi (I am brhaman)
o tat tvamasi (that thou art)
o ayam atma brhama (this atman is brhaman)
o sarvam idam khalu brhaman (all this is brhaman)

What is the nature of atman? What is brhaman? What kind of equation the above
statements are talking about? To understand the meaning of atman and brhaman one
needs to know their etymological roots:
o Atman — that which pervades everything
o Brhaman — derived from the root “brh” meaning “to grow” or “to increase”; when
noun is formed from “brh”it means bigness, unconditioned by any form, space or
time.
These statements may look utterly confusing to one who is not familiar with Indian
Psychology, Comprehension of these Mahavakya require formidable shifts in one’s
thinking and conclusions that man makes universally about himself and the world,
namely
o I am the body and the mind (Dehatma Buddhi)
o The unquestionable reality of the physical world
It is the burden of these conclusions which is the biggest barrier in comprehending the
vision of Indian Psychology. The paradox of man is that he can deny his own self
through a wrong self-image.
Thus Atman which appears to be conditioned by body and mind (known by us as “I”) is
in fact limitless. Just as space confined by room is same as space all over, similarly
Atman which appears to be confined (identified) by body and mind is in fact without
any confines, therefore, called Brhaman. It is in this sense that Atman is called the real
self which is Brhaman. Its nature is defined as “Sat” (truth), “Chit” (consciousness),
Anandam (ever blissful).
o Sat — Truth or reality. Truth is defined as that which can not be negated.
o Chit — Consciousness. It is not contingent quality which rises or sinks with the
presence or absence of objects. It is “svataha siddham” i.e. it is self-evident; no
other proof is required to prove its existence. Just as one light does not require
another light to prove its existence. This self-revealing consciousness is not an
adventitious quality of the self, it is the very being of the self, i.e. self is identical
with consciousness. Its very nature is knowledge ‘Pragya’.
o Anandam — bliss, devoid of any impurities, inadequacies, ever fullness.
Thus reality is one alone, it is non-dual. It pervades every thing sentient or insentient.
Isopanisad eloquently said: “Ishawasyamidam sarvam yatkinchjagatyam jagat”
(everything is pervaded by brhaman alone).
Analysis of three states — Waking, Dream and Sleep

Mandukya Upanishad analyzes the three states- waking, dream and sleep and shows
the necessity of a common substratum which gives continuity to “I” experience. We
spend our whole life alternating amongst these three states yet when it comes to
defining our identity, we exclusively take into account waking state alone.
The conclusion that “I am body and mind” is essentially arising during the waking state.
When we examine dream and sleep states this identity gets questioned. Logically there

should not be any experience or knowledge without experiencer or knower; then who is
this knower without body- mind identity (“I” sense of waking state). Similarly in sleep,
there is no experience of anything yet experience of “sound” sleep is there. We carry
on the feeling of having good sleep when we wake-up, in other words the memory of
sound sleep persists upon waking up. Logically there can not be memory without
experience and an experience without the experiencer is not possible.
Shankaracharya, one of the greatest thinkers of the world, said:

“There is some entity, eternal by nature, the basis of the experience of egoism, the
witness of the three states of waking dream and sleep and distinct from the five
sheaths, who knows everything that happens in the waking, dream and sleep states,
who is aware of the presence or absence of the mind and its functions, and who is the
basis of the notion of egoism.”
In the words of Jodson Herrick— Awareness itself has no locus, because the
conscious act has properties that are not definable in terms of the spatial and temporal
units which are employed in the measurement of the objects and events of our
objective world.”
Great thinkers from diverse disciplines reached the similar vision of truth despite very
dissimilar fields of their endeavour. George Wald, a noted biologist and noble laureate
said “Just the contrary of consciousness first appearing as a late outgrowth of the
evolution of life on this and other planets, I come to the view that this universe breeds
life and consciousness, because consciousness is its source and because the stuff of
this universe is ultimately mind-stuff.
What we recognize as the material universe, the universe of space and time and
elementary particles and energies, is actually an avtar, the materialization of primal
consiousness. In that case there is no waiting for consiousness to arise. It is there
always, at the beginning as at the end. What we wait for in the evolution of life is only
the culminating avtar, the emergence of self-conscious bodies that can articulate
consicousness, that can give it a voice, a culture, literature and art, and Science.”
Professor Kothari pointed out the similarity between visions of reality obtained by
Quantum Mechanics and Upanishads:- “The Concept of oneness in Quantum
Mechanics is a totally, fundamentally, new concept. We have a most remarkable
thought provoking analogy drawn from modern physics for the great Upanisadic
formula; the differnet individual selves on the empirical plane are one and the same on
the transcendental plane”.
In his Nobel address Delbruck (1969) said:

“Even if we learn to speak about consciousness as an emergent property of nerve
sets, even if we learn to understand the processes that lead to abstract ion, reasoning
and language, still any such development presupposes a notion of truth that is prior to

all these efforts and that can not be conceived as an emergent porperty of it, an
emergent property of a biological evolution.”
We find a strikingly similar conclusion by Schroedinger, great physicist of 20th

century, in the epilogue “Determinism and Free Will”. He said “two incontrovertible
facts are (a) My body is a machine(b) Its motions are under my control. The only
possible inference from these two facts is, I think that I , I in the widest meaning of the
word, that is to say, every conscious mind that has ever said or felt “I”, am the person,
if any, who controls the “motions of the atoms” according to the laws of nature.... In
itself the insight is not new. Earliest records to my knowledge date back some 2,500
years or more. From the early great upanisads the recognition Atman = Brahman(The
personal self, equal the omnipersent, all comprehending eternal self) was in Indian
thought considered, far from being blasphemus, to represent the quintessence of
deepest insight into the happenings of the world.”
Insights of clinical and personality psychology show us vividly the role that self-image
plays in our day to day life. We not only act as unified self but we also hold certain
image about it. The entire dynamics of inner life revolves around the positive or
negative experiences with regard to the self-image. Self reflection or objectivity entails
distancing from our own selves and trying to have a re-vision of it. It is like enhancing
the witnessing character of our selves. Thus comprehending the non-self character of
our identities makes it easy to deal with our reactions. Not only this, it also shows us
egocentricity in our thinking and actions.
Thus in a limited way the development of this self distancing or objectivity itself
resolves several problems. Bhagvad Gita analyzes in great length the inner dynamics
which plays havoc in our lives and create problems and sufferings. It details the
effectiveness of Karmyoga and Gyanyoga as sure ways of emancipating ourselves
from the vicissitudes of inner life. More of it would be discussed later.
The above discussion can be summarized as follows:

o The notion of self in Western Psychology is a case of misplaced identity,
o Locating and identifying the self is problematic, if only waking state is taken into
account,
o This change in vision requires thorough de-conditioning of mind also called
“Antahkaran-suddhi”. The process of Inner purification requires an introspective
analysis of our thinking, feeling and reactions. This gradually shows us how our
own thinking and ways of dealing with life situations are often instrumental in
creating more problems and sufferings for ourselves.
Western & Indian Psychology

How the above discussion is relevant to Psychology. For comprehending its relevance
we need to take a re-look at the goal of psychology. The ultimate goal of psychology is
to reveal the mysteries of the inner world. Therein lies the hope of solving man’s

problems and maximizing his effectiveness. Indian and Western psychology do not
differ in terms of the goals. However the difference lies in the approach and the
paradigm within which they operate.
The developments in Physics showed that the order of nature is different in large and
small objects. At macro level the nature works within a deterministic design with laws
that can help in precise prediction and control. However, at micro-level the whole order
of nature’s working undergoes change. “Contrary to Newtonian Physics, Quantum
mechanics tells us that our knowledge of what governs the events at sub-atomic level
is not nearly what we assumed it would be. It tells us that we can not predict sub-
atomic phenomena with any certainty. We only can predict their probabilities” Gary
Zukav (1979).
According to modern physics, Nature at micro-level defies precision in prediction and

control, the hallmark of classical Physics. Not only this, it questions the independence
of observer and observed as the very nature of observed gets altered by the act of
observation. “Philosophically, however, the implications of Quantum mechanics are
psychedelic. Not only do we influence our reality, but, in some degree, we actually
create it” Gary Zukav (1979). It shows striking similarity with the phenomena of the
inner world.
Mind and phenomena of inner world obviously belongs to the micro world subtler than
atoms and its constituent electrons and protons etc. Taking the lead from Modern
Physics, mind can not be understood through exploration of deterministic laws and
therefore it needs a paradigm shift within which it is currently operating.
The dissatisfactions from the state of contemporary psychology are mounting and
efforts towards the search for “meaningful psychology” are increasing appreciably.
Bruner (1990) says: “the wider intellectual community comes increasingly to ignore our
journals, which seems to outsiders principally to contain intellectually unsituated little
studies, each a response to a handful of like little studies. Inside psychology, there is a
worried restlessness about the state of our discipline, and the beginnings of a new
search for means of reformulating it.”
There is a long road between notions of man in Western and Indian Psychology.
Scientism in mainstream Psychology has piled up a heavy, layered and deeply
entrenched views about man and his/her inner world. Opening of new horizons is an
arduous task This is a ripe state for taking a new plunge. Indian psychology promises
to offer further breakthrough in understanding man’s inner world.
Need for a shift in Paradigm

Paradigm within which mainstream psychology operates is, that, man is a creation in
the Universe. Just as everything in nature is governed by the laws of nature similarly
our body and mind are also governed by universal laws. Science offers the best

methodology to study such laws of Nature, therefore, mind would also reveal its
secrets when studied by scientific methods. New paradigm emerging from Indian
psychology is that pure consciousness alone is the fundamental reality.
The entire universe including body, mind and senses is only a manifestation of this
reality and belongs to the same category as the material world. Man’s identity does not
lie in body and mind but in Ataman. Misplaced identity is the root cause of all our
problems and sufferings. There can never be an end to man’s search for happiness
and meaning till he discovers his own essential nature i.e. pure consciousness
qualified as Sat + Chit + Anandam.
Pure consciousness is the most fundamental reality and the ultimate truth of all
creation, manifest or unmanifest. Different schools of Indian Thought are unanimous in
saying that the true nature of man and its identity lies in Consciousness and not in
body and mind, though they have adopted different methods for articulating it.
Mind and body are also creations in nature and follow orderly functions. Analysis of life
situations, its impact on oneself and others can give a clue to understand its order of
functioning. Indian Psychology stresses self-inspection and self- experimentation to
achieve self-mastery and perfection. It exhorts discipline of oneself and not of others
Wisdom is acquired by introspection, reflection and experimentation with ones own self
in the light of spiritual knowledge (Atmagyan). It has redefined the goal of life from
pursuit of happiness to freedom (Moksha) revealing fantastic understanding of the
order of the inner world.
As earlier discussed Psychology faces twofold challenges — understanding cognitive

processes and maximizing effective living. It is already collaborating with neuroscience
to unravel the mystery of human cognition. However it needs to open up to Indian
Psychology for broadening its horizons for the latter. Psychology can not be value
neutral in this regard as it can not shy away from the fact that human beings are
inherently beset with the dilemma of making choices in life and it needs firm ground for
doing it.
Disciplinary identity crisis

One of the more familiar ways of reviewing the state of any discipline in academic
research is by gauging the quality of literature that circulates in its academic journals
and books.
Publications in the ordinary parlance are like academic currencies which decide the
fate of academicians by rating their performance. However publication rate may not
always be desirable or wisest of procedures to ascertain disciplinary development, but
it continues to be the most commonly used yardstick of progress.
There are then some other mediums of reviewing the state, progress, and chief
concerns of a discipline that entail conducting surveys with practitioners and

researchers from the concerned discipline, inviting experts or wise-men/women for

reflections and critical appraisal.
Besides undertaking process-outcome analysis, meta- analysis of research findings,

models or theories based on leading concepts and appraisals of goals set, achieved
and other similar mechanics, are commonly employed to map and ‘measure’ the
growth of a discipline.
Reading psychological literature in the popular Indian psychological journals does not
make a pleasant or tremendously illuminating reading most of the times. I have
identified some reasons behind the uncreative, repetitive appearance of the literature
which at times seems to lack sound or engaging methodology and at other instance
seem to present findings built on rather flawed arguments and methodology.
New and Innovative Spaces

More original, socially relevant and astute researches in the country range from critical
reflections and serious interrogations in areas of cultural psychology (Misra & Gergen,
1993), indigenous social psychology (Sinha, D. 1986; 1997; Sinha, J., 1984), cultural
psychoanalysis (Kakar, 1989, 1995) and the consequent development of social
sciences hermeneutic.
What is 2000s: Emergence of Indian psychology in academia. Issues: The colonial

encounter; Post colonialism and psychology; Lack of distinct disciplinary identity ?
2000s: Emergence of Indian psychology in academia
Indian psychology is a twentieth-century phe nomenon, though its roots go back to the
Vedic period of the Indian sub-continent in Asia (originally known as Bhaarata), the
exact date of which is still under debate. According to current historical reckoning, the
Vedic period dates from about 3000 bce , although some Western scholars date it back
to 10,000 bce , based on recent excavations in the site of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Though psychology, unlike astronomy, medicine, economics, law and polity, or

literature, was not recognized as an independent branch of study in ancient India, there
has been no dearth of psychological theorizing scattered in varied sources, including
mythology and epics, literary texts, linguistics, texts on dramatics, sexology, medicine,
philosophy, religion, and spirituality.
Sinha later published two additional volumes:
Indian Psychology: Emotion and Will (1961) and Indian Psychology: Epistemology of
Perception (1969). Together, these three volumes are a veritable gold mine of

psychological concepts and perspectives. Other early contributions include those by

Caroline Rhys Davids, who published Buddhist Psy chology in 1914 and another
volume, The Birth of Indian Psychology and Its Development in Buddhism , in 1936.
Other publications compared modern psychology and Indian psychological thought,

including Western Psychotherapy and Hindu Sadhana by Hans Jacobs ( 1961 ) and
Yoga and Western Psychology: A Comparison , by Geraldine Coster ( 1934 ).
Subsequently, Indians also authored additional books, most notably among them
Hindu Psychology: Its Meaning for the West (1948) and Mental Health and Hindu
Psychology (1952) by Swami Akhilananda.
Thus, Indian psychology transcends the geo graphical boundaries of India in its
relevance and usefulness to the understanding of human behavior. Distinctive
Features Distinct aspects of Indian intellectual traditions provide perspectives for the
term Indian psychology :
1) The traditions of India recognize consciousness, as distinct from psyche and soma,
as a transcendental pheno menon serving as the ground state for the manifestation of
all the other states, including waking ( jaagrat ), dream ( swapna ), and deep sleep (
sushupti ). This consciousness is termed turiya (in Sanskrit turiya means fourth). It is
called fourth because it has no attributes and does not have characteristics of the other
three, and yet supports them. All are altered states of mind.
2) Unlike the Cartesian mind–body split, Indian traditions view mind and matter as a
continuum.
3) Mind–matter is understood to be the operation of three fundamental principles in the

universe: sattva , rajas , and tamas , which represent illumination and creativity,
energy, and inertia, respectively.
4) The person in Indian thought is understood to have three levels: the animal, the
human, and the divine.
5) The divine aspect of the person present in humans is that pure consciousness which
is also the foundation of the whole universe. Contemporary developments in physics,
biology, chemistry, medicine, and psychology are tending toward these ideas and thus
vindicate the Indian perspective.
These fundamental views have shaped the Indian ethos and eidos for several
thousand years and have provided a framework guiding the lives of millions of Indians.
This influence is evident in the fourfold value system enunciated in Indian thought,
which recognizes all aspects of human aspi ration from the mundane to the spiritual.
These aspects are dharma (right living), artha (wealth), kama (desires), and moksha
(liberation).

The colonial encounter

Are islands natural prisons? The answer to this question is encrypted in the history of
modern colonial encounters, that is, the European discovery and characterization of
tropical islands and their inhabitants, as the colonial history of the Andamans
illustrates. The spatial history of the Andamans began much before their colonization
as a leaf in the fantastic tales of ancient and medieval travellers. The Andamans
entered history through these accounts and ‘transformed into a place, that is, a space
with a history’.
The British stepped into the historical trajectory of the Andamans as their empire was
shifting away from the Atlantic and starting to focus on the Indian Ocean. With this a
new era of ‘modern globalization’, with linkages between the Indian Ocean and the
European-Atlantic economy, was emerging. The events as they unfolded in the
Andamans were reminiscent of the Columbian encounters in the late fifteenth century,
the sixteenth century colonial encounter between Indians and English in the New
World, and the Tupinamba and Europeans in Brazil.
Colonial/postcolonial discourses
Analysis of colonialism and its legacies necessarily calls for attention to its prominent
ideological cornerstones: race and ‘culture’. For psychology, it is important to
underscore that colonial discourses engage the psychological, taking up questions of
the human capacity, pathology, and identity of the colonized. Colonialism is a specific
form of oppression. An increasingly rich literature explores how the colonial subject is
made through elaborate systems that measure, compare, and explain human
difference; these are the processes that justify that radical imposition of the colonizer
on ‘inferior’ people in need of intervention.
Colonial regimes are elaborated discursively by differentiating between the colonizer’s

‘superior’ or ‘more civilized’ ways of life and the colonized people’s allegedly ‘inferior’ or
‘savage’ ways Scholars look to a wide range of domains to observe this subject-
making: from medicine, to city planning, to exhibition, to ethnography, to science, to
history writing – and of course to more obvious arenas of social control such as
schools and the military (Anderson, 2006; Chakrabarty, 2000; Mitchell, 1991; Young,
1990).
We consider that these colonial legacies are in fact part of a larger transcultural and
historical project, namely, East–West distinction-making – and the practice of claiming
the unique non-Western aspects of national culture that marks the East Asian modern
self, which some scholars have called self-orientalizing practices (Gjerde & Onishi,
2000; Ong, 1999).
Colonial Encounters and Identity

Many sociocultural anthropologists and archaeologists refer to the “colonial

entanglement” as a way to emphasize the complexities and ambiguities of power
relationships and identities of colonizers and their host communities in colonial
encounters (for example, N. Thomas 1991; Dietler 1998). Work by Lightfoot, Deagan,
and others has shown that the interregional interaction networks within which colonies
are founded bring multiple groups into contact not just colonizers and host
communities.
In these encounters, the social identities of colonizers, other foreign communities

associated with the colonizers, and host communities can all change. Much, if not
most, attention has focused on identity transformations in the host communities, often
implicitly or explicitly relying on the traditional “acculturation” model of culture contact.
This model assumes a unidirectionality in which the dominant colonizing “donor”

culture transforms the more passive indigenous “recipient” culture of the host
community. Similarly, archaeologists have traditionally viewed the social identity of the
colonizing group as essentially static, mirroring the culture of the homeland in both
ideology and material culture. If items of material culture did not exactly mirror the
material culture of the colonial homeland, then they were assumed to reflect a process
of local emulation, in which elites (and others) in the host community selectively
appropriated high-status symbols and items of colonial material culture.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSES OF COLONIAL ENCOUNTERS

The contributors to this volume examine colonial encounters from two complementary
perspectives:
(1) a “top-down” approach that focuses on local, regional, or interregional political
economy, and
(2) a “bottom-up” approach that emphasizes individual or small group agency as it
relates to identity and its transformations. Clearly, theseanalytical foci are always
intertwined at a fundamental level; both are necessary in order to develop a nuanced,
holistic understanding of the complexities of colonial encounters. In fact, one might
argue that the very disjunctures and ambiguities that so characterize colonial
encounters provide an ideal context for understanding the intersection of political
economy and identity. The chapters in this book reflect these complementary
approaches.
Post colonialism and psychology

Of the theoretical resources typically taken as the underlying foundations of critical
social psychology, elements, typically, each of Marxism, feminism, psychoanalysis,
and, perhaps chiefly, the 'turn to text' characteristic of Post-Structuralism (Gough &
McFadden, 2001; Hepburn, 2003; Parker, 1999, 2002; Walkerdine, 2002), one
particular mode of critique remains notably absent, that of postcolonial theory.

What makes this omission so conspicuous is that much postcolonial theory is explicitly
psychological in both its concerns and its critical resources. Fanon's (1986) Black Skin
White Masks, for example, makes ample reference to various psychological and
psychoanalytic formulations as way of accentuating what one might term the 'identity
trauma' of blackness in colonial contexts, and as way of articulating the depth and
tenacity of the psychical components of racism (Bulhan, 1985).
Homi Bhabha (1983) likewise cross-references a series of psychoanalytic notions –

chiefly that of the fetish, but also the condensation and displacement of the
dreamwork, and the narcissistic aggressivity of the mirror-stage ego-formation – in his
reformulation of that classic social psychological notion of the stereotype.
While the conceptual framework of psychoanalysis is absent in the writings of Steve

Biko (1978), his political objectives are powerfully, even if strategically psychological in
nature. It is by drawing upon the terms of this discourse of self, identity, subjectivity
that certain of the key features of the Black Consciousness Movement come to light.
In many ways Black Consciousness takes as its goal exactly the consolidation of
positive and politicizedforms of black culture and identity, certainly inasmuch as they
play their role in generating political solidarity amongst the oppressed.
Each of these above sets of critical formulations provide powerful ways of thinking the
conjunction of the psychological and the political, the affective and the structural, the
psychical and the governmental. We have as such a powerfully critical combination of
registers that one would take to lie at the centre of critical psychology’s ostensibly
critical concerns (Hayes, 1989; Hook, 2004a). Why then have such post- or anti-
colonial thinkers 1 not featured more strongly in the conceptual resources of critical
social psychology? How might their work, and their characteristic concerns – racism,
colonial discourse, cultural dispossession, alterity, psychical mutilation, resistance, etc.
- alert us to gaps in the growing orthodoxy of critical psychology.
Lack of distinct disciplinary identity

Anthropology brought to the world of ideas and concepts in the 20th century a
commitment to empirically-based field research, a concern for understanding the
diversity of cultures, a respect for the functional legitimacy of those cultures, and
skepticism about the utility of the introduction of western ideas and technology. By the
mid-point in the 20th century, the relatively young disciplines of psychology,
demography and epidemiology became prominent in their separate domains providing
varied perspectives on health issues.
Psychology generated the primary theory and models of intervention for behavioral
change that have been applied to a wide range of health concerns including mental
health, substance abuse, lifestyle factors related to chronic disease, and HIV/AIDS.
Demography, focused on population growth and transition, has played a central role in

issues of fertility and family planning, infant and child morbidity, and reproductive
health.
The collaborative process: facilitating and inhibiting factors This project team
represented great diversity in terms of country of origin and residence (USA and India),
institutional base (universities, nongovernmental institutions, private business and
governmental agencies), discipline (anthropology, demography, medicine,
microbiology, psychology, and public health), religion (Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and
Jewish) and work experience (research and intervention), age (30–63), gender, and
socioeconomic and educational background.
The enormous potential for positive production by such a diverse team is balanced with
the equivalent potential for misunderstanding and miscommunication both
professionally and interpersonally. In this section we examine the inhibiting and
facilitating factors that influenced the process of collaboration.
Inhibiting factors Inhibiting factors reflected the influence of geographical distance,

institutional culture, language differences, and disciplinary and personal variations in
belief systems and practices. The two parts of the RISHTA team, East and West, were
10,000 miles apart and had to depend on e-mail as the major mode of long distance
communication. E-mail can greatly facilitate communication; for example, e-mails sent
from the U.S. in the evening could be responded to by morning and e-mails sent in the
evening from India were available in the U.S. by early morning.
At the same time, e-mail can be a quicker mode of “miscommunication” as short

statements are used to sort out complex issues or a lack of communication is viewed
as a kind of message. E-mail correspondence thus became another forum for
negotiating perspectives and modes of communication across disciplines and cultures.
The two collaborating universities each had concerns about the nature of the project.
The demographic university in India was unsure about its role in intervention in local
communities, because research and national policy had been its primary foci to date.
There has also been some uncertainty expressed at IIPS as to demography’s role in
sexuality and sexual risk research.
Some faculty at IIPS have been concerned that the interest in RISHTA among the
demography graduate students has provided too much encouragement for them to
focus their Master’s and Ph.D. theses on sexual risk. At the same time, UCHC in the U.
S. had not shown a strong commitment to international research. The Institute for
Community Research primarily focused on local research and intervention but was
committed to international work with other current projects in China, India, and South
America.

What is Western: Greek heritage, medieval period and modern period.

Structuralism, Functionalism, Psychoanalytical, Gestalt, Behaviorism,
Humanistic-Existential, Transpersonal, Cognitive revolution, Multiculturalism ?
Western psychology greek heritage
The roots of western psychology can be traced to Greek philosophy. The word
psychology itself is derived from the Greek words ‘psyche’ which means soul and
‘logos’ which means study. Psychology thus started as a part of philosophy and
became an independent discipline much later. Plato and Aristotle where among the
first philosophers who thought about the mind.
Plato believed that body and mind are two separate entities and mind could exist even
after death. But he was positive in that education can bring change to the basic nature
of the mind. Aristotle, who was the disciple of Plato, followed the feet of his teacher
and believed in the body-mind duality. But he thought that of each of these is the
manifestation of the other. He, but, was pessimistic about the role of education in
changing the fundamental nature of humans.
Rene Descartes, the French philosopher and mathematician, who originated the
Cartesian system of coordinates or the coordinate geometry, also believed in the body-
mind duality. But he was open enough to consider that there is an uninterrupted
transaction between the body and the mind.
In the eighteenth century AD, John Locke, a British national, proposed that knowledge
depends upon the experience based on the sense organ and that thinking is not
innate. He also considered that the mind of a newly-born child is like a clean-slate on
which anything can be written. Locke believed that knowledge occurs only when the
sense organs interact with the outer world.
Major Schools of Psychology

Structuralism
Titchner and his followers said that conciseness can be analyzed into three—
sensation, perception and feeling. Titchner and his followers are called structuralists
and their main method for study of mind was introspection.
Functionalism:-
William James, the father of American Psychology, J.R.Angels and John
Dewey argued that psychologists should study the function of the mind and not its
structure. These group of psychologists are called functionalists.
Freud and Psycho Analysis

Sigmund Freud of Vienna, who is considered as the father of modern psychology,

originated a new method called the Free Association Technique. Freud considered that
mind has three parts – the conscious, the pre-conscious and the unconscious. He
considered that 90% of the mind is the unconscious mind. He argued that Id
(unconscious mind) is the seat of repression, and instincts. Freud further considered
that behind any behavior is the libido energy.
He divided the personality into three – id, ego, superego. Of these, Id goes after
pleasure and thus is said to be governed by the pleasure principle. Ego which is the
organized part of Id is driven by the Reality Principle. Superego connects the id to the
external world and is considered the conscience.
Later, Erich Frome, Karan Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Sullivan and Otto
Rank improved upon the ideas of Frued and so they are called Neo Fruedians.
Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology

Alfred Adler gave the focus to society because he thought that since we are social
animals we should give emphasis on social factors. He argued that, the will to power
and superiority are thus more important than sex or will to pleasure. So, the individual
will try to overcome the deficits he has or he thinks he has. He will try to show
superiority or ambition. Inferiority complex is the most important concept Adler added
to psychology. His psychology is called Individual Psychology.
Jung and Analytical Psychology

Carl Gustav Jung, like Adler, was in the psychoanalytical camp in the beginning, but
later parted with Freud to create his own (school of) psychology called the Analytical
Psychology. He dismissed the Freudian theory that the only motive that drive the
unconscious is sex. Jung extended the concept of the unconscious beyond the
individual. Thus he said that there is a collective unconscious besides the individual
unconscious. He postulated that the racial memory of centuries is precipitated in the
unconscious of each individual. According to him, the main ingredient of the collective
unconscious is the archetype.
Behaviorism
John B. Watson, also of America, proposed that psychologists as scientists should
study observable human nature and not the concepts like mind, consciousness etc.
He and his followers tried to explain behavior based on stimulus and response. They
are called behaviorists and their school of psychology is called behaviorism.
Tolman, Hull and B.F.Skinner are the later behaviorists. Skinner originated operant
conditioning which is one of the most used techniques for psychological therapy today.
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Psychology was a reaction to the over emphasis of reductionistic methods in
psychology. The gestalt psychologists were against this blind reliance on analysis and
reductionism. They believed that behavior should be understood in a holistic way. Max

Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Kafka were the first proponents of this school
psychology.
Humanistic Psychology
Some psychologists believed that neither Frued et al nor the behaviorists could include
the complexity and uniqueness of man their studies of psychology. So a group of
psychologists gave human experience more importance and they are called
humanists. They argued that man is a subjective animal. The humanists counted that
the motives for development and to become perfect are more important than sex,
power etc. They brought back the dignity of man that Frued and others undignified.
They denied Freudian unconscious or behaviorstic environment as the ultimate basis

of behavior and said that man is not a slave of either the unconscious or the situation.
Gestalt psychology, Indian Psychology, Psychology of Consciousness, Environmental
Psychology, Para Psychology are the schools of psychology that are included
in Humanistic psychology. Gordon W Allport, Carl Rogers, and Abraham Maslow are
some of the early proponents of humanistic psychology.
The Three Major Forces in Modern Psychology

There are three major forces in psychology. Freudian Psychoanalysis and the
offshoots from it are considered the First Force in Psychology. This has been very
dominant in the earlier part of the 20th century but has given way to the second force in
psychology called behaviorism. Currently, behaviorism is also slowly reaching its end.
Slowly, holistic and more natural ways are coming to the main stream.
This is the third force in psychology – the Humanistic Psychology. Many experts
foresee that by the first or second decade of the 21st century, humanistic psychology
will become the dominant major force. This is because that man will slowly come to
realize that the origin of bliss is in himself and so man will turn to himself for truth,
beauty, happiness, success, and achievement. Neither Freudian
psychology nor Behaviorism can be of definite help in this stage.
Medieval period and modern period of psychology

The Middle Ages has had a poor reputation among twentieth-century psychologists.
Edwin Boring, in A History of Experimental Psychology (New York, 1929), held that late
medieval thinking was based largely on theology and hence tended to be opposed to
science. Gregory Zilboorg, in his History of Medical Psychology (New York, 1941),
claimed that medieval medical practitioners were afraid to look into either normal or
abnormal psychology and that the mentally ill were frequently regarded either as
possessed by a devil or as witches. Introductory texts have occasionally taken this
argument several stages further, claiming that the mentally ill in the Middle Ages were
liable to be tortured or burnt at the stake as a consequence of the belief that they were
possessed by a devil.

Historians of psychology in the later twentieth century did not substantiate claims that
the mentally ill were routinely treated with cruelty in the Middle Ages. Moreover, they
generally took a more sympathetic view of the period, finding that medieval
philosophers, physicians, and even theologians produced and debated interesting
theories of human behavior, although they seem to have done little to test them
experimentally.
The Middle Ages
The Middle Ages are reckoned to run from the fourth or fifth century CE to the middle
or end of the fifteenth century CE. A period of nearly 1.000 years naturally saw a great
deal of change, not only politically, but also intellectually. In Western and Central
Europe at least, the first part of the Middle Ages (until the eleventh century), is known
as the Dark Ages, when the relative political and economic backwardness of society,
which followed the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west and the breakdown of the
Mediterranean world, was reflected in an apparently impoverished intellectual culture.
Few writings of any kind survived from this period, and ancient writers like Plato and
Aristotle seem to have been little read. Read more about The Middle Ages.
Medieval Psychology
There was no formal discipline called psychology in the Middle Ages, but a number of
medieval writers, particularly those from the thirteenth century, discussed concerns
similar to those of present-day psychologists. More important, at least a few, for
example, Avicenna and Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), seem to have been genuinely
interested in psychological theory It is possible to discern at least two important
psychological traditions in the writing of this period: a medical and a philosophical one,
both stemming from ancient predecessors. Read more about Medieval Psychology.
Sensory and emotional charge
We aim to show how medieval writers approached the mind, highlighting some areas
in which their ideas are particularly relevant to, and even prescient for, today’s scientific
psychology. Just as modern psychology can be understood as a development of and
challenge to Cartesian ideas about the separation of mind from body, so medieval
writers about the mind were working from the starting point of a particular intellectual
landscape. Hippocrates’ theory of the four humours, developed by Galen in the second
century ce, underpinned the notion of a mind–body continuum, for humours shaped
both mind and body. The distinction between mind and body was complex and more
fluid than in post-Cartesian thought, complicated by ideas of the soul, by different
views on where in the body faculties were situated, and by the integration of thought
and affect.

The term ‘mind’ originated with the concept of memory, but quickly came to overlap
with notions of the soul, and took on at least some aspects of current definitions of
mind. Aristotle had situated the rational or intellective quality within the soul, and had
located the heart as the centre of the senses and cognitive faculties; Galen by contrast
associated these with the brain.
Neo-Platonic theories situated the immortal and rational part of the soul in the head,
and the appetites and emotions in the trunk of the body. In the fourth century, St
Augustine saw the will as a faculty of the (superior) soul and associated emotions with
the (lower) body, but also saw emotions as having both cognitive and bodily aspects
(Kemp, 1990).
Medieval Cognitive Psychology

Medieval ideas about cognitive psychology derive from two major sources, the writings
of Aristotle and especially his work on the soul, the De Anima, and the theory of the
inner senses, which was laid down in late antiquity. Aristotle’s De Anima may be the
most popular psychological text of all time: It was prescribed reading for Bachelor of
Arts degrees throughout Europe until the end of the Middle Ages. The book is short
and at times obscure, but it offers a systematic account of psychology with Aristotle’s
ideas about other disciplines. Because of its obscurity, a number of medieval scholars
wrote books or commentaries in which they set out what they thought Aristotle meant.
Those by Averroes and Aquinas are probably the best known. Read more
about Medieval Cognitive Psychology.
Mental Illness in the Middle Ages

Medieval ideas about mental illness were almost as bewildering an assortment as our
own, but a unifying theme was supplied by the cognitive theory outlined here. It was
generally believed that the normal waking person’s activities were under the control of
the mind. In cases of insanity this control was disrupted or corrupted and behavior
would then, like an animal’s, be simply determined by the inner senses and the
appetites. Consequently, in later medieval legal theory and practice, and in the writings
of theologians, the insane were not held accountable for their actions. Read more
about Mental Illness in the Middle Ages.
Structuralism of psychology
Structuralism, in psychology, a systematic movement founded in Germany
by Wilhelm Wundt and mainly identified with Edward B. Titchener. Structuralism sought
to analyze the adult mind (defined as the sum total of experience from birth to the
present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find the way in
which these components fit together in complex forms.
The major tool of structuralist psychology was introspection (a careful set of

observations made under controlled conditions by trained observers using a stringently
defined descriptive vocabulary). Titchener held that an experience should be evaluated
as a fact, as it exists without analyzing the significance or value of that experience. For

him, the “anatomy of the mind” had little to do with how or why the mind functions. In
his major treatise, A Textbook of Psychology (1909–10), he stated that the only
elements necessary to describe the conscious experience are sensation and affection
(feeling). The thought process essentially was deemed an occurrence of sensations of
the current experience and feelings representing a prior experience.
Culture-and-personality studies
Culture-and-personality studies, also called psychological anthropology, branch
of cultural anthropology that seeks to determine the range of personality types extant in
a given culture and to discern where, on a continuum from ideal to perverse, the
culture places each type. The type perceived as ideal within a culture is then referred
to as the “personality” of the culture itself, as with duty-bound stoicism among the
English and personal restraint among traditional Pueblo Indians.
Culture-and-personality studies apply the methods of psychology to the field of

anthropology, including in-depth interviews, role playing, Rorschach tests, elaborate
biographies, studies of family roles, and dream interpretation. Most popular in the
1930s and ’40s, psychological anthropology is exemplified by the works of American
anthropologist Ruth Benedict, especially Patterns of Culture (1934) and The
Chrysanthemum and the Sword (1946). Benedict and other proponents of culture-and-
personality studies directed the attention of anthropologists to the symbolic meanings
and emotional significance of cultural features that had hitherto been considered
primarily through functional analysis; at the same time, they led psychologists to
recognize the existence of an inevitable cultural component in all processes of
perception, motivation, and learning.
Culture-and-personality studies lost traction in the 1960s and ’70s, an era

characterized by shifting scholarly sensibilities and the critical reexamination of many
fundamental anthropological concepts.
Neuropsychology
Observations on behaviour with neurological observations on the central nervous
system (CNS), including the brain. The field emerged through the work of Paul
Broca and Carl Wernicke (1848–1905), both of whom identified sites on
the cerebral cortex involved in the production or comprehension of language. Great
strides have since been made in describing neuroanatomical systems and their relation
to higher mental processes. The related field of neuropsychiatry addresses itself to
disorders such as aphasia, Korsakoff syndrome, Tourette syndrome, and other CNS
abnormalities. See also laterality.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology, Branch of psychology devoted to the study of
human cognition, particularly as it affects learning and behaviour. The field grew out of
advances in Gestalt, developmental, and comparative psychology and in computer

science, particularly information-processing research. Cognitive psychology shares

many research interests with cognitive science, and some experts classify it as a
branch of the latter. Contemporary cognitive theory has followed one of two broad
approaches: the developmental approach, derived from the work of Jean Piaget and
concerned with “representational thought” and the construction of mental models
(“schemas”) of the world, and the information-processing approach, which views the
human mind as analogous to a sophisticated computer system.
Functionalism of psychology
U.S. during the late 19th century that attempted to counter the German school
of structuralism led by Edward B. Titchener. Functionalists, including
psychologists William James and James Rowland Angell, and philosophers George H.
Mead, Archibald L. Moore, and John Dewey, stressed the importance of empirical,
rational thought over an experimental, trial-and-error philosophy. The group was
concerned more with the capability of the mind than with the process of thought. The
movement was thus interested primarily in the practical applications of research.
The union between theory and application reached its zenith with John Dewey’s
development of a laboratory school at the University of Chicago in 1896 and the
publication of his keystone article, “The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology” (1896),
which attacked the philosophy of atomism and the concept of elementarism, including
the behavioral theory of stimulus and response. The work of John Dewey and his
associates stimulated the progressive-school movement, which attempted to apply
functionalist principles to education. In the early and mid-20th century, an offshoot
theory emerged: the transactional theory of perception, the central thesis of which is
that learning is the key to perceiving.
Although functionalism has never become a formal, prescriptive school, it has served
as a historic link in the philosophical evolution linking the structuralist’s concern with
the anatomy of the mind to the concentration on the functions of the mind and, later, to
the development and growth of john.
Parapsychology,
Discipline concerned with investigating events that cannot be accounted for by natural
law and knowledge that cannot have been obtained through the usual sensory abilities.
Parapsychology studies the cognitive phenomena often called extrasensory
perception, in which a person acquires knowledge of other people’s thoughts or of
future events through channels apparently beyond the five senses. It also examines
physical phenomena such as the levitation of objects and the bending of metal through
psychokinesis.
Though belief in such phenomena may be traced to earliest times, parapsychology as

a subject of serious research originated in the late 19th century, partly in reaction to the
growth of the spiritualist movement. The Society of Psychical Research was

established in London in 1882, and similar societies were later founded in the U.S. and
in many European countries. In the 20th century research into parapsychology was
also conducted at some universities, notably at Duke University under J. B. Rhine.
Psychoanalytic of Psychology
The rise of pharmacological treatments for emotional distress and psychiatric
conditions has led some to proclaim the end of psychoanalysis — or to dismiss it as
having an insufficient basis in scientific data. But it would be a mistake to count this
form of talk therapy out. Research suggests that the psychoanalytic approach still
plays an important therapeutic role. And Freud's theory of mind remains a fundamental
part of many talk therapies, including psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis is a method of treating emotional difficulties that involves

communication between a psychoanalyst and an individual, with the goal of gaining
insight into the individual's inner world and how it affects his or her emotions, behavior,
and relationships. Psychoanalysis is also a system of ideas about the human mind and
personality. Although both the method and the theory have advanced since Freud's
day, some of his basic ideas continue to shape our thinking about human behavior and
functioning.
How it works
The psychoanalyst and patient meet three to five times a week. This intensive
schedule of one-on-one sessions helps establish the psychoanalyst's office as a place
where the patient can safely free-associate — that is, talk about whatever comes to
mind, whenever it comes to mind — and develop a deep bond with the analyst. The
frequent meetings also encourage the emergence of the patient's full range of
personality traits and behavior patterns, an important step on the path to self-
understanding. Use of the couch, a holdover from Freud's day, is no longer required.
Some people find that lying down facilitates free association and helps them focus their
thoughts inward. Others find it more helpful to sit face to face with the analyst.
Psychoanalysis is a collaborative effort. As the patient free-associates, the analyst

listens carefully and helps her grasp the underlying unconscious sources of her
difficulties. To encourage this awareness, the analyst not only interprets ongoing
patterns (interpretations the patient is welcome to amend, reject, or supplement), but
also encourages the patient to re-experience them in the safety of the analytic setting.
In psychoanalytic parlance, this is known as "transference." The patient relives her
life's story by transferring to the analyst feelings and attitudes she originally
experienced in her relationships with other people.
For example, a woman consistently arrives 10 or 15 minutes late for her appointments,
and the analyst learns that she also does this with her boss and her husband. By
examining the feelings the analyst arouses as she talks about her reasons for being
late — or perhaps realizing her anger with authority figures — she can begin to

become conscious of her motives for wanting to make others wait for her or become
angry at her.
How it differs from other psychotherapy

There are many types of psychoanalytically informed psychotherapy, and many
approaches used in psychotherapy today grew out of classical psychoanalysis. These
variant forms are usually less intensive versions of psychoanalysis. Expressive and
psychodynamic psychotherapy, for example, emphasize the importance of finding
unconscious motivations and gaining insight into one's actions and feelings. By
contrast, short-term structured therapies such as cognitive behavioral therapy, which is
outside the psychoanalytic tradition, focus on resolving current symptoms and
behavioral problems without necessarily developing insight into their origins.
Psychoanalysis may not be for everyone, but many women with emotional difficulties
can benefit from psychodynamic psychotherapy — that is, meeting with a therapist
once a week to discuss painful feelings that may underlie a specific problem or pattern
of thinking or behavior. Like psychoanalysis, it assumes that the unconscious is
involved and that past experiences and relationships can affect the present.
Psychodynamic psychotherapy can last anywhere from a few months to several years.
Both psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy can be combined with
medication, couples' therapy, group therapy, or family therapy.
Qualifications for psychoanalysts

For many years, psychoanalytic training in the United States was available only to
medical doctors, but now there are several reputable psychoanalysis programs that
don't require an M.D. for admission. They generally do require an advanced degree,
however. Psychologists (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) and clinical social workers (M.S.W. or
C.S.W.) as well as psychiatrists and other M.D.s are all eligible for training as
psychoanalysts. The training includes four to five years of classes and supervised work
with patients, and an aspiring psychoanalyst must undergo psychoanalysis herself.
Gestalt of Psychology
Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior
as a whole. When trying to make sense of the world around us, Gestalt psychology
suggests that we do not simply focus on every small component.
Instead, our minds tend to perceive objects as part of a greater whole and as elements
of more complex systems. This school of psychology played a major role in the modern
development of the study of human sensation and perception.
A Brief History
Originating in the work of Max Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology formed partially as a
response to the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt.
While Wundt was interested in breaking down psychological matters into their smallest
possible part, the Gestalt psychologists were instead interested in looking at the totality

of the mind and behavior. The guiding principle behind the Gestalt movement was that
the whole was greater than the sum of its parts.
The development of this area of psychology was influenced by a number of thinkers,
including Immanuel Kant, Ernst Mach, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
The development of Gestalt psychology was influenced in part by Wertheimer's

observations one day at a train station. He purchased a toy stroboscope which
displayed pictures in a rapid sequence to mimic the appearing movement. He later
proposed the concept of the Phi phenomenon in which flashing lights in sequence can
lead to what is known as apparent motion.1
In other words, we perceive movement where there is none. Movies are one example
of apparent motion. Through a sequence of still frames, the illusion of movement is
created.
"The fundamental 'formula' of Gestalt theory might be expressed in this way,” Max
Wertheimer wrote. "There are wholes, the behavior of which is not determined by that
of their individual elements, but where the part-processes are themselves determined
by the intrinsic nature of the whole. It is the hope of Gestalt theory to determine the
nature of such wholes."
Major Gestalt Psychologists

There were a number of thinkers who had an influence on Gestalt psychology. Some
of the best-known Gestalt psychologists included:
Max Wertheimer: Regarded as one of the three founders of Gestalt

psychology, Wertheimer is also known for his concept of the phi phenomenon. The phi
phenomenon involves perceiving a series of still images in rapid succession in order to
create the illusion of movement.
Kurt Koffka: Know as one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, Kurt Koffka
had diverse interests and studied many topics in psychology including learning,
perception, and hearing impairments.
Wolfgang Kohler: Also a key founding figure in the history of the Gestalt movement,
Kohler also famously summarized Gestalt theory by saying, "The whole is different
than the sum of its parts." He was also known for his research on problem-solving, his
criticisms of the introspection used by the structuralists to study the human mind, and
his opposition to behaviorism.
Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Have you ever noticed how a series of flashing lights often appear to be moving, such
as neon signs or strands of Christmas lights? According to Gestalt psychology, this
apparent movement happens because our minds fill in the missing information.

This belief that the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts led to the
discovery of several different phenomena that occur during perception.
Organization
In order to better understand how human perception works, Gestalt psychologists
proposed a number of laws of perceptual organization, including the laws of similarity,
Pragnanz, proximity, continuity, and closure.
Similarity
The law of similarity suggests that similar items tend to be grouped together. 2 If a
number of objects in a scene are similar to one another, you will naturally group them
together and perceive them as a whole. For example, a series of circles or squares
stacked together will be viewed as a series of columns rather than just individual
shapes.
Proximity
The law of proximity suggests that objects near each other tend to be viewed as a
group.2 If you see a number of people standing close together, for example, you might
immediately assume that they are all part of the same social group.
At a restaurant, for example, the host or hostess might assume that people seated next
to each other in the waiting area are together and ask if they are ready to be seated. In
reality, they may only be sitting near each other because there is little room in the
waiting area or because those were the only open seats.
Gestalt psychology also helped introduce the idea that human perception is not just
about seeing what is actually present in the world around us. Much of what we
perceive is heavily influenced by our motivations and expectations.
A Word From Very well

Gestalt psychology did face criticism, particularly in that many of its central concepts
can be difficult to define and examine experimentally. While this approach may have
lost its identity as an independent school of thought in psychology, its central ideas
have had a major influence on the field of psychology as a whole.
Gestalt psychology has largely been subsumed by other fields of psychology, but it had
an enormous influence. Other researchers who were influenced by the principles of
Gestalt psychology including Kurt Lewin and Kurt Goldstein went on to make important
contributions to psychology.
The idea that the whole is different than its parts has played a role in other areas
including our understanding of the brain and social behavior.
Behaviorism of Psychology
Behaviorism is a theory of learning which states all behaviors are learned through
interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning. Thus, behavior

is simply a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism is only concerned with

observable stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and
observable manner.
The behaviorist movement began in 1913 when John Watson wrote an article entitled
'Psychology as the behaviorist views it,' which set out a number of underlying
assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral analysis:
Basic Assumptions
All behavior is learned from the environment:
Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to
the near exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on
learning.
We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as
'learning theory').
Therefore, when born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).
Psychology should be seen as a science:

Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and
controlled observation and measurement of behavior. Watson (1913) stated that:
'Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of
natural science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.' (p. 158).
The components of a theory should be as simple as possible. Behaviorists propose the

use of operational definitions (defining variables in terms of observable, measurable
events).
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal
events like thinking and emotion:
While behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer
not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and
scientifically measured.
Therefore, internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral
terms (or eliminated altogether).
There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in
other animals:
There's no fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and animal behavior.
Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well as humans
(i.e., comparative psychology).
Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary source of data for behaviorists, as
their environments could be easily controlled.
Behavior is the result of stimulus-response:
All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response
association). Watson described the purpose of psychology as:

'To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the reaction,
state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction.' (1930, p. 11).
Types of Behaviorism
Historically, the most significant distinction between versions of behaviorism is that
between Watson's original 'methodological behaviorism,' and forms of behaviorism
later inspired by his work, known collectively as neobehaviorism (e.g., radical
behaviorism).
Methodological Behaviorism
Watson's article 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it' is often referred to as the
'behaviorist manifesto,' in which Watson (1913, p. 158) outlines the principles of all
behaviorists:
'Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of
natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.
Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its
data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation
in terms of consciousness.
The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes
no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement
and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation'.
Radical Behaviorism
Radical behaviorism was founded by B.F Skinner and agreed with the assumption of
methodological behaviorism that the goal of psychology should be to predict and
control behavior.
Skinner, like Watson, also recognized the role of internal mental events, and while he
agreed such private events could not be used to explain behavior, he proposed they
should be explained in the analysis of behavior.
Another important distinction between methodological and radical behaviorism

concerns the extent to which environmental factors influence behavior. Watson's
(1913) methodological behaviorism asserts the mind is tabula rasa (a blank slate) at
birth.
In contrast, radical behaviorism accepts the view that organisms are born with innate
behaviors, and thus recognizes the role of genes and biological components in
behavior.
The History of Behaviorism

 Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after
originally studying digestion in dogs.
 Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology, publishing an
article, Psychology as the behaviorist views it.

 Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little
Albert) to fear a white rat.
 Thorndike (1905) formalized the Law of Effect.
 Skinner (1936) wrote The Behavior of Organisms and introduced the concepts of
operant conditioning and shaping.
 Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published.
 B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two, in which he described a utopian
society founded upon behaviorist principles.
 Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior begun in 1958.
 Chomsky (1959) published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of
Verbal Behavior."
Behaviorism Summary
Basic Assumptions
Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner.
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal
events like thinking.
Behavior is the result of stimulus–response (i.e., all behavior, no matter how complex,
can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response features).
Behavior is determined by the environment (e.g., conditioning, nurture).
Areas of Application
Gender Role Development
Behavioral TherapyPhobiasEducationBehavior-
ModificationPsychopathologyDepression
Relationships
Moral Development
Aggression
Addiction
Strengths
The behaviorist approach provides clear predictions. This means that explanations can
be scientifically tested and support with evidence.
Real life applications (e.g., therapy)
Emphasizes objective measurement
Many experiments to support theories
Identified comparisons between animals (Pavlov) and humans (Watson & Rayner -
Little Albert)
Limitations
Ignores mediational processes
Ignores biology (e.g., testosterone)
Too deterministic (little free-will)
Experiments – low ecological validity
Humanism – can’t compare animals to humans

Reductionist
Critical Evaluation
An obvious advantage of behaviorism is its ability to define behavior clearly and to
measure changes in behavior. According to the law of parsimony, the fewer
assumptions a theory makes, the better and the more credible it is. Behaviorism,
therefore, looks for simple explanations of human behavior from a very scientific
standpoint.
However, behaviorism only provides a partial account of human behavior, that which
can be objectively viewed. Important factors like emotions, expectations, higher-level
motivation are not considered or explained. Accepting a behaviorist explanation could
prevent further research from other perspective that could uncover important factors.
The psychodynamic approach (Freud)
Cognitive psychology states that mediational processes occur between stimulus and
response, such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, etc.
Despite these criticisms, behaviorism has made significant contributions to psychology.
These include insights into learning, language development, and moral and gender
development, which have all been explained in terms of conditioning.
The contribution of behaviorism can be seen in some of its practical
applications. Behavior therapy and behavior modification represent one of the major
approaches to the treatment of abnormal behavior and are readily used in clinical
psychology.
Terminology
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning refers to learning by association, and involves the conditioning of
innate bodily reflexes with new stimui.
Stimulus
Any feature of the environment that affects behavior. E.g. in Pavlov’s experiments food
was a stimulus.
Response
The behavior elicited by the stimulus. E.g. in Pavlov’s experiments salivation was a
response.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Presenting the subject with something that it likes. e.g., Skinner rewarded his rats with
food pellets.
Negative Reinforcement

Reward – in the sense of removing or avoiding some aversive (painful) stimulus. e.g.,
Skinner's rats learned to press the lever in order to switch off the electric current in the
cage.
Punishment
Imposing an aversive or painful stimulus. e.g., Skinner’s rats were given electric
shocks.
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation,
imitation, and modeling.
The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning
theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
Reductionism
Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down
into smaller component parts.
Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look
closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems, and use the simplest
explanations to understand how they work.
Behaviorism reduces all behavior (no matter how complex) to stimulus-response
associations.
Humanistic-existential psychotherapy
The humanistic approach was introduced in the 1940’s in the United States. It can be
traced to Abraham Maslow as the founding father, but through time has become
closely associated with Carl Rogers. The humanistic and existential approach
distinguishes itself from other therapeutic styles by including the importance of the
client’s subjective experience, as well as a concern for positive growth rather than
pathology. Whereas the key words for humanistic psychotherapy genuineness,
empathy and unconditional positive regard, the major themes of existential therapy are
the client’s responsibility and freedom.
Humanistic and existential approaches share a belief that clients have the capacity for
self-awareness and choice; however, they differ in their theoretical perspectives. The
humanistic perspective views human nature as basically good, with a potential to
maintain healthy, meaningful relationships and to make choices that are in the best
interest of oneself and others.
Humanistic and Existential Therapies

Humanistic and existential psychotherapies use a wide range of approaches to case
conceptualization, therapeutic goals, intervention strategies, and research
methodologies. They are united by an emphasis on understanding human experience
and a focus on the client rather than the symptom. Psychological problems (including
substance abuse disorders) are viewed as the result of inhibited ability to make

authentic, meaningful, and self-directed choices about how to live. Consequently,

interventions are aimed at increasing client self-awareness and self-understanding.
Using Humanistic and Existential Therapies

Many aspects of humanistic and existential approaches (including empathy,
encouragement of affect, reflective listening, and acceptance of the client's subjective
experience) are useful in any type of brief therapy session, whether it involves
psychodynamic, strategic, or cognitive-behavioral therapy. They help establish rapport
and provide grounds for meaningful engagement with all aspects of the treatment
process.
While the approaches discussed in this chapter encompass a wide variety of

therapeutic interventions, they are united by an emphasis on lived experience,
authentic (therapeutic) relationships, and recognition of the subjective nature of human
experience. There is a focus on helping the client to understand the ways in which
reality is influenced by past experience, present perceptions, and expectations for the
future. Schor describes the process through which our experiences assume meaning
as apperception Becoming aware of this process yields insight and facilitates the ability
to choose new ways of being and acting.
For many clients, momentary circumstances and problems surrounding substance

abuse may seem more pressing, and notions of integration, spirituality, and existential
growth may be too remote from their immediate experience to be effective. In such
instances, humanistic and existential approaches can help clients focus on the fact that
they do, indeed, make decisions about substance abuse and are responsible for their
own recovery.
Essential Skills
By their very nature, these models do not rely on a comprehensive set of techniques or
procedures. Rather, the personal philosophy of the therapist must be congruent with
the theoretical underpinnings associated with these approaches. The therapist must be
willing and able to engage the client in a genuine and authentic fashion in order to help
the client make meaningful change. Sensitivity to "teachable" or "therapeutic" moments
is essential.
When To Use Brief Humanistic and Existential Therapies

These approaches can be useful at all stages of recovery in creating a foundation of
respect for clients and mutual acceptance of the significance of their experiences.
There are, however, some therapeutic moments that lend themselves more readily to
one or more specific approaches. The details of the specific approaches are laid out
later in this chapter. Client-centered therapy, for example, can be used immediately to
establish rapport and to clarify issues throughout the session. Existential therapy may
be used most effectively when a client is able to access emotional experiences or
when obstacles must be overcome to facilitate a client's entry into or continuation of

recovery (e.g., to get someone who insists on remaining helpless to accept

responsibility).
Duration of Therapy and Frequency of Sessions

Although many aspects of these approaches are found in other therapeutic
orientations, concepts like empathy, meaning, and choice lie at the very heart of
humanistic and existential therapies. They are particularly valuable for brief treatment
of substance abuse disorders because they increase therapeutic rapport and enhance
conscious experience and acceptance of responsibility.
Episodic treatment could be designed within this framework, with the treatment plan
focusing on the client's tasks and experience between sessions. Humanistic and
existential therapies assume that much growth and change occur outside the
meetings. When focused on broader problems, these therapies can be lifelong
journeys of growth and transformation. At the same time, focusing on specific
substance abuse issues can provide a framework for change and more discrete goals.
These techniques will also work well in conjunction with other types of therapy.
Initial Session
The opening session is extremely important in brief therapy for building an alliance,
developing therapeutic rapport, and creating a climate of mutual respect. Although the
approaches discussed in this chapter have different ways of addressing the client's
problems, the opening session should attempt the following:
 Start to develop the alliance
 Emphasize the client's freedom of choice and potential for meaningful change
 Articulate expectations and goals of therapy (how goals are to be reached)
Developing the alliance can be undertaken through reflective listening, demonstrating
respect, honesty, and openness; eliciting trust and confidence; and applying other
principles that emerge from these therapies. The therapist's authentic manner of
encountering the client can set the tone for an honest, collaborative therapeutic
relationship. Emphasizing freedom of choice and potential for meaningful change may
be deepened by a focus on the current decision (however it has been reached) to
participate in the opening session. Expectations and goals can be articulated through
strategic questions or comments like, "What might be accomplished in treatment that
would help you live better" or "You now face the choice of how to participate in your
own substance abuse recovery."
Because of time constraints inherent in approaches to brief substance abuse

treatment, the early phase of therapy is crucial. Unless the therapist succeeds in
engaging the client during this early phase, the treatment is likely to be less effective.
"Engaging" includes helping the client increase motivation for other aspects of
substance abuse treatment such as group therapy.

Moreover, the patterns of interaction established during the early phase tend to persist
throughout therapy. The degree of motivation that the client feels after the first session
is determined largely by the degree of significance experienced during the initial
therapeutic encounter. A negative experience may keep a highly motivated client from
coming back, whereas a positive experience may induce a poorly motivated client to
recognize the potential for treatment to be helpful.
Compatibility of Humanistic And Existential Therapies and 12-Step Programs

Humanistic and existential approaches are consistent with many tenets of 12-Step
programs. For example, existential and humanistic therapists would embrace the
significance stressed by the "serenity prayer" to accept the things that cannot be
changed, the courage to change what can be changed, and the wisdom to know the
difference.
However, some would argue against the degree to which Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)
identifies the person's "disease" as a central character trait, or the way in which some
might interpret the notion of "powerlessness." The principles of existentialism, free
choice, and free will may appear incompatible with the 12-Step philosophy of
acceptance and surrender. Yet, such surrender must result from conscious decisions
on an individual's part. The AA concept of rigorous self-assessment--of accepting one's
own personal limitations and continually choosing and rechoosing to act according to
certain principles as a way of living life--are compatible with both existential and
humanistic principles.
Research Orientation
The predominant research strategy or methodology in social science is rooted in the
natural science or rational-empirical perspective.
Such approaches generally attempt to identify and demonstrate causal relationships
by isolating specific variables while controlling for other variables such as personal
differences among therapists as well as clients. For example, variations in behavior or
outcomes are often quantified, measured, and subjected to statistical procedures in
order to isolate the researcher from the data and ensure objectivity. Such strategies
are particularly useful for investigating observable phenomena like behavior.
Traditional approaches to understanding human experience and meaning,
Transpersonal Therapy
Transpersonal psychology emerged as a "fourth force" in psychology in the late 1960s
and has strong roots in humanistic and existential psychologies, Jungian analysis, the
East-West dialog, and ancient wisdom traditions. Transpersonal therapy may be
thought of as a bridge between psychological and spiritual practice.
A transpersonal approach emphasizes development of the individual beyond, but

including, the ego. It acknowledges the human spiritual quest and recognizes the
human striving for unity, ultimate truth, and profound freedom. It cultivates intuitive

ways of knowing that complement rational and sensory modes. This approach also
recognizes the potential for growth inherent in "peak" experiences and other shifts in
consciousness. Although grounded in psychological theory, transpersonal practitioners
also tend to incorporate perspectives from ancient wisdom traditions.
The practice of transpersonal therapy is defined more by its orientation and scope
rather than by a particular set of techniques or methods (Boorstein, 1980). Wittine
suggests five postulates for a transpersonal psychotherapy (Wittine, 1989):
1. Transpersonal psychotherapy is an approach to healing and growth that
recognizes the centrality of the self in the therapeutic process.
2. Transpersonal psychotherapy values wholeness of being and self-realization on
all levels of the spectrum of identity (i.e., egoic, existential, transpersonal).
3. Transpersonal psychotherapy is a process of awakening from a limited personal
identity to expanded universal knowledge of self.
4. Transpersonal psychotherapy makes use of the healing restorative nature of
subjective awareness and intuition in the process of awakening.
5. In transpersonal psychotherapy, the therapeutic relationship is a vehicle for the
process of awakening in both client and therapist.
Integrating insights and practices in everyday life is the goal of every therapy. Bringing
the transpersonal dimension to the forefront may involve the following:
 Exploration of "inner voices" including those of a higher self that provides
guidance for growth of the individual (Rowan, 1993)
 Refinement of intuition or nonrational knowing
 Practice of creativity in "formal" (art) or informal (personal relationships)
encounters
 Meditation
 Loving service
 Cultivation of mindfulness
 Use of dreams and imagery
These techniques may be taught and supported explicitly in the therapy session. At
times, a therapist may directly cultivate shifts in consciousness (e.g., through
meditation [Weil, 1972], or imaginal work [Johnson, 1987]), providing immediate insight
and inspiration that may not be available through more conventional means (Hart,
1998). This may provide clients with a skill they can practice on their own; initiating
such activity represents a potential for brief intervention.
Transpersonal therapy recognizes the need for basic psychological development to be

integrated with spiritual growth (Nelson, 1994). Without such integration there is danger
of "spiritual bypassing," where issues of basic psychological functioning are avoided in
the name of spiritual development. In other words, the basic psychological work should
be undertaken first.

Response to the case study

As the existentialists remind us, there is nothing like death to rivet our attention. A
glimpse of death--for example, seeing the aftermath of a serious car crash--reminds
the witness of how valuable life is, bringing up other issues as well. Sandra is now
confronted with death due to AIDS. This opportunity to face death and life squarely
provides a chance to reconsider and reprioritize her life. In fact, it could be argued that
the best catalyst to brief therapy may be a death sentence precisely because it has the
potential to wake up an individual. In many respects, helping the client wake from
habitual, mechanical routines that are often based on ego protection and move toward
an appreciation that the individual is not bound to or defined by a limited ego, is the
goal of transpersonal therapy. This can be seen as a transformation of identity.
Many inspiring instances of people facing death, including death through AIDS, have
shown that emergent spirituality can change the quality and direction of existence very
quickly. For treatment, the basic sharing of these experiences with a group of others in
a similar predicament often quickly moves the client beyond isolation and a sense of
self-separateness to connect intimately with others who understand her situation. This
community may not only bring comfort and support but also a deep sense of
communion with humanity. In this instance, breaking through the shell of isolation may
enable Sandra to begin to make new connections with her family and with herself. A
sense of interconnection, a central postulate and experience in the wisdom traditions,
may replace her perceived isolation.
Sandra may use this opportunity of facing possible death to begin to encounter and let
go of such feelings as guilt, shame, disappointment, and anger that have kept her life
less satisfying than it could be. Accessing the imaginal through art or dreams, for
example, can provide a clear and symbolic expression of unresolved issues. The use
of rituals or rites-of-passage inspired by the wisdom traditions can provide some
catalyst for shifting her consciousness through forgiveness and release.
When It’s Used

Transpersonal therapy is used to treat anxiety, depression, addictions, phobias, and
other mood and behavioral problems. Those who are open to exploring their spiritual
side, becoming more spiritually aware, or finding a spiritual path, or who are having
trouble finding meaning in their life, may benefit from transpersonal therapy.
What to Expect
Transpersonal therapists use meditation, guided visualization, hypnotherapy, dream
work, art, music, journaling, mindfulness practices, and other techniques that can help
you explore your spiritual self and create meaning in your life. With the therapist’s
guidance, you will find, build, and expand on your inner strengths and resources to
create a more balanced life and a healthier state of mind.
How It Works

Transpersonal therapy is a holistic healing intervention that evolved from the

humanistic work of American psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1960s. It integrates
traditional spiritual rituals into modern psychology and emphasizes positive influences
and role models rather than concentrating on negative experiences. This intervention is
based on the idea that humans are more than mind and body but are also composed
of intangible, or transcendent, factors that make up the whole person. Just as your
mind and body sometimes require treatment, your spirituality and other intangible
aspects of yourself often require healing of a sort.
A transpersonal therapist may draw from a variety of different religions and spiritual
practices for tools and methods that can help you explore various levels of
consciousness and use your spirituality to guide you through troubled times.
What to Look for in a Transpersonal Therapist

Look for an experienced licensed or certified counselor, psychotherapist, or other
mental health professional with additional training in holistic forms of healing and one
or more spiritual pathways. In addition to these credentials, it is important to find a
therapist with whom you feel comfortable working.
Cognitive revolution in Psychology

Behaviorism and the Cognitive Revolution
Behaviorism’s emphasis on objectivity and focus on external behavior had pulled
psychologists’ attention away from the mind for a prolonged period of time. The early
work of the humanistic psychologists redirected attention to the individual human as a
whole, and as a conscious and self-aware being. By the 1950s, new disciplinary
perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging, and
these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry. This particular
perspective has come to be known as the cognitive revolution (Miller, 2003). By 1967,
Ulric Neisser published the first textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology, which served
as a core text in cognitive psychology courses around the country (Thorne & Henley,
2005).
Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cognitive revolution,
Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of this movement. Chomsky
(1928–), an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had
had on psychology. He believed that psychology’s focus on behavior was short-sighted
and that the field had to re-incorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to
offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior (Miller, 2003).
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in
that it is characterized by both of the following:

1. It accepts the use of the scientific method and generally rejects introspection as a
valid method of investigation, unlike phenomenological methods such as
Freudian psychoanalysis.
2. It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief,
desire, and motivation), unlike behaviorist psychology.
Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms,
heuristics, or insights. Major areas of research in cognitive psychology include
perception, memory, categorization, knowledge representation, numerical cognition,
language, and thinking.
Multicultural Psychology
Culture has important impacts on individuals and social psychology, yet the effects
of culture on psychology are under-studied. There is a risk that psychological theories
and data derived from white, American settings could be assumed to apply to
individuals and social groups from other cultures and this is unlikely to be true
(Betancourt & López, 1993). One weakness in the field of cross-cultural psychology is
that in looking for differences in psychological attributes across cultures, there remains
a need to go beyond simple descriptive statistics (Betancourt & López, 1993). In this
sense, it has remained a descriptive science, rather than one seeking to determine
cause and effect. For example, a study of characteristics of individuals seeking
treatment for a binge eating disorder in Hispanic American, African American, and
Caucasian American individuals found significant differences between groups (Franko
et al., 2012). The study concluded that results from studying any one of the groups
could not be extended to the other groups, and yet potential causes of the differences
were not measured.
The American Psychological Association has several ethnically based organizations for
professional psychologists that facilitate interactions among members. Many
psychologists who identify with specific ethnic groups or cultures are most interested in
studying the psychology of their communities. These organizations play an important
role in supporting research and treatment in the communities they serve and are
building a more comprehensive understanding of the psychological impact that race,
ethnicity, and systems of oppression have upon individuals and communities.
Summary of the History of Psychology

Before the time of Wundt and James, questions about the mind were considered by
philosophers. However, both Wundt and James helped create psychology as a distinct
scientific discipline. Wundt was a structuralist, which meant he believed that our
cognitive experience was best understood by breaking that experience into its
component parts. He thought this was best accomplished by introspection.
William James was the first American psychologist, and he was a proponent
of functionalism. This particular perspective focused on how mental activities served as
adaptive responses to an organism’s environment. Like Wundt, James also relied on

introspection; however, his research approach also incorporated more objective

measures as well.
Sigmund Freud believed that understanding the unconscious mind was absolutely
critical to understand conscious behavior. This was especially true for individuals that
he saw who suffered from various hysterias and neuroses. Freud relied on dream
analysis, slips of the tongue, and free association as means to access the
unconscious. Psychoanalytic theory remained a dominant force in clinical psychology
for several decades.
What is Four founding paths of academic psychology - Wundt, Freud, James,

Dilthey. Issues: Crisis in psychology due to strict adherence to experimental-
analytical paradigm (logical empiricism). Indic influences on modern psychology ?
Four founding paths of academic psychology - Wundt, Freud, James, Dilthey.

Issues: Crisis in psychology due to strict adherence to experimental-analytical
paradigm (logical empiricism). Indic influences on modern psychology
Four founding paths of academic psychology - Wundt, Freud, James, Dilthey

Wilhelm Wundt psychology
Wilhelm Wundt opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of
Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This was the first laboratory dedicated to psychology, and
its opening is usually thought of as the beginning of modern psychology. Indeed,
Wundt is often regarded as the father of psychology.
Wundt was important because he separated psychology from philosophy by analyzing
the workings of the mind in a more structured way, with the emphasis being on
objective measurement and control.
This laboratory became a focus for those with a serious interest in psychology, first for
German philosophers and psychology students, then for American and British students
as well. All subsequent psychological laboratories were closely modeled in their early
years on the Wundt model.
Wundt's background was in physiology, and this was reflected in the topics with which
the Institute was concerned, such as the study of reaction times and sensory
processes and attention. For example, participants would be exposed to a standard
stimulus (e.g. a light or the sound of a metronome) and asked to report their
sensations.

Wundt's aim was to record thoughts and sensations, and to analyze them into their
constituent elements, in much the same way as a chemist analyses chemical
compounds, in order to get at the underlying structure. The school of psychology
founded by Wundt is known as voluntarism, the process of organizing the mind.
During his academic career Wundt trained 186 graduate students (116 in psychology).
This is significant as it helped disseminate his work. Indeed, parts of Wundt's theory
were developed and promoted by his one-time student, Edward Titchener, who
described his system as Structuralism, or the analysis of the basic elements that
constitute the mind.
Wundt wanted to study the structure of the human mind (using introspection). Wundt
believed in reductionism. That is, he believed consciousness could be broken down (or
reduced) to its basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole.
Freud Psychology
Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method
for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.
Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives,
shaping our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in
a person's past is hidden from consciousness, and may cause problems during
adulthood (in the form of neuroses).
Thus, when we explain our behavior to ourselves or others (conscious mental activity),
we rarely give a true account of our motivation. This is not because we are deliberately
lying. While human beings are great deceivers of others; they are even more adept at
self-deception.
Freud's life work was dominated by his attempts to find ways of penetrating this often
subtle and elaborate camouflage that obscures the hidden structure and processes of
personality.
His lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of Western society. Words he
introduced through his theories are now used by everyday people, such as anal
(personality), libido, denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip, and neurotic.
The Case of Anna O

The case of Anna O (real name Bertha Pappenheim) marked a turning point in the
career of a young Viennese neuropathologist by the name of Sigmund Freud. It even
went on to influence the future direction of psychology as a whole.
Anna O. suffered from hysteria, a condition in which the patient exhibits physical
symptoms (e.g., paralysis, convulsions, hallucinations, loss of speech) without an
apparent physical cause. Her doctor (and Freud's teacher) Josef Breuer succeeded in
treating Anna by helping her to recall forgotten memories of traumatic events.

The Unconscious Mind

Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he
described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of
an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.
On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of
our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The preconscious consists
of all which can be retrieved from memory.
The third and most significant region is the unconscious. Here lie the processes that
are the real cause of most behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the
mind is the part you cannot see.
The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and
impulse kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area.
For example, Freud (1915) found that some events and desires were often too
frightening or painful for his patients to acknowledge, and believed such information
was locked away in the unconscious mind. This can happen through the process
of repression.
Psychosexual Stages
In the highly repressive “Victorian” society in which Freud lived and worked women, in
particular, were forced to repress their sexual needs. In many cases, the result was
some form of neurotic illness.
Freud sought to understand the nature and variety of these illnesses by retracing the
sexual history of his patients. This was not primarily an investigation of sexual
experiences as such. Far more important were the patient’s wishes and desires, their
experience of love, hate, shame, guilt and fear – and how they handled these powerful
emotions.
It was this that led to the most controversial part of Freud’s work – his theory
of psychosexual development and the Oedipus complex.
Freud believed that children are born with a libido – a sexual (pleasure) urge. There
are a number of stages of childhood, during which the child seeks pleasure from a
different ‘object.’
Dream Analysis
Freud (1900) considered dreams to be the royal road to the unconscious as it is in
dreams that the ego's defenses are lowered so that some of the repressed material
comes through to awareness, albeit in distorted form. Dreams perform important
functions for the unconscious mind and serve as valuable clues to how
the unconscious mind operates.

On 24 July 1895, Freud had his own dream that was to form the basis of his theory. He
had been worried about a patient, Irma, who was not doing as well in treatment as he
had hoped. Freud, in fact, blamed himself for this, and was feeling guilty.
James Psychology
William James was a psychologist and philosopher who had a major influence on the
development of psychology in the United States. Among his many accomplishments,
he was the first to teach a psychology course in the U.S. and is often referred to as the
father of American psychology.
James was also known for contributing to functionalism, one of the earliest schools of
thought in psychology. His book The Principles of Psychology is considered one of the
most classic and influential texts in psychology's history. He was also the brother of the
noted writer Henry James and diarist Alice James.
"The art of being wise is the art of knowing what to overlook," William James once
wrote.1 Learn more about his life, career, ideas, and contributions to psychology in this
brief biography.
He was often called the father of American psychology and is best known for:
 Functionalism
 James Lange Theory of Emotion
 Pragmatism
William James' Early Life

William James was born into an affluent family. His father was deeply interested in
philosophy and theology and strove to provide his children with an enriched education.
The James children traveled to Europe frequently, attended the best possible schools,
and were immersed in culture and art, which apparently paid off - William James went
on to become one of the most important figures in psychology while his brother Henry
James became one of the most acclaimed American novelists.
Henry James was the author of several acclaimed works, including The Portrait of a
Lady and The Ambassadors.
Early in school, William James expressed an interest in becoming a painter. While
Henry James Sr. was known as an unusually permissive and liberal father, he wanted
William to study science or philosophy. Only after William persisted in his interest did
Henry permit his son to formally study painting.
After studying painting with the famed artist William Morris Hunt for more than a year,
James abandoned his dream of being a painter and enrolled at Harvard to study
chemistry. While two of James' brothers enlisted to serve in the American Civil War,
William and Henry did not due to health problems.
Timeline of Events
 Born January 11, 1842 in New York City
 1869 - Received M.D. from Harvard

 1875 - Began teaching psychology at Harvard

 1882 - Death of William's father, Henry James Sr.
 1890 - Published The Principles of Psychology
 1892 - Turned lab over to Hugo Munsterberg
 1897 - Published Will to Believe and Other Essays
 1907 - Published Pragmatism and officially resigned from Harvard
 Died August 26, 1910, at the age of 68
The Career of William James

As the family money began to dwindle, William realized he would need to support
himself and switched to Harvard Medical School. Unhappy with medicine as well, he
left on an expedition with naturalist Louis Agassiz, although the experience was not a
happy one.
"I was, body and soul, in a more indescribably hopeless, homeless, and friendless
state than I ever want to be in again," he later wrote.
Developing health problems and severe depression, James spent the next two years in
France and Germany. This period played an important role in shifting his interest in
psychology and philosophy.
After graduating from Harvard Medical School in 1869, James continued to sink into
depression. Following a period of inactivity, the president of Harvard offered James a
position as an instructor of comparative physiology in 1872. Three years later, James
began teaching psychology courses.
James Williams' Theories

James' theoretical contributions to psychology include the following:
 Functionalism: James opposed the structuralist focus on introspection and
breaking down mental events to the smallest elements. Instead, James focused
on the wholeness of an event, taking into the impact of the environment on
behavior.5
 James-Lange Theory of Emotion: The James-Lange theory of emotion
proposes that an event triggers a physiological reaction, which we then interpret. 6
According to this theory, emotions are caused by our interpretations of these
physiological reactions. Both James and the Danish physiologist Carl Lange
independently proposed the theory.
 Pragmatism: James wrote extensively on the concept of pragmatism. According
to pragmatism, the truth of an idea can never be proven.7 James proposed we
instead focus on what he called the "cash value," or usefulness, of an idea.
William James' Influence on Psychology

In addition to his enormous influence, many of James' students went on to have
prosperous and influential careers in psychology. Some of James' students
included Mary Whiton Calkins, Edward Thorndike, and G. Stanley Hall.

Dilthey Psychology
1. If one wants to see a kind of psychology which Dilthey would regard as
explanative and based on incorrect assumptions about the nature of the
human psyché, I suggest Jerry Fodor’s “Methodological Solipsism Considered as
a Research Strategy in Cognitive Psychology”, in Dreyfus, Hubert, and Hall,
Harrison, (eds.), Husserl, Intentionality and Cognitive Science, Cambridge,
Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1982, pp.277-303. This article illustrates very well the kind of
faculty psychology which Dilthey dislikes. It also well illustrates the ‘synthetic’
approach which Dilthey attributes to explanative psychology, namely, the
identification of elementary psychological entities, in Fodor’s case, mental
representations and modules for processing the same and then the synthesis of
these elements and modules into a merely causally interrelated whole which is
supposed to provide a model of such and such a psychological process, e.g.,
cognition, perception and the like.
2. For two instructive accounts of naturalism, see the articles on naturalism in The
Blackwell Companion to Metaphysics and the Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
3. In these notes, I occasionally refer to Dilthey’s text simply as Ideas.
Dilthey’s Ideas concerning a Descriptive and Analytic Psychology—Chapters

One and Two
It is common to divide Dilthey’s views on the need for, and nature of, a grounding of
the so-called human studies into two periods, a ‘psychological’ one extending through
the 1880’s up to just before the turn of the century, and a more ‘hermeneutic’ one from,
say, 1900 onwards. This distinction appears to me to be at best artificial although it is
certainly true that around 1900 or slightly before Dilthey did move from talking about
the fundamental method and approach of the human studies as descriptively
psychological to hermeneutic. This reflects, I think, an appreciation on Dilthey’s part
that by and large the human studies investigate domains of human reality which, due
to differences in culture and tradition, or perhaps the passage of time, are no longer
readily accessible.
Dilthey gives his own example of a fundamental hypothesis which he regards as

subject to endless, undecidable controversy. This is appears to be the standard
reductive materialist hypothesis that psychological facts and events are caused in law-
like ways by physical and physiological facts and events, and are indeed reducible to
these latter. (I take it by speaking of “die Zurückführung aller
Bewußtseinserscheinungen auf atomartig vorgestellte Elemente, welche in
gesetzlichen Verhältnissen auf einander wirken …” (S.142-143), Dilthey does intend
not merely an epiphenomenalism, but a genuine reductionism.)
Issues: Crisis in psychology due to strict adherence to experimental-analytical

paradigm (logical empiricism)
This article looks at the main symptoms of the crisis in psychology. The author believes
that in addition to the traditional manifestations that have dogged psychology since it

emerged as an independent science, there have appeared some new symptoms. The
author identifies three fundamental "ruptures": "vertical" ruptures between various
schools and trends, "horizontal" ruptures between natural science and humanitarian
psychology and "diagonal" ruptures between research (academic) and practical
psychology. In the author's opinion, these manifestations of the crisis of psychology
have recently been compounded by the crisis of its rationalistic foundations. This
situation is described in terms of the cognitive systems in psychology which include:
1) meta-theories;
2) paradigms;
3) sociodigms and
4) metadigms.
Permanent crisis
One of the key features of the methodological self-consciousness of psychology that
has accompanied it since its first steps is a permanent sense of crisis invariably
registered since the times of W. James (James, 1890; etc.). The following are the
commonly noted symptoms of the crisis:
• the disjointed character of the psychological science, a lack of conceptual unity;
• lack of a single universally shared theory;
• the mosaic-like and unsystematic character of psychological knowledge;
• lack of universal criteria of verification and authenticity of knowledge;
• non-cumulative nature of knowledge, with each new psychological trend declaring all
the preceding psychology to be a collection of misconceptions and artifacts;
• separation of the whole personality into memory, thought, perception, attention and
other mental functions, each leading a strange independent existence;
• various "parallelisms"-psycho-physical, psycho-physiological, psycho-biological and
psycho-social –
which psychology feels unable to resolve for itself, "puzzles," to borrow T. Kuhn's
words (Kuhn, 1962); and others. True, at least three circumstances mitigate the
permanent sense of crisis. First, in terms of their attitude to methodology psychologists
may be divided into 4 main categories:
1) those who are largely indifferent to general methodological issues;

2) methodological rigorists who adhere to traditional, largely Positivist, research
standards;
3) methodological anarchists generally sharing Paul Feuerabend's "anything goes"
credo; and
4) methodological liberals who combine post-modernists and more traditional research
approaches. By far the largest number of psychologists belongs to the first group,
which makes the psychological community not very sensitive to the "eternal"
methodological problems of psychology. Secondly, psychologists have got used to its
permanent crisis which they often perceive as the normal state of their "abnormal"
science. This sentiment, among other things, strengthens the long-standing conviction

of the "special path" of psychology whereby its status cannot be assessed by

comparing it to the natural sciences regarding their dissimilarity as a manifestation of
the crisis of psychology (Gergen, 1994, etc.).
Third, psychology's methodological discourse expresses a kind of "poetics" of crisis,

perceived in a positive light as something that stimulates the development of the
psychological science, makes it more perceptive of methodological problems, etc.,
which prevents a sense of permanent crisis degenerating into a sense of permanent
frustration. Studiedly optimistic statements such as "it is unclear whether there was a
crisis or not, but it's good it's over" (McGuire, 1976) have gained some currency.
Logical empiricism
Logical empiricism is a philosophic movement rather than a set of doctrines, and it
flourished in the 1920s and 30s in several centers in Europe and in the 40s and 50s in
the United States. It had several different leaders whose views changed considerably
over time. Moreover, these thinkers differed from one another, often sharply. Because
logical empiricism is here construed as a movement rather than as doctrine, there is
probably no important position that all logical empiricists shared—including,
surprisingly enough, empiricism.
And while most participants in the movement were empiricists of one form or another,
they disagreed on what the best form of empiricism was and on the cognitive status of
empiricism. What held the group together was a common concern for scientific
methodology and the important role that science could play in reshaping society.
Within that scientific methodology the logical empiricists wanted to find a natural and
important role for logic and mathematics and to find an understanding of philosophy
according to which it was part of the scientific enterprise.
Mapping the Movement

The term ‘logical empiricism’ has no very precise boundaries and still less that
distinguishes it from ‘logical positivism’. It is therefore hard to map. ‘Logical empiricism’
here includes three groups:
(1) the Vienna Circle, here taken broadly to include those who were part of various
private discussion groups, especially that around Moritz Schlick, and also the members
of the more public Ernst Mach Society (Verein Ernst Mach),
(2) the smaller, but perhaps more influential Berlin Society for Empirical Philosophy
(later called the Berlin Society for Scientific Philosophy), and
(3) those influenced by or who interacted with members of the first two groups and
shared an intellectual kinship with them. Besides Vienna and Berlin, there were
important centers of the movement in England, France, Scandinavia, at several
universities in the U.S., and even China.

This characterization includes thinkers who disagreed with doctrines espoused by

members of the original groups and even some who defined themselves in opposition
to the movement. This results in a vague boundary, but it suffices to identify a
movement in which a large number of able philosophers self-consciously participated
and to distinguish logical empiricism from other movements.
Some Major Participants in the Movement

The logical empiricist movement is the sum of the interwoven trajectories of its
members, so one way of describing that movement is to trace those various
trajectories. To do so in detail for all those involved would take rather longer than the
movement lasted. That would be inappropriate for one entry in an encyclopedia,
especially one in which entries for many of the members will appear independently.
The thumbnail sketches of the work of some representative figures below show the
breadth and international character of the movement. While the list is long, it covers
only a small fraction of those involved and leaves out many important thinkers.
A.J. Ayer (1910–1989)

An English philosopher in the tradition of British empiricism, Ayer visited the Vienna
Circle in 1932–33. His book Language, Truth, and Logic (1936) was a best seller after
World War II and represents logical positivism to many English speakers
Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970)

German by birth, he taught in Vienna, Prague, Chicago, and Los Angeles. He was one
of the leaders of the Vienna Circle and of logical empiricism, especially of those within
the movement whose formulations were more liberal, e.g., with respect to the criterion
of verification. He defended logical and methodological pluralism and worked to
develop an epistemic approach to probability.
Walter Dubislav (1895–1937)

A German logician and philosopher of science, Dubislav was one of the founders, with
Reichenbach and Grelling, of the Berlin Society of Empirical (later Scientific)
Philosophy.
Herbert Feigl (1902–1988)

Born in what is now the Czech Republic, Feigl studied in Vienna with Schlick and
Hahn. He emigrated to the U.S. before most other logical empiricists would do so. He
taught at the Universities of Iowa and Minnesota and founded both Philosophical
Studies, with Wilfrid Sellars, and the Minnesota Center for the Philosophy of Science.
He is best known for his work on the mind-body problem.
Issues
It is not possible in an essay of this scope to trace all the issues that the logical
empiricists addressed or even to treat any one of them with completeness. What is

possible is to highlight some salient issues, clear away some misconceptions about
them, and sketch a bit how those issues were developed over time. The first is a
related set of concerns: empiricism, verificationism, and anti-metaphysics. The second
is the logical empiricists’ treatment of logic and mathematics as analytic. Third is the
related issues of the unity of science and reduction. And finally, comes the issue of
probability. Given what has already been said, the reader should be aware that none of
the doctrines discussed below was shared by all members of the logical empiricist
movement.
Empiricism, Verificationism, and Anti-metaphysics

Since antiquity the idea that natural science rests importantly on experience has been
non-controversial. The only real questions about the sources of scientific knowledge
are: Are there parts of science that do not rest on experience or rest also on something
other than experience? If so what account can we give of those parts? And to the
extent that science does rest on experience how can we know that it does? There is
another question about science related to these, though not strictly about the sources
of science, and that is: Why, in making claims about the world, should we be scientific
as opposed to say mystical? The difficulty is that any scientific answer to this last
question would reasonably be thought to beg the very question it purports to address.
First, in subject-predicate sentences, an analytic sentence is one in which the concept

of the predicate is contained in that of the subject. Second, an analytic sentence is one
whose denial is self-contradictory.
This seems to include not only the sentences whose surface logical form would be of
the required sort but also those that can be got from such logical truths by making
substitutions that were conceptually equivalent. The more modern rough analog of this
is to say that the analytic sentences are those that are true in virtue of logic and
definition.
Indic influences on modern psychology

Indic Influences on Modern Psychology
This is only the beginning of an outline which I hope others on the YogaPsychology list
will help to flesh out. I am basing the information here primarily on two sources: J.J,.
Clarke's "Oriental Enlightenment:
The Encounter Between Asian and Western Thought" and Eugene Taylor's
introduction to "The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of
Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography, 1931 - 1996. The outline
begins with some distinctions between psychology, psychotherapy and psychiatry.
Then there is a quick and extremely brief overview of the basic historical trends in
psychology. Finally, there is a list with brief descriptions of some of the major
individuals who have brought Indic influences to bear on psychology.
Psychology, Psychotherapy and Psychiatry

"Psychology", as taught in universities throughout the world, refers to an academic

discipline, and a science which was established in the late 19th century. Several times
on the YogaPsychology list, there has been reference to "science" as if the only real
science is that which deals with physics and the brain.
However, the research methodology of psychology has been dealing with human
experience for over 120 years, even if often or mostly in a reductionist fashion.
Psychological science includes a wide variety of disciplines, including developmental
psychology, personality psychology, social psychology, comparative or evolutionary
psychology, and among the applied psychological disciplines, educational, sports and
neuropsychology. Typically, at least in the United States, a psychologist has a Ph.D.
(Doctorate)
"Psychiatry" is a subspecialty of the medical profession. A practicing psychiatrist

usually has at least an M.D., though sometimes a Ph.D. as well. Psychiatrists are
primarily focused on psychopathology, treating mental illness.
Historically (until approximately 50 years ago) this meant serious mental illness - the
psychoses, manic-depression, major depression, obsessive- compulsive disorder, etc.
With the increasing monetarization of the profession, there has been an widening array
of so-called disorders which have increased to the extent that virtually nobody may be
said to be free of mental illness.
Historical Overview
The psychologist Cyril Burtt once summarized the modern history of psychological
science in this way: "Psychology first lost its soul, then it lost its mind, until it was finally
in danger of losing consciousness altogether". The official beginning of the science of
psychology is 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory
in Leipzig, Germany. The first formal school of psychology was the introspectionist
school. Previously, psychology had been the domain of the philosophers. In an attempt
to separate philosophy and science, psychologists no longer referred to the "soul".
The "introspection" of this early school of psychology was an extremely superficial and
reductionist cataloguing of sensory experience. There was little progress made during
the 30 or 40 years this school was in existence. (Though William James wrote his
famous "Principles of Psychology" during this period, he failed to establish a separate
school or approach to psychology).
The second psychological school represented a radical break from the

Introspectionists, and was initiated in 1913 by John Watson, the first behaviorist. He
called for the elimination of all references to internal experience (this is what Burtt was
referring to as psychology "losing its mind"). B. F. Skinner, several decades later, took
this a step further, referring to the brain as a "black box", and refusing acknowledgment
of any sort of consciousness at all.

In the late 1950s, the cognitive "revolution" was initiated, often considered to be
officially begun with George Miller's article, "The Magic Number 7, plus or minus 2"
(this refers to the amount of "bits of information" which the average human being can
carry in their memory - the reference to the ancient magic number "7" was made
consciously, though the idea that mystical associations were to be taken seriously was
strenuously avoided. You might say that psychological science was finally beginning to
regain consciousness at this time!
Since the 1950s, there have no longer been separate competing "schools' of
psychology, a problem which has plagued the field of psychotherapy, which has over
400 separate and non- integrated theories of how therapy works. The above-
mentioned divisions of psychology - developmental, personality, social, etc - are
considered specialty areas of one discipline, not competing schools of thought, much
like nuclear physics and astrophysics, as opposed to the conflicting theories of
cognitive therapy and psychoanalysis.
Indic Influences on Modern Psychology
Gustav Fechner:
(I'm writing this partly from memory, and will try to find more in the future. I invite
anyone who has more knowledge of Fechner's work to send corrections and additional
information).
Fechnier was a physiologist with interests in mystical traditions. I believe his interests
included Indian philosophy, but I'm not positive. Here is an interesting quotation which
shows a surprisingly modern - or even post-modern - approach to science:
"That gravitation extends throughout the whole world is a matter of faith; that laws
which are traceable in our limited realm extend limitlessly in space and time is a matter
of faith; that there are atoms and lightwaves is a matter of faith; the beginning and the
goal of history are matters of faith; even in geometry there are things we take upon
faith, such as the number of the dimensions of space and the definition of parallel lines.
Indeed, strictly speaking everything is a matter of faith which is not directly
experienced... Ultimately the best faith is that which is least contradictory in itself and to
all knowledge and to our practical interest.
Other major figures in transpersonal psychology include:

Charles Tart, an academic psychologist, who published "Altered States of
Consciousness" in 1969, which contained an attempt to bring together systems
thinking and ideas from teachings on Hindu and Buddhist meditation.
Claudio Naranjo, a psychistrist, began writing in the late 1960s on: Gestalt therapy and
Buddhist meditation.

Robert Ornstein, a psychologist, in 1971 published "The Psychology of

Consciousness", which incorporates ideas from Sufism, Buddhism, Taoism and
Hinduism.
Allan Weinstock, a psychologist, (named "Swami Ajaya by the Indian Yoga teacher
Swami Rama) wrote in 1976 "The Evolution of Consciousness and Psychotherapy".
This book is particularl notable as it was published before Ken Wilber's first book, and
includes the idea, derived independently from Wilber, of a spectrum of consciousness.
However, the ideas in the book are much more closely drawn from Yoga and Vedanta,
with the latter being fully acknowledged. Indian "psychology" is depicted as far more
subtle and sophisticated than the work of Freud or Jung. Also, unusual in
transpersonal writings, Indian psychology is taken to deal with virtually all of the areas
which many modern writings feel are better handled by Freud and Jung.
What is Essential aspects of knowledge paradigms: Ontology, epistemology, and
methodology. Paradigms of Western Psychology: Positivism, Post-Positivism,
Critical perspective, Social Constructionism, Existential Phenomenology, and Co-
operative Enquiry Paradigmatic Controversies?
Essential aspects of knowledge paradigms: Ontology, epistemology, and

methodology. Paradigms of Western Psychology: Positivism, Post-Positivism,
Critical perspective, Social Constructionism, Existential Phenomenology, and
Co-operative Enquiry .Paradigmatic Controversies
Essential aspects of knowledge paradigms: Ontology, epistemology, and

methodology
A review of literature from leaders in the field leads to a deep understanding of the
meaning of a research paradigm. For example, in The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions American philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1962) first used the word paradigm
to mean a philosophical way of thinking. The word has its aetiology in Greek where it
means pattern. In educational research the term paradigm is used to describe a
researcher’s ‘worldview’ (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006). This worldview is the perspective,
or thinking, or school of thought, or set of shared beliefs, that informs the meaning or
interpretation of research data.
Or, as Lather (1986) explains, a research paradigm inherently reflects the researcher’s
beliefs about the world that s/he lives in and wants to live in. It constitutes the abstract
beliefs and principles that shape how a researcher sees the world, and how s/he
interprets and acts within that world. When we say that it defines the researcher’s
worldview, we mean that a paradigm constitutes the abstract beliefs and principles that
shape how a researcher sees the world, and how s/he interprets and acts within that
world. It is the lens through which a researcher looks at the world. It is the conceptual
lens through which the researcher examines the methodological aspects of their

research project to determine the research methods that will be used and how the data
will be analysed.
Essential Elements of a Paradigm

According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), a paradigm comprises four elements, namely,
epistemology, ontology, methodology and axiology. It is important to have a firm
understanding of these elements because they comprise the basic assumptions,
beliefs, norms and values that each paradigm holds. Therefore, in locating your
research proposal in a particular research paradigm, the understanding is that your
research will uphold, and be guided by the assumptions, beliefs, norms and values of
the chosen paradigm. It is therefore important that you demonstrate that you know
what each of these elements mean.
Epistemology of a Paradigm
Epistemology has its aetiology in Greek where the word episteme, means knowledge.
Put simply, in research, epistemology is used to describe how we come to know
something; how we know the truth or reality; or as Cooksey and McDonald (2011) put
it, what counts as knowledge within the world.
It is concerned with the very bases of knowledge – its nature, and forms and how it
can be acquired, and how it can be communicated to other human beings. It focuses
on the nature of human knowledge and comprehension that you, as the researcher or
knower, can possibly acquire so as to be able to extend, broaden and deepen
understanding in your field of research. Schwandt (1997) defines it as the study of the
nature of knowledge and justification.
Ontology of a Paradigm
Ontology is a branch of philosophy concerned with the assumptions we make in order
to believe that something makes sense or is real, or the very nature or essence of the
social phenomenon we are investigating (Scotland, 2012). It is the philosophical study
of the nature of existence or reality, of being or becoming, as well as the basic
categories of things that exist and their relations. It examines your underlying belief
system as the researcher, about the nature of being and existence.
It is concerned with the assumptions we make in order to believe that something

makes sense or is real, or the very nature or essence of the social phenomenon we
are investigating. It helps you to conceptualise the form and nature of reality and what
you believe can be known about that reality. Philosophical assumptions about the
nature of reality are crucial to understanding how you make meaning of the data you
gather. These assumptions, concepts or propositions help to orientate your thinking
about research problem, its significance, and how you might approach it so as to
contribute to its solution.

Ontology is so essential to a paradigm because it helps to provide an understanding of

the things that constitute the world, as it is known (Scott & Usher, 2004). It seeks to
determine the real nature, or the foundational concepts which constitute themes that
we analyse to make sense of the meaning embedded in research data. It makes you
ask questions such as: Is there reality out there in the social world or is it a
construction, created by one’s own mind? What is the nature of reality? In other words,
Is reality of an objective nature, or the result of individual cognition? What is the nature
of the situation being studied? Ontology enables you to examine your underlying belief
system and philosophical assumptions as the researcher, about the nature of being,
existence and reality.
Philosophical assumptions about the nature of reality are crucial to understanding how
you make meaning of the data you gather. These assumptions, concepts or
propositions help to orientate your thinking about the research problem, its
significance, and how you might approach it so as to answer your research question,
understand the problem investigated and contribute to its solution.
Methodology of a Paradigm
Methodology is the broad term used to refer to the research design, methods,
approaches and procedures used in an investigation that is well planned to find out
something (Keeves, 1997). For example, data gathering, participants, instruments
used, and data analysis, are all parts of the broad field of methodology. In sum, the
methodology articulates the logic and flow of the systematic processes followed in
conducting a research project, so as to gain knowledge about a research problem.
It includes assumptions made, limitations encountered and how they were mitigated or
minimised. It focuses on how we come to know the world or gain knowledge about part
of it (Moreno, 1947). In considering the methodology for your research proposal, you
should ask yourself the question: How shall I go about obtaining the desired data,
knowledge and understandings that will enable me to answer my research question
and thus make a contribution to knowledge.
In really simple terms, the three most common paradigms are explained below (and
are shown in this epistemology diagram too, taken from here):
 Positivists believe that there is a single reality, which can be measured and
known, and therefore they are more likely to use quantitative methods to
measure and this reality.
 Constructivists believe that there is no single reality or truth, and therefore
reality needs to be interpreted, and therefore they are more likely to use
qualitative methods to get those multiple realities.
 Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly renegotiated, debated, interpreted,
and therefore the best method to use is the one that solves the problem

The table below (which I created) gives a more detailed overview of each paradigm
(and contains subjectivism and critical too), and your own research paradigm could
very well sit in between one of the paradigms. You could use a top down or a bottom
up approach to decide where your research sits.
In a bottom up approach, you decide on your research question, then you decide
which methods, methodology, theoretical perspective you will approach your research
from. In reality, I believe its probably neither strictly a top down or bottom up approach,
you probably go back and forth till you find the right fit. I believe each research project
would have a different research paradigm and hence a different theoretical
perspective.
Applied, then to social psychology, it is important to understand the tension, throughout

its history, between:
1. A more traditional experimental (quantitative) approach, which sees social reality as
a set of facts to be known for all time by measuring people in the laboratory;
2. A more critical, discursive (qualitative) approach, which sees social reality as
mutually constructed between people in the real world.”
However, I must add that pragmatism (and hence mixed methods research) is also
being increasingly used in social sciences.
The adoption of narrative within psychology

Narrative approaches have been applied diversely through a vastnumber of
distinctfields. These include history, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, education,
socialworkand psychology. However, the foundations of thebroad area that is now
referred to as the narrative approach in psy-chology have their roots mainly in writings
within literary theory.
A considerable body of work now exists in relation to policy-makingand policy analysis

see,for example, with an ever-in-creasing proportion of this work looking at climate
change or en-vironmental research. The turn to narrative ways of under-standing
human action and experience has its theoretical place withinwhat has generally been
termed‘the interpretative turn’in the socialsciences.When dopted by psychology, the
interpretative turn was a way inwhich certain writers such as Bruner[32]intended
to‘return’to atheoretical position of understanding individual psychology that hadbeen
seen to be overwhelmingly dominated by mechanistic metaphors and the
normative‘cognitive revolution’.
According toBruner, the cognitive revolution, which developed from the

1950salongside the evolution of the information communication technolo-gies, was an
attempt to understand human actions and psychologicalprocesses as being analogous
to those of a computer, using as its base acomputational information-processing
metaphor to explore how in-dividuals make sense of their world[32]. Similarly, Sarbin
argues thatthe dominant worldview in modern Western civilisation relies on

the‘rootmetaphor’of mechanism[39]. He argues that by drawing on sucha metaphor we

come to understand and explain our lives in terms of‘drives’and‘forces’that determine
the causes of behaviour that un-derpin human experience.
This essay started by asserting that the work existing on the topic of pro-environmental
behaviours within environmental psychology has not had the wide social impact
needed to address the challenges arising as a result of climate change. Whilst we
know more about people’s decision-making and attitudes and the factors that influence
behaviours as a result of the 40 years of work on pro-environmental behaviours, there
hasn’t been a subsequent change in the way in which people act in relation to energy.
Paradigms of Western Psychology: Positivism

As a philosophical ideology and movement, positivism first assumed its distinctive
features in the work of Comte, who also named and systematized
the science of sociology. It then developed through several stages known by various
names, such as empiriocriticism, logical positivism, and logical empiricism, finally
merging, in the mid-20th century, into the already existing tradition known as analytic
philosophy.
The basic affirmations of positivism are (1) that all knowledge regarding matters of fact
is based on the “positive” data of experience and (2) that beyond the realm of fact is
that of pure logic and pure mathematics. Those two disciplines were already
recognized by the 18th-century Scottish empiricist and skeptic David Hume as
concerned merely with the “relations of ideas,” and, in a later phase of positivism, they
were classified as purely formal sciences.
On the negative and critical side, the positivists became noted for their repudiation
of metaphysics—i.e., of speculation regarding the nature of reality that radically goes
beyond any possible evidence that could either support or refute such “transcendent”
knowledge claims. In its basic ideological posture, positivism is thus worldly, secular,
antitheological, and antimetaphysical.
Strict adherence to the testimony of observation and experience is the all-

important imperative of positivism. That imperative was reflected also in the
contributions by positivists to ethics and moral philosophy, which were
generally utilitarian to the extent that something like “the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people” was their ethical maxim. It is notable, in this connection,
that Comte was the founder of a short-lived religion, in which the object of worship was
not the deity of the monotheistic faiths but humanity.
The Critical Positivism Of Mach And Avenarius

The influences of Hume and of Comte were also manifest in important developments in
German positivism, just prior to World War I. The outstanding representatives of this
school were Ernst Mach—a philosophical critic of the physics of Isaac Newton, an

original thinker as a physicist, and a historian of mechanics, thermodynamics,

and optics—and Richard Avenarius, founder of a philosophy known as empiriocriticism.
Mach and, along with him, Wilhelm Ostwald, the originator of physical chemistry, were
the most prominent opponents of the atomic theory in physics and chemistry. Ostwald
even attempted to derive the basic chemical laws of constant and multiple proportions
without the help of the atomic hypothesis. To the positivist the atom, since it could not
be seen, was to be considered at best a “convenient fiction” and at worst
an illegitimate ad hoc hypothesis. Hans Vaihinger, a subjectivist who called himself an
“idealistic positivist,” pursued the idea of useful fictions to the limit and was convinced
that the concept of the atom, along with the mathematical concepts of the infinite and
the infinitesimal and those of causation, free will, the economic actor, and the like,
were altogether fictitious, some of them even containing internal contradictions.
Post positivism of paradigms Psychology

Let’s start our very brief discussion of philosophy of science with a simple distinction
between epistemology and methodology. The term epistemology comes from the
Greek word epistêmê, their term for knowledge. In simple terms, epistemology is the
philosophy of knowledge or of how we come to know. Methodology is also concerned
with how we come to know, but is much more practical in nature. Methodology is
focused on the specific ways – the methods – that we can use to try to understand our
world better. Epistemology and methodology are intimately related: the former involves
the philosophy of how we come to know the world and the latter involves the practice.
When most people in our society think about science, they think about some guy in a
white lab coat working at a lab bench mixing up chemicals. They think of science as
boring, cut-and-dry, and they think of the scientist as narrow-minded and esoteric (the
ultimate nerd – think of the humorous but nonetheless mad scientist in the Back to the
Future movies, for instance). A lot of our stereotypes about science come from a period
where science was dominated by a particular philosophy – positivism – that tended to
support some of these views. Here, I want to suggest (no matter what the movie
industry may think) that science has moved on in its thinking into an era of post-
positivism where many of those stereotypes of the scientist no longer hold up.
Let’s begin by considering what positivism is. In its broadest sense, positivism is a
rejection of metaphysics (I leave it you to look up that term if you’re not familiar with it).
It is a position that holds that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the
phenomena that we experience. The purpose of science is simply to stick to what we
can observe and measure. Knowledge of anything beyond that, a positivist would hold,
is impossible. When I think of positivism (and the related philosophy of logical
positivism) I think of the behaviorists in mid-20th Century psychology. These were the
mythical ‘rat runners’ who believed that psychology could only study what could be
directly observed and measured. Since we can’t directly observe emotions, thoughts,
etc. (although we may be able to measure some of the physical and physiological
accompaniments), these were not legitimate topics for a scientific psychology. B.F.

Skinner argued that psychology needed to concentrate only on the positive and
negative reinforcers of behavior in order to predict how people will behave – everything
else in between (like what the person is thinking) is irrelevant because it can’t be
measured.
One of the most common forms of post-positivism is a philosophy called critical

realism. A critical realist believes that there is a reality independent of our thinking
about it that science can study. (This is in contrast with a subjectivist who would hold
that there is no external reality – we’re each making this all up!). Positivists were also
realists. The difference is that the post-positivist critical realist recognizes that all
observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable.
Critical perspective of paradigms Psychology

At this point you have learned about four different theoretical paradigms we use to
understand communication. One problem with these approaches is they often lack an
explicit critique of the status quo of communication. Put another way, they serve as a
general approach to understand communication norms rather than challenge them. We
all realize that there are communication realities in the world that are hurtful and
oppressive to particular people, and that there are people in the world that use
communication to serve their own needs and interests.
The Need for Critical Theories

The Critical Theories Paradigm helps us understand how communication is used to
oppress, and provides ways to foster positive social change (Foss & Foss; Fay).
Critical Theories challenge the status quo of communication contexts, looking for
alternatives to those forms of oppressive communication. These theories differ from
other theoretical approaches because they seek praxis as the overarching goal.
Praxis is the combination of theory and action. Rather than simply seeking to
understand power structures, critical theories actively seek to change them in positive
ways. Easily identifiable examples of critical approaches are Marxism, postmodernism,
and feminism. These critical theories expose and challenge the communication of
dominant social, economic, and political structures. Areas of inquiry include language,
social relationships, organizational structures, politics, economics, media, cultural
ideologies, interpersonal relationships, labor, and other social movements.
Cultural Studies focus on understanding the real-life experiences of people,

examining communication contexts for hidden power structures, and accomplishing
positive social change as a result (Dines and Humez; Kellner). According to Kellner,
cultural studies involves three interconnected elements necessary for understanding,
evaluating and challenging the power dynamics embedded in communication—political
economy, textual analysis, and audience reception.

 Political economy focuses on the macro level of communication. Specifically,

this part of cultural studies looks at the way media as text are situated in a given
cultural context, and the political and economic realities of the cultural context. In
the U.S., we would note that the political economy is one marked with gender,
racial, and class inequities.
 Textual analysis involves the process of deconstructing and analyzing elements
of a media text. If you wanted to look at a magazine with a critical eye, you would
pay attention to the visual elements (the pictures in the ads; the celebrity photos,
and any other drawings, cartoons or illustrations), the verbal messages (the text
of the ads, the copy, captions that accompany the photographs), and the
relationship between the advertisements and the copy.
 For example, is there an ad for Clinique eye shadow next to an article on the
“hot new beauty tips for fall?” You would also want to pay attention to the
representation of gender, race, and class identities as well. Are there any
differences or similarities between the portrayal of white women and women of
color? What sort of class identity is being offered as the one to emulate?
 Audience reception asks us to consider the role of the text for the audience that
consumes it. You might want to learn why people read particular magazines—
what purpose does it fill, what is the social function of this text?
Origins of Critical Theories in Communication

Marxism is one of the earliest origins of critical theory. In addition, postmodernism,
feminism, and postcolonialism have greatly influenced how critical theories have grown
and expanded to challenge a greater number of social power structures. While each of
these approaches examines a different area of oppression, all are critical approaches
to enact great social changes, not only in western societies, but in cultures worldwide.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Karl Marx’s ideas challenged the status quo
of newly emerging industrial societies. As societies moved from agrarian-based
economies to ones based in industrial manufacturing, there became an increasing
division between the rich and the poor — much like the income inequality talked about
so much today. Marx, in two of his most well-known works, The Communist
Manifesto and Capital, argued that working class laborers were being oppressed by
those in power, specifically the owners of manufacturing plants.
In any discussion of Postmodernism, another critical theoretical perspective, the

difficulty of defining the term is invariably part of the discussion. Modern refers to just
now (from modo in Latin) and post means after.
Thus, this term translates into “after just now”—an idea that can be difficult to wrap our
heads around. How do you, for example, point to or mark the period after just now?
(Covino & Jolliffe, 76). In discussing the postmodern condition, Lyotard explained the
relationship between those who have and don’t have social power: “The [decision
makers] allocate our lives for the growth of power. In matters of social justice and

scientific truth alike, the legitimation of that power is based on optimizing the system’s
performance—efficiency” (27).
Critical Theories in Action

Whether we listen to music on our phones, watch TV, go to the movies, or read a
magazine, most of us consume media. Have you ever stopped to think about who puts
together those messages? Have you wondered what their goals might be and why they
want to send the messages they do? One way we can use critical theories is to
examine who owns what media to determine what they are trying to accomplish
(Croteau & Hoynes).
For example, why does General Electric want to own companies like RCA and NBC?
Why does a company like Seagram’s want to buy MCA (Universal Studios) and
Polygram records? What world-views are these companies creating in the media they
produce? These are all questions for which we might consider using theories from the
Critical Theories Paradigm. Did you know that in 1983 50 corporations controlled most
of the U.S. media (papers, television, movies, magazines,etc.) and that by 2004 that
number has dropped down to five corporations (Bagdikian)? Using Critical Theories
Paradigm, we can begin to examine the messages that so few companies are
constructing and their impacts on how we understand the world around us as shaped
through these messages.
Other examples from the critical paradigm include works that examine gender,
consumerism, advertising, and television. In her work, Who(se) Am I? The Identity and
Image of Women in Hip-Hop, Perry examines the potential danger and damage to
African-American women through their objectification in Hip-Hop videos. Carole A.
Stabile examines the labor and marketing practices of Nike in her article, Nike, Social
Responsibility, and the Hidden Abode of Production. Clint C. Wilson II and Felix
Gutierrez discuss the portrayal of people of color in advertising in their article,
Advertising and People of Color, while Jackson Katz explores mask of masculinity with
his film, Tough Guise 2: The Ongoing Crisis of Violent Masculinity. We use critical
theories to reveal a vast range of possible ideological structures that create and foster
dominant world-views, and to challenge and change those ideologies that oppress
others.
Strengths
A significant strength of the Critical Theories Paradigm is that it combines theory and
practice, seeking to create actual change from theoretical development. Rather than
seeking prediction and control, or explanation and understanding, critical theories seek
positive social change. The intent behind these theoretical perspectives is to help
empower those whose world-views and ideological perspectives have not found
equality in social contexts. At their best, critical theories have the potential to enact
large-scale social change for both large and small groups of people.

Weaknesses
A potential weakness of critical theories is their dependence on social values. While
empirical laws theories seek an objective reality, critical theories highlight subjective
values that guide communication behaviors. When values conflict the question of,
“whose values are better?” emerges. Because values are subjective, answering this
question is often filled with much conflict and debate. The example of gay marriage
highlights a current debate taking place over ideological values. How do we define
marriage? And, whose definition is best?
Critical Stance Toward Taken-for-Granted Knowledge

Social constructionism takes a critical stance toward psychology’s taken-for-granted
ways of understanding the world and ourselves. Psychology has modeled itself on the
natural sciences. These assume the epistemological approach of positivism, the view
that knowledge comes from objective, unbiased observation of the world and that there
is a true or accurate description of people, events, and things that science endeavors
to reveal.
Positivism assumes that the world comes to us ready-made, and our task is to discover
its true nature. Within this epistemology, the experiment is the gold-standard research
paradigm (see “Ontology and Epistemology and Positivism and Realism”).
But social constructionism cautions us to be suspicious of our assumptions about how
the world appears to be. For example, it may seem obvious to us that there are two
naturally occurring categories of human being, men and women.
Social constructionism
Social constructionism represents a radical challenge to mainstream psychology in
both theory and research. It began to emerge in social psychology in the 1970s and
1980s as a recognizable body of work by those who would, today, refer to themselves
as, for example, “critical psychologists” and “discursive psychologists.” Social
constructionism poses a challenge to psychology’s individualistic, essentialist, and
intrapsychic model of the person, replacing it with a radically social account
personhood and is, therefore, essentially a social psychology.
The taken-for-granted topics of mainstream psychology and social psychology, such

as attitudes, motivation, personality, and emotion, were brought into question as
structural features of the human psyche and instead seen as social constructions
achieved though social interaction and language. As Craib (1997) points out, many
social constructionist assumptions are fundamental to psychology’s disciplinary cousin,
sociology, and it is a measure of the unhelpful separation of sociology and psychology
since the early twentieth century that psychologists have only recently begun to
engage with social constructionist ideas.
Origins and Influences

Although social constructionism is a relatively new term in the social sciences,

especially psychology, its ideas and practices have a longer history in disciplines such
as sociology, philosophy, and linguistics. The key tenet of social constructionism is that
our knowledge of the world, including our understanding of human beings, is a product
of human thought, language, and interaction rather than grounded in an observable
and definable external reality.
Such an idea, although strange to many psychologists, is fundamental to longstanding

concepts in the sociology of knowledge, such as ideology and false consciousness,
which focus on how sociocultural forces construct our knowledge in particular ways.
An important contributor to social constructionist thinking has been the micro-

sociological approach of symbolic interactionism (see Berger and Luckmann 1966).
George Mead, at the University of Chicago, had developed this approach from the
earlier work of Herbert Blumer and later published his ideas in Mind, Self and
Society (1934).
working class people, and those of nonnormative sexual orientation), and this
operated partly through the study of human phenomena in socially decontextualized
laboratory environments, since experiments ignored the real-world contexts which, it
was argued, give human conduct its meaning. There was a move to attend to this
social context, as well as to explore human phenomena from the perspective of
psychology’s “subjects” themselves rather than privilege the perspective and voice of
the relatively powerful researcher. These concerns encouraged social psychologists to
embrace the ideas already flourishing in neighboring disciplines, including micro-
sociology, and also fed into the burgeoning call to recognize qualitative research
methods as legitimate and fruitful for the discipline of psychology.
Existential-Phenomenological Psychology
This approach to psychology is inspired by the philosophical tradition developed by
thinkers such as Buber, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Gadamer, de Beauvoir,
Sartre, Marcel, Merleau-Ponty, and Levinas. Existential-phenomenology seeks to
develop an in-depth, embodied understanding of human existence. It challenges
approaches in psychology and psychiatry that view human beings in a reductionistic
manner.
Existential-Phenomenological Psychology
cannot be broken down into discrete components and retain their meaningfulness
(Lahey, 1989). That is, in order to attain a comprehensive understanding of a person’s
conscious awareness of the world, psychologists cannot simply put together a group of
previously abstracted parts. Humanistic psychologists, such as Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow, reacted against the movement in psychology to understand human
behavior as nothing but the product of some elemental determining factor, such as
unconscious drives or the law of stimulus-response.

However, I know of no tradition that has contributed more to the advance of

psychology as an inquiry into human experience and behavior without resorting to
impersonal logic, a sloppy eclecticism, or a theoretically and methodologically weak
qualitative approach than the European (i.e., existential) phenomenological tradition.
Phenomenological psychology has also continued to grow and develop since the time
of Dilthey. Psychiatrists and psychologists such as Ludwig Binswanger, V. E. von
Gebsattel, Erwin Straus, E. Minkowski, Aron Gurwitsch, Alfred Schutz, Ernest
Schachtel, Medard Boss and many others contributed to phenomenological
psychology’s early development.
Seattle University, Saybrook University, The University of Dallas, Sonoma State

University, The Michigan School of Professional Psychology, Point Park University,
and the University of West Georgia, as well as explicitly phenomenological journals,
such as the Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, Phenomenology and Practice,
The Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology, the Humanistic Psychologist,
The Journal of Humanistic Psychology, and Phenomenology and the Cognitive
Sciences However, many psychologists, if they are familiar with phenomenology at all,
often misunderstand the philosophical-anthropological fundaments of
phenomenological psychology and phenomenological methodology.
Take any introduction to psychology text and search through it for an introduction to
phenomenological psychology. I can almost guarantee that you will not find existential-
phenomenology mentioned in the book at all. At best, you may find Viktor Frankl and/or
Rollo May briefly mentioned under a section entitled “Humanistic Psychology.”
Co-operative Enquiry
Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following goals: description,
prediction, explanation, and control of behaviour, and application of knowledge so
generated, in an objective manner. Let us try to understand the meaning of these
terms. Description : In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a
phenomenon as accurately as possible. This helps in distinguishing a particular
behaviour from other behaviours. For example, the researcher may be interested in
observing study habits among students.
Study habits may consist of diverse range of behaviours, such as attending all your
classes regularly, submitting assignments on time, planning your study schedule,
studying according to the set schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc. Within
a particular category there may be further minute descriptions. The researcher needs
to describe her/his meaning of study habits. The description requires recording of a
particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding.

Prediction : The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are
able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know the
relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or
phenomena. You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular
behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error.
For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive

relationship between the amount of study time and achievement in different subjects.
Later, if you come to know that a particular child devotes more time for study, you can
predict that the child is likely to get good marks in the examination. Prediction becomes
more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed.
Control :
If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that
behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control refers to three
things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it.
For example, you can allow the number of hours devoted to study to be the same, or
you can reduce them or there may be an increase in the study hours. The change
brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment in terms of therapy in persons,
is a good example of control.
Application : The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in
the lives of people. Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various
settings.
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Science is not so defined by what it investigates as by how it investigates. The
scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective,
systematic, and testable manner. The objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more
persons independently study a particular event, both of them, to a great extent, should
arrive at the same conclusion. For instance, if you and your friend measure the length
of a table using the same measuring device, it is likely that both of you would arrive at
the same conclusion about its length.
selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he narrows down the focus and develops
specific research questions or problems for the study. This is done on the basis of
review of past research, observations, and personal experiences. For example, earlier
you read that a researcher was interested in observing the study habits of students.
For this purpose, s/he may identify different facets of study habits first, and then decide
whether s/he is interested in study habits shown in the class or at home. In psychology
we study a diverse range of problems related to behaviour and experiences. These
problems may be related to

(a) understanding our own behaviour (for example, how do I feel and behave when I
am in a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect on our own experiences and
behaviour? Why do we forget?);
(b) understanding other individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav more intelligent
than Ankur? Why is someone always not able to complete her or his work on time?
Can the habit of smoking be controlled? Why do some people suffering from chronic
illness not take medicines?);
(c) group influences on individual behaviour (for example, why does Rahim spend
more time meeting with people than doing his work?, Why does a cyclist perform better
when cycling before a group of persons than when cycling alone?);
(d) group behaviour (for example, why does risk-taking behaviour increase when
people are in a group?), and
(e) organisational level (for example, why are some organisations more successful
than others? How can an employer increase the motivation of employees?). The list is
long and you will learn about these various facets in subsequent chapters. If you are
inquisitive, you can write down a number of problems which you may like to probe.
After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative
answer of the problem, which is called hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier
evidence or your observation, you might develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount of
time spent by children in viewing violence on television, higher is the degree of
aggression displayed by them’. In your research, you shall now try to prove whether
the statement is true or false.
Collecting Data : The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data
collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It
requires taking decisions about the following four aspects:
(a) participants in the study,
(b) methods of data collection,
(c) tools to be used in research, and
(d) procedure for data collection. Depending upon the nature of the study, the
researcher has to decide who would be the participants (or informants) in the study.
The participants could be children, adolescents, college students, teachers, managers,

clinical patients, industrial workers, or any group of individuals in whom/ where the
phenomenon under investigation is prevalent. The second decision is related to the
use of methods of data collection, such as observation method, experimental method,
correlational method, case study, etc. The researcher needs to decide about
appropriate tools (for example, interview schedule, observation schedule,
questionnaire, etc.) for data collection. The researcher also decides about how the
tools need to be administered to collect data (i.e. individual or group). This is followed
by actual collection of data.
Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use
of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean. This can be achieved

through graphical representations (such as preparation of pie-chart, bar -diagram,

cumulative frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different statistical methods. The
purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly.
Revising Research Conclusions : The researcher may have begun the study with a
hypothesis that there exists a relationship between viewing violence on television and
aggression among children.
Overview of co-operative inquiry

CI is a kind of action research, aimed at acquiring knowledge about human experience
through action and joint reflection. The most comprehensive guide is Heron (1996).
(Additional sources include Heron & Reason, 2001; Reason, 1994b, 1988d, 1994c;
Reason & Bradbury, 2001; Reason & Heron, 1999; Reason & Rowan, 1981.) In its
fullest form the researcher-subject distinction disappears and all participants are both
co-researchers and cosubjects. Its defining features are (Heron, 1996, pp. 19-20)
Paradigmatic Controversies
On the matter of hegemony, or supremacy, a,mong postmodern paradigms, it is clear
that Geerrz's (1988, 1993) prophecy about the "blurring of genres" is rapidly being
fulfilled. Inquiry methodology can no longer be treated :1s a set of universally
applic:1ble rules or abstractions.
Methodology is inevitably interwoven with and emerges from the nature of particular
disciplines (such as sociology and psychology) and particular perspectives (such as
Marxism, feminist theory, and queer theory). So, for inst:.mce, we can read feminist
critical theorists such as Olesen (Chapter 8, this volume) or queer theorists such as
Gamson (Chapter 12, this volume), or we can follow arguments about teachers as
researchers (Kincheloe, 1991) while we understand the secondary text to be teacher
empowerment and democratization of schooling practices. Indeed, the various
paradigms are beginning to "interbreed" such that two theorists previously thought to
be in irreconcilable conflict may now appear, under a different theoretical rubric, to be
informing one another's arguments.
A personal example is our own work, which has been heavily influenced by action
research practitioners and postmodern critical theorists. Consequently, to argue thar it
is paradigms that are in contention is probably less useful than to probe where and
how paradigms exhibit confluence and where and how they exhibit differences,
controversies, and contradictions. Major Issues Confronting All Paradigms In our
chapter in the first edition of this Handbook, we presented two tables that summarized
our positions, first, on the axiomatic nature of paradigms (the paradigms we considered
at that time were positivism, postposirivism, critical theory, and constructivism; Guba &
Lincoln, Since publication of that chapter, at least one set of authors, j ohn Herem and
Peter Reason, have elaborated upor1 our tables to include the

participatory/cooperative par::tdigJn (Heron, 1996; Heron & Reason, 1997, pp. 2.89-
290}.
Thus, in addition to the paradigms of positivism, posrposirivism, critical theory, and

constructivism, we add the participatory p::tradigm in the present chapter (this is an
excellent ex::tmple, we might add, of the hermeneutic elaboration so embedded in our
own view, construnivism). Our aim here is to extend the an::tlysis further by building on
Heron and Re:.~son's additions and by rearr:1nging the issues to reflect cu rrent
thought.
Posirive, postmodern, and criricalisr in orient

As a result, the reader familiar with several theoretical and paradigmatic strands of
research will find th:.tt echoes of many stre:.tms of thought come together in the
extended table. What this means is that the categories, as Laurel Richardson (personal
communication, September 12, 1998) has pointed out, "are fluid, indeed what should
be a category keeps altering, enlarging." She notes that "even JS [we] write, the
boundaries between rhe paradigms are shifting." This is the paradigmatic equivalent of
the Geerrzian "blurring of genres" to which we referred earlier.
Our own position is that of the construction isr camp, loosely defined. We do nor
believe that criteria for judging either "reality" or validity are absolutist (Bradley &
Schaefer, 1998), but rather are derived from community consensus regarding what is
"real," what is useful, and what has meaning (especially meaning for action and further
steps). We believe that a goodly portion of social phenomena consists of the meaning
making activities of groups and individuals around those phenomena.
What is Significant Indian paradigms on psychological knowledge: Yoga, Bhagavad

Gita, Buddhism, Sufism, and Integral Yoga. Science and spirituality (avidya and
vidya). The primacy of self-knowledge in Indian psychology?
Psychological knowledge of Yoga

“Is there therapy in the Vedas?” I was a bit taken aback by this inquiry from a young
and dedicated yoga practitioner. He had been struggling for years with psychological
problems. Although he had embraced a traditional path of yogic transformation, he
found the help he needed in a more modern self-help process based on contemporary
psychology. As I thought about his inquiry, however, the answer seemed obvious. Rich
in a tradition of intact family and community support, those born in traditional India did
not need to rely on specialists to sort out mental afflictions caused mostly by social

dysfunction. Classical Indian philosophy, especially its traditions of yoga, does,

however, have detailed information on the nature of the mind.
Inspired by my young friend’s question and desiring to organize that information in a

relevant way to help address the mental challenges so many people face today, I
categorized the basic tenets of yoga psychology into five broad principles:
1. The mind is malleable.
2. There is a correlation between the form the mind assumes and how one feels.
3. The mind is swayed by the power of three main factors—karma, environment,
and actions.
4. By controlling the form or mode the mind takes, one can substantially influence
how one feels.
5. Full satisfaction can ultimately only be achieved by transcending the mind and
realizing the true self.
The mind, like any mechanism, can be used more effectively when one knows its
workings. This is especially important as the proper use of the mind is the basis of self-
fulfillment. Yoga psychology thus speaks to the most important of all human aims: true
happiness.
The Basic Principles of Yoga Psychology:
ONE: THE MIND IS MALLEABLE.

Subtle things are often described in more concrete ways to help us understand them.
In the school of Yoga the mind is thus often described as supple, almost like clay, in
that it can be easily molded and that external influences make indelible impressions.
The significance of this description of the mind as supple (Principle One) is the
correlation between the shape the mind assumes and one’s accompanying moods
(Principle Two) and that by understanding the main factors by which the mind is
molded (Principle Three) one can influence how one feels (Principle Four). Most
important, by this understanding, one can learn to shape the mind as a vehicle for its
own transcendence and attain ultimate satisfaction (Principle Five).
TWO: THERE IS A CORRELATION BETWEEN THE FORM THE MIND ASSUMES

AND HOW ONE FEELS.
Like everything in the world, the mind is composed of a combination of three modes of
nature—sattva guna (goodness), raja guna (passion) and tamo guna (ignorance)—
which are in flux. These subtle strands of matter, which are the elemental substrata of
creation, also have specific intrinsic characteristics with particular symptoms and
effects. Because there is a direct correlation between the modes of nature and how
one feels, by identifying the present form or mode of the mind, one can also
comprehensively understand its influence.

THREE: THE MIND IS SWAYED BY THE POWER OF THREE MAIN FACTORS—

ONE’S KARMA, ONE’S ENVIRONMENT, AND ONE’S ACTIONS.
The modes of nature are constantly competing within the mind for influence. A
particular mode gains prominence by its association with one of three factors: the
weight of one’s karma, the nature of one’s environment, and the tenor of one’s actions.
How each affects the mind is comprehensively described in classical Indian thought:
1. The positive effect of karma (destiny) on consciousness is described in three
basic ways:A. By understanding the message of destiny: Destiny is the language
of God. Each event we experience is the Divine in the form of time (kala) telling
us something essential about ourselves to help us grow.B. By understanding the
proper response to destiny: Sastra (Indian sacred texts) also describes the
appropriate response to each circumstance of destiny to ensure the healthiest
development of the mind.C. By understanding how to align oneself with our
innate nature born of destiny: Our basic nature is composed of latent impressions
in the subconscious (samskaras) posited there at birth as a result of
karma. Sastra describes the science of living in harmony with one’s nature, which
is the foundation of a peaceful mind.
2. The subtle effects of the diverse forms of the environment on consciousness are
described by a thorough classification of the various objects of perception (sights,
sounds, and so on) into a gradation of modes that shape the mind according to
their influence.For example, music within a specific mode can move the mind
accordingly, either towards lethargy (music in the mode of ignorance),
restlessness (music in the mode of passion), or peacefulness (music in the mode
of goodness). All objects of perceptions can similarly be classified with
predictable affects on the consciousness.
3. Similarly, the subtle effects of the diverse forms of action are classified according
to motive and understanding with their corresponding influence on the mind.For
example, if one acts for self-purification or just adheres to moral or spiritual
principles (actions in the mode of goodness) one’s mind becomes more lucid,
increasingly peaceful, and strong in will, the symptoms and effects of
goodness.This understanding of how actions influence the mind also leads to a
basic understanding of dharma. Dharma is the correct choice in any
circumstance to ensure the healthiest affect on the mind. This very subtle
science of prescribed action (dharma) is elaborately described in sastra.
FOUR: BY CONTROLLING THE FORM OR MODE OF THE MIND, ONE CAN

SUBSTANTIALLY INFLUENCE ONE’S DESIRES AND FEELINGS.
All forms of therapy and self-help deal with guiding one to a greater self-awareness
and personal satisfaction. By offering a system that accurately describes the nature of
the mind, including a description of the internal and external factors that influence it,
Classical Indian philosophy contributes substantially to the science of mental
transformation.

FIVE: FULL SATISFACTION CAN ULTIMATELY BE ATTAINED ONLY BY RISING

ABOVE THE MIND AND EXPERIENCING THE REAL SELF.
As the material mind is not the true self, no matter how much one transforms the mind
to conform to higher forms of nature, perfect mental satisfaction will evade one for the
following reasons:
1. The pleasure experienced by the mind is ultimately superficial, a joy experienced
by identifying with something external to the self. Seeking such pleasure is akin
to a person enjoying the pleasure of a dream.
2. It is also a form of happiness that is temporary and therefore full of duality.
Duality means that alongside this pleasure — which is connected with a false
sense of self — there must also be the distress of pleasure lost when the body
ends.
In this regard there is a tradition of Sankhya (analysis) that identifies all 24 material
elements, including the mind, for the purpose of isolating the eternal or spiritual self for
the attainment of happiness that is real, eternal, and non-dual.
Although yoga promotes an integrated, peaceful mind, it is not meant to be an end in

itself, but a means to stabilize the mind for its highest purpose—realization of a higher
state of consciousness. This is classically achieved through the practice of three core
paths—work (karma-yoga), knowledge (jnana-yoga), and devotion (bhakti-yoga).
The Fundamental Nature of the Mind
To understand the mind properly a basic understanding of its function is essential. One
therefore has to be familiar with its context or purpose in the cosmos.
In Yoga, Sankhya, and much of Vedanta, this world is described as pure awareness
(purusa or soul) entangled or misidentified with matter (prakrti). Although the ultimate
beginning of this dilemma is not a major concern for most, the immediate cause of this
unwholesome juncture is; Out of egotism when the soul rejects its pure state of selfless
awareness, its consciousness is projected on a particular field of matter called the
body (which includes the mind). As the changes in one’s life that evoke duality and
fear, such as disease and death, are happening in the body, not the true self, this
unnatural and temporary state of identification is the root of suffering. Awakening from
it, or emancipation (moksa), is thus life’s ultimate objective.
In context of this cosmic paradigm, the mind, called the citta, is the first sheath or
covering of the soul. It functions as an instrument whereby the soul (purusa) enveloped
in matter can either view the world to serve the false self (and suffer) or the pure self
(and feel fulfilled).
Bhagavad-gita thus aptly describes this function in the simple duality as the mind being
either the friend or enemy of the soul. Similarly, the Yoga Sutras describe thoughts
born of the mind as either unhealthy (klistha) or healthy (aklistha).

To fulfill this dual role, the mind has different functions of thought. Although different
schools ascribe slightly different roles to the different divisions of the mind, there is a
basic agreement that the mind has three essential functions of thought:
1. manas – impulsive synthesis and response (initial categorization of all
phenomena received through the senses and one’s spontaneous like or dislike of
them)
2. buddhi – reflective examination (judgment and will)
3. ahankara – relational response (self-identity and self-conceit)
Any system of transformation, whether to improve basic mental health or to achieve
self-realization, is based on an understanding of at least some facsimile of these
divisions.
Once the mind categorizes an object through a combination of these three functions of
thought—our feelings, judgment, and sense of relationship—an impression of that
object is imbedded within the mind. These latent impressions, called samskaras,
created both in this life and the past, determine how we view, feel, and respond to the
world. They are the single most important factor in over-all well-being.
The Healthy and Unhealthy Mind

As mentioned, the nature of the mind is the samskaras imbedded within it. We are born
in a basic mental condition due to such samskaras carried from past lives and also
face certain conditions and events in life that foster further samskaras.
Our formative years, where buddhi (intelligence) is underdeveloped, especially

fashions the basis of one’s mental health. Buddhi functions as a medium between the
information coming through the senses and the final impression such data leaves on
the consciousness. In other words, intelligence functions to translate our experiences
in a reasonable way before they make impulsive and unhealthy samksaras. A child is
thus especially susceptible to distorted impressions and even trauma because of this
inability to digest his or her experiences by proper analysis into reasonable memories.
A child also needs reasonable boundaries set by the parents. Without a relatively fixed
world set by the protective figure, the child lives in a world of flux determined by his
whims and demands. As a result, impressions of anxiousness are imbedded in the
child’s mind, making him susceptible to excessive anxiety as he grows up to face a
world of challenge and change.
Parents are the most important factor in the development of a strong mind. Thus a
culture that is not structured to facilitate appropriating nurturing and reasonable
boundaries molded by strong traditions of child rearing and community support will
produce in various degrees mental instability, even if not at the level of trauma.
Although the foundations of mental health are set in the formative years, it is important
to remember that the mind is malleable. With the proper process of transformation,
mental health can be attained at any stage of life.

Attaining Mental Health

Especially in the modern world, people find themselves in societies where the support
of community and family has been substantially eroded. Much of modern society thus
relies on specialists in therapy and self-transformation to attain good mental health.
Although sound mental health was integral to traditional Indian society and therapy as
a specialized field dealing with mental disorders was virtually non-existent, still within
the scope of yogic knowledge there is a wealth of in-depth information on the workings
of the mind, including knowledge applicable to restoring mental health.
Some of that knowledge was alluded to in the beginning of this article when the basic
principles of yoga psychology were described, especially the three factors by which the
mind is swayed—our karma, the environment, and our actions. Each of these will now
be discussed in more depth:
KARMA AND THE MIND

Karma is a powerful factor in influencing the mind. What comes to us in our daily lives
by destiny is often disconcerting. Powerful mental states may also suddenly arise as a
result of past actions. Due to karma we are also born with a set mental nature, which
conditions the mind. Our response to these three manifestations of destiny is the main
factor in forming our mental state.
Practically all classical Indian schools of thought accept destiny as an eternal moral
order, a force to help us grow provided we comprehend the message it bears and
respond properly. Sastra, to a large degree, is a compendium of archetypal stories of
destiny with lessons on how to understand and respond to various circumstances.
That all tribulations of destiny are filled with messages of self-transformation is attested
to by the fact that most individuals would not trade the difficulties they underwent if
they had to also relinquish the valuable lessons they learned from them. According to
yoga psychology, optimum mental health cannot be achieved without some connection
to a tradition of knowledge that teaches one to understand and respond to each
situation in life in a way that molds one’s mind towards goodness.
Although we can substantially change our nature by guidance and self-discipline, we

are still born with a certain basic karmic nature. Part of that nature includes inborn
occupational proclivities, for instance the longing to be creative, make money, or
become learned. Another part of our psyche carries innate social tendencies such as
the degree of our detachment or attachment to worldly life. If unhealthy attachments
are pronounced, they cannot be transcended by will power alone, nor is it healthy to do
so.
Repression causes frustration and anger, which molds the mind towards ignorance,
making one susceptible to the result of that mode: inactivity and
depression. Sastra thus helps identify one’s occupational and social proclivity and

prescribes suitable duties based on those inclinations, such as recommendations for

career and marriage. Only by the regulation of strong attachments, and not by the
unrestricted indulgence or thoughtless repression of them, both which degrade the
mind, can one be elevated to a higher state of mental well-being.
Optimal mental health is thus very hard to achieve without carefully understanding
one’s nature and engaging it properly.
ENVIRONMENT AND THE MIND

Bhagavad-gita confirms the importance of the environment in molding the mind
towards goodness when it deems the knowledge found in the fourteenth chapter ,
where the modes of nature are comprehensively analyzed, best of all. Traditional
Indian culture, ideally ordered in goodness, was itself influenced by this knowledge.
Thus just living in such a society, where many aspects of life were carefully guided by
this knowledge, from the objects of sound (music) and sight (art) to moral behavior,
was therapeutic.
Although today one has little access to such an environment, still everyone has at least
some control over his or her immediate surroundings. For example, the parts of the day
that are in different modes, are usually within one’s rule. Thus if we simply wake early,
just before and around sunrise which is the time of the day substantially in the form
of sattva guna (goodness), the mind will be given a significant boost towards
goodness. Of course, the factors that influence the mind are numerous, but even such
a simple adjustment of taking avail of the early morning hours will substantially
engender peacefulness and clarity of mind.
All five objects of the senses (sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste) can manifest in
different modes and thus everything from our diet to the people we associate with, from
the places we frequent to our level of cleanliness can be molded in a way to influence
the mind to a higher state of well-being.
Those concerned with strong inner well-being, whether to make an unhealthy mind
healthy for the purpose of general contentment, or to make the healthy mind more fit to
facilitate meditation, must know the science of how the environment affects the
consciousness.
ACTIONS AND THE MIND

There are three groups of action geared for positive transformation: actions with an
innate spirit of attachment, but restrained by regulation (karma-yoga), restrained
actions (jnana) , and dedicated actions (bhakti).
For the sake of discussing action in terms of how it affects the supple mind, I have
divided action into four categories. The three groups of action above will be explored
within those categories
I. Dharma
II. Programming

III. Spiritual practice in general

IV. The path of devotion (Bhakti)
HOW ACTIONS AFFECT THE MIND

Before discussing the four categories of action in relation to the mind, it is helpful to
review the mechanics of how information from the senses and one’s response to it
create the general tenor of one’s mind:
Information entering the mind through the senses makes latent impressions
called samskaras that form one’s basic psychological make-up. Samskaras are
imprints in the subconscious that push to be filled or nor filled with the same
experiences that caused them. They can also be called attachments, latent desires, or
memories of pleasures. Based on those samskaras, one responds to future data by
ascribing some feeling (like or dislike) towards it. As a result one is impelled to once
again act, to have new experiences and thus either create additional samskaras, or
strengthen old ones. In either case, the tenor of the mind is altered.
For example, if one drinks alcohol and becomes gladdened, a memory of that
particular pleasure, a samskara, is imbedded in the psyche. The desire for intoxication
thus becomes part of one’s psychology. Although that imprint may remain latent (in
that one may not always feel like drinking) when that samskara is activated by some
circumstance, for example going to a party where alcohol is served, one is impelled to
drink. In this way, a further imprint for drinking is imbedded in the psyche, increasing
one’s desire for alcohol and also the likelihood of drinking in the future.
In other words, a single act and the accompanying experience can entangle the soul in
a continual cycle of the creation and fulfillment of impulses. Within this karmic circle
the samskara at the root of the initial action is then perpetually strengthened so that a
predominant psychological nature is formed.
It can’t be stressed enough how important properly translating the information we
receive through the senses is, as the samskara made by sense data is ultimately
determined by one’s interpretation of it. In other words, the very same information can
produce imprints that foster either enlightening or degrading thoughts (and consequent
actions) depending on how such data is computed.
Psychological knowledge of Bhagwat Geeta

Spoken and written commentary on Bhagavad Gita, the distilled spiritual essence of
Vedas and Upanishads, is aplenty. Mahatma Gandhi was quoted as saying that
whenever he had a problem Bhagavad Gita offered an answer and the solution. For a
student of psychology Bhagavad Gita offers a valuable case study for lessons in
psychotherapy – resolution of conflict and successful resumption of action from a state
of acute anxiety and guilt laden depression that precipitated inaction.
This presentation makes a humble attempt to discuss the therapy process involved in
Bhagavad Gita in which Lord Krishna helped the grief-stricken Arjuna through dialogue

and discussion. The focus would be on the conflict and diagnosis of patient, the
background setting of the situation, personality of patient, technique of therapy,
underlying psychological concepts/ principles/theories, the Guru - Sishya concept, etc.
Bhagavad Gita is part of the great epic Mahabharatha, a widely popular mythological
story in Hindu philosophy; part of Bhishma Parva, Gita is almost in its entirety the
dialogue between two individuals, Lord Krishna (considered as incarnation of
Bhagawan Vishnu, Narayana) and Arjuna (the Pandava prince, Nara) in the battle field
(war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, the cousins, for control of the kingdom
of Hasthinapura) of Kurukshetra. It has 18 yogas (chapters), with about 701 slokas
(short poems), the first one being “Arjuna Vishada Yoga” (Sorrow of Arjuna) and the
last one “Moksha Sanyasa Yoga”(Nirvana and Renunciation).
NOT WHAT IT IS BUT WHAT TRANSPIRED

in those 18 chapters of Bhagavad Gita; the process and content of the dialogue; its
usefulness as a model of counseling and possible contemporary application value to
current day psychological therapies, specially, but need not be limited to, in the Indian
context.
The fact of interest for the student of Psychology psychology lies embedded in the
dialogue between these two slokas:
 Sishyasthe Aham Sadhi Mam Tvam Prapannam
(I am your disciple, Guide me, Help me)[1 II chapter….3 ] rd Sloka
 Nasto mohah Smrtir labdha Tvat Prasadan mayachyuta Sthithosmi gata-
Sandehaha Karishye Vachanam tava
XVIII chapter…..73 (“Clouds” have cleared; my senses are back, all your gift
with my doubts vanished, Ready to act as you direct) rd Sloka
The 3rd sloka of 2nd chapter is depiction of the helpless state of Arjuna praying Lord
Krishna for help. The 73rd Sloka of 18th chapter is reflection of dissolution of anxiety,
worry, depression and guilt and preparedness for action with confidence and vigor.
Whatever transpired between the 3rd sloka of 2nd chapter and the 73rd sloka of the
18th chapter is the matter of scientific curiosity for every student of psychology as it
resulted in the total relief from the distress.
Now the scientific questions can be:
 Do we have any lessons from this?
 Can we develop a model of therapy from these lessons?
 ? Relevance of this model to current day practice
 How useful this approach can be and in which problem?
 What could be the limitations of this approach?
Counseling/psychotherapy is essential and an integral component of psychiatric
interventions in the management of a patient with psychological distress/disease. The
psychotherapeutic models available are developed and imported from the western
literature. The applicability and usefulness of these models in the Indian context was

discussed with some skepticism keeping in mind the varying cultural, religious,
spiritual, societal attitudes (broadly described as eastern/oriental culture) by
psychiatrists in the past.
The Guru-Chela concept, as a model in psychotherapy, popularized by Dr. Neki gets

widely debated in the Indian context. Eminent Indian psychiatrists and psychologists
discussed and proposed Bhagavad Gita as a source and model to develop
psychotherapeutic concepts suitable to Indian context. (Of course, the
eastern/oriental/Indianness of the 21st century Indian can be a matter of speculation
and debate).
I. DHARMA
As discussed, knowledge of the true nature of things and responding to the world
based on that understanding creates the best disposition of mind. The science of doing
this is called dharma.
In the introduction dharma was defined as:
“The correct choice in any circumstances to ensure the healthiest affect on the mind is
called dharma. This very subtle science of prescribed action (dharma) is elaborately
described in sastra.”
Dharma is subtle because it is prescribed according to one’s individual nature, which
varies from person to person. In fact, it varies right from birth where a fraction of an
almost unlimited stock of a person’s past karma, including strong samskaras, is
funneled into one’s particular field of activities (the gross and subtle bodies).
Dharma is thus always done in careful consideration of one’s individual nature,

although certain actions are obviously more universal prescriptions, such as The Ten
Commandments or the yamas (moral restraints) of the Yoga Sutras.
An example of this principle of dharma being prescribed according to one’s nature, and
not universally applied, is the appropriate response to the objects of sex desire. Like all
potential responses to pleasure, the first consideration is the degree of one’s
attachment towards the object of that pleasure.
Thus if sexual attraction is at a depth where it cannot be transcended, then dharma is
to act on that desire, but under careful regulation, in this case limiting the fulfillment of
sex desire at the least to the sphere of marriage, if not solely for procreation. If the
depth of one’s attachment is minimal, however, dharma is the opposite, renunciation of
those desires. The same paradigm is applicable to all prescriptions of dharma—
attachments that cannot be transcended have to be carefully worked through
according to prescribed regulation. The result is also the same —the mind is favorably
transformed by carefully doing one’s duty.
An especially important application of this model of action is the choice of suitable

work. Occupation is an activity that occupies most of our day and thus a key element in
how the mind forms itself. When our work is lined up with our inborn nature and done in

the proper way, when it is dharma, the mind is positively transformed. When it is not,
one is frustrated.
Day after day tolerating boredom or frustration due to occupational work against one’s
nature can easily activate either a strong desire for unwarranted indulgence in sense
pleasure or excessive inactivity. Unfortunately, such desires must be carried home for
fulfillment often crimping in mode and time our ability to put our mind towards direct
spiritual practice.
Positive mental transformation, for most, cannot be separated from a socio-

occupational system designed to provide both meaningful work (varna) and an
appropriate and supportive social status (ashram). Such a system, such as the social
structure that was an ideal for Classical Indian society , was also best supported by a
simple agrarian based economy. Its purpose was not only to supply suitable
psychophysical occupational and social engagement, but to free one’s time and energy
for spiritual practices geared for direct mental transformation.
Although modern society is not particularly structured to support mental health or

spiritual growth, and one often finds oneself in stressful occupational and social
situations , one seeking to maximize mental and spiritual development cannot neglect
a holistic approach, one that seeks, as far as possible, to align one’s social and
occupational life with one’s psychophysical nature.
In summary, there are two choices for incorrect action (adharma) and two choices for
correct action (dharma):
Incorrect action 1: To impulsively indulge one’s unhealthy attachments. Such action is

in the mode of ignorance and molds the mind accordingly.
Incorrect action 2: To repress one’s desires whimsically. By doing so one’s mind is
occupied further by those attachments leading to frustration, anger, and bewilderment.
Repression thus also eventually molds the mind towards ignorance, the worst mode.
Correct action 1: To satisfy one’s attachments by prescribed regulation. Regulation
affords one the advantage of both the satisfaction and renunciation of desire. By
prescribing conditions to fulfill desire, one not only thinks less of those desires, but
avoids the foibles of repression. Regulation also means that beyond the limited
prescription for enjoyment, one is renouncing passions, thus ruling them by goodness
and gradually moving the mind towards that mode.
Correct action 2: To renounce the object of the senses by one qualified to do so. By
renunciation at the level of true indifference, one attains the platform of dispassion, and
quickly brings the mind to its most purified state.
Suitable mentors must thus not only clearly know that one is not the body, but they
must help people understand what the body is. If one is not able to reasonably assess
a person’s level of attachment, but is only able to highlight the duality between mind
and body, action cannot be prescribed in a way that fosters a peaceful and functional

mind, either for living in the world or for pursuing transcendence. Such guides must
also be qualified to inspire and teach renunciation to gradually move people towards
that goal.
II. PROGRAMMING
Regardless of one’s level of renunciation, one can learn to program or condition the
mind to give up bad habits and to develop good ones. This is described in the Yoga
Sutras as consciously supplanting bad samskaras with good ones.
To understand how programming works, one should first understand the duality
between pleasure and happiness, that samskaras that may give momentary pleasure,
such as intoxication and fault-finding, also simultaneously mold the mind towards
distress.
Understanding this duality, one can then program the mind to supplant
the samskaras impelling one to indulge in a bad habit by associating it with ones that
highlight the suffering it causes. For example, one may give up smoking by regularly
visualizing the distress caused by it, such as lung disease and the lack of character
such addictions reflect, so that eventually a healthy samskara of aversion (smoking is
bad) supersedes the unhealthy imprint of attachment (smoking is good).
III. SPIRITUAL PRACTICE (SADHANA)

The objective of yoga psychology is not just to stabilize the mind, but to perfect it. This
was described in the introduction:
“Yoga psychology deals with the transformation and stabilization of the mind, not as an
end in itself, but as means to attain a higher state of consciousness beyond the mind
where the purusa, or soul, imbibes in its own pure nature.”
To attain that state, however, the support of the mind is necessary. The mind is
called antar-karanam, the internal instrument. Like all instruments, the mind requires
tuning or sharpening to function best. To succeed in spiritual life, one must therefore
gradually mold the mind to higher forms of cognition.
In terms of transforming the mind, we have already discussed the importance of
properly structuring our environment and adhering to moral actions within our day to
day lives. To achieve optimum transformation and ultimate transcendence, however, it
is of utmost importance to reserve a time and place to exclusively engage with the
mind for the purpose of transforming it. Such a prescribed exercise is called sadhana,
or spiritual practice. The foundation of sadhana is meditation.
To understand how meditation transforms the mind, one first has to understand its goal
— to bring the mind to its pure state. This state can be compared to the original
condition of a perfectly tuned instrument where its maximum potential is realized. The
mind thus functions best in sattva, the most wholesome state of matter. In other words,
in sattva the discriminating ability of the mind is sharpened to the degree where the

soul can perfectly distinguish itself from its encasement, the mind and body. In terms of
this ability to foster true perception, this optimum state can also be compared to a
properly formed and thoroughly cleansed lens.
IV. BHAKTI
So far we have discussed transformation based on individual effort. The path

of bhakti adds the aspect of grace to our discussion, help beyond individual effort.
Grace thus implies the conviction in a unique supremely potent and omniscient soul, a
being with total power to direct the laws of nature and thus cleanse one’s mind simply
by grace. Bhakti as a process of transformation is thus the act of giving oneself to God
in devotion and petitioning that grace.
Obviously, the degree to which bhakti inspires the soul and transforms the mind
depends on the purity of our practice and our level of devotion. Real transformative
devotion is thus rag bhakti, where attachment (rag) to the Lord, not just obligation and
duty, is the motivating force for our action.
Bhakti, action done with pure love for God, is thus a powerful transformative agent as it
invokes grace, stirs the soul, and flows naturally away from egoism and exploitation,
the core obstacles to yoga. In Bhagavad-gita it is thus deemed the best of
transformative paths.
Summary
Yoga psychology gives a practical, workable, and holistic paradigm for transformation,
which thoroughly explains the effect of one’s nature, actions, environment and heartfelt
devotion on the development of a healthy mind.
The prime source for my study of yoga psychology was the recently published “The
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali” by Dr. Edwin Bryant, North Point Press, which is not only a
translation of the Yoga Sutras, but is a translation and commentary on all the major
commentators on the Yoga Sutras as well. I began this paper before the book was
officially published, so I would like to personally thank Professor Bryant for sharing with
me, in advance, some excerpts of his work. The author is not only an established
academic, but a long time student and practitioner of yoga as well, which makes for an
especially insightful and readable translation and commentary.
ii. Bhagavad-gita, 6.5
iii. Yoga Sutras 1.5

iv. Inherent in most systems of Indian yogic thought, and most methods of mental
health, is the concept that distress lies not in reality, but in our perception of it,, and
thus mentors by carefully freeing us from ignorance also make us more mentally
healthy.

v. An example would be a young child who has bad experiences with his parents and
thus develops a bad impression towards all authority and who then distrust all elders,
even kinds ones.
vi. Problems of restoring mental health were also dealt with in the social structure,
including family and priests. Extremely serious mental problems were also dealt with by
certain types of tantrics.
vii. Bhagavad-gita, 14.1
viii. In Indian time there are 36 48-minute divisions called muhurtas. The brahma
muhurta, the 48 minutes before sunrise, was considered the most conducive for
spiritual life.
ix. Cleanliness is the object of sight in the mode of goodness and will naturally make
one more peaceful and clear minded.
x. Yoga is generally considered part of the path of jnana.
Psychological knowledge of Buddhism
Buddhist psychology is primarily about self-knowledge- finding out more about who you
are, understanding your decisions, actions, thoughts, feelings, etc. It is an expression
of the Delphic dictum Know Thyself and the injunction that transformative spiritual
paths throughout time and geography have demanded as the central ingredient in
authentic happiness.
Buddhist psychology is ‘radical,’ as it aims to challenge your worldview (as all authentic
spirituality and psychology does). It is radical in that it addresses the basis or
foundation of our psychological functioning, our sense of who we are, and our
relationships with others and with the world. As a result, the fruit of applying the
psychological insights of the Buddha requires diligence, perseverance and
discernment as they will naturally encounter the resistances and obstacles inherent in
our conditioned nature.
It is not a coincidence that Buddhism finds itself so welcome in the western world since
the last decades of the preceding century. While the appeal certainly includes those
who have converted to Buddhism as a faith and have adopted the practices, liturgies
and meditations of whatever form of Buddhism speaks to them, the more unique and
far-reaching impact of Buddhism, as a psychology, has taken place in academia and
among clinical researchers, who have observed that the Buddhist understanding of
consciousness, mind, behavior, motivation, personality and psychopathology bear a
close resemblance to perspectives held in western psychology and psychotherapy.
While the Buddha was not a psychiatrist or psychologist in the formal sense of the
word, the vast majority of his recorded teachings, are explicitly concerned with the

sources of emotional suffering and their amelioration. No doubt there is much, much
more to Buddhism than the psychology he elucidates.
Right concentration, through four stages, is the last step in the path that leads to the
goal-nirvana.
(i) The 1st stage of concentration is on reasoning and investigation regarding the
truths. There is then a joy of pure thinking.
(ii) The 2nd stage is unruffled meditation even free from reasoning. There is then a joy
of tranquillity.
(iii) The 3rd stage of concentration is detachment from even the joy of tranquillity. There
is then indifference to even such joy but a feeling of a bodily case still persists.
(iv) The 4th and final stage of concentration is detachment from this bodily case too.
There are then perfect equanimity and indifference. This is the state of nirvana or
perfect wisdom. This is the highest form of Buddhist meditation, and full practice of it is
usually restricted to monks and nuns who have progressed considerably along the
path.
BUDDHISM AND WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY

Assessment of Buddhism in terms of modern western psychology started when British
Indologist Rhys Davids translated Abhidhamma Pitaka from Pali and Sanskrit texts in
1900. She published the book entitled it, “Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics”. In
1914, she wrote another book “Buddhist psychology: An inquiry into the analysis and
theory of mind”.
Buddhism and phenomenological psychology

Any assessment of Buddhism in terms of psychology is necessarily a modern western
invention. Western and Buddhist scholars have found in Buddhist teachings a detailed
introspective phenomenological psychology. Rhys Davids in her book “Buddhist
Manual of Psychological Ethics” wrote, “Buddhist philosophy is ethical first and last.
Buddhism set itself to analyze and classify mental processes with remarkable insight
and sagacity”. Buddhism's psychological orientation is a theme Rhys Davids pursued
for decades as evidenced by her other writings.
Buddhism and existential Psychology

Buddha said that life is suffering. Existential psychology speaks of ontological
anxiety (dread, angst). Buddha said that suffering is due to attachment. Existential
psychology also has some similar concepts. We cling to things in the hope that they
will provide us with a certain benefit. Buddha said that suffering can be extinguished.
The Buddhist concept of nirvana is quite similar to the existentialists’ freedom.
Freedom has, in fact, been used in Buddhism in the context of freedom from rebirth or
freedom from the effects of karma. For the existentialist, freedom is a fact of our being,
one which we often ignore.

Finally, Buddha says that there is a way to extinguish suffering. For the existential
psychologist, the therapist must take an assertive role in helping the client become
aware of the reality of his or her suffering and its roots. Likewise, the client must take
an assertive role in working towards improvement–even though it means facing the
fears they’ve been working so hard to avoid, and especially facing the fear that they
will “lose” themselves in the process.
Psychological knowledge of Sufism

The mystics drew their vocabulary largely from the Qurʾān, which for Muslims contains
all divine wisdom and has to be interpreted with ever-increasing insight. In the Qurʾān,
mystics found the threat of the Last Judgment, but they also found the statement that
God “loves them and they love him,” which became the basis for love-mysticism. Strict
obedience to the religious law and imitation of the Prophet were basic for the mystics.
By rigid introspection and mental struggle, the mystic tried to purify his baser self from
even the smallest signs of selfishness, thus attaining ikhlāṣ, absolute purity of intention
and act. Tawakkul (trust in God) was sometimes practiced to such an extent that every
thought of tomorrow was considered irreligious. “Little sleep, little talk, little food” were
fundamental; fasting became one of the most important preparations for the spiritual
life.
The central concern of the Sufis, as of every Muslim, was tawḥīd the witness that
“there is no deity but God.” This truth had to be realized in the existence of each
individual, and so the expressions differ: early Sufism postulated the approach to God
through love and voluntary suffering until a unity of will was reached; Junayd spoke of
“recognizing God as He was before creation”; God is seen as the One and only actor;
He alone “has the right to say ‘I’.” Later, tawḥīd came to mean the knowledge that
there is nothing existent but God, or the ability to see God and creation as two aspects
of one reality, reflecting each other and depending upon each other (waḥdat al-wujūd).
The mystics realized that beyond the knowledge of outward

sciences intuitive knowledge was required in order to receive that illumination to which
reason has no access. Dhawq, direct “tasting” of experience, was essential for them.
But the inspirations and “unveilings” that God grants such mystics by special grace
must never contradict the Qurʾān and tradition and are valid only for the person
concerned.
Even the Malāmatīs, who attracted public contempt upon themselves by outwardly
acting against the law, in private life strictly followed the divine commands. Mystics who
expressed in their poetry their disinterest in, and even contempt of, the traditional
formal religions never forgot that Islam is the highest man festation of divine wisdom.
Islamic thinkers also recognised the uncanny resemblance between the analyst-
analysand and the shaykh (or spiritual master)-disciple relation in Sufism. The mid-
20th-century Egyptian Abu al-Wafa al-Ghunaymi al-Taftazani, a shakyh of a Sufi order
and later a professor of Islamic philosophy and Sufism at Cairo University, began

writing about Sufism in the 1950s. He was widely read in Egypt and beyond, and he
often compared Sufism and the psychoanalytic tradition.
In particular, al-Taftazani noted that both Sufism and psychoanalysis relied upon an
introspective method; both engaged not with the manifest content of the psyche or soul
(nafs), but with its latent content, a domain often marked by sexual desires. Most
importantly, both exhibited a concern for the batin or the realm of hidden meaning, as
well as for the inner reaches of the unconscious (al-la-shu‘ur).
Psychological knowledge of Integral Yoga

All spiritual seeking moves towards an object of Knowledge to which ordinary man in
his humdrum of life does not turn his eye. A state of knowledge where we can touch,
enter, know by identity the Ineffable, Infinite, Indescribable Eternal. As mental beings
we have to start from our ordinary instruments and objects mostly but thereafter
suprasensuous and supramental means and faculties are needed, as what we are
seeking is that `where the eyes cannot reach, nor speech, not even mind,...'In
traditional systems, all cosmic existence is termed as ignorance. Absolute can only
inhibit transcendental and non-cosmic existence. Thus, there is negation of individual
and cosmic.
In reality, thought only is a scout and pioneer, it can guide but not command or
effectuate. The leader of the journey is the Will, Tapas, Shakti, and Shraddha, which
sovereignly determine our orientation and of which the intellect and the heart are more
or less blind and automatic servants and instruments. All activities proceed from this
supreme Self and are determined by it. In these activities is expressed the conscious
Will or Shakti of the spirit moved to manifest its being in infinite ways.
This Will is more profound and nearer to the Absolute than our surface thought power.
To know that will in us and in the universe and follow it to its divine finalities, whatever
these may be is the truest culmination for knowledge. Since thought is not the highest
or strongest part of our nature, its exclusive satisfaction is not necessary in the integral
Yoga, it has to see due satisfaction of other faculties as well.
The impulse towards Absolute is not just dry and abstract, not just straight line logical
thinking, it is, in fact, more multi-sided, more complex, richly diverse and endless. An
abstract logic can only reach infinite empty negation or equally infinite and vacant
affirmation. Heart, will, life and even the body are no lesser forms of the Conscious
Being and are having great significance.
Psychological knowledge of Science and spirituality

Scientific interest in religious spirituality and mental health has increased dramatically.
However, many researchers have tended to ignore the historic incompatibility between
spirituality and traditional science. A review of the spirituality research suggests that
important themes of this historic incompatibility persist in contemporary theories of

spirituality. Yet, many spirituality researchers have proceeded as if this incompatibility

did not exist. Indeed, there is evidence that spiritual conceptions have been altered to
"fit" the requirements of science. No alteration would seem necessary if scientific
method were a neutral tool of investigation that did not affect the conceptions
themselves.
However, if method itself has philosophical commitments, and if these commitments

are incompatible with the conceptual foundations of many conceptions of spirituality,
then spirituality researchers may be undermining their own conceptions in the service
of science. We outline the philosophical commitments of traditional scientific methods
and the philosophical commitments of many contemporary conceptions of spirituality to
begin a conversation about this possibility.
Examining the Relationship Between Religious

Spirituality and Psychological Science There has long been an interest in the
relationship between religious spirituality and mental health. However, this interest has
recently extended to the use of traditional scientific methods for examining this
relationship (cf. Clay, 1996; Donohue, 1989; Shafranske, 1996).
This use of science to examine the spiritual is unprecedented, uniting two historically
separate realms of knowledge and even methods.1 This unity, however, has been
effected without much critical discussion. Calls for such discussion have been issued
(e.g., Dennis, 1995; Gorsuch, 1988; Tjeltveit, 1989; Williams and Faulconer, 1994), but
with certain exceptions (e.g., Jones, 1996; Richards & Bergin, 1997), these calls have
not been heeded in the spirituality and mental health literature.
Critical examination is nevertheless required, because the philosophical commitments
of traditional scientific method may conflict with the theoretical assumptions of many
conceptions of spirituality (cf. Bergin, 1980; Ellis, 1980; Walls, 1980).
This conflict could lead to unintended and unfortunate consequences. There is

evidence, for example, that some spirituality researchers alter, ignore, or fail to
elaborate important conceptions of spirituality that are incompatible with the traditional
philosophy of science (Slife, Nebeker, & Hope, 1996).
The present paper attempts to address these issues. The purpose of the paper is to
begin laying the foundation for fertile theoretical discussion and productive empirical
work in the important realm of spirituality. We feel that the first task in laying this
foundation is one of clarification.
Therefore, we begin by describing the historical separation between science and

spirituality. We focus our inquiry on religious spirituality to narrow the vast domain of
spirituality to a manageable size. This focus also allows us to point to a more specific
history and philosophy with which to compare the history and philosophy of science.

Our main point of departure for this comparison is modernism, both in its emphasis on
method for evaluating truth claims and in its assumptions about the nature of the world.
Interestingly, many contemporary spirituality researchers embrace modernist scientific
methods but reject the naturalistic philosophical assumptions that underlie these
methods in their conceptions of spirituality.
We characterize these researchers as antimodernists and attempt to begin a
discussion of the appropriateness of their approach to spirituality research. This
discussion cannot occur in any productive manner without considering alternative
approaches, so relevant postmodernist assumptions are also outlined. First, however,
historical context is needed.
A Brief History of the Separation of Science and Spirituality Historically, both spiritual
and scientific knowledge have revolved around the issue of authority: Who or what has
the authority to decide the truth? In the Middle ages, the authority for knowledge was
primarily considered to be a "who"—God—with the priest or some other "instrument"
as a sometimes fallible conduit for God's authority.
This authority involved not only what we would consider today to be "religious" or
"spiritual" issues, but also what we would consider today to be "scientific" or "secular"
issues. To give God authority especially over the latter types of knowledge, such as
medicine, sounds strange to many today, but this strangeness is due to the intellectual
movements that followed the Middle Ages—the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.
These latter movements saw the church gradually lose its authority over general
knowledge to two philosophical movements involving rigorous logic and systematic
observation.
The first philosophical movement, known as Rationalism, held that the primary
authority for truth is rationality or logic. If knowledge, including religious knowledge, did
not stand up to the test of rigorous reasoning, then it was suspect. Most religions,
however, were not founded upon totally rational systems of thought.
This historic conflict

This historic conflict has not been ignored by contemporary psychological
researchers of spirituality (cf. Dennis, 1995; Jones, 1996). Still, a review of the relevant
literature reveals that it has rarely been addressed or discussed in the light of present
research practices. Jones (1996) and Dennis (1995) correctly note that a growing
consensus of scholars has rejected this traditional philosophy of science (sometimes
known as "positivism"). However, this rejection is rarely reflected in the research
practices of mainstream researchers (cf.
Harmon, 1993, 1995; Slife & Williams, 1995; Slife & Williams, 1997), including, we
contend, those researchers investigating spirituality.8 Indeed, it appears that most
spirituality researchers have proceeded as if the assumptions and practices of

traditional, positivistic science—including such practices as replication, reduction, and

operationalization—do not conflict with the assumptions they make about spirituality.
Psychological knowledge of Avidya and Vidya

Lauren, a Los Angeles yoga teacher, slipped in a lunge while teaching and injured her
ankle. Because she's a practice-through-the-pain kind of yogi, she didn't even stop to
assess the injury before continuing her class. When she finally got to the doctor, she
discovered she would have to stay off the ankle for at least a month.
For Lauren, this triggered a deep identity crisis. Since her teens, her strong body has
been the source of her well-being, her self-esteem, and, in adulthood, her income. She
can still teach, and her injury may even turn out to be an incentive to deepen her
understanding of alignment. But because the "me" she has always felt herself to be is
so tied to her physicality, the accident has left her deeply disoriented. Of course, she
tells me impatiently, she knows she's not her body. But knowing that doesn't seem to
cure her feelings of self-doubt and fear.
Avidya: An Identity Crisis

Deeper than the trauma itself, deeper even than the memories that may be contributing
to their feeling of personal derailment, Lauren and George are both suffering from the
core misunderstanding that the yogic texts call avidya—a basic ignorance of who we
are and of the underlying reality that connects everything in the universe. Their current
situation is an opportunity for each of them to recognize this fundamental
misperception—to look into the nature of identity itself.
When everything you have relied on seems to dissolve, you get not only a glimpse of
the cracks in your psychological infrastructure but also a chance to examine the source
of the problem, which gives you a better shot at getting free of it.
The Sanskrit word vidya means wisdom or knowledge—the wisdom earned through
deep practice and experience. The prefix a indicates a lack or an absence. In the yogic
sense, avidya means something that goes far beyond ordinary ignorance. Avidya is a
fundamental blindness about reality.
Identifying Avidya
In Patanjali's Yoga Sutra II.5, we are given four useful clues for identifying when we
have slipped into avidya. Each clue points to a particular way in which we take surface
perceptions for reality. It cautions us to look deeper—to inquire beneath what our
physical senses or cultural prejudices or egoic belief structures tell us. "Avidya," the
sutra says, "is to mistake the impermanent for the eternal, the impure for the pure,
sorrow for happiness, and the not-Self for the true Self."
If you explore this sutra, it can lead you to a profound reflection on the illusory nature of
perception. Even a casual look at history reveals that each advance in science and

culture has called into question beliefs that our ancestors took for granted—everything
from the idea that Earth is the center of the solar system to the notion that matter is
solid. The primary purpose of the sutra is to question our notions of identity. But, at the
same time, it offers a window into some of our garden-variety forms of cluelessness.
Notice how Patanjali's definition applies to so many levels of ignorance. Mistaking the
perishable for the imperishable? That's the everyday denial that keeps people believing
they can depend on fossil fuels indefinitely, or jog on asphalt without damaging their
cartilage. It's that hopeful belief that your romantic passion will last forever, or that
another person's love will give you security. On a deeper level, it's what keeps you
from seeing that your conception of "me"—"my personality," "my self"—is not stable
and is certainly not permanent, that just as your body is an ever-shifting configuration
of atoms, so your internal sense of self consists of thoughts about who you are (as in
"I'm pretty" or "I'm confused"), feelings like happiness or restlessness, and moods such
as depression or hopefulness—all of which are subject to change.
Practicing Awareness of Avidya

Taken together, these flavors of avidya cause you to live in a kind of trance state—
aware of what's obvious on the surface but unable to recognize the underlying reality.
Since this personal trance is fully supported by the beliefs and perceptions of the
culture around you, it's difficult for most of us even to recognize the existence of the
veil. To fully dismantle avidya is the deep goal of yoga, and it demands a radical shift
of consciousness. But the good news is that just recognizing that you're entranced is to
begin to wake up from the dream. And you can begin to free yourself from its more
egregious manifestations by simply being willing to question the validity of your ideas
and feelings about who you are.
Avidya makes you believe that the way you think or feel things are is the way they
actually are. You can step past this misperception by looking at what your mind
habitually tells you and questioning its conclusions about reality. Then, go a step
further and notice how feelings create thoughts, and thoughts create feelings—and
how the reality they construct for you is exactly that: a construct!
How to Free Yourself from Avidya

Dismantling avidya is a multilayered process, which is why one breakthrough is usually
not enough. Since different types of practice unpick different aspects of avidya, the
Indian tradition prescribes different types of yoga for each one—devotional practice for
the ignorance of the heart, selfless action for the tendency to attach to outcomes,
meditation for a wandering mind. The good news is that any level you choose to work
with is going to make a difference.
You free yourself from a piece of your avidya every time you increase your ability to be
conscious, or hold presence during a challenging event.

You can do this in dozens of ways. For instance, you can increase your consciousness
about your connection and responsibility to the planet by sensitizing yourself to the
energy in the natural world, in wind and water and trees. You can increase your
awareness of your connections to others by listening better and by practicing
kindness—but also by sinking your awareness into the heart center and trying to tune
in to others from that interior place. You increase your consciousness of yourself by
noticing your blind spots, or by noticing your emotions and their effect in the body.
Meditations to Dismantle Avidya

Meditations that tune you into pure Being will begin to remove the deeper ignorance
that makes you automatically identify "me" with the body, personality, and ideas. On a
day-to-day, moment-to-moment level, you burn off a few layers of avidya every time
you turn your awareness inward and reflect on the subtle meaning of a feeling or a
physical reaction.
These types of interventions are not just key spiritual practices. They are also practical
self-help techniques. When George asks himself, "Is it really true that my wife's
involvement with another man damages my sense of self?" he has a chance to
recognize that his wife's choices are not statements about who he is.
This calms his anxiety, which gives him some leverage for moving forward. Noticing
where the sadness and disorientation sit in his body, feeling his way into the
sensations around the sadness, might lead him to look for the root feeling behind the
fear and disorientation.
He might notice that he has a hidden belief about himself, like "I'm unlovable," and
recognize that it comes from childhood and is not really related to the current situation.
He could then practice with the sad feeling, maybe breathe it out, or substitute a
positive thought for the painful belief, and notice how either practice changes his mood.
In this way, his self-inquiry practice gives him support and clarity as he decides how to
handle his wife's request for an open relationship.
Self-knowledge in Indian Psychology

Within the normal routine of science these fundamental questions are seldom raised.
Each scientific discipline has its own framework within which more immediately
practical questions are selected, answers searched and, in due time, generally found.
As long as we remain within the boundaries of our discipline, the deep questions do
not really arise.
They do come up, however, when we get involved in interdisciplinary work. Then we
get confronted with the significant differences in approach to knowledge and its
acquisition that exist between the different scientific disciplines. The issue comes up
still more trenchantly, when we try to study a subject that simply does not fit within the
parameters of our particular discipline. Consciousness is one such subject that

challenges the most basic assumptions of the disciplines that are at present trying to
tackle it.
When consciousness was studied in the 19th century there was plenty of confusion, no
doubt, but no essential, epistemological difficulty, for it was approached mainly from
within the confines of a metaphysical and clinical psychology in which subjective,
introspective forms of enquiry were still accepted as a legitimate source of knowledge.
When psychology in the early years of the 20th century, attempted to become an
objective science, like physics, it redefined itself as behaviorism, and the subject of
consciousness disappeared more or less completely from scientific enquiry
(Guzaldere,1995).
Only at the very end of the 20th century, did consciousness force itself again on the
scientific agenda. This time around, however, it was taken up by an objective
psychology, "evidence-based" medicine, and hard sciences like neurophysiology,
computer science and physics. And here the epistemological difficulties arose.
There can be no doubt that the objective sciences have made tremendous progress
during recent times regarding the functional and physical correlates of consciousness,
but it is hard to believe that this will make us much wiser about consciousness itself.
If it is confirmed, for example, that our human consciousness is not located in any one
specific center of the human brain but that it goes together with 40Hz electromagnetic
waves that move from the front to the back over the frontal lobes, then this is extremely
interesting in its own right, but it is not very clear how much this adds to what we know
about consciousness itself (as distinct from its material correlates).
by knowledge
The words "knowledge" and "consciousness" are used in many different ways by
different people, so before proceeding I’ll try to clarify how I will use these terms. I don’t
think it is possible, or for that matter, very useful, to give exhaustive definitions of
either. These concepts are too complex and comprehensive for such an attempt. So
the following is meant only as a first indication of the direction in which we will move.
For our limited purpose it is sufficient to observe that the knowledge aimed at by
science is not of the same type as the knowledge aimed at by the Vedic tradition.
Scientific knowledge consists of explicit statements about things and processes and
the relationships between them. One of the most generic descriptions of a valid
statement of scientific knowledge is probably "If you do action a, under conditions c,
you will get result r". (Velmans, 2001) This pragmatic formula holds even for much of
yogic knowledge, but it does not hold for all of it: it presumes, for example, the
existence of an independent agent, which doesn’t apply to the higher ranges of
mystical experience. There are other differences as well. In the Vedantic worldview,
where truth is not seen primarily as a property of sentences, but as something inherent

in the observer as well as the observed, the knowledge aimed at doesn’t consist of
independently existing, external descriptions of such truth.
The aim rather consists of the very act of seeing, realising or even becoming that truth.
In ordinary science explicit statements about reality are complete in themselves; in
Yoga statements about reality are rarely more than hints or aids, meant to arrive at a
direct perception of a deeper truth, which itself remains concealed behind the outer
formula.
Within the context of Yoga, Sri Aurobindo describes Vedic knowledge as

follows:
[T]he knowledge we have to arrive at is not truth of the intellect; it is not right belief,
right opinions, right information about oneself and things, that is only the surface mind's
idea of knowledge. To arrive at some mental conception about God and ourselves and
the world is an object good for the intellect but not large enough for the Spirit; it will not
make us the conscious sons of Infinity. Ancient Indian thought meant by knowledge a
consciousness which possesses the highest Truth in a direct perception and in self-
experience; to become, to be the Highest that we know is the sign that we really have
the knowledge.
…For the individual to arrive at the divine universality and supreme infinity, live in it,
possess it, to be, know, feel and express that one in all his being, consciousness,
energy, delight of being is what the ancient seers of the Veda meant by the
Knowledge; (Sri Aurobindo,1972a, p.686-87)
It may be clear that this Vedic concept of knowledge is something entirely different
from the scientific
concept of knowledge. Of course the ancients were aware of the more mundane type
of knowledge, but they were less exclusively interested in it than modern science.
Avidya, or "ignorance", as they called it somewhat disdainfully, denotes all knowledge
that is not knowledge of the Absolute and the word is specifically used for knowledge
of the world, in other words, for science. According to Sri Aurobindo’s interpretation of
the Isha Upanishad, both vidya (Knowledge of the One) and avidya (knowledge of the
multiplicity) are needed for a complete understanding of reality:
Into a blind darkness they enter who follow after the Ignorance, they as if into
a greater darkness who devote themselves to the Knowledge alone.
… He who knows That as both in one, the Knowledge and the Ignorance, by the
Ignorance crosses beyond death and by the Knowledge enjoys Immortality.
(Sri Aurobindo’s translation, 1996, pp. 21-22)
In the acquisition of the Vedic type of Knowledge four clearly demarcated stages are
distinguished, of which only the first is a part of ordinary science: information,
experience, realization and transformation.

These four stages of understanding are most typically used to describe different levels
of understanding the ultimate reality, but they also occur in other types of knowledge.
Information can be gained by listening to others, by reading or by conducting objective
experiments. It is the level of knowledge science deals with. Unless it is related to
something emotionally loaded, information generally does not directly affect a person.
Only through the second stage of direct experience, knowledge becomes really one’s
own. Still, experience does not yet make any deep change to whom one is in one’s
essence.
It is still something one has and is still separate from who one thinks one is. Direct
personal involvement comes with the third step: realisation. Realisation involves a true
reversal of consciousness. After realisation, there is no coming back. It changes who
you feel you are. But even then, even though one has changed one’s basic position
and outlook on reality, one’s nature remains still largely what it was.
The whole nature changes only during the last stage, through the process of
transformation. Experience and realisation can come by themselves, or after much
effort, but they are things that happen at once.
One can afterwards remember the exact date and time. Transformation however is a
gradual and laborious process.
Before we can explore how the Vedic, inner knowledge relates to scientific knowledge,
we have to have a look at what consciousness is, for human knowledge is typically a
combination of information with consciousness, or at least potential consciousness.
Recent years have seen an enormous interest in information, largely spawned by the
communications industry with its need to store and transfer information electronically.
We will not get into this information aspect but focus rather on the aspect of
consciousness.
Consciousness
What is Reality?
In most scientific literature, consciousness is equated with the ordinary mental
awareness of one’s surrounding and one’s internal movements. Sri Aurobindo uses the
word "consciousness", in line with the Vedic tradition, in a much wider sense, for
something that is pervasive throughout existence.
As such it can take many forms. In man consciousness manifests most typically as
mind, but in pure inorganic matter, for example, it manifests as not more than an
obscure habit of form and movement. Consciousness in Sri Aurobindo’s terminology is
thus a much wider concept than mind. It exists in many grades or types that together
form a hierarchy ranging from matter to the pure spirit, with the mind somewhere in the
middle.
Sri Aurobindo formulates his view of this wider range of consciousness as

follows:

Consciousness is usually identified with mind, but mental consciousness is only the
human range which no more exhausts all the possible ranges of consciousness than
human sight exhausts all the gradations of colour or human hearing all the gradations
of sound – for there is much above or below that is to man invisible and inaudible.
So there are ranges of consciousness above and below the human range, with which
the normal human [consciousness] has no contact and they seem to it
unconscious...(Sri Aurobindo,1972b, p. 234)
This extended use of the term may in first instance be confusing for those who are
used to the way the term is used in most of western scientific literature.
Consciousness and mind are there often equated and in psychology mind is even used
as a wider concept than consciousness (for example when a distinction is made
between conscious and unconscious mental processes).
Such a restricted conceptualization of consciousness makes of consciousness a freak

phenomenon that suddenly appears at a certain level of physical complexity and that
as such defies explanation.
Much of the confusion that presently reigns in the field of consciousness studies seems
to be due to an unworkable delineation of both matter and consciousness. Chalmers’
"hard problem"[REF] for example, is hard only because it contains implicit assumptions
about the relationship between matter and consciousness that are quite unwarranted.
So there is actually only one world of which we are portions and see aspects. When
our individual consciousness expands and begins to merge with the cosmic
consciousness, we begin to realise that there is only one conscious existence that
separates itself, for the joy of manifestation, into an infinite number of relations
between itself as observing consciousness and itself as observed Nature. At any given
time, the only thing we can know about the reality is the interaction between the center,
and thus the type, of consciousness we identify with and this ineffable Nature. The
scientific, objective, relationship is just one amongst many such relationships.
Four types of Knowledge

On the basis of this broad philosophical conceptualisation of knowledge,
consciousness and reality, we can now attempt to build a more pragmatic bridge
between scientific and Vedic knowledge. Though the scientific and the Vedic ways of
knowing seem so different as to be incompatible,
they may actually be complimentary and prove to be equally needed to arrive at a
complete picture of ourselves and of the world in which we live. While scientific
knowledge has proven to be extremely effective within the limited range of the mental
understanding of the physical world, the Vedic type of
Knowledge has provided a comprehensive map of the whole field.

Just like science has spawned a technology to explore the material level of reality in an
objective way, the Vedic tradition has developed yoga as an effective technology to
study the inner and higher levels of reality in a subjective way. It does this largely by
enabling the observer to change the type and center of his or her consciousness. This
is not only relevant for those interested in metaphysics and spiritual growth. What
happens on the higher and lower levels of consciousness has an enormous influence
on our ordinary waking state, and their study is thus of the utmost importance for
humanity.
The systematic study of consciousness will have to begin, however, on the level of the
ordinary waking mind. Even in our ordinary waking state, there is not only one type of
knowledge, but several. In one place, Sri Aurobindo distinguishes four different types
of knowledge that are routinely used in the ordinary waking state. Together they form a
gradient between the external knowledge that Science works with and the inner
knowledge that according to the Vedic tradition is the essence of all other forms of
knowledge.
The four types of knowledge are called as follows:

1. Knowledge by indirect separative contact (= scientific knowledge of the outer reality)
2. Knowledge by direct separative contact (= objective introspection of inner
processes)
3. Knowledge by direct intimate contact (= experiential knowledge of inner processes)
4. Knowledge by identity (= Vedic knowledge)

The first type of knowledge, knowledge by indirect separative contact, consists of
explicit, objective information about what we see as the external world. Sri Aurobindo
describes it as indirect because it is mediated by the external sense organs, and
as separative because it goes together with a sense of clear separation between the
self, who is the knower, and the object, which is the known. This type of knowledge
has been developed and expanded impressively by the physical sciences over the last
couple of centuries and is perhaps too well-known to need much further comment.
The last type, knowledge by identity, is the very different type of knowledge that we
have of our own existence. For this type of knowledge the senses are not required as it
is a knowledge that arises "from inside out." It is the knowledge we have of ourselves
simply because we are. There is no difference here between subject and object and, in
a way, not even a process: knowing and being are one. In our ordinary waking
consciousness, knowledge by identity is hardly developed and almost point-like in
character: it is undifferentiated and has no other content than the bare fact of its own
existence.
There are certain basic knowledge structures that are needed to make sense of what
comes from the senses. The fundamental rules of logic and mathematics are one
interesting example of such innate or intuitive knowledge, but it occurs also in the less

formalized knowledge individuals have of their surrounding. Sri Aurobindo holds that a
lot of this "built-in," instinctive knowledge is required to make anything at all out of the
extremely incomplete and imperfect information that our sense-organs provide.
The necessity or otherwise of this type of pre-experiential knowledge has been

discussed for centuries, but it appears the tide is slowly turning again in its favour. For
example, Sir Karl Popper (1994, p.15) has given some of the most convincing
arguments against a tabula rasa image of the newborn child and recent psychological
research seems to provide experimental evidence corroborating the idea that we do
have extensive innate knowledge about the structure of the world.
How such innate knowledge relates to intuitive knowledge remains however a complex
issue. In Sri Aurobindo’s description of the manifold reality, logic and mathematics both
belong to the pure mental plane and not to the physical plane, and they are derived
from knowledge by identity rather than from knowledge by separative indirect contact.
The honing of subjective knowledge

As a whole, science has concentrated almost exclusively on the acquisition of sense-
based knowledge of the outer world. This is understandable in terms of the historical
division of territories between science and religion at the time of Descartes. It can also
be explained as a universal human trait: the windows of the senses look outwards, as
the Upanishads say, and that is where we are inclined to look for truth in the first place.
But there are also a number of pragmatic reasons that have maintained this strong
external focus.
The main one is the lack of reliability of untrained introspection and other forms of
subjective knowledge. All human perception is prone to error, but perceptions of inner
states are particularly inconsistent and unreliable. There are many reasons for this.
One of them is that human beings are aware of only a tiny fraction of what is going on
inside. We have access only to the surface and miss out on the forces and processes
that take place below, behind and above the surface, and these surface appearances
can be misleading. As Freud discovered in the early twentieth century and the Indian
tradition in a completely different (and much more comprehensive) fashion several
millennia earlier, it is from these deeper (and higher) layers of consciousness that our
outer nature is determined. As long as one doesn't open the deeper recesses of one’s
nature to the inner sight, it is not possible to achieve a reliable form of introspection.
A second distorting factor is that we have an interest in the outcomes. In introspection

one typically looks with one part of oneself at another part of oneself. It is extremely
difficult to watch oneself objectively without any bias, fear or expectation. The mind has
its preferences, the vital nature its desires and needs, the body its physical limitations.
All these interfere with a "clean" observation. This is of course true for external
observations as well, but the outer reality does not so easily change because of one’s

moods or desires. The inner states, on the other hand, change easily under such
influences and even due to the observing process itself. Taking all this together it is
quite understandable that introspection was discarded in the beginning of the twentieth
century as too unreliable a source of information for scientific use.
But none of these problems with introspection is irremediable. Each one of them can
by systematic effort be eliminated. The different paths of Yoga have in fact all
developed techniques that are supposed to achieve exactly this. They all aim to arrive
at a direct perception and finally a merger of one’s individual consciousness and being
with the consciousness and being of the Divine. To make this possible, a considerable
purification of one’s inner instrument, or antahkarana is essential. The different yogic
traditions thus all have their methods to improve the range, the "resolution" and the
reliability of inner perception.
These techniques can be grouped into those that aim at greater concentration, at
freedom from the sense-mind leading to an ability to penetrate the deeper and higher
layers of consciousness, and at freedom from partial identifications, that is from the
body, from the vital drives and emotions, from one’s thoughts and finally from the ego-
sense. These techniques are within their tradition considered to lead to a free
consciousness, capable of watching the movements of Prakriti, nature, as a completely
independent witness, making it possible to observe inner events not only with a greater
precision but also with a perfect "objectivity" and thus reliability. The inner disciplines of
Yoga can thus play exactly the same role for a science of the inner realities as modern
technology is playing for the material sciences.
Conclusion
If we presume that the essential nature, the svadharma, of science is to look for truth,
then there should be all reason for science to expand its field and take up the methods
of Yoga to achieve reliable and detailed knowledge of the inner realities. This is,
however, an entirely new territory for science. Modern science is a child of the
European Enlightenment and systematic methods to train consciousness have, at least
in recent times, not been part of the mainstream western tradition. Besides new
methodologies, it would involve new attitudes towards personal involvement and,
perhaps most difficult of all, the acceptance of Indic ontologies, which are more
comprehensive than the materialistic and idealistic philosophies with which the West is
familiar. It will even involve new scientific hierarchies, based less on intellectual
acumen and vital assertiveness, and more on inner wisdom.
Given the political and economical dominance of the West at present, one can expect
considerable resistance to this acceptance of Eastern techniques, philosophies and
attitudes. There are, however, precedents of cultural influence moving in the opposite
direction of political conquest. In classical Rome, for example, Greek art and science
were widely, and we would now say rightly, valued above their Roman counterparts:

after Athens had been defeated militarily and politically, slaves from Greece were used
extensively as teachers for the Roman elite. Eugene Taylor predicts, on the basis of a
detailed study of the history of spirituality in the United States, that a similar cultural
counter stream will take place in the coming years. He sees that as a result of a "cross-
cultural exchange of ideas between East an West unprecedented in the history of
Western thought" there will be a "historical change in the very context in which reality is
defined" (Taylor 1999, p. 290).
One can only hope that Taylor’s prediction will come true. At present spiritual
development is left entirely to the subculture and remains outside the compass of
science. As a result, mainstream society is in a state that has much in common with
multiple personality disorder. Public life -- the media, government, business, and
education -- is entirely governed by the materialist and reductionist ideas of the
physical sciences.
Private life, after five and in the weekends, follows often a completely different set of
values and truths. Like all such internal divisions this split is leaving both sides
diminished. Science is providing more and more power without the wisdom to use it.
Religion and spirituality abound in uncritically accepted creeds and dogmas, and miss
the best that the progressive intellect of humanity could have given them. If science
and spirituality can come together we can expect an unprecedented collective progress
in the inner realm, and it is hard to deny that this is sorely needed. All really serious
problems facing humanity at the present stage are not material in nature but
psychological. Imagine the joy and fulfillment if the ancient yogic techniques for
attaining inner peace, freedom and wisdom could again become an organic part of our
collective life and could be developed further for the benefit of all present and future
generations!

UNIT-1 EMERGENCE OF
PSYCHOLOGY MCQS
DIWAKAR
EDUCATION
HUB
(The Learn With Expertise)
UNIT-1 EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY MCQS
1. Phrenologists tried to find out about Answer: (1)

personality by:
(1) reading a person’s horoscope 6. The idea that you can assess someone’s
(2) feeling a person’s skull personality by studying their face is
(3) looking at a person’s hands called:
(4) asking people questions (1) phrenology
Answer: (4) (2) physiology
(3) somatology
2. A limitation of selective breeding studies (4) physiognomy
is that they cannot: Answer: (1)
(1) tell us anything about the role of
genes 7. The ________ complex is to girls as the
(2) be used to study human beings ________ complex is to boys.
(3) provide information relevant to the (1) Electra, Oedipus
nature/nurture debate (2) Oedipus, Electra
(4) tell us anything about the role of the (3) oral, phallic
environment (4) phallic, oral
Answer: (4) Answer: (1)
3. Which neo-Freudian challenged his ideas 8. The discovery that the heritability of the
about penis envy? Big Five personality traits is around 40%
(1) Adler – 50% suggests that:
(2) Fromm (1) the environment plays no role in
(3) Jung personality
(4) Horney (2) genes play no role in personality
Answer: (4) (3) the environment plays an important
role in personality
4. Someone who feels as though they are (4) the Big Five traits account for about
not living up to expectations would be half of our personality
described by Adler as having: Answer: (3)
(1) low self-realization
(2) an Adlerian complex 9. Humanistic psychologists embraced the
(3) an inferiority complex idea of:
(4) low actualization (1) repression
Answer: (4) (2) free will
(3) unconscious drives
5. According to Freud, the mind’s three (4) the id
components are: Answer: (2)
(1) ego, id, superego
(2) unconscious, moral, immoral 10.According to Eysenck, extraverts seek to
(3) oral, anal, phallic ________ their arousal while introverts
(4) primary, secondary, tertiary seek to ________ their arousal.

(1) decrease, increase (3) strongest in early childhood

(2) hide, reveal (4) consistent across the lifespan
(3) increase, decrease Answer: (3)
(4) reveal, hide
Answer: (3) 16.What is special about “knockout” mice?
(1) they are very attractive
11.Allport believed that traits could be (2) their DNA has been modified
organized into three levels: (3) they are easy to knock out
(1) primary, secondary, tertiary (4) they are unusually aggressive
(2) cognitive, emotional, physiological Answer: (2)
(3) id, ego, superego
(4) cardinal, central, secondary 17.The aim of behavioural genetics is to
Answer: (4) learn about:
(1) the extent to which geneticists can
12.The MMPI is used to measure: modify people’s behaviour
(1) unconscious drives (2) the possibility of eradicating
(2) the Big Five traits behavioural problems in children
(3) personality and psychological (3) the genetic and environmental
disorders influences on human behaviour
(4) leadership potential (4) the ability of animals to learn
Answer: (3) language
Answer: (3)
13.Which of the following is NOT one of the
Big Five traits? 18.Monozygotic is to ________ twins as
(1) sense of humour dizygotic is to ________ twins.
(2) openness to experience (1) male, female,
(3) conscientiousness (2) female, male
(4) extraversion (3) fraternal, identical
Answer: (1) (4) identical, fraternal
Answer: (4)
14.Freud founded the ________ approach
to understanding human behaviour. 19.Which of the following characteristics
(1) palliative describe someone who, according to
(2) psychodynamic Maslow, is self-actualized?
(3) patronymic (1) creativity
(4) psychedelic (2) confidence
Answer: (2) (3) spontaneity
(4) all of the above
15.The influence of parents on the Answer: (4)
personality of their children is: 20.According to Freud, children pass
(1) non-existent through 4 stages of psychosexual
(2) weakest in early childhood development.

Which of the following shows the stages (1) projection

in the correct developmental order? (2) regression
(1) oral, anal, phallic, latency (3) ingratiation
(2) latency, oral, anal, phallic (4) sublimation
(3) phallic, anal, oral, latency Answer: (3)
(4) oral, phallic, latency, anal
Answer: (1) 25.Rohan is self-disciplined, focused on
achievement and keen to do his duty. He
21.Projective tests claim to reveal would be
information about: expected to score highly on:
(1) career aptitude (1) neuroticism
(2) intellectual attainment (2) agreeableness
(3) unconscious processes (3) extraversion
(4) parenting style (4) conscientiousness
22.Traits are defined as: 26.The Barnum effect helps to explain

(1) physical characteristics that people’s belief in:
distinguish us from other people (1) fortune-telling
(2) relatively enduring characteristics (2) astrology
that influence our behaviour across (3) horoscopes
many situations (4) all the above
(3) unconscious tendencies to act in Answer: (4)
different ways according to the situation
(4) permanent personality tendencies 27.________ are the basic biological units
that determine our behaviour in any that transmit characteristics from one
situation generation to the next:
Answer: (2) (1) genes
(2) neurons
23.Sheldon’s theory that people with (3) glia
different body types have different (4) instincts
personalities has been: Answer: (1)
(1) supported by research
(2) discredited 28.Which of the following would NOT be
(3) shown to be accurate for thin people useful to a behavioural geneticist?
but not overweight people (1) family studies
(4) shown to be accurate for women but (2) case studies
not for men (3) adoption studies
Answer: (2) (4) twin studies
Answer: (4)
24.Which of the following is not a defence
mechanism?

29.According to Freud, the id is to the (1) Chishti

________ principle as the ego is to the (2) Qadiriyya
________ principle. (3) Suhrawardiyya
(1) aggressive, sexual (4) Naqshbandi
(2) sexual, aggressive Answer: (1)
(3) pleasure, reality
(4) reality, pleasure 33. Which was/were not the basic
Answer: (3) devotional practices of Chisti order of
Sufi?
30.Lana is friendly, always willing to help (1) Reciting the names of Allāh loudly,
others and compassionate. We sitting in the prescribed posture at
would expect Lana to score highly on: prescribed times (dhikr-i dzahir)
(1) extraversion (2) Reciting the names of Allāh silently
(2) agreeableness (dhikr-i khafī)
(3) neuroticism (3) Regulating the breath (pās-i anfās)
(4) openness to experience (4) Lifelong of spiritual confinement in a
Answer: (2) lonely corner or cell for prayer and
contemplation (čilla)
31. Consider the following statement (s) Answer: (4)
is related to the features of Sufism
I. They recognize the value of repletion 34. Which is/are the correct principles of
of God’s name and sometimes resort to Chisti Order?
music of a loving devotional character as I. Unselfish service to mankind
an aid to concentration. II. Living for Allah alone
II. Instead of depriving God of form and III. Maintaining complete trust in Him
attributes they impute to him the IV. Inexhaustible generosity and
qualities of effulgence, love, mercy, forgiveness
generosity and immanence. Code:
III. Instead of inculcating fear of the (1) Both I & II
wrath of god, they put forward the ideal (2) Both I & III
of securing union with Him by pursuing (3) Both III & IV
the path of perfect love. (4) I, II, III & IV
Which of the following statement (s) Answer: (4)
is/are correct?
(1) Only I 35. Which of the following is/are correct
(2) Only II reasons for the extensive development
(3) I, II & III of the Chishti order in India?
(4) None of the above (1) The strong disapproval of mixing with
Answer: (3) the Sultans, princes or nobles by the
Chishti Shaikhs together with
32. Which of the following was the first establishing close contacts with the poor
Sufi Order in Indian Subcontinent? and the downtrodden.

(2) Their uncompromising attitude 39. Who among the following Sufi Saint
towards all forms of political oppression popularly known as Makhdum-i-
and social injustice. Jahaniyan (Lord of the world’s people)?
(3) Their bold stand in favour of Sama, (1) Sufi Sayyid Jalaluddin Bukhari
which has been vehemently, criticized by (2) Shaikh Fakhruddin Ibrahim Iraqi
the orthodox Ulama and upholders of (3) Shaikh Sharufuddin Ahmad Yaha
some others orders. Munyari
(4) All of the above (4) Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani
36. What do you mean by Wahdat al- 40. Who was the composer of treatise
Wujud? called Hamat (Flashes) which constitutes
(1) Unity of Being a very impressive commentary on the
(2) Unity of Humanity Unity of Being (Wahdat-al-Wujud)?
(3) Unity of God (1) Sufi Sayyid Jalaluddin Bukhari
(4) Unity of Thought (2) Shaikh Fakhruddin Ibrahim Iraqi
Answer: (1) (3) Shaikh Sharufuddin Ahmad Yaha
Munyari
37. Which of the following was/were the (4) Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani
doctrine of Sufism? Answer: (2)
I. Meditation & Good action
II. Repentance of sins 41. Postcolonialism refers to
III. Performance of prayers (1) a historical phase undergone by
IV. Charity & Suppression of passions by Third World countries after the decline
ascetic practices of colonialism
Code:
(1) Only I (2) a slave mindset
(2) Only II (3) an important tenet of
(3) I, II & III structuralism
(4) I, II, III & IV (4) the deconstrucive "différance"
38. Who translated Chintamani Bhatt’s 42. Which sub-specialty in

Suka Saptati into Persian from Sanskrit postcolonial criticism analyzes the
and gave it the title Tuti-nama? importance of human constructions
(1) Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki of physical with mental spaces,
(2) Baba Farid especially in political contexts?
(3) Khwaja Ziyauddin Nahkashabi (1) spatial/geographical studies
(4) None of the above (2) psycho-mythic studies
Answer: (3) (3) ecofeminism
(4) both a and b

Answer: (1) (1) diaspora
43. Homi Bhabha's most significant concept (2) emigration

is (3) inundation
(1) postcolonial interpellation (4) interpellation
(2) the objective correlative Answer: (1)
(3) hybridity 48. Postcolonial criticism has been

(4) orientalism important to
Answer: (3) (1) Third-World feminism
44. The claim of Robert C. J. Young is that (2) deconstruction

postcolonialism (3) structuralism
(1) looks "at the world from the (4) psychological approaches
other side of the photograph" Answer: (1)
(2) is historically inaccurate
49. According to Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,
(3) is the product of leftist a "subaltern" is
propaganda
(1) usually a woman
Answer: (1) (2) a Third-World denizen
(3) multiply oppressed
45. Postcolonial critics speak primarily of (4) all of the above
(1) slavery in ancient cultures Answer: (4)
(2) the conquests of Spain
50. The motif of a "City Upon a Hill" has
(3) Euro-American imperialism been used by
(4) African-African slavery (1) the author of the Gospel of
Answer: (3) Matthew
46. Chinua Achebe attacks for its racism (2) John Winthrop in "A Model for
Christian Charity"
(1) Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
(3) John F. Kennedy in his Inaugural
(2) Frankenstein Address
(3) Heart of Darkness (4) all of the above
(4) The "Nigger" of the Narcissus Answer: (4)
Answer: (3)
51. The word “psychology’ comes from:
47. The departure from a homeland by a (1) Latin
people is called by postcolonial critics (2) Spanish

(3) Greek 56. A psychologist studying what makes

(4) Italian people laugh in different countries
Answer: (3) around the world is working on the
______ level of explanation.
52. Psychology is defined as the scientific (1) lower
study of: (2) middle
(1) people and things (3) higher
(2) emotions and beliefs (4) none of the above
(3) perception and religion Answer: (3)
(4) mind and behavior
Answer: (4) 57. Different people react differently to the
same situation. This is referred to as:
53. The scientific approach is more useful at (1) multiple determinants
answering (2) nativism
questions about ______ than questions (3) the Simpson effect
about ______. (4) individual differences
(1) facts, values Answer: (4)
(2) ideas, emotions
(3) values, facts 58. ______ is to nature as ______ is to
(4) emotions, facts nurture.
Answer: (1) (1) environment, genes
(2) conscious, unconscious
54. According to the text, the lower level of (3) inaccuracy, accuracy
explanation corresponds to (4) biology, experience
______ processes. Answer: (4)
(1) social
(2) cultural 59. The term “tabula rasa” highlights the
(3) biological importance of ______ in shaping
(4) interpersonal behaviour.
(2) experience
55. A psychologist exploring the impact of a (3) nature
new drug on activity in the brain is (4) predestination
working on the ______ level of Answer: (2)
explanation.
(1) lower 60. The Greek philosopher ______ believed
(2) middle that knowledge is acquired through
(3) upper experience and learning.
(4) all of the above (1) Archimedes
Answer: (1) (2) Rousseau
(3) Plato
(4) Aristotle

Answer: (4) (3) natural selection

(4) natural wellbeing
61. ______ is to nature as ______ is to Answer: (3)
nurture.
(1) Plato, Aristotle 66. ______ was to structuralism as ______
(2) Aristotle, Plato was to functionalism.
(3) Pliny, Archimedes (1) Wundt, Titchener
(4) Stavros, Pliny (2) Wundt, James
Answer: (1) (3) James, Titchener
(4) Milner, Thompson
62. ______ is the belief that the mind is Answer: (2)
fundamentally different from the body.
(1) mindism 67. Freud championed ______ psychology.
(2) dualism (1) psychodynamic
(3) centralism (2) cultural
(4) specialism (3) conscious
Answer: (2) (4) biodynamic
Answer: (1)
63. The school of psychology whose goal
was to identify the basic elements of 68. Which school of psychology believes
experience was called: that it is impossible to objectively study
(1) experientialism the mind?
(2) dualism (1) functionalism
(3) functionalism (2) behaviorism
(4) structuralism (3) humanism
Answer: (4) (4) socialism
Answer: (2)
64. Which of the following was most closely
associated with the structuralist school 69. Receiving an electric shock would be an
of psychology? example of a ______ whereas being
(1) Titchener frightened would be an example of a
(2) James ______.
(3) Descartes (1) stimulus, response
(4) Watson (2) punishment, reward
Answer: (1) (3) reaction, emotion
(4) reinforcement, stimulus
65. Darwin’s theory of ______ argued that Answer: (1)
physiological characteristics evolve
because they are useful to the 70. Dr Pula wants to explore differences in
organism. child-rearing practices between British
(1) extreme usefulness and Chinese parents. She is most likely
(2) natural endowment a:

(1) cognitive psychologist making

(2) physiological psychologist (4) gender differences in learning styles
(3) cognitive-ergonomic psychologist Answer: (1)
(4) social-cultural psychologist
Answer: (4) 76. The behaviourists rejected introspection
because:
71. Nature is to ________ as nurture is to (1) it was too slow
________. (2) it invaded people’s privacy
(1) environment/genes (3) it yielded too much data
(2) conscious/unconscious (4) it was too subjective
(3) genes/environment Answer: (4)
(4) unconscious/conscious
Answer: (3) 77. Another term for reinforcement is:
(1) stimulus
72. Freud emphasized the role of ________ (2) reward
in shaping people’s personality. (3) response
(1) free will (4) condition
(2) unconscious desires Answer: (2)
(3) hormones
(4) group influence 78. East Asian cultures tend to be more
Answer: (2) oriented toward ________ while
Western cultures
73. Evolutionary psychology has its roots in: tend to be more oriented toward
(1) behaviourism ________.
(2) collectivism (1) individualism/collectivism
(3) functionalism (2) collectivism/individualism
(4) structuralism (3) cultural norms/social norms
Answer: (3) (4) social norms/cultural norms
Answer: (2)
74. Most human behaviour:
(1) can be easily explained 79. Watson and Skinner both contributed to
(2) has multiple causes which school of psychology?
(3) stems from unconscious desires (1) functionalism
(4) depends on social influence (2) cognitive
Answer: (2) (3) social-cultural
(4) behaviourism
75. A forensic psychologist would be most Answer: (4)
likely to study:
(1) the accuracy of eyewitness memory 80. Which field of psychology would be
(2) the impact of advertising on most likely to study the influence of
shopping behaviour over-crowding on conformity?
(3) the effect of hormones on decision (1) personality

(2) cognitive (2) Deductive Reasoning

(3) clinical (3) Linear Reasoning
(4) social (4) Conditioned Reasoning
81. The child having the difficulty in picking 85. When a poor rural girl hailing from a
up objects is suspected to have socially disadvantaged family gets
(1) Lower level of intellectual function scholarship for higher studies and then
(2) Sight impairment lands in a high paid job in a city it is not an
(3) Speech impairment instance of education becoming
(4) Locomotor impairment (1) a vehicle for social mobility
Answer: (4) (2) a tool for gender justice
(3) a vehicle for geographical mobility
82. Which philosophy developed the (4) an instrument for social stratification
monitorial system in classrooms? Answer: (4)
(1) Vedic
(2) Vedant 86. The policy of reservation of seats in
(3) Islam higher education and in Government
(4) Buddhism employment is an example for
Answer: (3) (1) Sponsored mobility
(2) Contest mobility
83. Match the following : (3) Cultural mobility
List – I (Thinker) List – II (Type of (4) Geographical mobility
Education) Answer: (1)
I. Gandhi 1. Shantiniketan
II. Tagore 2. Integral Yoga 87. What does the Counsellor do in
III. Aurbindo 3. Gurukul “Observation for Recording” and
IV. Vivekananda 4. Man making education “Observation for Rating”?
5. Wardha Scheme I. In Observation for Recording, the
Code : Counsellor acts like a versatile camera.
I II III IV II. In Observation for Recording, the
(1) 5 1 2 4 Counsellor records everything unmindful of
(2) 5 1 4 2 the distraction caused to the client.
(3) 3 4 2 5 III. In Observation for Rating, the Counsellor
(4) 4 2 3 5 does not observe the client while indulged
Answer: (1) in rating.
IV. In Observation for Rating, the Counsellor
84. If Ram is taller than Mohan and Mohan judges and rates the brain, while still
is taller than Sohan, Ram is the tallest. This observing the client.
statement comes under which type of
reasoning ? Choose the correct answers from the code
(1) Inductive Reasoning given below:

(1) I and IV IV. It helps as a novel method of reviewing

(2) II and III classroom instruction.
(3) I and III
(4) III and IV Choose the correct answers from the code
Answer: (1) given below:
(1) III, IV and I
88. A face to face, informal interaction is (2) I, II and III
considered the best technique for collecting (3) IV, I and II
information about the client and his/her (4) II, III and IV
problem. How? Answer: (2)
(1) It helps to get first hand information
about the client and his/her problem. 91. Tests that do not require the use of
(2) It is very easy to organise and conduct language of the subjects but responses are
an interview with the client. in the form of activities are called as
(3) The interview can be video graphed. (1) Verbal tests
(4) It is flexible and makes the client feel (2) Non-verbal tests
comfortable. (3) Performance tests
Answer: (1) (4) None of the above
Answer: (3)
89. What is meant by the term “curriculum”
(1) The subject of study offered by an 92. Match the following & select the correct
educational institution. answers from the codes given below:
(2) Theory and Practical courses to be List – I Psychological
completed to qualify for a level of Test List – II
education. Psychologist
(3) Organised whole of learning and other (1) Intelligence Test
experiences provided by educational i. Rorschach
institutions, to realize set goals. (2) Interest Test
(4) The prescribed syllabi in the various ii. Torrance
subjects, plus practical courses and project/ (3) Personality Test
dissertation. iii. Binet
Answer: (3) (4) Creativity Test
iv. Strong
90. What are the uses of System Analysis, v. Likert
when applied to classroom instruction as a Codes:
sub system of the curriculum? abcd
I. It helps to design classroom instruction (1) iii ii i v
differently. (2) v ii iv iii
II. It helps to assess the effectiveness of the (3) iv iii ii i
existing instructional design. (4) iii iv i ii
III. It helps the teacher to verify results and Answer: (4)
get feedback.

93. The effectiveness of a multi-media 98. Who is the author of book Principle of
approach in teaching can be answered Psychology?
through 1. Willhelm Wundt
(1) Experimentation 2. Charles Darwin
(2) Survey 3. Sigmund Freud
(3) Case-studies 4. William James
(4) Longitudinal studies Answer: (4)
Answer: (1)
99. In which year Sigmund Freud
94. Which of the following is not an published the book ‘The Ego’ and
example of inter-individual difference? ‘The Id’?
(1) The child is black in colour.
(2) The child is fat. (1) 1927
(3) The child likes potato. (2) 1972
(4) The nose of the child is sharp. (3) 1980
Answer: (3) (4) 1908
Answer a
95. Identity versus role confusion is a
characteristic of 100. First issue of cognitive
(1) Childhood stage neuroscience appears in the year
(2) Adolescence stage .
(3) Infancy stage
(4) Early childhood stage (1) 1967
Answer: (2) (2) 1989
(3) 1997
96. Who is a famous psycholinguistic? (4) 1978
(a) Gardner Answer B
(b) Alan Newell
(c) (1) Simon
(d) Noam Chomsky 101. Psychology is a _________.
Answer: (4) (1) A natural science
(2) A physical science
97. psychology compare human abilities (3) A biological science
with those of animals particularly non- (4) A social science
human primates. Answer: (4)
1. Industrial Psychology
2. Social Psychology 102. Psychology as a ‘Science of Mind’,
3. Evolutionary Psychology defined by _________ school of psychology.
4. Animal Psychology (1) Psychoanalysts
Answer: (3) (2) Behaviourists
(3) Functionalists
(4) Ancient Greek Philosophers

Answer: (4)
108. Who defined ‘Psychology’ as the
10 3. In the year _________ the Scientific scientific study of activities of organism in
Psychology was first accepted. relation to its environment?
(1) 1779 (1) J.B Watson
(2) 1679 (2) Sigmund Freud
(3) 1879 (3) Wood worth
(4) 1889 (4) William James
104. Who is the father of Experimental 10 9. “S-R” concept was first established by
Psychology. _________.
(1) Wilhelm Wundt (1) J.B Watson
(2) Sigmund Freud (2) Wilhelm Wundt
(3) C.G. Jung (3) William James
(4) E.B. Titchener (4) I.P. Pavlov
105. Psychology can be literally defined as 110. Rejecting the concept of “S-R”
the _________. connectionism, further “S-O-R” concept was
(1) Science of mind developed by _________.
(2) Science of behaviour (1) Woodworth
(3) Science of soul (2) C.G. Jung
(4) Science of consciousness (3) E.C. Titchener
Answer: (3) (4) Sigmund Freud
Answer: (1)
106. J.(2) Watson, the founder and father of
behaviouristic school of psychology defined 111. Who defined “Psychology as the
‘Psychology’ as the science of _________. science of immediate experience with
(1) Soul consciousness being the main subject
(2) Consciousness matter”?
(3) Mind (1) E.B. Titchener
(4) Behaviour (2) William James
Answer: (4) (3) Sigmund Freud
(4) Wilhelm Wundt
107. E.(2) Titchener (1867-1927) defined Answer: (1) &(4)
‘Psychology’ as the science of _________.
(1) Conscious Experience 1 12. Who is the founder and principal
(2) Science of Mind proponent of psychoanalysis _________.
(3) Science of Experience (1) Sigmund Freud
(4) Science of Soul (2) E.B Titchener
Answer: (1) (3) C.G. Jung

(4) Alfred Adler Answer: (2)

Answer: (1)
1 18. Clinical Psychology deals with the
113. Who is the psychologist who practical aspect of _________. (1) Abnormal
constructed the first intelligence test? Psychology
(1) William James (2) Educational Psychology
(2) J. B. Watson (3) Child Psychology
(3) William Mc Dougall (4) Experimental Psychology
(4) Alfred Binet Answer: (1)
Answer: (4)
119. Sigmund Freud is regarded as the
114. The occurrence of ‘O’ in ‘S-O-R’ father of _________ in psychology.
concept is responsible in regulating the (1) Gestalt school
behavior of the organism and making (2) Behaviouristic school
psychological activity _________. (3) Functionalistic school
(1) Complex (4) Psychoanalytic school
(2) Dynamic Answer: (4)
(3) Fixed
(4) Puzzled 120. Ebbinghuas, had done the pioneering
Answer: (2) experiments on _________.
(1) Perception
115. Anything which evokes a response in (2) Emotion
the Organism is called (1) Stimulus (3) Memory
(2) Thing (4) Thinking
(3) Situation Answer: (3)
(4) Incidence
Answer: (1) 121. Science is invariably characterised by
_________.
116. The method of ‘Field Observation’ is (1) Its methodology
always considered as _________. (2) Its theory
(1) Subjective (3) Its fact
(2) Complex (4) Its hypothesis
(3) Neutral Answer: (1)
(4) Objective
Answer: (4) 122. General psychology deals with
_______.
117. To study Abnormal Psychology means, (1) Personality
to study mainly the nature of _________. (2) Development
(1) Normality of mind (3) Intelligent
(2) Unconscious level of mind (4) Fundamentals of all branches of
(3) Subconscious level of mind psychology
(4) Abnormality of mind Answer: (4)

128. Some of the most useful knowledge of

123. Industrial Psychology is _________. human perception has borrowed from
(1) Theoretical Psychology _________.
(2) Applied Psychology (1) Chemistry
(3) Educational Psychology (2) Physics
(4) Abnormal Psychology (3) Sociology
Answer: (2) (4) Zoology
Answer: (2)
124. Developmental Psychology studies
_________. 129. A major part of developmental
(1) Personality psychology is devoted to the understanding
(2) Motivation of behaviour of _________.
(3) Intelligence (1) Children
(4) Various stages of development of man (2) Adolescents
Answer: (4) (3) Women
(4) Old people
125. Abnormal Psychology is concerned Answer: (1)
with _________.
(1) Developmental stages of individual 130. Who is the founder of ‘Individual
(2) Diagnosis of abnormal behaviour Psychology’?
(3) Abnormal behaviour and its causes (1) David Hull
(4) Treatment of abnormal behaviour (2) Thorndike
Answer: (3) (3) Alfred Binet
(4) Alfred Adler
126. Social Psychology deals with ________. Answer: (4)
(1) Behaviour of an individual at work
(2) Behaviour and experience in social 131. From the following pioneered
situations psychologist who is associated with
(3) Behaviour of ethnic groups Behaviourism?
(4) Abnormal Behaviour of people (1) B.F. Skinner
Answer: (2) (2) William James
(3) Megde Arnold
127. Psychology is the science studying the (4) David Hull
behaviour of _________. Answer: (1)
(1) Mankind
(2) Living Organism 132. Who is recognised as the father of
(3) Animals psychoanalysis?
(4) Plants (1) Sigmund Freud
Answer: (2) (2) Tolman
(3) Alfred Adler
(4) William James
Answer: (1)

138. The most pioneered contributor to

133. Wolf Gang Kohler was associated with Behavioural school of psychology is
_________ school of psychology. _________.
(1) Social Psychology (1) Freud
(2) Gestalt Psychology (2) Allport
(3) Industrial Psychology (3) Watson
(4) Educational Psychology (4) Fechner
134. The “Law of effect” was coined by 139. Wilhelm Wundt established the first
_________. laboratory of experimental psychology at
(1) Skinner _________.
(2) Pavlov (1) Greenwich
(3) Kohler (2) Zurich
(4) Thorndike (3) Leipzig
Answer: (3) (4) Munich
Answer: (3)
135. Archetype is a terminology associated
with _________. 140. From the following psychologist, who
(1) Jung rejected introspection as a method of
(2) Freud psychology _________.
(3) Adler (1) B.F. Skinner
(4) Skinner (2) Fulton
Answer: (3) (3) Cattell
(4) J.(2) Watson
136. Who established the first experimental Answer: (4)
psychological laboratory?
(1) Sigmund Freud 141. In which method of study of
(2) B.F. Skinner psychology, independent and dependent
(3) Evan Pavlov variable are important elements.
(4) Wilhelm Wundt (1) Introspection Method
Answer: (4) (2) Experimental Method
(3) Observational Method
137. Who is the valuable contributor in (4) Case History Method
insightful learning? Answer: (2)
(1) Throndike
(2) B.F. Skinner 142. In _________ method of study in
(3) Evan Pavlov psychology, passive study and analysis of
(4) Kohler human behaviour is usually done.
Answer: (4) (1) Introspection Method
(2) Experimental Method
(3) Observational Method

(4) Genetic Method (2) Behaviourism

Answer: (3) (3) Structuralism
(4) Gestalt Psychology
143. In the simplest experimental method, Answer: (3)
‘E’ manipulates _________. (1) One
Variable 148. A Provisional theory to explain
(2) Two Variables observed facts is known as _________.
(3) Three Variables (1) Construct
(4) Four Variables (2) Theory
Answer: (1) (3) Hypothesis
(4) Event
144. What it is called, when more than one Answer: (3)
independent variable works in an
experimental situation. (1) Situational Crisis 149. _________ is the least noticeable value
(2) Interaction of stimulus.
(3) Multisituational Effect (1) Stimulus Threshold
(4) Variable Crisis (2) Response Threshold
Answer: (2) (3) Hypothesis
(4) Problem
145. Who has been considered as the father Answer: (1)
of psychoanalysis method of study
_________? 150. Which one of the following approaches
(1) Sigmund Freud tries to analyze human behaviour in terms
(2) E.B Titchener of stimulus-response units acquired through
(3) C.G. Jung the process of learning, mainly through
(4) Alfred Adler instrumental conditioning .
Answer: (1) (1) Cognitive Approach
(2) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic Approach
146. Who has been credited as the first (3) Stimulus-Response Behaviouristic
developer of first intelligence test and made Approach
important contributions to our (4) Existential Approach
understanding of the thought process? Answer: (3)
(1) William James
(2) Alfred Binet 151. _________ approach is popularly
(3) William McDougall rooted in Gestalt psychology.
(4) J.B. Watson (1) Wholistic Approach
Answer: (2) (2) Stimulus-Response-Behaviouristic
Approach
147. The concepts like “Introspection” and (3) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic Approach
“Conscious Experience” are associated with (4) Cognitive Approach
_________. Answer: (4)
(1) Functionalism

152. _________ approach emphasizes the (3) Sigmund Freud

role of instinctual processes and their (4) C. G. Jung
modification in the course of interaction Answer: (1)
with the society.
(1) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic Approach 157. Rudolf Goekle used the word
(2) Cognitive Approach ‘Psychology’ for the first time in the year
(3) Holistic Approach _________.
(4) Stimulus-Response Behaviouristic (1) 1590 AD
Approach (2) 1095 AD
Answer: (1) (3) 1950 AD
(4) 1509 AD
153. The system which still survives very Answer: (1)
nearly in its rigid forms is _________.
(1) Cognitive Approach 158. Which branch of psychology deals with
(2) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic Approach the study of animal behaviour?
(3) Holistic Approach (1) Social Psychology
(4) Existential Approach (2) Comparative Psychology
Answer: (2) (3) Abnormal Psychology
(4) Differential Psychology
154. Psychologists with the Biological Answer: (2)
perspective try to relate behaviour to
functions of _________. 159. Woodworth’s approach to define
(1) Body Psychology is_________.
(2) Mind (1) Dynamic
(3) Soul (2) Constant
(4) Unconscious (3) Fluctuating
Answer: (1) (4) simple
Answer: (1)
155. The perspective which is concerned
with characteristic changes that occur in 160. Who is the Founder of Gestalt
people as they mature is known as Psychology _________?
_________. (1) Kurt Koffka
(1) Developmental Perspective (2) Max wertheimer
(2) Biological Perspective (3) Kurt Lewin
(3) Humanistic Perspective (4) Wolfgang Kohker
(4) Psychoanalytic Perspective Answer: (2)
Answer: (1)
161. _________ field of psychology focuses
156. For the first time, the word on the potential role of evolution in
‘Psychology’ is introduced by_________. behaviour.
(1) Rudolf Goekle (1) Developmental Psychology
(2) William James (2) Physiological Psychology

(3) Evolutional Psychology (1) Facts

(4) Cognitive Psychology (2) Theories
Answer: (3) (3) Models
(4) Hypothesis
162. Which perspective of psychology Answer: (2)
emphasizes the overt behaviour of the
individual? 1 67. Emphasizing what comes to mind first
(1) Developmental Perspective or most readily/quickly is known as
(2) Behaviouristic Perspective _________.
(3) Humanistic Perspective (1) Heuristic
(4) Psychoanalytic Perspective (2) Critical Thinking
Answer: (2) (3) Intuitive Thought
(4) Confirmation Bias
163. Thought process is the main Answer: (1)
component of _________ perspective.
(1) Gestalt Perspective 168. A systematic study of facts according
(2) Biological Perspective to a reliable and correct method of study is
(3) Humanistic Perspective called a _________.
(4) Cognitive Perspective (1) Scientific Study
Answer: (4) (2) Biological Study
(3) Social Technique
164. _________ perspective focuses on (4) Methodology
changes in behaviour and cognitive Answer: (1)
processes over the life span.
(1) Developmental Perspective 169. The concept of building block of
(2) Biological Perspective consciousness was laid by _________.
(3) Humanistic Perspective (1) Watson
(4) Psychoanalytic Perspective (2) Wundt
Answer: (1) (3) Freud
(4) Jung
165. ‘Behaviour can be influenced by social Answer: (2)
and cultural factor’, the _________
perspective of psychology emphasizes it. 170. Who is the first woman, awarded Ph. D
(1) Developmental Perspective in psychology?
(2) Biological Perspective (1) Anna Freud
(3) Humanistic Perspective (2) Margaret Floy Washburn
(4) Socio-cultural Perspective \ (3) Melanie Klein
Answer: (4) (4) Karen Horney
Answer: (2)
166. The frameworks for explaining various
events or process in science is known as 171. In the year 1913, C. G. Jung,
_________. established his school after separated from

Sigmund Freud, which is known as 1 76. Who proposed that mind and body
_________. are two separate entities and interact with
(1) Psychoanalysis School each other?
(2) Individual Psychology (1) Rene Descartes
(3) Psychoanalytical School (2) Aristotle
(4) Child Psychology (3) Plato
Answer: (3) (4) Paul Broca
Answer: (1)
172. The _________ law of psychology
deals with least noticeable difference in 177. Who is an important functionalistic
different stimuli. psychologist was particularly interested in
(1) Getsalt Law consciousness, memory and emotions?
(2) Watson Law (1) John Dewey
(3) Binet –Simon Law (2) William James
(4) Weber-Fechner Law (3) Thorndike
Answer: (4) (4) Skinner
Answer: (2)
173. Gestalt psychology taking its name
from the German word ‘Gestal’ which 178. What is the name of the person
literally means _________. established the School of Individual
(1) World Psychology?
(2) Whole (1) Adler
(3) A part (2) Jung
(4) Whole vs part (3) Anne Freud
Answer: (2) (4) Eric Fromm
Answer: (1)
174. Who promoted the formulation of
Elementism? 179. Who is a pioneer contributor to the
(1) Sigmund Freud Cognitive Psychology?
(2) Aristotle (1) Jean Piaget
(3) Plato (2) Kohler
(4) Paul Broca (3) Chomsky
Answer: (2) (4) Kholberg
Answer: (1)
175. The concept of Rationalism is
developed by _________. 180. The modern psycholinguistic theory
(1) Sigmund Freud was developed by _________.
(2) Aristotle (1) Chomsky
(3) Plato (2) Kohler
(4) Paul Broca (3) Piaget
Answer: (3) (4) Kholberg
Answer: (1)

(4) Evolutionary psychology

181. The concept of psychology come into Answer: (3)
teaching and the first psychology course
offered by _________. 186. Who proposed the famous PASS
(1) Willhelm Wundt theory on psychology?
(2) E. B. Titchner (1) Binet-Simon
(3) J. B. Watson (2) Cattell
(4) William James (3) J. P Das
Answer: (4) (4) Thurstone
Answer: (3)
182. Abraham Maslow and Carl Roger were
the founder of ________ approach. 187. The first psychological laboratory was
(1) Developmental approach established in India at _________.
(2) Biological approach (1) Delhi University
(3) Humanistic approach (2) Bombay University
(4) Socio-cultural approach (3) Calcutta University
Answer: (3) (4) Banaras Hindu University
Answer: (3)
183. Hope, happiness, optimism and flow
takes together as _________. (1) Cognitive 188. First Psychology department started in
psychology the department of philosophy at Calcutta
(2) Positive psychology University in the year ________.
(3) Humanistic psychology (1) 1905
(4) Evolutionary psychology (2) 1916
Answer: (2) (3) 1890
(4) 1780
184. Wilson was the strong supporter of Answer: (2)
_________ plays vital role for shaping of
behaviour. 189. First psychology Department at in India
(1) Genes established by the headship of ________.
(2) Culture and environment (1) Prof. K. D Bruta
(3) Past life (2) Prof. N. N Sengupta
(4) God or almighty (3) Prof. G. Gupta
Answer: (1) (4) Prof. Ganguli
Answer: (2)
185. The role of brain, body chemical,
central nervous system, neural mechanism, 190. The famous book ‘Principles of
etc., are considered the _________ branch Psychology’ was authored by________.
of psychology. (1) Willhelm Wundt
(1) Cognitive psychology (2) E. B. Titchner
(2) Positive psychology (3) J. B. Watson
(3) Neuropsychology (4) William James

191. According J. B Watson, ‘Psychology is a 196. Who is credited for setting up the first
Science of________’. psychological laboratory in United States?
(1) Soul (1) Willhelm Wundt
(2) Mind (2) Charles Darwin
(3) Behaviour (3) J. B. Watson
(4) Brain (4) William James
192. Some of our most useful knowledge of 197. What is the meaning of ‘Flock’
human perception borrowed from according to Gestalt psychology?
________. (1) The whole
(1) Physics (2) Perceptual unit
(2) Chemistry (3) Perception
(3) Sociology (4) Closur
(4) Mathematics Answer: (2)
Answer: (1)
1 98. Who is the father of psychodynamic
193. The structuralist intended to identify theory?
the buildings blocks of ________. (1) Willhelm Wundt
(1) Consciousness (2) Charles Darwin
(2) Subconsciousness (3) Sigmund Freud
(3) Unconsciousness (4) William James
(4) None of the above Answer: (3)
Answer: (1)
199. Self actualisation is the proposed by
194. Who discovered that all mental ________.
process are not accompanied by mental (1) Carl Roser
imagery? (2) Abraham Mashlow
(1) Willhelm Wundt (3) Sigmund Freud
(2) E. B. Titchner (4) William James
(3) J. B. Watson Answer: (2)
(4) Oswald Kulpe
Answer: (4) 200. Computer provided a new way to
conceptualise mental processes and to
195. The functionalist strongly influenced develop detail theories which is known as
by ________. ________.
(1) Willhelm Wundt (1) Cognitive Approach
(2) Charles Darwin (2) Behavioural Approach
(3) J. B. Watson (3) Gestalt Approach
(4) William James (4) Information Processing Approach

Answer: (4) (3) Skinner

(4) Maslow
201. The belief that complex behaviours can Answer: (4)
be understood as the sum of several
simpler one’s is called: 206. Positive reinforcement involves
(1) reductionism ________ something to increase a
(2) functionalism response whereas
(3) introspection negative reinforcement involves
(4) animism ________ something.
Answer: (1) (1) repeating/increasing
(2) adding/removing
202. Wundt’s primary method of research (3) removing/adding
was: (4) increasing/repeating
(1) experimentation Answer: (2)
(2) autoethnography
(3) introspection 207. Two kinds of learning studied by
(4) lesioning behaviourists are:
Answer: (3) (1) classical conditioning and operant
conditioning
203. Jung stated that humans possess both (2) manifest learning and latent
a ________ unconscious and a learning
________ (3) conscious learning and unconscious
unconscious: learning
(1) shadow/manifest (4) operant conditioning and
(2) personal/collective instrumental conditioning
(3) introvert/extravert Answer: (1)
(4) phenomenal/latent
Answer: (2) 208. Which of the following is NOT a theory
of dreaming?
204. Remembering that the capital of (1) expectation fulfillment
Canada is Ottawa requires: (2) activation-synthesis
(1) sensory memory (3) threat-simulation
(2) semantic memory (4) elucidatory consciousness
(3) episodic memory Answer: (4)
(4) procedural memory
Answer: (2) 209. The brain has four lobes: occipital,
frontal ________ and ________.
205. Which of the following psychologists (1) sympathetic, parasympathetic
was NOT a behaviourist? (2) autonomic, somatic
(1) Watson (3) temporal, parietal
(2) Thorndike (4) visual, auditory
Answer: (3)

Answer: (3)
210. A psychologist who practices Gestalt
Therapy would most likely be a(n): 215. In Pavlov’s work dogs salivated
(1) humanist naturally in response to being given
(2) behaviourist meat powder.
(3) evolutionist In this situation, salivation is the
(4) cognitivist ________ while the meat powder is the
Answer: (1) ________.
(1) UCR, UCS
211. A psychologist primarily interested in (2) UCS, UCR
mental processes such as memory and (3) CS, CR
perception (4) CR, CS
would most likely be a(n): Answer: (1)
(1) humanist
(2) behaviourist 216. Which of the following was a
(3) evolutionist humanistic psychologist?
(4) cognitivist (1) Freud
Answer: (4) (2) Watson
(3) Wernicke
212. Which of the following topics would be (4) Rogers
of least interest to a biological Answer: (4)
psychologist?
(1) hunger 217. What are the two parts of the
(2) thirst autonomic nervous system?
(3) free will (1) somatic, autonomic
(4) sleep (2) reflexive, responsive
Answer: (3) (3) sympathetic, parasympathetic
(4) frontal, occipital
213. William James worked during the: Answer: (3)
(1) late 20th century
(2) late 19th century 218. MBTI stands for:
(3) middle ages (1) Manifold Barometric Temperature
(4) the 1700s Indicator
Answer: (2) (2) Multiple Behavioural Theories
Instrument
214. Freud argued that dreams have both (3) Myers Briggs Type Indicator
________ content and ________ (4) Maslow Bosun Trend Indicator
content. Answer: (3)
(1) Freudian, Jungian
(2) conditioned, unconditioned 219. Which lobe of the brain is also known
(3) latent, manifest as the auditory cortex?
(4) somatic, autonomic (1) frontal

(2) temporal (2) Thorndike

(3) occipital (3) Pavlov
(4) parietal (4) Skinner
220. Which of the following is NOT 225. Intrinsic motivation refers to:
associated with Freud? (1) enjoying a task for its own sake
(1) id (2) being motivated by money and/or
(2) ego other rewards
(3) shadow (3) enjoying a task because it meets
(4) super-ego physical needs
Answer: (3) (4) motivation that can only be
experienced indoors
221. In Seligman’s ABCDE model of learned Answer: (1)
optimism, B stands for:
(1) belief 226. Remembering what you ate for supper
(2) behaviour yesterday requires:
(3) brain (1) sensory memory
(4) blessing (2) episodic memory
Answer: (1) (3) procedural memory
(4) semantic memory
222. ________ needs were at the bottom of Answer: (2)
Maslow’s pyramid/hierarchy.
(1) safety 227. According to Freud the ________
(2) self actualization content of a dream relates to the
(3) esteem person’s unconscious wishes.
(4) physiological (1) shadow
Answer: (4) (2) lateral
(3) spreading
223. The idea that human behaviour may be (4) latent
the product of natural selection is Answer: (4)
central to:
(1) humanistic psychology 228. Humanistic psychology emerged during
(2) evolutionary psychology which decade?
(3) cognitive psychology (1) 1930s
(4) behavioural psychology (2) 1950s
Answer: (2) (3) 1970s
(4) 1990s
224. The movement known as radical Answer: (2)
behaviourism is most closely
associated with: 229. In Pavlov’s work, when dogs were
(1) Watson trained to salivate to the sound of a

bell that sound was the: 234. Malingering and Munchausen

(1) UCS syndrome are:
(2) UCR (1) somatoform disorders
(3) CS (2) anxiety disorders
(4) CR (3) sexual disorders
Answer: (3) (4) factitious disorders
Answer: (4)
230. Another term for thinking about
thinking is: 235. The prevalence rate of a disorder refers
(1) metacognition to:
(2) perception (1) its frequency of occurrence in a
(3) mediation population at a given time
(4) self-regulation (2) its severity within an individual
Answer: (1) (3) how much coverage there is of the
disorder in the media
231. Comorbidity occurs when: (4) how long it typically takes an
(1) several members of a family have individual to recover from the disorder
the same mental health issue Answer: (1)
(2) an individual spends too much time
thinking about death 236. Which of the following was NOT
(3) a person suffers from more than included in the Canadian Mental Health
one disorder at the same time Survey:
(4) nothing can be done to prevent a (1) depression
disorder from occurring (2) obesity
Answer: (3) (3) drug abuse
(4) anxiety
232. In OCD, ________ are to thoughts as Answer: (2)
________ are to actions.
(1) opinions, convictions 237. DSM stands for:
(2) obsessions, conditions (1) diagnostic and scientific manual of
(3) obsessions, compulsion mental disorders
(4) compulsions, obsessions (2) diagnostic and statistical manual of
Answer: (3) major disorders
(3) diagnostic and scientific manual of
233. Schizophrenia is usually diagnosed in: major disorders
(1) infancy (4) diagnostic and statistical manual of
(2) childhood mental disorders
(3) early adulthood Answer: (4)
(4) old age
Answer: (3) 238. Trepanation was used in olden times to
help “cure” psychological disorders by:
(1) drilling holes in the skull

(2) using electric shock to “reset” the (3) give people psychoanalysis
brain (4) make people do community service
(3) giving people more than one drug Answer: (1)
at the same time
(4) explaining that it is normal to be 243. ADHD is usually first diagnosed in:
scared (1) infancy
Answer: (1) (2) childhood
(3) adulthood
239. Dissociative identity disorder is (4) old age
sometimes called: Answer: (2)
(1) schizophrenia
(2) dissociative fugue 244. Frotteurism is:
(3) multiple personality disorder (1) a type of schizophrenia
(4) generalized anxiety disorder (2) an eating disorder
Answer: (3) (3) a paraphilia
(4) a somatoform disorder
240. Which of the following does the DSM Answer: (3)
NOT take into account when providing
guidance re: a diagnosis? 245. Gender identity disorder is a
(1) cultural factors controversial diagnosis because:
(2) medical conditions (1) it seems to occur only in North
(3) everyday functioning America
(4) the DSM takes ALL of the above into (2) only people who have undergone
account psychoanalysis are ever diagnosed with
Answer: (4) it
(3) people who “suffer” from it do not
241. GAD is more common in ______, while regard their feelings or behaviours as a
ADHD is more common in ________. disorder
(1) educated people, uneducated (4) it has a prevalence rate of zero
people Answer: (3)
(2) uneducated people, educated
people 246. Which of the following is NOT a
(3) females, males characteristic of borderline personality
(4) males, females disorder?
Answer: (3) (1) mood swings
(2) hallucinations
242. Until the 18th century the most (3) impulsivity
common treatment for the mentally ill (4) identity problems
was to: Answer: (2)
(1) lock people up in asylums
(2) give people experimental drugs 247. Which category/cluster of personality
disorder does borderline personality

disorder Answer: (3)

come under?
(1) dramatic/erratic 252. In the context of psychological
(2) odd/eccentric disorders, APD stands for:
(3) avoidant/dependant (1) anxious personality disorder
(4) anxious/inhibited (2) arousal paraphilia disorder
Answer: (1) (3) antisocial personality disorder
(4) antagonistic performance disorde
248. A person suffering from hypoactive Answer: (3)
sexual desire disorder has:
(1) too little interest in sex 253. BPD is more common in ________;
(2) too much interest in sex APD is more common in ________.
(3) an obsessive need to expose their (1) uneducated people, educated
genitals in public people
(4) a desire to witness suffering in (2) children, adolescents
other people (3) extraverts, introverts
Answer: (1) (4) women, me
Answer: (4)
249. Acrophobia is to ________ as
arachnophobia is to ________. 254. Hallucinations are classed as a
(1) open spaces, spiders ________ symptom of schizophrenia.
(2) spiders, open spaces (1) positive
(3) heights, spiders (2) cognitive
(4) spiders, heights (3) negative
Answer: (3) (4) transitiv
Answer: (1)
250. Which of the following has NOT been
classified as a sexual disorder? 255. Dysthymia appears to be a milder form
(1) dyspareunia of:
(2) vaginismus (1) bipolar disorder
(3) premature ejaculation (2) clinical depression
(4) creatinuria (3) schizophrenia
Answer: (4) (4) Munchausen syndrome
Answer: (2)
251. A person who worries excessively
about having a serious illness is most 256. To understand anxiety disorders we
likely to be diagnosed as suffering need to take account of:
from: (1) only biological factors
(1) borderline personality disorder (2) only environmental factors
(2) conversion disorder (3) both biological and environmental
(3) hypochondria factors
(4) mitochondria

(4) neither biological nor insurers etc

environmental factors (3) only includes a handful of disorders
Answer: (3) (4) is primarily focused on Western
illness
257. APD is a type of________ disorder. Answer: (4)
(1) internalizing
(2) mood 261. Physically attractive people are usually
(3) somatoform perceived as:
(4) externalizin (1) more intelligent than unattractive
Answer: (4) people
(2) more dominant than unattractive
258. The difference between somatoform people
disorders and factitious disorders is (3) more socially skilled than
that: unattractive people
(1) somatoform disorders only happen (4) all of the above
to men, factitious disorders only Answer: (4)
happen to women
(2) somatoform disorders involve 262. Research has shown a positive
cognition, factitious disorders involve correlation between aggression and
emotion the level of:
(3) in somatoform disorders the (1) acetylcholine
physical symptoms are real, in (2) testosterone
factitious disorders the physical (3) estrogen
symptoms are not real (4) GABA
(4) somatoform disorders are caused Answer: (2)
by environmental factors, factitious
263. In Milgram’s original study on
disorders are caused by genetic factors
obedience, what percentage of
Answer: (3)
participants were willing to
administer the maximum level of
259. Which of the following would be
shock:
classified as a social-cultural influence
(1) 5%
in the bio-psycho-social model of
(2) 30%
illness?
(3) 65%
(1) neurotransmitters
(4) 95%
(2) homelessness
Answer: (3)
(3) patterns of negative thinking
(4) genetic makeup of the individual 264. People are more likely to help others if:
Answer: (2) (1) they are in a bad mood
(2) they feel guilty about something
260. A criticism of the DSM is that it: (3) someone else is already helping
(1) hasn’t changed since the 1950s (4) they are in a hurry
(2) is not actually used by therapists,

Answer: (2) (3) there is a weak leader

(4) group members are in frequent
265. Punching a wall or kicking a chair when contact with people outside the group
you are angry at a co-worker are Answer: (1)
examples of:
(1) displaced aggression 270. Stimulation of the amygdala is most
(2) inanimate hostility likely to increase feelings of:
(3) repression (1) happiness
(4) avoidant attachment (2) guilt
Answer: (1) (3) shyness
(4) aggression
266. An advertiser who seeks to associate Answer: (4)
their product with something people
already like (for example, a celebrity or 271. Evolutionary theory predicts that we
a popular song) is making use of: will be most likely to help:
(1) classical conditioning principles (1) old people
(2) pseudoscience (2) family members
(3) operant conditioning principles (3) poor people
(4) sublimation (4) strangers
267. According to Moreland and Beach, the 272. Research has shown that people are
more frequently we see a person the: LESS willing to administer severe
(1) less likely we are to recognize them shocks in the Milgram paradigm if:
(2) less likely we are to trust them (1) they choose the level of shock
(3) more likely we are to dislike them themselves
(4) more likely we are to like them (2) the person telling them to
Answer: (4) administer the shock is in another
room
268. Having an audience typically ________ (3) they knew that other people had
us if we are doing an easy task and refused to administer severe shocks
________ (4) all of the above
us if we are doing a difficult task. Answer: (4)
(1) hinders, hinders
(2) helps, helps 273. In terms of interpersonal attraction,
(3) helps, hinders research suggests that:
(4) hinders, helps (1) opposites attract
Answer: (3) (2) similarity breeds contempt
(3) birds of a feather flock together
269. Groupthink is most likely when: (4) a stitch in time saves nine
(1) there is time pressure Answer: (3)
(2) group members feel no sense of
group identity

274. We tend to stereotype people on the (3) situational exploitation bias

basis of their: (4) causal explanation error
(1) physical appearance Answer: (2)
(2) age
(3) race 279. If you want someone to be attracted to
(4) all of the above you, research suggests that you should:
Answer: (4) (1) ask them about themselves
(2) argue with them
275. People who are high in self-monitoring (3) talk only about yourself
are ______ likely to act in ways (4) all of the above
consistent with their attitudes than Answer: (1)
people who are low in self-monitoring.
(1) more 280. The fact that as group size increases,
(2) less group productivity tends to decrease is
(3) neither more nor less most likely explained by:
(4) more if they are angry, less if they (1) groupthink
are sad (2) stereotyping
Answer: (2) (3) social loafing
(4) social facilitation
276. To be classed as “intimate”, a Answer: (3)
relationship must be based on:
(1) passion 281. According to the “foot in the door”
(2) acceptance technique, you are more likely to be
(3) social support able to change someone’s attitude if
(4) all of the above you:
Answer: (4) (1) visit them in their home
(2) start by complimenting them on
277. Prejudice is to ________ as their choice of footwear
discrimination is to ________. (3) tell them how many celebrities hold
(1) thought, action the attitude you want them to adopt
(2) race, age (4) get them to make a small change in
(3) stereotype, categorization attitude to start with
(4) negative, positive Answer: (4)
Answer: (1)
282. Jill and John have been married for
278. The tendency to underestimate the many years and rely on each other to
role of situational factors when meet important goals. This reliance
deciding why a stranger behaved in a reveals that they are:
particular way is known as the: (1) passionate
(1) self-serving bias (2) interdependent
(2) fundamental attribution error (3) self-serving

283. Groups that set ________ and 287. We are likely to make a ________
________ goals are more likely to be attribution to explain our success, and
effective than groups that don’t set a ________ attribution to explain our
these kind of goals. failure.
(1) easy, vague (1) causal, correlational
(2) vague, unreachable (2) correlational, causal
(3) specific, attainable (3) person, situation
(4) difficult, unattainable (4) situation, person
284. Which of the following best illustrates 288. Benjamin thinks that if he kicks his car
the concept of minority influence? and swears at his computer he will
(1) a union is successful in negotiating release his anger and be less aggressive
an improved benefits package for its with his co-workers. Benjamin believes
members in:
(2) three teenagers manage to (1) the fundamental attribution error
persuade their school to adopt a new (2) social loafing
anti-litter policy (3) social facilitation
(3) Shari is able to persuade her friend (4) catharsis
Ivy to give up smoking Answer: (4)
(4) the government passes a law
requiring cyclists to wear helmets 289. One likely explanation for why so many
Answer: (2) people ignored Kitty Genovese’s
situation is:
285. According to cognitive dissonance (1) social facilitation
theory, we may be motivated to (2) the social responsibility norm
change our attitudes to: (3) diffusion of responsibility
(1) reduce negative feelings (4) groupthink
(2) conform to the attitudes of high- Answer: (3)
status individuals
(3) force others to do the same 290. The Implicit Association Test is
(4) increase our level of anxiety designed to measure:
Answer: (1) (1) verbal ability
(2) unconscious stereotyping
286. Another term for the fundamental (3) hidden mathematical ability
attribution error is: (4) dream content
(1) commitment Answer: (2)
(2) correspondence bias
(3) cognitive dissonance 291. Phrenologists tried to find out about
(4) stereotype threat personality by:
(1) reading a person’s horoscope

(2) feeling a person’s skull their face is called:

(3) looking at a person’s hands (1) phrenology
(4) asking people questions (2) physiology
Answer: (1) (3) somatology
(4) physiognomy
292. A limitation of selective breeding Answer: (1)
studies is that they cannot:
(1) tell us anything about the role of 297. The ________ complex is to girls as the
genes ________ complex is to boys.
(2) be used to study human beings (1) Electra, Oedipus
(3) provide information relevant to the (2) Oedipus, Electra
nature/nurture debate (3) oral, phallic
(4) tell us anything about the role of (4) phallic, oral
the environment Answer: (3)
Answer: (2)
298. The discovery that the heritability of
293. Which neo-Freudian challenged his the Big Five personality traits is around
ideas about penis envy? 40% – 50% suggests that:
(1) Adler (1) the environment plays no role in
(2) Fromm personality
(3) Jung (2) genes play no role in personality
(4) Horney (3) the environment plays an important
Answer: (4) role in personality
(4) the Big Five traits account for about
294. Someone who feels as though they are half of our personality
not living up to expectations would be Answer: (2)
described by Adler as having:
(1) low self-realization 299. Humanistic psychologists embraced the
(2) an Adlerian complex idea of:
(3) an inferiority complex (1) repression
(4) low actualization (2) free will
Answer: (1) (3) unconscious drives
(4) the id
295. According to Freud, the mind’s three
components are: Answer: (2)
(1) ego, id, superego
(2) unconscious, moral, immoral 300. According to Eysenck, extraverts seek
(3) oral, anal, phallic to ________ their arousal while
(4) primary, secondary, tertiary introverts seek to ________ their
Answer: (4) arousal.
(1) decrease, increase
296. The idea that you can assess (2) hide, reveal
someone’s personality by studying

(3) increase, decrease 306. What is special about “knockout”

(4) reveal, hide mice?
Answer: (3) (1) they are very attractive
(2) their DNA has been modified
301. Allport believed that traits could be (3) they are easy to knock out
organized into three levels: (4) they are unusually aggressive
(1) primary, secondary, tertiary Answer: (2)
(2) cognitive, emotional, physiological
(3) id, ego, superego 307. The aim of behavioural genetics is to
(4) cardinal, central, secondary learn about:
Answer: (4) (1) the extent to which geneticists can
modify people’s behaviour
302. The MMPI is used to measure: (2) the possibility of eradicating
(1) unconscious drives behavioural problems in children
(2) the Big Five traits (3) the genetic and environmental
(3) personality and psychological influences on human behaviour
disorders (4) the ability of animals to learn
(4) leadership potential language
303. Which of the following is NOT one of 308. Monozygotic is to ________ twins as
the Big Five traits? dizygotic is to ________ twins.
(1) sense of humour (1) male, female,
(2) openness to experience (2) female, male
(3) conscientiousness (3) fraternal, identical
(4) extraversion (4) identical, fraternal
304. Freud founded the ________ approach 309. Which of the following characteristics
to understanding human behaviour. describe someone who, according to
(1) palliative Maslow, is self-actualized?
(2) psychodynamic (1) creativity
(3) patronymic (2) confidence
(4) psychedelic (3) spontaneity
Answer: (2) (4) all of the above
Answer: (4)
305. The influence of parents on the
personality of their children is: 310. According to Freud, children pass
(1) non-existent through 4 stages of psychosexual
(2) weakest in early childhood development.
(3) strongest in early childhood Which of the following shows the
(4) consistent across the lifespan stages in the correct developmental
Answer: (3)

order? (1) projection

(1) oral, anal, phallic, latency (2) regression
(2) latency, oral, anal, phallic (3) ingratiation
(3) phallic, anal, oral, latency (4) sublimation
(4) oral, phallic, latency, anal Answer: (3)
Answer: (1)
315. Rohan is self-disciplined, focused on
311. Projective tests claim to reveal achievement and keen to do his duty.
information about: He would be
(1) career aptitude expected to score highly on:
(2) intellectual attainment (1) neuroticism
(3) unconscious processes (2) agreeableness
(4) parenting style (3) extraversion
Answer: (3) (4) conscientiousness
Answer: (4)
312. Traits are defined as:
(1) physical characteristics that 316. The Barnum effect helps to explain
distinguish us from other people people’s belief in:
(2) relatively enduring characteristics (1) fortune-telling
that influence our behaviour across (2) astrology
many situations (3) horoscopes
(3) unconscious tendencies to act in (4) all the above
different ways according to the Answer: (4)
situation
(4) permanent personality tendencies 317. ________ are the basic biological units
that determine our behaviour in any that transmit characteristics from one
situation generation to the next:
(2) neurons
313. Sheldon’s theory that people with (3) glia
different body types have different (4) instincts
personalities has been: Answer: (1)
(1) supported by research
(2) discredited 318. Which of the following would NOT be
(3) shown to be accurate for thin useful to a behavioural geneticist?
people but not overweight people (1) family studies
(4) shown to be accurate for women (2) case studies
but not for men (3) adoption studies
Answer: (2) (4) twin studies
Answer: (2)
314. Which of the following is not a defence
mechanism? 319. According to Freud, the id is to the
________ principle as the ego is to the

________ principle.
(1) aggressive, sexual
(2) sexual, aggressive
(3) pleasure, reality
(4) reality, pleasure
Answer: (3)
320. Lana is friendly, always willing to help

others and compassionate. We
would expect Lana to score highly on:
(1) extraversion
(2) agreeableness
(3) neuroticism
(4) openness to experience
Answer: (2)

Unit 1 Emergence of Psychology

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UNIT-1 EMERGENCE OF

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB

What is Psychological thought in some major Eastern Systems: Bhagavad Gita,

The Psychological thought in some major Eastern Systems: Bhagavad Gita,

Its universal importance is established by its translation in all recognized languages of

Psychological depiction is not confined to any race, time or space. It is perennial

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 2

commencement of war, Sanjay, as a messenger of Dhritrastra requests Yudhisthra not

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 3

second, his preaching about ‘Isthitpragyata’ prepared the background to stabilize

GITA AND HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 4

includes Jung’s postulation of individuation as an integrated transformational process

In addition to these classical models of Freud and Jung, in contemporary psychology

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 5

In science, the underlying hypothesis in modeling is that a super-imposition of plural

A bit about Swami Rama

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 6

highlight the comparison between eastern and western psychology. It has my

Psychological thought in Buddhism

Goal of Buddhist Psychology

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 7

Buddhist Psychology as a Science of Consciousness

Five Insights of Buddhist Psychology:

(ii) Human experience manifests through 6 sense systems

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 8

(iii) All experience is constructed

(iv) Experience is constantly changing- an incessant succession of events

(v) Mind/body (the self) revealed through 5 inter-dependent processes

BUDDHISM AND WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 9

Assessment of Buddhism in terms of modern western psychology started when British

Buddhism and phenomenological psychology

Buddhism's psychological orientation is a theme Rhys Davids pursued for decades as

Buddhism and psychoanalytical psychotherapy

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 10

“Psychoanalysis is a characteristic expression of the Western man's spiritual crisis,

Referencing Jung and Suzuki's collaboration as well as the efforts of others,

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 11

Buddhism and existential psychology

Buddha said that life is suffering. Existential psychology speaks of ontological

Buddhism and cognitive-behavior therapy principles

Two increasingly popular therapeutic practices using Buddhist mindfulness techniques

Mindfulness-based stress reduction

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 12

Kabat-Zinn, a one-time Zen practitioner, goes on to write: “Although at this time,

Dialectical behavioral therapy

Similarly, Linehan writes:

The school of Behaviorism describe (or reduce) human functions to principles of

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 13

Buddhism and other psychotherapy principles

Psychological thought in Sufism

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 14

Jalaladdin Rumi (1207–1273) went through a most powerful spiritual awakening as a

‘Love is here like the blood in my veins and skin,

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 15

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 16

DIWAKAR EDUCATION HUB Page 17

The need to know Sufism