.

“Fundamental Techniques of
Linear & Angular measurements
in Surveying”

20121014
Atanu Dhadheech
Abstract:
Linear measurement can be defined as the gap between the leftmost end and
the rightmost end. Linear measure refers to measurements that are directly
proportional to the distance travelled along the axis of the measurement. In
this paper, I have discussed in brief Fundamental Techniques of Linear &
Angular measurements in Surveying along with its fundamental techniques.

Introduction:
Surveying is the art of making suitable measurements in horizontal or vertical
planes. This is one of the important subjects of civil engineering. Without
taking a survey of the plot where the construction is to be carried out, the work
cannot begin.
Angle measurement is the figure formed by two rays sharing a common endpoint
called the vertex of the angle or is defined as two lines which meet at a point.
Therefore, linear and angle measurements are the basic operations taken by the
surveyor in surveying.

Theoretical Knowledge:
From the above definition, we conclude on two types of
measurements in surveying. They are as follows:
1. Linear measurements
2. Angular measurements

Linear Measurement :

Types of Linear Measurement Devices

Linear measurement is achieved by various instruments, depending on the
type of instrument used for measurement. It can be divided into a direct
measurement method, an optical measurement method, and an electronic
measurement method.
Direct Measurement Method
It is obtained by using some simple measurement equipment. The direct
measurement methods are widely used in the fieldwork measured using a
chain or chape. All the instruments used for the chaining process in the direct
method are chains, tapes, arrows, ranging rods and offset rods, pegs, and the
plumb-bob.
Optical Measurement Method

In the optical measurement method, observations are taken through the

telescope, and calculations are done for distance as in tachometer or
triangulation. The tachometer is a type of surveying method used to determine
the horizontal distance from to and evolution of a point.

Electromagnetic Methods

In electromagnetic methods, the distances are measured with the help of

instruments that are based on propagation, reflection and subsequent
reception of either radio or light waves. Some of the instruments used in the
electromagnetic method are Geodimeter, Tellurometer, Decca Navigator, etc.
All the methods were found due to the problems faced in convention taping
distance measurement.

Basic Tools of Linear Measurements

Some of the basic tools used for linear measurements are given below.
Ruler – The standard rulers generally measure 15 and 30 cm with markings in
mm, cm on top and inches on the bottom, Some of the 15 cm rulers you would
have used in the schools.

Measuring Tape – The measuring tape is more commonly used to measure

longer objects like walls, pieces of fabric and tiles. A measuring tape has
metric markings and U.S. customary markings, and there are different kinds of
tapes for different purposes. Like foldable smooth tape is used by tailors and
steel tape is used for construction purposes.

The markings on the tape and ruler are in the metric and customary system
and the next section lists the different units of measurement for length and
height. Using measuring instruments like a ruler and a scale, it would be very
easy to measure the object in the surroundings like a pencil, shoe, remote,
car, spoon, and toy.
Units of Linear Measurement

The measurements of length can be measured by using a linear measurement

unit. Linear measurement units have a reference line or axis. A measurement
unit can move along this line from the reference point. The distance moved
over the reference point is the length of the measurement unit. The common
system of linear measurement units are given below:

U.S. Customary Units for Linear Measurement

The US Customary Units for linear measurement (also called custom unit or
USU) is a set of units of linear measure with values derived from the United
States customary system of measure. They are used for the measurement of
linear quantities for both metric and imperial (U.S. customary) systems of
measure. They are Inches (in), Foot (ft), Yards(yd), Miles (mile).

Metric Units for Linear Measurement

In Metric Units, the distance between any two points is measured in metres
(m). The distance between points in Metric Units is calculated by subtracting
their starting point from their ending point and multiplying that result by the
length of a unit. The length of a linear unit varies, depending on which linear
unit is being used. These metric units are Millimetres (mm), Centimetres (cm),
Metres (m), Kilometres (km).

Various Standards of Linear Measurement

According to the linear dimension measurement, there are three important
standards used for the linear measurement are:

● Imperial Standard Yard - According to this standard 1 yard = 11 feet and

1 foot = 12 inches.
● International Prototype Metre - According to this standard 1 m = 100 cm
and 100 cm = 1000 metre.
● Wavelength Standard - According to this standard 1m = 1650763.73
light waves of a red-orange line of Krypton-86.

The different methods used for doing linear centimetre measurements are the
line standard method of measurement, end standard method of measurement,
line and end standard method of measurement.

Applications of the Linear Measurement

Measuring is quantitative analysis and it is the primary step for the

measurement of distance. Some of the measurable quantities include such as
length, breadth, and height, the knowledge of physical and linear dimensions
of objects is used in learning geometry, drawing scalable maps, architecture,
and estimating unknown quantities for shapes with the help of formulas.

Angular Measurement :
In angular measurements, two types of angle measuring devices are used.
They are:

● Angle gauges corresponding to slip gauges.

● Divided scale corresponding to line standard.

The most common instrument is the Sine Bar.

Sine Bar :

Sine bars are always used along with slip gauges as a device for the
measurement of angles very precisely.
They are used to:

● Measure angle very accurately.

● Locate the work piece to given angle with very high precision

Sine bars are made from high carbon, high chromium, and corrosion
resistant steel. These materials are highly hardened, ground and stabilised.
In a sine bar, two cylinders of equal diameter are attached at the ends with its
axes mutually parallel to each other. Two cylinders are also equal distance
from the upper surface of the sine bar. Mostly the distance between the axes
of two cylinders is 100mm, 200mm or 300mm. The working surfaces of the
rollers are finished to 0.2µm Ra value. The cylindrical holes are provided to
reduce the weight of the sine bar and alsoto facilitate handling.

Working principle of sine bar

 The working of the sine bar is based on trigonometry principle. To measure
the angle of the specimen, one roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface
plate and another one roller is placed over the surface of slip gauges. Now, ‘h’
be the height of the slip gauges and ‘L’ be the distance between roller canters,
then the angle is calculated as

Use of sine bars:

I. Locating any work to a given angle.

II. To check an unknown angle.

III. Measurement of unknown angles for heavier components

IV. Measurement of unknown angles of heavier components with more

accurate readings.

Bevel protractors:
Types of bevel protractors:
1) Vernier bevel protractor
2) Universal protractor
3) Optical protractor

Vernier bevel protractor:

Working principle:

A vernier bevel protractor is attached with acute angle attachment. The body
is designed; its back is flat and no projections beyond its back. The base plate
is attached to the main body and an adjustable blade is attached to the
circular plate containing vernier scale. The main scale is graduated in
degrees from 0° to 90° in both directions. The adjustable can be made to
rotate freely about the center of the main scale and it can be locked at any
position. For measuring acute angle, a special attachment is provided. The
base plate is made fit for measuring angles and can be moved throughout its
length. The ends of the blade are bevelled at angles of 45°and 60°. The main
scale is graduated as one main scale division is 1° and vernier is graduated
into 12 divisions on each side of zero. Therefore the least count is calculated
as Least count = One main scale division/No. of on vernier scale =10 /12 4
=1/12*60 =5 minutes Thus, the bevel protractor can be used to measure to an
accuracy of 5 minutes.

Optical bevel Protractor:

Stock: The working edge of the stock is about 90 mm in length and 7 mm
thick. It is very essential that the working edge of the stock be perfectly
straight.
Blade It can be moved along the turret throughout its length and can also be
reversed. It is about 150 or 300 mm long, 3 mm wide and 2 mm thick and
ends bevelled at angles of 45° and 60° within the accuracy of 2 minutes of arc.
It can be clamped in any position. The values are obtained by means of an
optical magnifying system. This optical magnifying system is attached with the
bevel protractor itself; a separate arrangement is provided for adjusting the
focus of the system for the normal variation of eyesight. The main and vernier
scales are arranged always in focus of the optical system.
Applications of bevel protractor
1. For checking a ‘V’ block
2. For checking acute angle

Basic principle:
Principle of Auto-collimator If a light source is placed in the flows of a
collimating lens, it is projected as a parallel beam of light. If this beam is
made to strike a plane reflector, kept normal to the optical axis, it is reflected
back along its own path and is brought to the same focus. If the reflector is
tilted through a small angle ‘’. Then the parallel beam is deflected twice the
angle and is brought to focus in the same plane as the light source. The
distance of focus from the object is given by
Angle gauges:

It is a hardened steel block approximately 75mm long and 1mm wide which
lapped flat working faces lying at a very precise angle to each other. It can be
constructed at any angle from 0 to 360 degree by suitable combination of
gauges. Each angle gauge is marked with ‘V’ which indicates the direction of
the included angle. To add the angles, all ‘V’ marks should be in the same line
and to subtract, ‘V’ marks should be in the opposite direction.

Uses of angle gauges

(i) Direct use of angle gauges to measure the angle in the die insert

(ii) Use of angle gauges with square plates.

Clinometer :
 A Clinometer is a spirit level mounted on a rotator member. The angle of
inclination of the rotary member relative to its base can be measured by a
circular scale.
There are various types of Clinometers :
● Vernier Clinometer
● Micrometer Clinometer
● Dial Clinometer
● Optical Clinometer

Uses of clinometer:

● It is used for checking included angles, relief angles as well as angular

face on larger cutting tools and milling cutter inserts.
● It is also used for setting inclinable tables on jig boring machines and
angular work on grinding machines,etc.

CO-ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES:

 ● Measuring machines are used for measurement of length over the
outer surfaces of a length bar or any other long member.
● The member may be either rounded or flat and parallel.
● It is more useful and advantageous than vernier callipers, micrometres,
screw gauges etc.
● The measuring machines are generally of universal character and can
be used for works of varied nature.
● The co-ordinate measuring machine is used for contact inspection of
parts.
● When used for computer-integrated manufacturing these machines are
controlled by 17 computer numerical control.

Types of Measuring Machines

i. Universal measuring machine
ii. Co-ordinate measuring machine
iii. Computer controlled co-ordinate measuring machine.

Working Principle:

CMM is used for measuring the distance between two holes. The work piece
is clamped to the worktable and aligned for three measuring slides x, y and z.
The measuring head provides a taper probe tip which is seated in the first
datum hole and the position of the probe digital readout is set to zero. The
probe is then moved to successive holes, the read out representing the
coordinate part print hole location with respect to the datum hole. Automatic
recording and data processing units are provided to carry out complex
geometric and statistical analysis. Special coordinate measuring machines are
provided both linear and rotary axes. This can measure various features of
parts like cone, cylinder and hemisphere. The prime advantage of coordinate
measuring machine is the quicker inspection and accurate measurements.
Schematic Diagram

Applications of angular measurement:

It is used to measure the angle of the given specimen by placing the

component in between the two blades of the bevel protractor. It is calibrated in
Main Scale Divisions and Vernier Scale Divisions.

Conclusion:

Surveying is the art of making suitable measurements in horizontal or vertical

planes. There are two types of measurements in surveying which are linear
and angle measurements. In this paper, I have discussed in brief
Fundamental Techniques of Linear & Angular measurements in Surveying.
Measurements of length can be measured by using a linear measurement
unit. The distance between any two points is measured in metres (m).Units
are calculated by subtracting their starting point from their ending point and
multiplying that result by the length of a unit. U.S. Customary Units for Linear
Measurement. Measuring is quantitative analysis and it is the primary step for
the measurement of distance. Different methods are used for doing linear
centimetre measurements. We must learn the various systems for measuring
directions (horizontal angles, azimuths, bearings, and so forth). Some
surveyors use deflection angles in their computations. These can be
computed from the station or ecplement angles, or they can be turned directly.
The discussion of angles and directions in this chapter is simplified in most
instances to stay within the scope of plane surveying.

References: https://www.gpsrinagar.org/lms/MECH-MECH
%20AUTO/angular%20measurement_mech.pdf

https://www.gpsrinagar.org/lms/MECH-MECH%20AUTO/angular
%20measurement_mech.pdf