TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES – MANILA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
A.Y 2022 – 2023

ECOSYSTEMS AND
EVOLUTION
Group 1
Argarin, Princess Jascel
Biglain, Cristina V.
Camesa, Nikko M.
Cristobal, Nicole C.
Dacuno, Lance Peter I.
Ferrer, Jean Charlize
Porras, Patricia Jules G.
Prado, Kathereign M.
Ramos, Ryan Evans Derick F.
Reyes, John Elizar C.

BSCE 2D
 I. EARTH’S MAJOR BIOMES

• Biomes
• A biome is a vast, generally separate terrestrial region with particular
climate, soil, plants, and animals, independent of location. It contains
numerous interacting ecosystems. In temperate and tropical regions,
precipitation dominates biome distribution, whereas at the poles,
temperature does.

• Terrestrial Biomes
• Terrestrial biomes are defined primarily by the type of vegetation that
predominates in them, which is mostly influenced by temperature and
precipitation.
• Temperature and precipitation, and variations in both are the two climatic
factors and key abiotic elements that influence the composition of animal
and plant communities in terrestrial biomes

9 Types of Terrestrial Biomes:

• Tundra
- Is the treeless biome in the far north that consists of marshy plains covered by
lichens and tiny plants such as mosses; it has severe, very cold winters and
exceptionally short summers. The climate in this biome is highly extreme.

• Boreal forest
- Boreal forest A region of coniferous forest (such as pine, spruce, and fir) in the
Northern Hemisphere; located just south of the tundra. Also called taiga. The
Boreal Forest only gets about 50 cm (20 in) of rain per year, and its soil is usually
acidic and low in minerals, with a thick layer of partially decomposed pine and
spruce needles on the surface.
• Temperate rainforest
- A coniferous temperate rain forest occurs on the northwest coast of North
America. Similar vegetation exists in southeastern Australia and in southern South
America. Annual precipitation in this biome is high—more than 127 cm (50 in)—
and is augmented by condensation of water from dense coastal fogs.

• Temperate deciduous forest

- Hot summers and cold winters characterize the temperate deciduous forest, which
occurs in temperate areas where precipitation ranges from about 75 to 150 cm (30
to 60 in) annually. Typically, the soil of a temperate deciduous forest consists of a
topsoil rich in organic material and a deep, clay-rich lower layer.

• Temperate grassland
- Summers are hot, winters are cold, and rainfall is often uncertain in temperate
grassland. Average annual precipitation ranges from 25 to 75 cm (10 to 30 in).
Grassland soil has considerable organic material because the aboveground portions
of many grasses die off each winter and contribute to the organic content of the soil,
while the roots and rhizomes (underground stems) survive underground.

• Chaparral
- Some hilly temperate environments have mild winters with abundant rainfall
combined with hot, dry summers. Such Mediterranean climates, as they are called,
occur not only in the area around the Mediterranean Sea but also in the North
American Southwest, southwestern and southern Australia, central Chile, and
southwestern South Africa.

• Desert
- Desert consists of dry areas found in both temperate (cold deserts) and subtropical
or tropical regions (warm deserts). Deserts vary greatly depending on the amount
of precipitation they receive, which is generally less than 25 cm (10 in) per year.
 As a result of sparse vegetation, desert soil is low in organic material but is often
high in mineral content, particularly salts.

• Savanna
- Savanna, a tropical grassland, is found in areas of low rainfall or intense seasonal
rainfall with prolonged dry periods. Temperatures in savannas vary little
throughout the year. Precipitation is the overriding climate factor: Annual
precipitation is 85 to 150 cm (34 to 60 in). Savanna soil is somewhat low in essential
nutrient minerals, in part because it is heavily leached during rainy periods—that
is, nutrient minerals filter out of the topsoil.

• Tropical rainforest.
- Tropical rain forest occurs where temperatures are warm throughout the year and
precipitation occurs almost daily. The annual precipitation in a tropical rain forest
is typically between 200 and 450 cm (80 to 180 in).

II. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem formed by surrounding a body of water, in contrast

to land-based terrestrial ecosystems. The most fundamental division in aquatic ecology is
probably between freshwater and saltwater environments.

• Aquatic and Ecosystem.

• In biological context, the term aquatic is used to relate to water, as in
aquatic animals, aquatic plants, aquatic environment, aquatic habitat, and
aquatic” locomotion.
• An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other
organisms, as well as weather and landscapes, work together to form a
bubble of life.
 Aquatic Ecosystems contain three main ecological categories of organisms:
• Plankton are usually small or microscopic organisms. They tend to drift or swim
feebly, so, for the most part, they are carried about at the mercy of currents and
waves.
• Nektons are larger, more strongly swimming organisms such as fishes, turtles and
whales.
• Benthos are bottom-dwelling organisms that fix themselves to one spot (sponges
and oysters), burrow into the sand (worms and clams), or simply walk about on the
bottom (crawfish and aquatic insect larvae).

Freshwater Ecosystems
• Freshwater ecosystems include lakes and ponds (standing-water ecosystems), rivers and
streams (flowing-water ecosystems), and marshes and swamps (freshwater wetlands).

Zonation
• Is characteristic of standing-water ecosystems. A large lake has three zones: the littoral,
limnetic, and profundal zones (see What a Scientist Sees). The littoral zone is a productive,
shallow-water area along the shore of a lake or pond. Emergent vegetation,
such as cattails and bur reeds, as well as several deeper-dwelling aquatic plants and
algae, live in the lit-toral zone.

Human effects on lakes and ponds include eutrophication, which is nutrient enrichment
of a body of water with inorganic plant and algal nutrients like nitrates and Freshwater wetlands
include marshes, dominated by grass-like plants, and swamps, dominated by woody trees or shrubs
phosphates. Although eutrophication is a natural process, human activities often accelerate it, such
as the runoff of agricultural fertilizers and discharge of treated or untreated sewage.

Human activities such as pollution and dam construction have adverse impacts on rivers and
streams. These activities damage wildlife habitat and threaten water supplies and fisheries.
Freshwater wetlands include marshes, dominated by grass-like plants, and swamps, dominated
by woody trees or shrubs. Wetland soils are waterlogged for variable periods and are therefore
anaerobic (without oxygen). They are rich in accumulated organic materials, partly because
anaerobic conditions discourage decomposition

III. POPULATION RESPONSES TO CHANGING CONDITIONS OVER TIME:

EVOLUTION

Evolution
• The cumulative genetic changes in populations that occur during successive
generations.
• Consists of changes in the heritable traits of a population of organisms as successive
generations replace one another. It is populations of organisms that evolve, not
individual organisms.
• Evolution over time can follow several different patterns. Factors such as
environment and predation pressures can have different effects on the ways in
which species exposed to them evolve. shows the three main types of evolution:
divergent, convergent, and parallel evolution.

Charles Darwin (1809–1882), a 19thcentury naturalist, proposed the mechanism of

evolution that today’s scientific community still accepts. As you will see, the environment
plays a crucial role in Darwin’s theory of evolution

• It occurred to Darwin that in a population, features that were inherited that were
helpful for surviving in a particular environment tended to be kept over time, whilst
traits that were unhelpful were often eliminated. The end outcome is an adaptation,
an evolutionary change that raises a species' chances of surviving and reproducing
successfully in a particular environment. The accumulation of numerous adaptive
alterations could eventually give rise to a new species.
 Natural Selection
• The tendency of better-adapted individuals—those with a combination of genetic
traits best suited to environmental conditions—to survive and reproduce, increasing
their proportion in the population.

Four (4) conditions necessary for evolution by natural selection to occur:

1. High reproductive capacity - Each species produces more offspring than will survive to
maturity. Natural populations have the reproductive potential to increase their numbers
continuously over time.
2. Limits on population growth, or a struggle for existence - Only so much food, water,
light, growing space, and so on are available to a population, and organisms compete with
one another for the limited resources available to them.
3. Heritable variation - The individuals in a population exhibit variation. Each individual
has a unique combination of traits, such as size, color, and ability to tolerate harsh
environments.
4. Differential reproductive success - Individuals that possess the most favorable
combination of characteristics (those that make individuals better adapted to their
environment) are more likely than others to survive, reproduce, and pass their traits to the
next generation.

Various types of evidence that supports evolution:

a. The Fossil Record
• Fossils deposited in rock layers, which can be dated, show how organisms evolved
over time.

b. Comparative Anatomy
• Similarities among organisms demonstrate how they are related.

c. Molecular Biology
 • The organisms pictured here all share a particular enzyme, but in the course of
evolution, mutations have resulted in changes in the gene that codes for that
enzyme.

IV. COMMUNITY RESPONSES TO CHANGING CONDITIONS OVER TIME:

SUCCESSION

First, let us differentiate between succession and ecological succession. So, succession is the order
of colonization of species in an ecosystem from a barren or destroyed area of land to the one from
already inhabited lands. Ecological succession is the steady and gradual change in a species of a
given area of land. But because the main objective of this report is to define ecological succession
and differentiate its two types, which are primary succession and secondary succession, let's
proceed then.

• Ecological Succession
• In the field of ecology, community composition changes over time. The
study of succession addresses this change, which can be influenced by the
environment, biotic interactions, and dispersal. Over the course of several
years, you can return to any location, whether it be the local forest,
grassland, pond, abandoned farm (or urban lot), park, or even your
backyard, and you are likely to observe changes in the organisms found in
the community. New plants may appear, and other plants disappear, and
these changes may also be reflected in animal life.
• It is the process of community development overtime, which involves
species in one stage being replaced by different species.

Types of Ecological Succession

➢ An ecological succession is initiated either by the formation of new, unoccupied habitat,
such as from a lava flow or a severe landslide, or by some form of disturbance of a
community, such as from a wildfire, severe windthrow, or logging, which may wipe out
 the entire species. Thus, succession is of two types:

• Primary Succession
• Succession that begins in new habitats or lifeless areas that are uninfluenced
by pre-existing communities is called primary succession. Primary
succession starts from a barren land, such as open water, where the newly
formed rock is colonized for the first time, such as formation of a new
ecosystem after a volcanic eruption or glacier breakage. It can be a lengthy
process because of the time taken by the natural calamities to occur, which
in itself is a rare occasion. So the process is slightly longer and
unpredictable for the entire course of time.
• Secondary Succession
• The secondary is the second type of ecological succession that occurs when
the primary ecosystem gets destroyed. Thus, it is the type of succession in
which plants and animals recolonise a habitat after a major disturbance like
a landslide, lava flow, wildfire, etc. It occurs when a climax community gets
destroyed. Secondary succession takes place in an ecosystem where the
disturbance did not eliminate all life forms and nutrients from the
environment. Small plants emerge, followed by larger plants at the
beginning of the succession. They develop into tall trees that block the
sunlight and change the structure of the organisms below the canopy. By
the end of all this, the climax community arrives.
Mostly insects and weedy plants are the first organisms to recolonise in
secondary succession. Gradually, more complex and stable species of plants
and animals arrive. Stability in the ecological structure of a biological
community is established when the area remains undisturbed for a long
period.

The main difference between them is that primary succession is the change in species composition
overtime in an environment that was not previously inhabited by organisms; examples include bare
rock surfaces, such as recently formed volcanic lava and rock scraped clean by glaciers, while
secondary succession is the change in species composition that takes place after some disturbance
destroys the existing vegetation; soil is already present. Examples include abandoned farmland
and open areas caused by forest fires.
 HUMAN POPULATION CHANGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Objectives and Questions:

Population Ecology
1. Define population ecology.
- population ecology The branch of biology that deals with the number of individuals
of a particular species found in an area and how and why those numbers increase
or decrease over time.
2. Explain the four factors that produce changes in population size.
3. Define biotic potential and carrying capacity.
- Biotic potential. The maximum rate at which a population could increase under
ideal conditions.
- Carrying capacity ( K ). The largest population a particular environment can
support sustainably (long term), if there are no changes in that environment
4. What is population ecology?
5. How do each of the following affect population size: birth rate, death rate, immigration,
and emigration?
6. How do biotic potential and/or carrying capacity produce the J-shaped and S-shaped
population growth curves?

Human Population Patters

7. Summarize the history of human population growth.
8. Identify Thomas Malthus, relate his ideas on human population growth, and explain why
he may or may not have been wrong.
9. Explain why it is impossible to precisely determine how many people Earth can support—
that is, Earth’s carrying capacity for humans.
10. How would you describe human population growth for the past 200 years?
11. Who was Thomas Malthus, and what were his views on human population growth?
12. When determining Earth’s carrying capacity for humans, why is it not enough to just
consider human numbers?

Demographics of Countries
13. Define demographics and describe the demographic transition.
14. Explain how highly developed and developing countries differ in population characteristics
such as infant mortality rate, total fertility rate, replacement-level fertility, and age structure.
15. What is the demographic transition?
16. What is infant mortality rate?
17. How does infant mortality rate vary in highly developed and developing countries?

Stabilizing World Population

18. Relate total fertility rates to each of the following: cultural values, social and economic
status of women, availability of family planning services, and government policies.
19. Explain the link between education and total fertility rates.
 20. What is family planning?
21. What effect does family planning have on fertility rates?
22. What is the relationship between fertility rates and educational opportunities for women?

Population and Urbanization

23. Define urbanization and describe trends in the distribution of people in rural and urban
areas.
24. Describe some of the problems associated with rapid growth rates in large urban areas.
25. Explain how compact development makes a city more livable.
26. Which countries are the most urbanized? the least urbanized?
27. Which countries have the highest rates of urbanization today?
28. What are some of the problems caused by rapid urban growth in developing countries?
29. How does compact development affect city living?

Summary:
CHAPTER OUTLINE

The Atmosphere

• Environmental InSight: The Atmosphere

• Atmospheric Circulation

Types and Sources of Air Pollution

• Major Classes of Air Pollutants

• Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution
• What a Scientist Sees: Air Pollution from Volcanoes

Effects of Air Pollution

• Air Pollution and Human Health

• Urban Air Pollution
• How Weather and Topography Affect Air Pollution
• EnviroDiscovery: Air Pollution May Affect Precipitation
• Urban Heat Islands and Dust Domes

Controlling Air Pollutants

• The Clean Air Act

• Air Pollution in Developing Countries

Indoor Air Pollution

• Radon
• Case Study: Curbing Air Pollution in Chattanooga
THE ATMOSPHERE
Oxygen and nitrogen are the predominant gases in the atmosphere, accounting for about
99 percent of dry air. Other gases make up the remaining 1 percent. In addition, water vapor (the
most variable gas in the atmosphere) and trace amounts of air pollutants are present in the air.
The atmosphere becomes less dense as it extends outward into space. Nitrogen and oxygen form
most of the atmosphere. Air also contains water vapor and various pollutants (methane,
ozone, dust particles, microorganisms, and chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs]).

The atmosphere performs several valuable ecosystem services. First, it protects Earth’s
surface from most of the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) and x-ray radiation and from lethal exposures to
cosmic rays from space. Life as we know it would cease to exist without this shielding. Second,
atmospheric greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat reradiated from Earth’s surface, which
keeps the lower atmosphere within the range of temperatures that support life.
Organisms depend on the atmosphere for their existence, but they also maintain and, in
certain instances, modify its composition. Atmospheric oxygen is thought to have increased to its
present level as a result of billions of years of photosynthesis. Over the course of a year, oxygen-
producing photosynthesis and oxygen-using cellular respiration roughly balance, although carbon
dioxide levels have increased each year over the past century.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Earth’s atmosphere has five major and several secondary layers. From lowest to highest,
the major layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
1. Troposphere
Earth’s troposphere extends from Earth’s surface to, on average, about 12 kilometers (7.5
miles) in height, with its height lower at Earth’s poles and higher at the equator. Yet this
very shallow layer is tasked with holding all the air plants need for photosynthesis and
animals need to breathe, and also contains about 99 percent of all water vapor and
aerosols (minute solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere). In the
troposphere, temperatures typically go down the higher you go, since most of the heat
found in the troposphere is generated by the transfer of energy from Earth’s surface. The
troposphere is the densest atmospheric layer, compressed by the weight of the rest of the
 atmosphere above it. Most of Earth’s weather happens here, and almost all clouds that
are generated by weather are found here, with the exception of cumulonimbus thunder
clouds, whose tops can rise into the lowest parts of the neighboring stratosphere. Most
aviation takes place here, including in the transition region between the troposphere and
the stratosphere.
2. Stratosphere
Located between approximately 12 and 50 kilometers (7.5 and 31 miles) above Earth’s
surface, the stratosphere is perhaps best known as home to Earth’s ozone layer, which
protects us from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. Because of that UV radiation, the
higher up you go into the stratosphere, the warmer temperatures become. The
stratosphere is nearly cloud- and weather-free, but polar stratospheric clouds are
sometimes present in its lowest, coldest altitudes. It’s also the highest part of the
atmosphere that jet planes can reach.
3. Mesosphere
Located between about 50 and 80 kilometers (31 and 50 miles) above Earth’s surface,
the mesosphere gets progressively colder with altitude. In fact, the top of this layer is the
coldest place found within the Earth system, with an average temperature of about minus
85 degrees Celsius (minus 120 degrees Fahrenheit). The very scarce water vapor present
at the top of the mesosphere forms noctilucent clouds, the highest clouds in Earth’s
atmosphere, which can be seen by the naked eye under certain conditions and at certain
times of day. Most meteors burn up in this atmospheric layer. Sounding rockets and
rocket-powered aircraft can reach the mesosphere.
4. Thermosphere
Located between about 80 and 700 kilometers (50 and 440 miles) above Earth’s surface
is the thermosphere, whose lowest part contains the ionosphere. In this layer,
temperatures increase with altitude due to the very low density of molecules found here.
It is both cloud- and water vapor-free. The aurora borealis and aurora australis are
sometimes seen here. The International Space Station orbits in the thermosphere.
5. Exosphere
Located between about 700 and 10,000 kilometers (440 and 6,200 miles) above Earth’s
surface, the exosphere is the highest layer of Earth’s atmosphere and, at its top, merges
with the solar wind. Molecules found here are of extremely low density, so this layer
doesn’t behave like a gas, and particles here escape into space. While there’s no weather
at all in the exosphere, the aurora borealis and aurora australis are sometimes seen in its
lowest part. Most Earth satellites orbit in the exosphere.
6. The Edge of Outer Space
While there’s really no clear boundary between where Earth’s atmosphere ends and outer
space begins, most scientists use a delineation known as the Karman line, located 100
kilometers (62 miles) above Earth’s surface, to denote the transition point, since 99.99997
percent of Earth’s atmosphere lies beneath this point. A February 2019 study using data
from the NASA/European Space Agency Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)
 spacecraft suggests, however, that the farthest reaches of Earth’s atmosphere — a cloud
of hydrogen atoms called the geocorona — may actually extend nearly 391,000 miles
(629,300 kilometers) into space, far beyond the orbit of the Moon.

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
The amount of solar energy that reaches different areas on Earth varies over the course
of each year and from place to place around the globe. This variation creates differences in
temperature, which then drive the circulation of the atmosphere. The very warm regions near the
equator heat the air, which expands and rises. As this warm air rises, it cools, spreads, and then
sinks again. Much of it recirculates almost immediately to the same areas it has left. The
remainder of the heated air splits and flows toward the poles. At about 30 degrees north and south
latitude, the air is chilled enough to sink to the surface. This descending air splits and flows over
the surface.
Similar upward movements of warm air and its subsequent flow toward the poles also
occur at higher latitudes, farther from the equator. At the poles, the air cools, sinks, and flows
back toward the equator, generally beneath the currents of warm air that simultaneously flow
toward the poles. These constantly moving currents transfer heat from the equator toward the
poles and cool the land over which they pass on their return. This continuous circulation moderate
temperatures over the Earth’s surface.
In addition to these global circulation patterns, the atmosphere features smaller-scale
horizontal movements, or winds. The motion of the wind, with its eddies, lulls, and turbulent gusts,
is difficult to predict. It results partly from fluctuations in atmospheric pressure and partly from the
planet’s rotation.
 The gases that constitute the atmosphere have weight and exert a pressure—about 1013
millibars (14.7 lb. per in) at sea level. Air pressure is variable, depending on altitude, temperature,
and humidity. Winds tend to blow from areas of high atmospheric pressure to areas of low
pressure, and the greater the difference between the high- and low-pressure areas, the stronger
the wind.
The atmosphere has three prevailing major surface winds that blow more or less
continuously. Prevailing winds from the northeast near the North Pole or from the southeast near
the South Pole are called polar easterlies. Winds that blow in middle latitudes from the southwest
in the Northern Hemisphere or from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere are called
westerlies. Tropical winds from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere or from the southeast
in the Southern Hemisphere are called trade winds.
TYPES AND SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution

− Natural occurrences like a forest fire started by lightning or volcanic eruptions can produce
air pollution. However, human activities considerably contribute to global air pollution by
releasing a wide variety of pollutants into the atmosphere. When these compounds are
breathed, on land, or surface waters, they can cause injury. Other substances can cause
harm by changing the chemistry of the atmosphere.
Primary air pollutants

− These are harmful substances that are released into the atmosphere directly as a result
of either human activity or natural processes.
Secondary air pollutants

− These are harmful compounds that develop in the atmosphere as a result of chemical
reactions between primary air pollutants or between primary air pollutants and naturally
occurring atmospheric constituents.

MAJOR CLASSES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Particulate Matter

− consists of dusts and mists, which are atmospheric suspensions of countless varieties of
solid and liquid particles. Soil fragments, soot, lead, asbestos, sea salt, and sulfuric acid
droplets are examples of particulate matter. Certain particulate matter possesses
hazardous or cancer-causing properties.
Nitrogen Oxides

− are gases created when a source of energy, such as the combustion of fuel, generates
high temperatures. They are the result of chemical reactions between nitrogen and
oxygen.
Sulfur Oxides

− Sulfur and oxygen combine chemically to produce gases. One of the main air pollutants
is sulfur dioxide (SO2), a colorless, nonflammable gas with a pungent smell.
Carbon Oxides

− are carbon dioxide (CO) and carbon monoxide (CO) gases? (CO2). More carbon
monoxide is created than any other air pollutant, with the exception of carbon dioxide, and
it is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas.
Hydrocarbons

− are a broad class of organic substances that only have the elements hydrogen and carbon.
Methane (CH4) and other small hydrocarbon molecules are gaseous at normal
temperature.

What are the sources of Air pollution?

− The sources of air pollution are natural and caused by humans.

Air pollution caused by natural example is a volcanic eruption.

− In 1991 mount Pinatubo erupted and releases a huge number of ashes, but after that year
it temporarily interrupted a longer warming period.
− In 2010, a volcano in Iceland also erupts which caused air traffic due to the ashes.

Air pollution is caused by humans.

− Transportation and power plants are two major contributors to air pollution caused by
humans. The vehicles like Cars, trucks, tractors, and heavy construction equipment are
known as mobile sources. They release significant quantities of nitrogen oxides, carbon
oxides, particulate matter, and hydrocarbons during gasoline or diesel fuel combustion.
− Diesel-Type vehicles produced more air pollution.
− Electric power plants and other industrial facilities emit sizable amounts of nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, and carbon oxides. The three top industrial sources of toxic air pollutants
are the chemical industry, the metals industry, and the paper industry.

What a Scientist sees

Air Pollution from Volcanoes - Volcanoes form when hot magma from deep within the
Earth reaches the surface. Active volcanoes can spew out massive amounts of pollutants.
a. Mount Pinatubo - When the Philippine volcano Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991, it
released huge amounts of particulate matter.
b. Global Average Temperature, 1987 to 1998 - Climate scientists discovered that the
years following Mount Pinatubo's eruption were cooler than the preceding and
succeeding years. This brief cooling event disrupted a longer-term warming trend.
c. The Eyjafjallajökull Volcano - This Icelandic volcano erupted in 2010. For days, the
ensuing ash cloud hampered aviation traffic.

Sources of primary air pollutants

a. Transportation and industrial fuel combustion (such as electric power plants) are major
contributors to pollutants.
b. Stationary source of air pollution. Ash, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and hazardous
air pollutants are released from smokestacks at this coal-fired electric power plant in
Tennessee.
c. Mobile source of air pollution. Diesel trucks produce particulate matter and other kinds
of air pollution.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

AIR POLLUTION AND HUMAN HEALTH

Air pollution

− is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are
harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate
or to materials (metals, plastics, rubber and fabrics).
Air Pollutants

− Harm the respiratory track of animals and humans, and can worsen existing medical
conditions (chronic lung disease, pneumonia, and cardiovascular problems).
Air Pollution and Human Health

− The exposure to low levels of pollutants leads to irritation of the eyes and inflammation of
the respiratory tracks and many air pollutants can suppress the immune system and it
increase the susceptibility to infection. And the exposure to air pollution while having a
respiratory illness can lead into a chronic respiratory disease, such as emphysema and
chronic bronchitis.
Urban Air Pollution

− Smog is a common name for the air pollution that occurs in cities. The smoky fog that was
frequently present in London due to coal burning gave rise to the name “smog” at the turn
of the 20th century. Industrial smog is another name for the smoke pollution that
characterizes typical London smog.
Photochemical smog

− a brownish-orange haze produced by sunlight-induced chemical reactions,

Hydrocarbons and Nitrogen Oxides

Temperature inversion

− A layer of cold air temporarily trapped near the ground by a warmer upper layer. However,
during a temperature inversion, noxious gases and particulates are still trapped in high
quantities near to the ground, where humans live and breathe.
Photochemical smog

− Ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), nitric acid, and organic molecules like formaldehyde
are all components of photochemical smog.

Composition of Photochemical Smog

EnviroDiscovery: Air Pollution May Affect Precipitation

Due in significant part to the air pollution issues in Los Angeles, California became the first
state to implement emissions rules on motor vehicles in 1960. Today’s strict pollution regulations
in Los Angeles cover everything from low-mission alternative fuels (such compressed natural gas
for buses) to leaded emissions to paint vapors. Large industrial and manufacturing sources, such
as power plants and oil refineries, considerably reduce their emissions when they use the cleanest
emission-reduction technology available. California doesn’t have any coal-fired power plants;
most of its power stations use natural gas instead.
 The effect of humidity on visibility has been used by udtrac to estimate the amount of air
pollution suspended in the atmosphere. The scientists have command high visibility that is
associated with air pollution with significantly more precipitation than when pollution levers were
high, but they caution that the relationship between air pollution and precipitation patterns is not
linear.
High population density places have streets, rooftops, and parking lots that collect solar
radiation during the day and emit heat into the atmosphere at night. Cities also have a lot of heat
generated by human activities like burning fuel. As a result, urban heat islands are created in the
nearby suburban and rural areas by the air in metropolitan areas.
URBAN HEAT ISLANDS AND DUST DOMES
The accumulation of pollutants, particularly particulate matter, in the form of dust domes
over cities is further facilitated by urban heat islands. Dust domes are metropolitan region
surrounded by a dome of warm air that is very polluted.
Cities located in valleys or upwind of mountain ranges are particularly vulnerable to the
buildup of pollutants on low wood clays. Urban heat islands have an impact on weather patterns
and hall air currents. For instance, during the summer months, urban heat islands may result in
more thunderstorms over the metropolis. Warm air Is lifted over the city, creating a low-pressure
cell that transforms into clear skies. As the heated air cools, water vapor begins to condense into
clouds, resulting in thunderstorms.
CONTROLLING AIR POLLUTANTS

A. Clean Air Acts

- Technology exists to control all forms of air
pollution that has a harmful effect on human health
specifically the respiratory and cardiovascular
system.
- Smaller, more fuel-efficient automobiles produce
fewer polluting emissions however this technology
is cost.
- Reduction of combustion temperatures in
automobiles lessens the formation of nitrogen
oxides. Use of mass transit reduces automobile
use, thereby decreasing nitrogen oxide emissions.
Nitrogen oxides produced during high-temperature
combustion processes in industry can be removed
from smokestack exhausts.
- In the United States, there is good news and bad
news about air pollution. The bad news is that
many locations throughout the country still
unacceptably high levels of one or more air
pollutants causes the premature deaths of
thousands of people in the United States. While the
good news is that overall air quality has improved
since 1970.
- This improvement is largely by the U.S. Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970 and its
amendments in 1977 and 1990, that authorize the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to apply force and enforce the CAA by establishing limits on the amount of specific
air pollutants permitted everywhere in the United States.
- The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 include the development of “super clean cars”,
which emit lower amounts of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, and the use of cleaner-
burning gasoline in the most polluted cities in United States.
- Additionally, it focuses on industrial airborne toxic chemical in addition to motor vehicles.
It’s required of a 90% reduction in the atmospheric emissions of 189 toxic chemicals.

AIR POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A developing country, also called a less developed country or emerging market, has a
lower gross domestic product (GDP) than developed countries, with a less mature and
sophisticated economy

Air pollution in developing countries tends to be worse than in developed countries. Poor
countries often lack the technology and resources to fight air pollution.
Why do developing nations produce more air pollution?

− The leaders of most developing countries believe they must industrialize rapidly to
compete economically with more highly developed countries. Coal power plants are
prevalent due to industrialization.
− Lower-income countries tend to have lax regulations regarding air quality.
− The pursuit of economic development frequently places a low value on environmental
quality. Low-income levels, high costs of improvement.
− Political factors undermining efficient policymaking. Air pollution laws, where they exist,
are not enforced. As a result, the quality of the air is rapidly declining in many developing
nations.
− The growing number of automobiles in developing countries is also contributing to air
pollution, particularly in urban areas. Passenger vehicles are a major pollution contributor,
producing significant amounts of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and other pollution.
− Lead pollution from heavy lead gasoline is a particularly serious problem in developing
countries. Gasoline refineries in these countries typically do not have facilities to remove
lead from gasoline. Lead can retard children’s growth and cause brain damage.

According to the World Health Organization, the five cities with the worst air pollution are Beijing,
China; New Delhi, India; Santiago, Chile; Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; and Cairo, Egypt.
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

RADON
Radon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless radioactive gas produced naturally by the
radioactive decay of uranium in the Earth's crust. Radon has become an increasingly important
indoor air contaminant in the United States, especially as laws and behavioral changes have
reduced secondhand cigarette smoke exposure. Radon levels are typically higher in basements,
cellars, and ground-level living spaces. However, significant radon concentrations can be found
above the ground floor. Radon seeps through the ground and into buildings, where it can build up
to dangerous levels (Figure 8.18). Radon emitted into the atmosphere is diluted and dispersed,
making it insignificant outside.
How radon infiltrates a house
Cracks in basement walls or floors, openings
around pipes, and pores in concrete blocks
provide some of the entries for radon.
Radon decay radiation does not penetrate
deeply into body tissue. As a result, only radon that
is ingested or inhaled causes harm to the body.
According to the National Research Council of the
National Academy of Sciences, residential radon
exposure causes 12 percent of all lung cancers—
between 15,000 and 22,000 lung cancers per year.
Cigarette smoking increases the risk of radon
exposure; approximately 90% of radon-related
cancers occur in current or former smokers.
According to the EPA, approximately 6% of U.S. homes have radon levels high enough to
warrant corrective action—radon levels greater than 4 picocuries per liter of air. A picocurie is one
billionth of a curie, which is a standard measure of radiation dose. Outdoor radon concentrations
in the United States range from 0.1 to 0.15 picocuries per liter of air.
In an ironic twist, efforts to make our homes more energy efficient have increased the risk
of indoor air pollutants such as radon. Drafty homes waste energy while allowing radon to escape
outside and not build up inside. Radon levels vary greatly from home to home, even within the
same neighborhood, so every home should be tested. In general, testing and corrective actions
are inexpensive. Some corrective actions, however, can be costly, costing thousands of dollars.
CASE STUDY
In the 1960s, Chattanooga, Tennessee, received the unfortunate distinction of having the
worst air pollution in the country from the federal government. In this industrial city, the air was so
polluted that occasionally, during the day, drivers downtown had to put on their headlights. The
orange air immediately stained their white shirts, so many businesses brought extra clothes to
work. The fact that the city's surrounding mountains prevented the toxins its residents created
from dispersing only made the issue worse.
 As one of the top American cities for air quality, Chattanooga has 200,000 residents and
is a picturesque mid-sized metropolis. The transformation of Chattanooga's air is ascribed to city
and corporate leaders. The city formed an air pollution control board to enforce laws governing
air pollution shortly after the federal Clean Air Act of 1970 became law. New municipal restrictions
limited industrial smells and particle matter, forbade visible car emissions, limited open burning
by permit only, and capped the sulfur level in gasoline to reduce sulfur oxide emissions.
Businesses put up costly air pollution control equipment. The city launched an electric bus system
that produces no pollutants. The city of Chattanooga likewise chose to recycle its solid trash rather
than construct an emissions-producing incinerator because the city's air quality has significantly
improved over the previous few decades. Particle matter levels in Chattanooga had been below
the federal health limit for a year when the EPA proclaimed the city to be in attainment for
particulate matter in 1984. In 1989, the city achieved ozone achievement status. All seven of the
EPA's regulated air pollutants have been present at levels below what is required by federal
regulations throughout the city.
Early in the new millennium, residents of Chattanooga kept working to make their city
more sustainable. The city wants to transform a run-down commercial area into a neighborhood
where residents may live close to their places of employment. Businesses situated in this area
will create an industrial ecosystem whereby the trash of one firm serve as the raw materials for
another. The amount of particulate matter in Chattanooga's air was lowered by more than a factor
of four over the course of twenty years by efficient air pollution control techniques.