Technological University of the Philippines

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

ENERGY AND MATERIAL FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Group 2:
Amen, Carl Vincent
Argarin, Princess Jascel
Asuncion, Rinalyn
Bucog, Roudesa
Esquierdo, Julie Anne
What is energy flow?

 It is by far one of the most important processes in an ecosystem. It is received from the Sun and
then goes up the food chain. The consumer only retains a percentage of the energy it consumes
at each stage. The remaining energy is lost as heat and cannot be regenerated. It is classified as
an open energy system since it is dependent on continuous energy flow and loses energy in the
process.

TROPHIC LEVEL - An organism’s position relative to the primary energy source (such as the
sun) in a food chain

Organisms can occupy more than one trophic level. Organisms are not limited to one

trophic level. For example, omnivores (which eat plants and animals) can be classified as

primary or secondary consumers.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID - A model that represents the relative amount of matter and energy
contained within each trophic level of an ecosystem.

What is the Transferred Energy and Matter Used For?

The energy and matter obtained by one trophic level from the next are either stored or used for a
variety of cellular processes such as metabolism or building new cellular structures and proteins.
However, as you have learned, only 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next.
So what happens to the remaining 90%? The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed. Therefore, the remaining 90% of energy that is not transferred from one trophic
level to the next is not lost. Instead, it is transferred as heat to the environment through the processes
of growth, respiration, and defecation.

What is material flow?

 The other primary process in an ecosystem, after energy, is the cycling of material in the form of
nutrients. Unlike energy, material does not enter an ecosystem from outside sources. It is
instead chemically altered. There is no waste in the cycle. It is also regarded as a closed system
in terms of material flow. Biogeochemical energy is the flow of components in an ecosystem
such as carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen through the ecosystem.

 The availability of energy and nutrients limits the productivity of an ecosystem. Light is
abundant at the surface of the water but gets sparse farther below. Nutrients become sparse as
well, limiting output. Here are some points to consider while describing an ecosystem in brief.
No resource will be divided evenly at any level.
The movement of energy and matter in ecosystems

“Energy flows through an ecosystem, while matter cycles within it.” 

Photosynthesis - is the process through which plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms collect
solar energy and convert it into organic compounds that may be consumed as food.

Cellular Respiration - is the chemical reaction that occurs when organic molecules from food react with
other chemicals, generating energy that is required for fundamental living functions.

When producers do photosynthesis, they capture solar energy and store it as chemical potential energy.
Environmental matter is taken in and changed into organic molecules (sugars) throughout this process.
These organic molecules can either be used to power the producers' life activities through cellular
respiration or stored as biomass.

Food webs model matter and energy transfer

 A food chain is a network that demonstrates how different nutrients and energy sources
connect diverse creatures to one another. A food web, on the other hand, demonstrates the
relationships between food chains. One or more food chains may be found in a single food web.
Typically, an animal producer is at the top of the food chain, and the top carnivore is at the
bottom. As a result, as energy moves from one level of a food chain to another, the trophic level
of an ecosystem is reached.

 A food web is a model of feeding relationships in an ecosystem. When an organism is eaten, the
matter and energy stored in its tissues are transferred to the organism that eats it. The arrows in
a food web represent this transfer.

A food web showing the feeding relationships in a grassland ecosystem.

Ecological pyramids model energy loss
 Figure 1: Energy pyramid model of energy loss

An energy pyramid showing the inefficient transfer of energy up the trophic levels of an ecosystem.

Figure 2: Numbers Pyramid

A numbers pyramid showing the number of individuals per 0.1 hectare for each trophic level in a
grassland ecosystem.
Technological University of the Philippines
College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

POPULATION DYNAMICS

Group 2:
Amen, Carl Vincent
Argarin, Princess Jascel
Asuncion, Rinalyn
Bucog, Roudesa
Esquierdo, Julie Anne
What is Population Dynamics?

A population is the complete set group of individuals, whether that group comprises a nation or a group
of people with a common characteristic. In statistics, a population is the pool of individuals from which a
statistical sample is drawn for a study.

Population dynamics is the study of how and why populations of a species change in size and structure
over time. Important factors in population dynamics include rates of reproduction, death and migration.

Why is population dynamics important?

Understanding population dynamics is the key to understanding the relative importance of competition
for resources and predation in structuring ecological communities, which is a central question in
ecology.

As environmental  scientists  and  engineers,  evaluating  population  dynamics  is  critical  to (1) 
understanding  how  environmental  perturbations  affect  populations,  (2)  predicting  human
populations  so  as  to  determine  water  resource  needs,  (3)  predicting  bacterial  populations  in
engineered systems, and (4) using populations as indicators of environmental quality.

Resource development specialists and  wildlife  biologists  also  use  population  dynamics.  They
are  most concerned with (1) estimating how many animals can be harvested, (2) predicting when a
species or population is threatened or endangered with extinction, and (3) understanding how one
population  might    affect  another  (i.e.,  competition  or  predation).  Thus, an understanding  of
population dynamics is necessary for understanding the structure and function of communities and
ecosystems.

Population Size & Population Density

To study populations, scientists measure population size (the number of individuals of a specific species
occupying a given area/volume at a given time) and population density (the number of individuals of
the same species that occur per unit area or volume)

 Knowing the population size and density provides more information about the population's
relationship to resources it uses

D=N/S

N=Total number of individuals in the population 

S=Space occupied by the population

Population Dispersion

The dispersion pattern of a population describes the arrangement of individuals within a habitat at a
particular point in time, and broad categories of patterns are used to describe them.
 1. Random dispersion. In random dispersion, individuals are distributed randomly, without a
predictable pattern. Some individuals may be close together while others may be far apart. An
example of random distribution occurs with dandelion and other plants that have wind-
dispersed seeds that germinate wherever they happen to fall in favorable environments.

2. Clumped dispersion. In a clumped dispersion, individuals are clustered in groups. A clumped

dispersion may be seen in plants that drop their seeds straight to the ground—such as oak trees
—or animals that live in groups—schools of fish or herds of elephants. Clumped dispersions also
happen in habitats that are patchy, with only some patches suitable to live in.

3. Uniform dispersion. In uniform dispersion, individuals of a population are spaced evenly. We

can also find uniform dispersion in animal species where individuals stake out and defend
territories.

Demography

Demography is the study of these changes. Ecologists use demographic analysis to predict the growth of
a population.

Birth rate, death rate, immigration and emigration can be used to determine the growth rate of the
population in each period of time. This data can also be used to develop plans to protect endangered
species.

Population Growth Models

Population growth rate: the change in a population over a unit time period.

Population growth rate = {(births+immigration) - (deaths + emigration)} / initial population x 100

  A positive growth rate indicates that the population is increasing

 A negative growth rate indicates that the population is decreasing

 A growth rate of zero indicates there was no difference between birth rates and death rates

 Some species reproduce continuously so the sizes of these populations have the potential to
increase exponentially by a contrast ratio per unit of time. Ex, bacteria, virus

Human Population

Future Population Growth

The world's population is expected to increase by nearly 2 billion persons in the next 30 years, from the
current 8 billion to 9.7 billion in 2050 and could peak at nearly 10.4 billion in the mid-2080s.

Life expectancy is the key metric for assessing population health. Broader than the narrow metric of the
infant and child mortality, which focus solely at mortality at a young age, life expectancy captures the
mortality along the entire life course. It tells us the average age of death in a population.

Life expectancy has increased rapidly since the Age of Enlightenment. In the early 19th century, life
expectancy started to increase in the early industrialized countries while it stayed low in the rest of the
world. This led to a very high inequality in how health was distributed across the world. Good health in
the rich countries and persistently bad health in those countries that remained poor. Over the last
decades this global inequality decreased. No country in the world has a lower life expectancy than the
countries with the highest life expectancy in 1800. Many countries that not long ago were suffering from
bad health are catching up rapidly.

Child mortality refers to the death of children under the age of five while infant mortality refers to the
death of those under the age of one.

Fertility Rate  – or often simply ‘fertility rate’ – which measures the average number of children per
woman

Children per woman is measured as the total fertility rate, which is the number of children that would
be born to the average woman if she were to live to the end of her child-bearing years and give birth to
children at the current age-specific fertility rates.

Age Structure- The age structure of a population refers to the proportionate numbers of people in
different age categories in a given population for a defined time

The global median age has increased from just over 20 years in 1970 to just over 30 years in 2022. The
global population breakdown by age shows that around a quarter are younger than 14 years, around
10% are older than 65, while half of the world population is in the working age bracket between 25 and
65
ANIMAL POPULATION DYNAMICS 

 Animal population dynamics is a species adaptation to the rhythms of change of local conditions.
The number of individuals of slowly reproducing species (large predators, ungulates) with great
longevity increases insignificantly during the course of a season. In contrast, the size of the
population of animals that bear several litters each year and mature rapidly may increase many
times in the course of a single year or season. Thus, the size of the population of many species of
rodents increases under favorable conditions dozens, even hundreds, of times from spring to
autumn; the population of many species of insects, such as Diptera, increases as much as 1,000
times. The higher the fertility of the species and the greater its capacity to increase the rate of
reproduction under favorable conditions, the wider the possible range of fluctuation of its
population during the year. The connection between seasonal and perennial animal population
dynamics is a function of the correlation between the average lifespan and the fertility, which
depend on the morphophysiological adaptations of the species to its habitat and its innate
degree of parental care.

 The Soviet biologist S. A. Severtsov (1941) distinguished a number of types of animal population
dynamics: from long-lived animals with few offspring and stable populations (ungulates) to
 “ephemera” with extremely unstable numbers, short lives, and high fertility rates (small rodents,
many insects and other invertebrates).

   When mortality is high under natural conditions a cessation of reproduction or a decrease in its
rate leads to a substantial decrease in population; the population is restored when there is a rise
again in the rates of reproduction and survival. Under favorable environmental conditions a new
period of reproduction begins and the population level increases, creating the preconditions for a
population explosion of the species. Both presently active and preceding conditions have an
influence on reproduction and survival. A particular perennial periodicity of population dynamics
has been observed for certain vertebrate species, such as lemmings and certain predaceous
mammals, for Which population maximums are reached every three or four years.

 Regulatory mechanisms (factors) of three types lie at the basis of animal population dynamics as
a process of adaptation to local conditions: 

o individual adjustment (adaptation) are expressed in metabolic adaptations to the

physical and chemical conditions of the environment (temperature, humidity,
atmospheric composition, salinity). Deviations of these conditions from the norms lead
to a state of stress, by means of which the body overcomes the unfavorable influence of
a factor (but only to a certain limit, beyond which the animal will die).

o biocenotic regulation is expressed principally in the relations between organisms that

serve as food and their animal-consumers (plants and herbivorous animals, predators
and their prey, parasites and hosts). In population-biocenotic regulation the size of the
population depends on the food base and on the population density or the dimensions
of the inhabited space. After a drop in the number of animals the possibilities of the
development of mass diseases and the influence of predators decrease, the availability
of food increases, and the number of animals rises. The falling off of food availability
and the worsening of other conditions, the results of high population numbers, exert a
negative effect on subsequent reproduction and the viability of individual animals. 

o population regulation At the basis of population regulation lie certain neurohumoral

mechanisms that inhibit or accelerate (depending on population density) the rate of
reproduction (speed of sexual maturation, female fertility, male activity), the mobility of
the animals, and mortality. Among the factors that depend on density, the speed of
sexual maturation has special significance. Populational mechanisms play an important
role in the life of both vertebrates and invertebrates. The basis of these mechanisms is
intrapopulational organization (structure), or groupings of individuals (families, herds,
flocks, colonies, parcels, or demes), that ensure relative orderliness in the use of a
territory and the achievement of a certain optimal density of distribution.

 A study of the principles of animal population dynamics is necessary in order to build a scientific
foundation for the rational use of beneficial animals and the control of harmful ones.
Mathematical methods (in particular, simulation) are used in this kind of study. By influencing
animals or the environment they inhabit, man changes animal population dynamics. In catching
fish, birds, and fur-bearing animals or in exterminating pests, man artificially thins out their
populations. This decreases the competition for food, shelter, and dwelling places and increases
 the chances for survival of the remaining individuals; deaths from the so-called natural mortality
factors are sharply reduced and fertility increases. However, excessive destruction of animals, as
well as destruction of their food reserves, nesting places, and places of shelter, leads to their
disappearance, starting with the less favorable places of habitation. This dissociates populations
and leads to their gradual extinction.

 Various factors may play a leading role in the population dynamics of various species and
ecological groups. Thus, the population dynamics of predators is determined to a considerable
degree by the state of the food base: the number of squirrels and many mice depends on the
seed harvest, and the population size of grazing and browsing species (ungulates) is determined
in large measure by predators and parasites, whose numbers are an immediate and concrete
function of the number of prey.

 By improving the food supply and protective properties of a territory, man may increase the
number of animals and make them more stable, even while continuing intensive exploitation.

 While the term “population dynamics” is rarely used to refer to plants, it has much in common
with the concept of harvest.

 FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH

o WATER - The more food and water an animal's population has at its disposal, the more
likely it will be bigger in size. Conversely, if there is a drought and plants or water
disappear, or the prey that the animals once ate die off, the population size will
plummet. Thus, more nutrition means a larger population size.

o LIGHT - is another key factor in population size. While life can certainly exist and even
thrive without light (such as in deep sea vent communities or caves), the more light there
is, the higher the abundance of food and prey. This means population sizes will - all else
being equal - likely be bigger in areas with more light.

o HABITAT - The type of habitat an animal inhabits will also affect the population's size.
For instance, animal communities in the arctic or desert regions of the earth differ vastly
in size as compared to those in tropical regions, even for the same area of landmass.
That's because arctic and desert communities have fewer resources to support larger
populations. All of this goes back to the prior section regarding access to nutrients.

o NICHE - But even a particular niche within the same habitat can play a key role in an
animal's population size. One extreme example of this occurred roughly 65 million years
ago, when pretty much all the dinosaurs died off after a mass extinction event. Even
though the dinosaurs died off, other animals, including mammals, that lived in the same
exact geographic location still survived. Why? It's because they inhabited a specific niche
within that environment. Some animals back then, including small mammals, lived
largely underground, and this important factor helped them survive. One population of
animals died off (the dinosaurs) and another eventually thrived (the mammals).

o COMPETITION - The type of competition within a community also influences animal

population size. If competition for scarce resources like food is high between one
 population and another, then either both populations will decline or one will increase to
the detriment of the other as they take over those scarce resources.

o PREDATION - Predator and prey populations cycle through time, as predators decrease
numbers of prey. Lack of food resources in turn decrease predator abundance, and the
lack of predation pressure allows prey populations to rebound.

Factors that Affect Population Growth

Individuals within a population do not live in isolation. They interact with members of their own species
and members of other species. Coevolution occurs when one species evolves in response to the
evolution of another species.

Relationships between pairs of organisms:

Herbivory: the interaction between herbivorous animals and plants they eat. 

Ex: White-tailed deer and foliage

Mutualism: an interaction in which both partners benefit.

Ex: honey bee and flowering plant

Parasitism: awhile the tree is unaffected interaction in which one species benefits and the other is
harmed. 

Ex: mistletoe, which attaches to a tree and takes water and nutrients from its host; usually stunts growth
but can kill the tree with heavy infestation

Commensalism: an interaction in which one species benefits and the other is unaffected. 

Ex: moss, which grows on a tree, getting light and nutrient it needs

Defense Mechanisms

Organisms have evolved mechanisms to avoid being caught and eaten.

 Camouflage
 Chemical Defense

 Mimicry

 Spines and spikes

MICROBIAL POPULATION DYNAMICS 

 are described as a "never-ending arms race" with microbial rivals. A variety of widely used
ribosomal-based synthesized antibiotic products, lytic enzymes, metabolic products crucial to
bacterial defense like organic acids, protein exotoxins, as well as chromosomal and ribosomal
antimicrobial peptides produced defense like organic acids are among the bacteria's excreted
compounds.

 Increases in population size of bacteria rather than changes in cell size are used to determine
the growth of bacterial cultures. A bacterial population grows geometrically or exponentially:
with each division cycle (generation), one cell produces two, then four, then eight, then sixteen,
then thirty-two, and so on. 

 he time required for the formation of a generation, the generation time (G), can be calculated
from the following formula:

 The number of bacteria present at the beginning of the observation (B), the number present
after the time period t (B), and the number of generations (n) are all included in the formula.
The relationship demonstrates that the mean generation time is constant and that the rate of
bacterial population growth is proportional to bacterial population density at any given
moment. Only during the log phase of growth, or when the population is growing exponentially,
is this relationship applicable. As a result, graphs that depict the development of bacterial
cultures are drawn as the logarithm of the cell count.

Bacteriocins

 are extracellular substances produced by organisms with distinct physical and biochemical
characteristics ranging from very small to large molecular complex weights, and which are
predominantly linked to a protein during exercise. The majority of these plasmids are
 synthesized, but some of them have chromosomal origins and are produced under various
environmental conditions and at various stages of bacterial life.

 Depending on characteristics of the proteins, such as posttranslational modifications, side

chains, thermal stability, N-terminal homology of the structure, and molecular weight, are
divided into four groups. 

Bacterial Growth Curve

 Numerous environmental factors as well as the characteristics of the individual bacterial species
govern the generation time, which differs among bacteria. For instance, the generation time for
the fastest-growing bacterium, Clostridium perfringens, is approximately 10 minutes; for the
fastest-doubling bacterium, Escherichia coli, the generation time is 20 minutes; and for the
slowest-growing bacterium, Mycobacterium TB, the generation time is between 12 and 16
hours. According to some experts, certain bacterial populations that are found deep beneath
the surface of the Earth may grow at incredibly slow rates, reproducing just once every several
thousand years.

Ecology of Bacteria 

Distribution in Nature 
  Prokaryotes are found all over the surface of the Earth. They can be found in every accessible
setting, including soils in forests, polar ice, bubbling hot springs, mountaintops, and ocean
floors. While certain bacteria may flourish in water at temperatures close to boiling (100 °C [212
°F]), others can grow in soil or water at temperatures as low as near freezing (0 °C [32 °F]). 

 Prokaryotes play a significant role in their environments. Despite their diminutive size, they are
so numerous that their metabolism has a significant impact on how elements in their
surroundings are changed, sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. Most
substances, both natural and manmade, can be broken down (metabolized) by some kinds of
bacteria.

 Prokaryotes play a significant role in their environments. Despite their diminutive size, they are
so numerous that their metabolism has a significant impact on how elements in their
surroundings are changed, sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. Most
substances, both natural and manmade, can be broken down (metabolized) by some kinds of
bacteria.

Importance of Bacteria to Humans 

Bacteria in Food

 There aren't many germs in milk from a healthy cow at first; they are mostly brought on by the
handling of the milk and the cow's skin. Milk is a fantastic growth medium for many bacteria,
and if the milk isn't adequately pasteurized, the bacteria can multiply quickly. If harmful germs
are present, bacterial growth might seriously endanger your health and cause the milk to
deteriorate. The diseases tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), undulant fever (Brucella
abortus), and Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) can all be spread by an infected cow. Additionally, milk
from a milk handler who is contaminated with Salmonella typhi might spread typhoid fever.

 Milk is transformed by certain bacteria into valuable dairy products including buttermilk, yogurt,
and cheese. Milk that has been injected with a starting culture of Lactococcus (often L. lactis or
L. lactis cremoris) is used to make commercially produced cultured buttermilk. Similar processes
are used to make yogurt and other fermented milk products utilizing various bacterial cultures. 
 

Bacteria in Industry 

 Different bacteria produce varied byproducts during anaerobic sugar fermentation reactions.
The brewing business has leveraged yeasts' ability to produce ethanol, which is used to make
fuel, for thousands of years. When making vinegar, a particular type of bacteria converts alcohol
to acetic acid. Even more valuable compounds are produced by other fermentation techniques.
Different Clostridium species create organic chemicals during fermentation, including acetone,
isopropanol, and butyric acid, which can be manufactured on an industrial scale.

Bacteria in Medicine 

 The majority of human history has been dominated by bacterial diseases. In some parts of the
world, cholera and plague epidemics decimated human populations by more than one-third
each. The most common cause of mortality in the elderly was most likely bacterial pneumonia.
Typhus, dysentery, and other bacterial illnesses may have defeated more armies than physical
 force. The prevalence of bacterial disease has decreased thanks to improvements in plumbing
and sanitation, the creation of bacterial vaccinations, and the discovery of antibacterial
medicines. However, because bacteria are continually evolving and developing more aggressive
strains and antibiotic resistance, they remain a threat to human health.

 Although the majority of bacteria are helpful or even necessary for life on Earth, others are
infamous for their harmful effects on people. Although no Archaea are presently thought to be
pathogens, animals, including humans, are continually surrounded by a wide variety of Bacteria.
When bacteria come into touch with an animal, the host's defenses often quickly eradicate
 them. Numerous distinct types of bacteria that are suited to living in such settings are found in
great abundance in the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and oral cavities.

Evolution of Bacteria 

 Since the beginning of Earth's history, bacteria have existed. There is strong evidence that
bacteria have existed since the early Precambrian Period, or roughly 3.5 billion years ago.
Bacteria fossils found in rocks date from at least the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9
million years ago). Since the Paleoproterozoic, or around 1.8 billion years ago, when oxygen
entered the atmosphere as a result of the activities of the cyanobacteria, bacteria have been
present in large numbers on Earth. Thus, bacteria have had plenty of time to evolve into
different derived species and adapt to their environments.

Factors affecting bacterial growth 

Nutritional Requirements

 Regarding the circumstances necessary for their optimum growth, bacteria differ greatly. All
cells need sources of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, a wide range of inorganic salts (such
as potassium, magnesium, sodium, calcium, and iron), and a large range of other elements
known as micronutrients (such as zinc, copper, manganese, selenium, tungsten, and
 molybdenum). Since water, which is necessary for bacterial growth, can provide hydrogen and
oxygen, carbon is the element that bacteria need in the greatest amounts. A source of energy is
also necessary for the bacterium's metabolism. The carbon source and the energy source are
the two basic dietary requirements that serve as the basis for one method of arranging bacteria.

 An organism's cells can obtain carbon from both inorganic and organic molecules. Autotrophs
are organisms that obtain their carbon from the inorganic substance carbon dioxide (CO2).
Heterotrophs (or organotrophs) are bacteria that need an organic source of carbon, such as
sugars, proteins, lipids, or amino acids. Because they have the required biochemical pathways,
many heterotrophs, including Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa, generate every
component of their cells from simple carbohydrates like glucose.  Some of these biosynthetic
pathways have been lost in other heterotrophs, thus in order for them to develop, their
surroundings must contain certain, chemically sound amino acids, nitrogenous bases, or
vitamins.

Physical Requirements 

 diverse bacterial kinds have radically diverse physical needs that are ideal for bacterial growth.
The ability of bacteria to live in various conditions varies more widely than that of any other
group of organisms. The following sections provide descriptions of some of the most important
factors.

 OXYGEN- Bacteria differ greatly in their need for and reactions to ambient oxygen (O2). This is
one of the most obvious variances between them. While nearly all eukaryotic organisms need
oxygen to survive, several bacterial species can develop in anaerobic environments. Obedient
aerobic bacteria are those that need oxygen to flourish. Because oxygen is the ultimate electron
acceptor in the electron transport pathway, these bacteria typically need oxygen to develop.
This is because their methods of energy production and respiration rely on the transfer of
electrons to oxygen. Aerobes such Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Bacillus subtilis are required.

 TEMPERATURE- Bacteria may survive at a variety of temperatures. Psychrophiles are bacteria

that can survive at temperatures as low as 15 °C (59 °F). Since 90% of the oceans are 5 °C (41 °F)
or colder and the average subsurface soil temperature in the temperate zone is roughly 12 °C
(54 °F), the capacity of bacteria to grow at low temperatures is not surprising. Obligate
psychrophiles, which have been isolated from the waters and sediments of the Arctic and
Antarctic oceans, have an ideal growth temperature of around 10 °C (50 °F) and cannot endure
exposure to temperatures beyond 20 °C (68 °F). 

 pH- Although some species of bacteria have evolved to survive at more acidic or alkaline
extremes, the majority of bacteria live in the neutral pH range (between 5 and 8). A is an
illustration of an acidophilic bacterium. ferrooxidans. A attacks the pyritic ferrous sulfide
deposits when mining activities expose coal seams to the air. sulfuric acid is produced by
ferrooxidans, bringing down the pH to 2.0 or even 0.7. However, A is acid-tolerant. Since these
 bacteria are killed by exposure to equal quantities of other acids like hydrochloric acid,
ferrooxidans exclusively applies to sulfuric acid. 

Bacterial Metabolism 

Heterotrophic Metabolism- As was previously said, the carbon and energy needed by heterotrophic (or
organotrophic) bacteria come from organic molecules. The catabolic reactions that produce energy can
take many various forms, but they all entail electron-transfer reactions, in which an electron is moved
from one molecule to another while simultaneously producing ATP through an energy-trapping reaction.
Complex carbohydrates or sugars can be metabolized by some heterotrophic bacteria to release energy.
These bacteria must produce a variety of specialized proteins, such as enzymes that break down the
polysaccharides into their individual sugar units, a transport system to store the sugar inside the cell,
and enzymes that transform the sugar into one of the key metabolic intermediates, like glucose-6-
phosphate.

 Because the complete oxidation (breakdown) of the energy source allows for complete
extraction of all the energy available, bacteria that are able to use respiration produce
significantly more energy per sugar molecule than do fermentative cells, as evidenced by the
significantly higher yield of ATP for respiring organisms than for fermenting bacteria. With the
same amount of nutrition, breathing organisms produce more cell material while producing
fewer harmful byproducts. However, oxygen's solubility in water is constrained, and populations
of aerobic bacteria develop and survive in direct proportion to the amount of oxygen that is
accessible. 

 Anaerobic respiration refers to the processes that allow for respiration in anaerobic
environments. In these processes, an inorganic molecule such as nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2),
sulfate (SO42), or carbon dioxide (CO2) serves as the final electron acceptor. However, they are
still significantly larger than the energy yields produced by fermentation. The energy yields
available to the cell employing these acceptors are lower than in respiration with oxygen—much
lower in the case of sulfate and carbon dioxide. Environmental implications may result from
some bacteria's capacity to consume inorganic compounds during anaerobic respiration.

Autotrophic Metabolism- Autotrophic bacteria use carbon dioxide as their carbon source to produce
every component of their cells. The reductive pentose phosphate (Calvin) cycle, the reductive
tricarboxylic acid cycle, and the acetyl-CoA pathway are the three most typical processes for
synthesizing organic molecules from carbon dioxide. The most prevalent of these routes is the Calvin
cycle, which is found in plants, algae, photosynthetic bacteria, and the majority of aerobic
lithoautotrophic bacteria. It was discovered by American biochemist Melvin Calvin.

 The Calvin cycle's most important process is when ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate reacts with carbon
dioxide to produce two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, which is a precursor to glucose. This
 cycle is very energy-intensive for the cell, requiring nine molecules of ATP to be consumed and
the oxidation of six molecules of the electron donor, the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), in order to produce one molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate. The two processes that can provide enough energy to sustain carbon fixation are
photosynthetic or aerobic respiratory metabolism, both of which are required for autotrophic
behavior.

Phototrophic Metabolism - The process of photosynthesis, which transforms solar energy into cellular
energy, is necessary for life to exist on Earth. Chlorophyll pigments, which absorb solar light energy and
emit an electron with a higher energy level, are used in the general process of photosynthesis. This
electron travels via an electron transport chain, where it creates a proton gradient that releases energy
and triggers the synthesis of ATP.

 According to the type of the source of these electrons, photosynthetic organisms can be
categorized into two major categories. Higher plants, eukaryotic algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-
green algae) are included in one group. These organisms have the pigment chlorophyll a and use
water as their electron source in reactions that produce oxygen. It is believed that around 1.8
billion years ago, the cyanobacteria's forerunners had created enough oxygen on a worldwide
scale to start enabling the evolution of higher forms of life. In order to increase the energy of
the water's electrons to a level high enough for their transfer to NADP, two different light-
absorbing systems must work together. 
 

Classification of Bacteria 

Taxonomic Rankings- In biological systematics, the classification of bacteria has long provided particular
difficulties. When bacteria were first detected under a microscope in the 17th century, only two types of
life—plants and animals—were acknowledged in biological systematics. Bacteria were formerly
categorized as belonging to the plant kingdom since they had no evident connection to animals.

 However, in the latter part of the 19th century, German zoologist Ernst Haeckel proposed a third
kingdom of "lower" life, Protista, and within it the class Monera, which would contain the
structureless (nucleus-lacking) microorganisms. Haeckel did this after recognizing the
fundamental morphological characteristics of single-celled life, particularly the lack of a clearly
defined nucleus among many of those organisms.

 Ferdinand Cohn, a German scientist and botanist, started systematically classifying bacteria into
genera and species about the same period. Although Cohn based the arrangement of the
bacteria on their appearance, he understood that morphology alone was insufficient to classify
microorganisms.

 American biologist Herbert F. Copeland promoted Monera to the rank of kingdom in 1938 in an
effort to further separate the bacterium from other life forms.

 Although the kingdom Monera was quickly adopted and eventually acknowledged as a
component of a five-kingdom system (in which American biologist Robert H. Whittaker divided
 the fungi into their own kingdom), Monera remained an inadequate division in the eyes of some
scholars. 

Bacterial Species Problem- The fundamental idea of species in bacterial systematics is challenging, just
like the general taxonomy of bacteria. Bacteria often reproduce asexually, in contrast to higher
creatures, where a species is determined by the capacity of organisms with similar traits to interbreed
and produce fertile offspring. Through the technique of horizontal gene transfer, genetic material can be
transferred between bacterial cells between members of different species, beyond the limits of
interbreeding.

 Bacterial speciation is thought to occur at the subspecies, or ecotype, level, where genetically
different populations coexist in the same ecological niche until one type outcompetes the others
through adaptation and natural selection, eliminating the variety of the niche. The niche's
divergence process then starts over again. As a result, different ecotypes of a single identified
species of bacteria are possible. Because of this, some scientists believe that the species level of
bacterial taxonomy is almost equivalent to the genus level of other organisms.

Genetic Approaches- To determine the degree of relatedness between organisms and to determine the
length of time since two species separated from a common ancestor, genetic techniques to the
categorization of bacteria are used.

DNA-Based Methods- DNA-DNA hybridization, DNA fingerprinting, and DNA sequencing are three DNA-
based techniques used in the identification and classification of bacterial species. The 1980s saw the
development of DNA-DNA hybridization, which is used to compare DNA sequences from various
organisms. The degree to which a strand of DNA from the organism of interest passively hybridizes with
(attaches to) a single strand of DNA from a known organism reflects the degree of similarity. Low DNA
melting temperatures often indicate low levels of sequence similarity since the more unstable the
hybridization is, the more quickly the DNA strands will separate when heated. 

165 rRNA analysis- Some parts of the 16S rRNA molecule undergo rapid genetic changes, making it
possible to identify between many species within the same genus, according to analysis of the
sequences from many distinct organisms. Other places change considerably more gradually, making it
possible to distinguish between far wider taxonomic levels. It is quantitative and based on a
predetermined set of premises to compare the 16S rRNA sequences of different organisms. It seems
improbable that the presumption that base alterations take place and are established within a species at
a constant rate is accurate. The ecological niches or selection pressures that influence the rate of
mutation and the rate at which different species might evolve are predicted to change as a result of
changes in the Earth's environment.
Conclusion for Population dynamics of Human, Animals, and Bacteria