Introduction to Globalization

Globalization is derived from the word “globalize” which refers to the emergence of an international network of economic systems. This is also a process of interaction and integration among the
people, companies, and government of different nations.     

Manfred Steger described the process of globalization as “the expansion and intensification of the social relations and consciousness across the world time and across world – space.”

Bauman (2003) states that much has change during time immemorial. Human beings have encountered many changes over the last century especially in their social relationships and social
structures of these changes, one can say that globalization is very important change, if not, the most important.   Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson saw the globalization as the process of world
shrinkage, of distance getting shorter, things moving closer; it pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world interact, to mutual benefit with somebody on the other
side of the world. On the mid-1990s, Martin Khor once regarded globalization as colonization.

There are 3 types of Globalization

Economic Globalization
1. Economic Globalization – refers to interconnectedness of economies through trade and exchange of resources. It also refers to the widespread international movements of goods, services,
capital, technology and information. Economic globalization primarily comprises the globalization of product, finance, markets, technology, organizational regimes, institutions, corporations, and
labour. Example, I used cooking oil for Carbonara in which I took the ingredients from the package of my mother from South Korea. Next example, when you buy a Toyota car, its parts have
probably been produced in several different countries.
 

Social Globalization
2. Social Globalization – it pertains to human interaction within cultural communities, encompassing topics like family, religion, work and education. It is a global interconnectedness between the
people. It is also a measure of how easily information and ideas pass before people in their own country and between different countries (includes access to internet and social media networks.)
Good examples of social globalization could include internationally popular films, books and TV series. The Harry Potter/ Twilight films and books have been successful all over the world,
making the characters featured globally recognizable. However, this cultural flow tends to flow from the center (i.e. from developed countries such as the USA to less developed countries).

Political Globalization
3. Political Globalization – refers to the amount of political co-operation that exist between different countries. Political Globalization refers to the growth of the worldwide political system, both
in size and complexity. It also refers to the organization of different countries intro trade blocs. One example of this could be the Pedra Branca dispute between Singapore and Malaysia, where the
issue was brought up to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the principal judicial organ of the UN. In this way, a third and neutral party helps to solve the matter, reducing probable biasness
which may arise if the two countries tried to settle this issue among themselves.

WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY GLOBALIZATION?

How will you be connected to other countries? How will you be able to understand the standard of living in other countries and improve the development of politics, technology, sciences, culture,
education and economy? These are possible because of Globalization.
For instance, researching is much easier because there is the internet, where you can find the information that you need to satisfy your curiosity. Moreover, besides books, the internet provides you
with necessary facts and trivia on different concerns and trends in the field of early childhood education, which serve as guides for you to become a better and competent early childhood educator
in the near future. Furthermore, because of the modern technology, you get to experience a comfortable lifestyle. On the other hand, globalization has taught you how to save and budget your
allowance because of the continuous price increase in basic needs such as food, clothing, and even transportation in our country.

It is very important to study globalization because understanding the contemporary international political economy is an essential part of being an informed citizen. Understanding globalization is
a very important part of learning about our human involvement with the environment and society. Our daily experiences at school, work, and home are an integral part of the globalization process.
We live in an independent global political economy. The concept of understanding globalization provides us with the tools necessary to be productive members of our local and global
communities. The purpose of studying globalization to understand the differences and similarities of different cultures and to understand how we are connected and at the same time separated from
the world. (Steger, 2009)

THE TASK OF DEFINING GLOBALIZATION

Since its first appearance in the Websters Dictionary in 1961, many opinions about globalization have flourished. There are two classifications on defining Globalization, Broad and Narrow;

Globalization
Broad and inclusive definition according to Ohmae 1992 – “globalization means the onset of the borderless world.” It can include a variety of issues that deal with overcoming traditional
boundaries. This definition of globalization can see from a more perspective point of reference when it comes to how we all become connected to each other. It can distinguish all the benefits and
has the advantage of seeing further ahead to avoid future problems. It does have a potential to neglect its own constituents at certain times because of the tendency to look outward. This
classification of Globalization also describes the opportunity by which the people or factors behind a certain development in a country benefit as well. Example, in a nutshell, broad and inclusive
globalization gives everyone a chance to participate in the management in such a way that the perspectives or plans a country have is reflected in their policies. This leads to a more secured
opportunities and benefits for everyone. Advantage and disadvantage are also provided below.

Advantage
 Equal opportunities for everyone
 Secured opportunities for everyone
 Growth for the countries
 Development of the nations
Disadvantage
 Reshaping of government institutions to cater for everyone
 Economic processes need to be reorganized
 Social processes require reorganization
 Failure to focus on the country’s own people and policies
Robert Cox define narrow and exclusive as “the characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory
movements from South to North, the new competitive environment that accelerates these processes, and the internationalizing of the state… making the states into agencies of the globalizing
world”. This definition of globalization focuses on the one spot, particularly its own. It has a very limited point of view because of the lack of reference. It fails to recognize the role of other parties
as a potential partner. In global trade, a nation that takes narrow point of view usually starts the trade wars because it excludes others. It usually has the support of its own constituents and is
commended for taking a protectionist stand.  In terms of globalization, narrow and exclusive means that the focus of the globalization would be limited to the country alone.

Advantage
 Focuses on the development of the country
 Enhancement of the policies in a country
 Supported by people
 Gives importance to the people and the cultures inside the country
Disadvantage
 Results to trade wars with other countries
 Limited perspective
 Failure to establish connections with other countries

Between the two point of views, a broad view and inclusive definitions can see or look for more perspective which it makes it more advantage of seeing what’s ahead or next from now to avoid
future conflicts. On the other hand, a narrow view and exclusive definition of globalization focuses on more specific point or perspective or mainly on its own. It doesn’t recognize the role of other
parties as a potential partner that makes it usually support its own constituents

In a comprehensive study of 114 definitions, 67 of them entails about economic dimension.

A recent definition was also given by Ritzer that globalization is a trans-planetary process involving increasing liquidity and the growing multidirectional flows of people, objects, places, and
information as well as the structure they encounter and create that are barriers to, or expedite those flows.

How can we appreciate these definitions?

First, the perspective of the person who defines globalization shapes the definition. Second, to paraphrase the sociologist Cesare Poppi – globalization is the debate and the debate is the
globalization. One became part and parcel of the other. And third, globalization is reality; it is changing as human society develops.

No matter how one classifies a definition of globalization, the concept is not easy to define because in reality, globalization has a shifting nature. It is complex, multifaceted, and can be influenced
by the people who define it.

 Nature of Globalization
 1. Liberalization: It stands for the freedom of the entrepreneurs to establish any industry or trade or business venture, within their own countries or abroad or in short “removing of controls”.
China along with their business principle of capitalism.
2. Free trade or the free market: It stands for free flow of trade relations among all the nations. Each state grants MFN (most favored nation) status to other states and keeps its business and
trade away from excessive and hard regulatory and protective regimes. The establishment of Free Trade Unionism in which countries are given freedom to trade local products with one
another.
1. Globalization of Economic Activity: Economic activities are be governed both by the domestic market and also the world market. It stands for the process of integrating the domestic economy
with world economies. The features of the globalization of economic activity include an international development of trade, production, investments and flow of workforce.
 International Trade:  relates to the exchange of capital and goods in the global market. (e.g. a report by the European Central Bank indicates that through the satisfaction of foreign demand,
countries like China and India have massively expanded their economies. These destinations are now a major focus for businesses looking to buy goods and import them in countries that
require production, such as the U.S. and the E.U.)
 Production: or exported production as many economic scholars refer the term to – is the occurrence where businesses start producing their goods in countries with cheaper labor and more
relaxed tax systems. This allows big companies to produce more and pay less for the labor and the country housing their production facilities and activities. (e.g. the German car industry
giants, as indicated by Turkish economist Lale Duruiz, have already exported their production in Turkey, benefiting from the economic treaty of the country with the E.U. for free
movement of goods. Thus, the German producers pay no import fees when delivering their production in Europe and save up from labor costs and taxation.)
 Investment: an international level allows companies and financial organizations to participate in projects in different areas in the world depending on profitability and market situation.
(e.g.  where financial organizations from the developed world seek to expand their influence on an international level, they would offer to invest in the developing economies to either have
a share in the production or to receive a fixed interest upon the investment they have made.)
 Workforce: The globalization of economic activity includes the integration of people willing to work in foreign economies. (e.g. integration is the European Union – every citizen of the
Union is allowed to participate and exercise a profession in all the member states of the organization through a freedom of movement legislation.)
 
4. Liberalization of Import-Export System: It stands for liberating the import- export activity and securing a free flow of goods and services across borders. This means that along with the
establishment of U.N Charters countries can freely enter into importation and exportation of their products by imposing duties. Thus,   giving them freedom to enter into a treaty or
agreement freely. However, this should be practiced with great precaution and in accordance with the UN charter.
5. Privatization: Keeping the state away from ownership of means of production and distribution and letting the free flow of industrial, trade and economic activity across borders.
Privatization is a way to equalize the proper distribution of goods and services not only within one’s jurisdiction but also outside to avoid that instance of concentration of goods in the
hands of one person.
6. Increased Collaborations: Encouraging the process of collaborations among the entrepreneurs with a view to secure rapid modernization, development and technological advancement.
Each and every entrepreneur follow a specific guideline that will govern them. This is employed to harmonized price increase so that those who are less in life can freely participate in free
flow of countries production and wealth.
7. conomic Reforms: Encouraging fiscal and financial reforms with a view to give strength to free world trade, free enterprise, and market forces. To freely protect every country in their
international transactions, reforms are considered. For instance, the inclusion of private enterprises in a country’s jurisdiction. A very good example of this is the establishment of world
bank where countries can freely borrow amount to a answer the economic deficits suffered by a country within a fiscal year.
Globalization accepts and advocates the value of free world trade, freedom of access to world markets and a free flow of investments across borders. It stands for integration and democratization
of the world’s culture, economy and infrastructure through global investments.

SIGNS OF GLOBALIZATION
1. Increase in international trade at a faster rate than the growth in the world economy.
2. Increase in international flow of capital including foreign direct investment.
3. Greater trans-border data flow, using such technologies such as the Internet, communication satellites and telephones
 4. Greater international cultural exchange, for example through the export of Holly wood and Bollywood movies. Some argue that even terrorism has undergone globalization. Terrorists now
have attacked places all over the world.
5. Spreading of multiculturalism and better individual access to cultural diversity, with on the other hand, some reduction in diversity through assimilation, hybridization, Westernization,
Americanization or Sinosization of cultures.
6. Erosion of national sovereignty and national borders through international agreements leading to organizations like the WTO and OPEC.
7. Greater international travel and tourism.
8. Greater immigration, including illegal immigration.
9. Development of global telecommunications infrastructure.
10. Development of a global financial systems.
11. Increase in the share of the world economy controlled by multinational corporations.
12. Increased role of international organizations such as WTO, WIPO, IMF that deal with international transactions.
13. Increase in the number of standards applied globally; e.g. copyright laws.

Anti-Globalization
 Many anti-globalism activists see globalization as the promotion of a Corporatist agenda, which is intent on constricting the freedoms of individuals in the name of profit. They also claim
that increasing autonomy and strength of corporate entities increasingly shape the political policy of nation-states.
 Globalization imposes credit-based economics, resulting in unsustainable growth of debt and debt crises.
Pro-Globalization
Supporters of free trade point out that economic theories such as comparative advantage suggests that free trade leads to a more efficient allocation of resources, with all those involved in the trade
benefiting. In general, they claim that this leads to lower prices, more employment and better allocation of resources.

Globalization in the Philippines

The country is taking part in the process of globalization ever since the country signed agreements with World Trade Organization in 1995.

Now, globalization is very effective in the Philippines, it has allowed major changes in the nation like more labor, and more Filipino and foreign companies has emerged in the nation in order to
help the country’s developing economy.

Globalization can make the Philippines into a better nation if the Philippine leaders make their economy more advance through global trading and allowing more foreign investors to the help boost
the economy. And by accomplishing those goals, the Philippines should be able to reduce the poverty level as well as increase labor force for job opportunities for those that are in need for a
living. However, since the poverty level is still increasing, most Filipinos has managed to find work overseas and they have managed to seek better living than in the Philippines. The most
effective factor in the Philippines is education. The society’s mentality is to be educated and it’s with education that people in the nation see their opportunity for a better life in the future.
THE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF GLOBALIZATION

Globalization is one of the most controversial issues of our times. Others generally believe that it brings greater economic efficiency that will eventually result in bring prosperity for the world.
Critics think that it will largely benefit those who are already rich, leaving most of the world poorer than before. Economic globalization is generally applauded by corporate leaders and
economics. But opposition to economic globalization is widespread in the labor and environmental movements for it has promoted exploitation of workers, children, farmers, and the environment.

The Merits (Advantages) of the Globalization

1. Peaceful Relations
Most of the countries have resorted to trade relations with each other in order to boost their economy, leaving behind any bitter past experiences if any. For an instance, the treaty between
Germany and India whereby Germany will supply military equipment to India in case the latter is in distress. Another example itself is the establishment of the United Nations, which is a clear
manifestation of establishing friendly relationship among all signatory countries.

2. Employment
Considered as one of the most crucial advantages, globalization has led to the generation of numerous employment opportunities. Companies are moving towards the developing countries to
acquire labor force. Along with modernization is the goal of developing the economic status of a nation. This is feasible only if we allow capitalist to pursue the rare business purpose. With this,
different businesses are organized. Thus, the creation of different job opportunities thereby leading to employment of individuals around the world.

3. Education
A very critical advantage that has aided the population is the spread of education. With numerous educational institutions around the globe, one can move out from the home country for better
opportunities elsewhere. The existence of economic goals must always be coupled with honing one’s mind. Therefore, educational institutions are needed to support this claim. Along with
modernization, it is no longer impossible for people around the globe to develop themselves as we have institutions ready to support us holistically.
 4. Product Quality
The product quality has been enhanced so as to retain the customers. Today the customers may compromise with the price range but not with the quality of the product. Low or poor quality can
adversely affect customer satisfaction. A very good example is our conception as to Chinese products. If we are to compare it with products of other countries, we commonly say that Chinese
products are of poor quality and that of US products fully satisfy our standards. This is just a clear indication that modernization or globalization made us more of a wise buyer.

5. Cheaper Price
Globalization has brought in fierce competition in the markets. Different business schemes are actually adapted by the business owner to get more, as the law of supply and demand dictates. The
competition among business owners give security among customers. This is by way of considering low prices or rates to get more demand because the more the demand is, the bigger the return of
investment is on the part of the owner, as everything is considered already by the owner whenever he resorted to low price schemes.

6. Communication
Every single information is easily accessible from almost every corner of the world circulation of information is no longer a tedious task, and can happen a second. The internet has significantly
affected the global economy, thereby providing direct access to information and products. For example, messenger or Facebook can give us information as to what is happening on the other side of
the world.
7. Transportation
Considered as the wheel of every business organization, connectivity to various parts of the world is no more a serious problem. Today with various modes of transportation available, one can
conveniently deliver the products to a customer located at any part of the world. In the past, there are no airplanes, vessels, or any means of transportation. However, with the advent of technology,
people can travel worldwide.

8. GDP Increase
Gross Domestic Product, commonly known as GDP, is the money value of the final goods and services produced within the domestic territory of the country during an accounting year. Naturally,
this is because of the chances given to a country to freely trade their local products. The more transaction a country can get, either locally or internationally, can greatly affect its GDP.

9. Free Trade
A policy in which a country does not levy taxes, duties, subsidies, or quota on the import/export of goods and services from other countries. There are countries which have resolved to free trade in
specific regions. This allows consumers to buy goods and services, comparatively at a lower cost.  Example, ASEAN Countries are all engaged to free trade unionism. So, what di we mean by
this? This means that they can import and export services without the need of paying import quotas and duties.

10. Travel and Tourism

Globalization has promoted tourism to great heights. International trade among different countries also helps in increasing the number of tourists that visit different places around the world. This is
possible by way of locally introducing the tourist spots of a country by means of technology. For example, “It’s more fun in the Philippines”. Here, they promote tourism through Facebook,
Instagram, tweeter and other social acts that helps us to boost tourism.

 
11. External Borrowing
With the help of globalization, there is opportunity for corporate, national, and sub-national borrowers to have better access to external finance, with facilities such as external commercial
borrowing and syndicated loans.

The Demerits (Disadvantages) of the Globalization

1. Health Issues
Globalization has given rise to more health risks and presents new threats and challenges for epidemics. E.g. The dawn of HIV/AIDS. Having its origin in the wilderness of Africa, the virus has
spread like wildfire throughout the globe in no time. Widespread threats to global health persist – AIDS, TB, Malaria – Infectious diseases – Chronic illnesses: Hypertension, diabetes –
Environmental: Cancer, respiratory. Food items are also transported to various countries, and this is a matter of concern, especially in case of perishable items.

2. Loss of Culture
With large number of people moving into and out of a country, the culture takes a backseat. People may adapt to the culture of the resident country. They tend to follow the foreign culture more,
forgetting their own roots. This can give rise to cultural conflicts. E.g. a loss of a person’s culture usually due to change in environment such as change due to immigration

3. Uneven Wealth Distribution 

It is said that the rich are getting richer while the poor are getting poorer. In the real sense, globalization has not been able to reduce poverty. The power play among nations. Regardless of whether
you like it or not, US is always advance in terms of educational status. And since they are advanced, we can therefore say that their position is far better than any other country. For instance, the
main role given to them by U.N.

 
 4. Environmental Degradation

The industrial revolution has changed the outlook of the economy. Industries are using natural resources by means of mining, drilling, etc. which puts a burden on the environment. The
establishment of different infrastructures will always lead to risking the environment as we will be needing space for the organization of this. Sometimes, these spaces considered our forest and
different land forms which are essential to ecosystem.

5. Disparity
Though globalization has opened new avenues like wider markets and employment, there still exists a disparity in the development of the economies. Structural unemployment owes to the
disparity created. Developed countries are moving their factories to foreign countries where labor is cheaply available. Again, a constant power play among nation. Those who have more can get
more in cheapest way possible. However, those who are less, is at the brink of dealing with other countries, normally at a higher rate.

6. Conflicts
It has given rise to terrorism and other forms of violence. Such acts not only cause loss of human life but also huge economic losses. Media today, exposing Muslims as terrorist is an example of
this. What has been show to our news today is a great thing to consider because this sends a signal to the viewer that this is this without even evaluating the true nature and consequences of what
has been shown. With these conflicts that have been created, and sometimes, though it is sad to admit, it leads to war.

7. Cut-throat Competition 
Opening the doors of international trade has given birth to intense competition. This has affected the local markets dramatically. The local players thereby suffer huge losses as they lack the
potential to advertise or export their products on a large scale. Therefore, the domestic markets shrink. The concept of (tatsulok) should be considered in explaining this part. The bigger the
authority a country have, the bigger the voice they have. This is not the case with countries which are considered to be “developing”. It is like combining in an Arena Muhammad Alli and Babalu
for a fight, definitely Muhammad will win for a fight. The same is true with countries.
ASPECTS OF GLOBALIZATION
We have already discussed what Globalization is; in order to get a better picture of the impact of Globalization of the lives of human beings, we need to consider the various aspects of
Globalization which may be categorized as follows:

1. Cultural Globalization
This refers is the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations. This process is marked by the common consumption of
cultures that have been diffused by the Internet, popular culture media, and international travel. Cultural Globalization involves the spread of language, the arts, food, business ideas and
technology, and therefore its impact is felt by almost everybody around the world. One of the most obvious examples of Globalization is McDonalds that is present here in the Philippines and
around the world. Another example, some of the students using Anneong into our language as well instead of hello.

2. Economic Globalization
I’m sitting on a chair that was made in China. As I look on the motor that I am using, it carries a Japanese plate. And as I look on my laptop, the hardware is made in Taiwan. Without a doubt, I
am surrounded by products that have come to me from across the seas. In other words, my daily life is a living example of the globalization of the world's economy. Economic Globalization is the
economic mixing and interdependence of economies across the world through as escalation of cross-cultural of movement of goods, services, technologies and wealth.
 3. Industrial Globalization
Every country in the world is moving towards specialization. Specialization may be referred to as the phenomenon of producing only that product in which the country has competitive advantage
in terms of cost. For example, Singapore specializes in pharmaceutical while the US specializes in military equipment. Therefore, the countries exchange their industrial products, which is known
as trade, and fulfill the requirements of their people. Every country of the world today is involved in trade and is depended on some other country one way or the other. The US is the biggest
economy in the world and even that is depended on other countries for many of its needs. Hence the industries of the world today are considered to be working not for their native countries but for
the world as a whole.

4. Financial Globalization
It may be defined as the emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for corporate, national and sub-national borrowers. Some projects in the Philippines were
sponsored by foreign investors. They may be in the form of international organizations or independent investors. The IMF and the World Bank today give funds to various countries for
developmental projects. We may say, that today the financial markets of the world have untied in such a way that finances are easily available throughout the world.

5. Informational Globalization
This aspect of Globalization has perhaps had the greatest impact on the world today. Sitting at one end of the world, you can have access to the information available in any other part of the world
with just the push of a button. Internet, television, telephone, fax, etc. are some of the inventions that may be considered as a part of the informational Globalization process where the information
flow has dramatically increased between geographically remote areas of the world.

6. Social Globalization
This refers to the sharing of ideas and information between and through different countries. In today’s world, the Internet and social media is at the heart of this. Good examples of social
globalization could include internationally popular films, books and TV series. The Harry Potter/ Twilight films and books have been successful all over the world, making the characters featured
globally recognizable. However, this cultural flow tends to flow from the center (i.e. from developed countries such as the USA to less developed countries). Social globalization is often criticized
for eroding cultural differences.

7. Ecological Globalization
The effects of globalization in the ecology are still not completely identified, though some studies suggest that the process of globalization has many consequences in our ecology

8. Globalization and the Politics

Through globalization, political issues such as the rights of women and children are now currently discussed, many laws are now already implemented regarding the issues on the rights of women
and children.

9. Globalization with technology

Technology really plays a huge part in the life of every individual. Also, through the advancement of technology we can now already communicate with others despite the distance that separate us.
And through our technology today, the process of globalization is now taking place much faster.

10. Geographical Globalization

Globalization is moving towards the trend of a borderless world. We can now explore different countries without having any dangers. As an example, migration to major cities and first world
countries has increased during the period of Globalization. Family structures in places such as Ecuador have changed, where community members and relatives have begun helping with childcare
as male adults have often migrated to North America and other regions for city-based jobs.

THE METAPHORS OF GLOBALIZATION

Before proceeding to the next section, a note is needed on the use of metaphors (Brown 1989), which will occupy a prominent place in the ensuing discussion. A metaphor involves the use of one
term to better help us understand another term. Thus, in the next section, we will use the metaphor of a “solid” to describe epochs before the era of globalization. Similarly, the global world will be
described as being “liquid.” The use of such metaphors is designed to give the reader a better and a more vivid sense of the global age and how it differs from prior epochs.

Solid and Liquid

1. Solidity
Refers to the barriers that prevent or make difficult the movement of things, it can be either natural or man-made.

Examples:
 Natural Solids
 Land forms
 Bodies of Water
 Man-made Barriers
 Great Wall of China
  Berlin Wall
 Nine-dash line

An imaginary line such as the Nine-dash line of China used by the People’s Republic of China in their claim to the South China Sea is an example of modern man-made solid.

2. Liquid
As state of matter, takes the shape of its container which means liquids are not fixed, therefore refers to increasing ease of the movement of people, things, information and places in the
contemporary world. Today’s liquid phenomena change quickly and their aspect, spatial and temporal are continuous fluctuation. This means that space and time are crucial elements of
Globalization, in global finance, for instance changes in the stock market are a matter of seconds. Another characteristic if liquid phenomena are that their movement is difficult to stop.

Example:
Videos uploaded on YouTube or Facebook are unstoppable once they become viral. The so-called internet sensation become famous not only in their homeland but also to the entire world.

  The forces (the liquid ones) made political boundaries more permeable to the flow of the people or things (Cartier, 2000). This brings to us to what Ritzer regarded as the most important
characteristic of liquid. It tends to melt whatever stands in its path (especially solid). The clearest example is the decline, if not death of the nation-state.

Liquidity and Solidity are in constant interaction, liquidity is the one increasing and proliferating today. Therefore, the metaphor that could best describe globalization is liquidity.

FLOWS OF GLOBALIZATION
Flows are the movement of people, things, places and information brought by the growing “porosity’ of global limitations. (Ritzer, 2015)

Closely related to the idea of liquidity, and integral to it, is another key concept in thinking about globalization, the idea of flows (Appadurai 1996); after all liquids flow easily, far more easily
than solids. In fact, it is the concept of flows that is widely used in the literature on globalization and it is the concept that will inform a good deal of the body of this book. Because so much of the
world has “melted” or is in the process of “melting” and has become liquefied, globalization is increasingly characterized by great flows of increasingly liquid phenomena of all types, including
people, objects, information, decisions, places, and so on.

For example, think the different foreign cuisines being patronized and consumed by the Filipinos. Aside from local dishes, many of us are fond of eating of sushi, ramen, hamburger, and French
fries – food introduced to us by foreign cultures. Clearly, foods are being Globalized.

Another example of flows is the Global Financial Crisis. As Lander (2008) puts it: “In global financial system, national boarders are porous”. This mean that a financial crisis in a given country
can bring ramification on other regions of the world. An example of which is the spread of the effects of American Financial Crisis in Europe 2008.
There are 2 types of Flows:
Cultural flowsrefer to the different "objects, skills, beliefs and practices" from different parts of the world that travel around. This can be music, food, religious beliefs, languages, clothing, foreign
films, etc. For example, American music and films are listened and watched by a lot of people across the world. That is the reason for why people from the other part of the world are influenced by
the “American culture”.  When so many cultures link together, we can see new culture being created. 
 
2. Information flows refers to the flow of information across the world. People from around the world are able to exchange knowledge and information from anywhere.   For example, people can
search for any information they want on “Google Search” which is a very useful tool that brings together all the websites from around a world.

CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION
Globalization as A Process, Condition and Ideology
1. Globalization is a Process

Globalization – A set of social processes that appear to transform our present social condition of weakening nationality into one globality; human lives played out in the world as a single place;
redefining landscape of sociopolitical processes and social sciences that study these mechanisms. It is also interaction and integration between people, companies, and governments worldwide. It is
a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic
development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.

Steger thinks globalization is about movement from one point to another. Therefore, globalization – dynamism, transformation, movement, destruction and creation. For Steger, globalization isn’t
only the economic or the market.

During the late 20th century, globalization rapidly expanded to resemble the form which it is commonly known as today. Some suggest, however, that since the process of globalization results in
the world becoming increasingly integrated, then it must have existed since the beginning of man. The process of globalization is said to have existed at least several hundred years ago. Evidence
to support this rests on the knowledge that, around that time, European countries began to expand and colonize the continents of Australia, Africa, North America, and South America.

Towards the end of the 19th century, world trade and investment experienced rapid expansion. The world was further united when the Gregorian calendar was adopted. The International Date
Line, Prime Meridian and world time zones were also established at that time. International standards were also devised in the areas of telegraphy and signaling. The period of economic
depression between World War I and World War ll slowed down progress towards globalization when a number of countries introduce anti-free trade measures in an attempt to stimulate their own
economies. It did not take long, however, for companies to become interested in expanding their business by operating in the markets of foreign nations. Developments in communication and
transport, particularly that of air travel, soon made possible for these companies to carry out their plans. The development of the internet continued to assist these companies, creating transnational
corporations (businesses with a base in one country but conducting operations in a number of other countries) the way of the future.

2. Globalization as a Condition
Globality – A social condition characterized by tight economic, political, cultural and environmental interconnections and global flows, making currently existing political borders and economic
boundaries irrelevant.

Scholte’s transplanetary connectivity (establishment of social links between people located at different places of the planet – not geographic unit but as a space) and supra-territoriality (social
connections that transcend territorial geography – renders borders and barriers irrelevant).

The often-repeated saying that globalization (the process) leads to more globalization (the condition) does not allow us to draw meaningful distinctions between the causes and effects. The term
globality is used to signify a future social condition characterized by thick economic, political, and cultural interconnections and global flows that make currently existing political borders and
economic barriers irrelevant. Yet, it should not be assumed that ‘globality’ refers to a determinate endpoint that precludes any further development. Rather, this concept points to a particular social
condition destined to give way to new, qualitatively distinct, constellations. For example, it is conceivable that globality could eventually be transformed into something we might call
‘planetary’—a new social condition brought about by the successful colonization of our solar system. Moreover, we could easily imagine different social manifestations of globality: one based
primarily on values of individualism and competition, as well as on an economic system of private property, another embodying more communal and cooperative social arrangements, including
less capitalistic economic relations. These future alternatives expose the fundamentally the indeterminate character of globalization.

3. Globalization as an Ideology
Global Imaginary - A concept referring to people’s growing consciousness of belonging to a global community -destabilizes and unsettles the conventional parameters within which people
imagine their communal existence

Globalization as an ideology has six core claims. First, that it is about the liberalization and global integration of markets. Second, it is inevitable and irreversible. Third, nobody is in charge of
globalization. Fourth, globalization benefits everyone. Fifth, it furthers the spread of democracy in the world. Finally, Globalization requires a global war on terror. Market globalism, justice
globalism, religious globalism’s’ investigates the ideologies underlying globalization, which endow it with values and meanings. Market globalism advocates promise a consumerist, neoliberal,
free-market world.

For example, why does Apple have significant success in the global market? In the beginning, Apple focused on high end technology products and the development of consumer technology. As
we all know, Apple doesn’t design various categories of products in the same product area. Apple expects their own products to become “the leader” in each field. None of the popular mobile
phone makers are similar to Apple in business strategy, which can survive with only one product in the mobile arena. Thus, Apple pays more attention to provide remarkable user experience for its
customers by improving and innovating original products in terms of hardware and software. Apple focuses more on quality and in-depth research to extend the function of their products rather
than product variety. The more professional the Apple products are, the more consumers will be attracted to them. That is one of the most important reasons why there are so many people in the
global market fascinated by Apple products familiar.

The Globalization and the Ideology of Apple Inc.

Furthermore, with the globalization of culture, use of Apple products have caused a culture phenomenon-fetishism. More and more people think it is a trend and fashion to use Apple. They
overstate the meaning of Apple products. Some media often report people want to buy an Apple product for selling their body apparatuses, such as kidney. The brand effect causes consumers to
blindly pursue for a certain product with an undeserved price. Sometimes, Apple would adopt restriction on purchases while the new products launched. Then, people will be willing to pay twice
or triple the price for a new Apple product.
 Theoretical Paradigms of Globalization
1. WORLD SYSTEMS
- views globalization not as a recent phenomenon but as virtually synonymous with the birth and spread of World Capitalism. (Wallerstein)

Key Structure of The Capitalist World-System

Core
      - Powerful and developed centers of the system - Western Europe, North America and Japan

Periphery
    - Regions that have been forcibly subordinated to the core through colonialism or other                means - Latin America, Africa, Asia, Middle East and Eastern Europe

Semi-Periphery
     - States and regions that were previously in the core and are moving down in the hierarchy            or those that were previously in the periphery and are moving up

2.  GLOBAL CAPITALISM
Treat globalization as a novel stage in the evolving system of the world of capitalism (capitalist globalization)
Focus on new global production and financial system – both seen to have superseded earlier national forms of capitalism
Emphasize the rise of the processes that cannot be framed within the nation-state/inner-state system – which lies at the core of the world- system theory and most traditional macro- social theories
 
3. THE NETWORK SOCIETY

Does not subscribe to the contention that capitalism fuels globalization

PREMISE: Technological change are the underlying causes of the several processes that comprise globalization – Manuel Castells called The Rise of the Network Society – “new economy”
 
       NEW ECONOMY is:
 informational, knowledge-based;
 global, in that production is organized on a global scale;
  networked, in that productivity is generated through global networks of interaction

CASTELL: Networked enterprise makes material the culture of the informational, global economy: it transforms signals into commodities by processing knowledge

4. SPACE, TIME AND GLOBALIZATION

     the conceptual essence of globalization is “time-space distanciation”- which Giddens defines as the “intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that
local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice-versa.”
     David Harvey (1990, The Condition of Post- Modernity): globalization represents a new burst of “time-space compression” produced by the very dynamics of capitalist development

5. TRANSNATIONALITY AND TRANSNATIONALISM

Transnational processes and practices are defined broadly as the multiple ties and interactions- economic, political, social and cultural- that link people, communities and institutions across the
borders of nation-states.

Transnationality is also a principle of carrying out an action across national borders, so as to have effects at a more general level. This principle allows the exchanging of information and expertise,
or benchmarking practices in different members state.

Transnationalism is an umbrella concept encompassing a wide variety of transformative processes, practices and developments that take place simultaneously at a local and global level. It centers
on exchanges, connections and practices across boarders (economic, political, social and cultural that links people, institution across borders of nation-state resulting to the rise of new communities
and the formation of the new social identities and relations.

6. GLOBAL CULTURE
Emphasize the rapid growth of the mass media and resultant global cultural flows and images in recent decades evoking the image famously put forth by Marshal McLuhan of the “the global
village”
Ritzer – McDonaldization – is a sociocultural process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant came to dominate more and more sectors of US and later world society.
The Global Economy
What is Economy?
In order to understand what the global economy is, we must first understand what an economy An economy is all the activity that is related to producing and consuming goods and services in a
specific area. 
What is Global Economy?
It was a concept associated with the twentieth-century evolution of financial markets and institutions, where traditional geographic boundaries did not restrict economic transactions and consumer
activities.

What is Economics?
It is the study of how people allocate scarce resources for production, distribution, and consumption, both individually and collectively.

Two major types of Economy:

Microeconomics- this focuses on the behavior of individual consumers and producers. (E.g. how a single individual will decide for his purchases, a household, a business/organization or a
government agency)

Macroeconomics- this examine overall economies on a regional, national, or international scale. Macroeconomics addresses why some countries grow faster than others, and have higher standards
of living than others. (E.g. the percentage of unemployment, GDP, Inflation rate is studied and used by the government to address problems in the society)

Major goals of MACROECONOMICS:

Three primary goals: (1) economic growth, (2) full employment (or low unemployment), and (3) stable prices (or low inflation)

Economic growth ultimately determines the prevailing standard of living in a country. Economic growth is measured by the percentage change in real (inflation-adjusted) gross domestic product.
Unemployment, as measured by the unemployment rate, is the percentage of people in the labor force who do not have a job. When people lack jobs, the economy is wasting a precious resource-
labor, and the result is lower goods and services produced. Unemployment, however, is more than a statistic—it represents people’s livelihoods.
Inflation is a sustained increase in the overall level of prices. If many people face a situation where the prices that they pay for food, shelter, and healthcare are rising much faster than the wages
they receive for their labor, there will be widespread unhappiness as their standard of living declines.

Economic Globalization
Economic Globalization is a historical process, the result of human innovation and technological progress. It refers to the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly
through the movement of goods, services, and capital across borders (IMF, 2008).

Economic Globalization also refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flows of international
capital, and wide and rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual integration of market frontiers, and is an irreversible trend for the economic development in the
whole world at the turn of the millennium. (U.N cited in Shangquan, 2000)
A definition from Szentes that in economic terms globalization is nothing but a process making the world economy an “organic system” by extending transnational economic processes and
economic relations to more and more countries and by deepening the economic interdependencies among them. This claims that economic activities and processes (production in particular) can be
interpreted only in a global context, i.e. in an integrated world economy.

Interconnectedness Dimensions of Globalization

 The Globalization of trade of goods and services;
 The Globalization of financial and capital markets;
 The Globalization of technology and communication; and
 The globalization of product.

Actors of Globalization
1. Nation-state
 Act as buffer to negative effects of globalization (Boyer & Drache: 1996)
 Midwives of globalization (Brodie: 1996)

2. International Monetary System

 Refers to the rules, customs, instruments, facilities, and organizations for effecting international payments. (Salvatore, 2007)
 The agreed rules, conventions, and institutions for facilitating international trade, investment, and flow of capital among nation-states

Gold Standard
 Goal: create a common system to allow more efficient trade and prevent isolationism.
 Gold was believed to guarantee a non-inflationary, stable economic environment, a means for accelerating international trade. (Einaudi, 2001)
 The gold standard functioned as a fixed exchange rate regime, with gold as the only international reserve.
 David Hume (1972) was the first to elaborate on this mechanism by developing his quantitative theory of money. Accordingly, as a deficit nation’s gold reserves diminished, its general
price level started to decline as well, which restored its competitiveness on international markets.
 The role of IMS is to lend order, to encourage the eliminations of balance of payments problems, and to provide access to international credits in the event of disruptive shocks.
 The outbreak of World War I brought an end to the classical gold standard. Participating nations gave up convertibility and abandoned gold export in order to stop the depletion of their
national gold reserves.

Before Bretton Woods

1. Global Economic System: Global Capitalist (1896-1914)
2. Analogies economic period and today:
 Transportation
 Communication
 Global Economic Development
  Immigration – Remittance
 Economic Specialization – Computer Advance
 Free Trade – Elimination of Trade Barrier
 
Bretton Woods System and its Dissolution
 Delegates of 44 countries managed to agree on adopting an adjustable peg system, the gold exchange standard.
 The US dollar was the only convertible currency of the time, so the United States committed itself to sell and purchase gold without restrictions at US$35 an ounce.
 John Maynard Keynes proposed ambitious reforms for the post-war era and recommended the creation of an international clearing union, a kind of global bank, along with the introduction
of a new unit of account, the ‘bancor’.
 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) became responsible for post-war reconstruction.
 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is responsible for the promotion of international financial cooperation and buttress international trade.
 By mid-1960’s, the dollar became excessively overvalued vis-à-vis major currencies. As a response, foreign countries started to deplete the US gold reserves.
 The unregulated and free flow of capital, the huge current account deficits and the soft pegging regimes made these economies highly vulnerable, resulting in a financial crisis that first hit
Mexico in 1994 and reached East Asia in 1997-8.
 
Problems?
 Poor nation and people subjugated the operation and GO
 Not all parts of the world gained equally from the growing GO
 Not only losers in economic competition among geographic area, certain industry and social classes lose out
 Within nation, the poor tended to suffer most, when those nation force to repay debt
 
Economic development during and after World War II
 After WW I, great depression, WW II had negative effect on all major economies (except US)
 1930 – the movement of many countries; fascist Italy and Germany; autarky
 In the mist of WW II, western world began planning for a more open international economy
 Reducing trade barrier, free flow of money and investment, financial stability around the globe: BWS.
The great depression is the lack of coordination among nation-states (high tariffs and other import restriction, protectionist practices, propensity of government to devalue their currencies in order
to gain an edge in global trade over the countries, and exchange rate war

Bretton Wood System (BWS) powerful effect on global trade, monetary order, and investment unconditional most
 Unconditional most-favored nation à GATT – WTO
 IMF – security and flexibility
 World Bank
European Monetary System
The United States activated its post-war reconstruction programme, the Marshall Plan, in 1948, which was administered by the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, the predecessor
of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
The miraculous growth performance of Western Europe prompted a closer cooperation on a regional level, resulting finally in the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951. This was followed
by the signing of the Rome Treaty in1957, which established the European Economic Community (EEC), and was the first major step towards an ‘ever closer union’.
The original six founding members (Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) (GFINBL) aimed at the creation of a common market, where goods, services, capital and
labor moved freely.
The EMS (1979) was a unique system, since neither US dollar, nor gold could pay a role in the stabilization process of exchange rates. Instead, a symmetric adjustable peg arrangement, the
European Exchange Rate Mechanism, was created.
The end of Bretton Woods
 Died on August 15, 1971
 President Richard Nixon
 
3. Global Organizations
 IMF UN (United Nations)
 WTO (World Trade Organization)
 World Economic Reform
 World Social Forum

4. Economic Alliances
Main integrating associations and trade blocs or cooperation
 EU – European Union
 NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement
 ASEAS – Association of Southeast Asian Nations
 MERCOSUR – Mercado Common Del Sur
 APEC – Asia Pacific Economic Corporation
 FTAA – Free Trade Area of America / ALCA in Spanish, ZLEA in French
 OECD – Organization for Economic Coop. & Development
 
5. Transnational Corporation
Created a new international division of labor with their worldwide relocations and investments.
Main driving force of Economic Globalization of the last 100years, accounting for 2/3 of world exports. (Gereffi, 2005)
MARKET INTEGRATION
When prices among different location or related goods follow the same patterns over a long period of time, market integration exist. Similarly, when groups of prices often move proportionally to
each other and when this relation is very clear among different markets it is said that the markets are integrated. Hence, it could be concluded that market integration is an indicator that explains
how much different markets are related to each other.  Integration is taken to denote a state of affairs or a process involving attempts to combine separate national economies into larger economic
region (Robson, 1998, p.1)

What is International Trade?

It is the process by which nations export and import goods, services and financial capital.
International trade allows countries to expand their markets for both goods and services that otherwise may not have been available domestically. As a result of international trade, the market is
more competitive which results in more competitive pricing which brings a cheaper product home to the consumer.

Components of International Trade:

Export- are products that are sold to the global market. Exports are goods and services that are produced in one country and sold to buyers in another country.
Import- are products that are bought from the global market. This may be good or service bought in one country that was produced in another. Countries are most likely to import goods or services
that their domestic industries cannot produce as efficiently or cheaply as the exporting country. Countries may also import raw materials or commodities that are not available within their borders.
 
Economic Basis of Trade
Different nations are endowed with various kinds and amount of natural resources.
Various nations have different specializations that make their products highly differentiated.
The production of varied goods and services require different combinations of economic resources and also particular technology.

Global trade allows wealthy countries to use their resources whether labor, technology or capital more efficiently. Since countries are endowed with different assets and natural resources (land,
labor, capital, and technology), some countries may produce the same good more efficiently and therefore sell it more cheaply than other countries. If a country cannot efficiently produce an item,
it can obtain it by trading with another country that can. This is known as specialization in international trade.

Let's take a simple example.

Country A and Country B both produce bags and flour. Country A produces 20 bags and 15 sacks of flour a year while Country B produces 15 bags and 20 sacks of flour a year. Both can produce
a total of 35 units. Country A, however, takes twenty four hours to produce the ten 20 bags and five hours to produce the 15 sacks of flour (total of 29 hours). Country B, on the other hand, takes
twenty hours to produce 15 bags and eight hours to produce 20 sacks of flour (a total of 28 hours).
But these two countries realize that they could produce more by focusing on those products with which they have a comparative advantage. Country A then begins to produce only flour, and
Country B produces only bags. Each country can now create a specialized output of 35 units per year and trade equal proportions of both products. As such, each country now has access to 35
units of both products.

Factors that affects the economic development of a country:

1. Human Resource
Refers to one of the most important determinant of economic growth of a country. The quality and quantity of available human resource can directly affect the growth of an economy.
The quality of human resource is dependent on its skills, creative abilities, training, and education. If the human resource of a country is well skilled and trained then the output would also be of
high quality.
On the other hand, a shortage of skilled labor hampers the growth of an economy, whereas surplus of labor is of lesser significance to economic growth. Therefore, the human resources of a
country should be adequate in number with required skills and abilities, so that economic growth can be achieved.
 
2. Natural Resources
Affect the economic growth of a country to a large extent. Natural resources involve resources that are produced by nature either on the land or beneath the land. The resources on land include
plants, water resources and landscape.
The resources beneath the land or underground resources include oil, natural gas, metals, non-metals, and minerals. The natural resources of a country depend on the climatic and environmental
conditions. Countries having plenty of natural resources enjoy good growth than countries with small amount of natural resources.
The efficient utilization or exploitation of natural resources depends on the skills and abilities of human resource, technology used and availability of funds. A country having skilled and educated
workforce with rich natural resources takes the economy on the growth path.
The best examples of such economies are developed countries, such as United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and France. However, there are countries that have few natural resources, but
high per capita income, such as Saudi Arabia, therefore, their economic growth is very high. Similarly, Japan has a small geographical area and few natural resources, but achieves high growth rate
due to its efficient human resource and advanced technology.
 
3. Capital Formation
Involves land, building, machinery, power, transportation, and medium of communication. Producing and acquiring all these manmade products is termed as capital formation.
 
4. Technological Development:
Refers to one of the important factors that affect the growth of an economy. Technology involves application of scientific methods and production techniques. In other words, technology can be
defined as nature and type of technical instruments used by a certain amount of labor.
Technological development helps in increasing productivity with the limited amount of resources. Countries that have worked in the field of technological development grow rapidly as compared
to countries that have less focus on technological development.
 
5. Social and Political Factors
Play a crucial role in economic growth of a country. Social factors involve customs, traditions, values and beliefs, which contribute to the growth of an economy to a considerable extent.
For example, a society with conventional beliefs and superstitions resists the adoption of modern ways of living. In such a case, achieving becomes difficult. Apart from this, political factors, such
as participation of government in formulating and implementing various policies, have a major part in economic growth.
 
According to Amartya Sen (1998 Nobel laureate in economics) argues that the “capability function” is what really matters for status as a poor/non-poor person. Meaning what a person can do or
have usually defines his/her status in life.

“Economic growth cannot be sensibly treated as an end in itself. Development has to be more concerned with enhancing the lives we lead and the freedoms we enjoy.”

What is World Economy?

Large geographic zone within which there is a division of labor and hence significant internal exchange of basic or essential goods as well as flows of capital and labor.
A defining feature of a world-economy is that it is not bounded by a unitary political structure. Rather, there are many political units inside the world-economy, loosely tied together in our modern
world system in an interstate system.
Examples:

The European Union(EU) - The EU is the world's largest trading bloc, and second largest economy, after the USA.
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC) - is a regional economic forum established in 1989 to leverage the growing interdependence of the Asia-Pacific.
 

What unifies the global economic system most is the DIVISION OF LABOR.
Division of Labor is an economic concept which states that dividing the production process into different stages enables workers to focus on specific tasks. If workers can concentrate on one small
aspect of production, this increases overall efficiency – so long as there are sufficient volume and quantity produced.
 
 Although the economic global system has some common cultural patterns, called “GEOCULTURE”.

It does mean that neither political nor cultural homogeneity is to be expected or can be found in a world-economy.
What is Capitalism?
It is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, especially in the industrial sector.
Old concept:  Capitalism is the existence of persons or firms producing for sale on the market with the intention of obtaining a profit.

Capitalism today:  a system gives priority to the endless accumulation of capital - it means that people and firms are accumulating capital in order to accumulate still more capital, a process that is
continual and endless.

The main features of capitalism can be described as follows:

Private property:Allowed in a capitalist society. This includes all items that enable production, such as factories, machines, tools, land for mining and more.
Price mechanism:A capitalist economy is driven by prices that are determined solely by the interaction of supply and demand, without any interference from the government or other outside
forces.
Freedom of enterprise:Every individual has the right to his own means of production, and can produce any type of goods or services that he chooses.
Consumer sovereignty:Consumers play the most important role in a capitalist society. The entire pattern of production is guided by the wants, wishes and demands of consumers.
Profit motive:Maximizing profit guides production levels and is the main motive of producers.
No government interference:Under capitalism, the government does not interfere in the activities of the economy. Producers of goods and services for consumers have the freedom to make their
own decisions.
Self-interest:In a capitalist system, individuals are driven by their self-interest, which leads to hard work to maximize their income by keeping their customers happy.
 

Economic Recession
It is a downturn in real Gross National Product (GNP - is an estimate of total value of all the final products and services turned out in a given period by the means of production owned by a
country's residents) for two or more successive quarters. Characterized by the significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy. Well known examples of recessions include the
global recession in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis and the Great Depression of the 1930s.
 
Economic Depression
A prolonged period characterized by high unemployment, low output and investment, depressed business confidence, falling prices, and widespread business failure. It is commonly defined as an
extreme recessionthat lasts three or more years or which leads to a decline in real Gross Domestic Product (GDP- is the monetary value of all finished goods and services made within a country
during a specific period) of at least 10% in a given year. Example of depression, shortly after the Oct. 24, 1929, U.S. stock market crash known as Black Thursday.
 
FREE TRADE
Wherein international trade (the importation and exportation) left to its natural course without tariffs and non-tariffs barriers such as quotas, embargoes, sanctions or other restriction.
 Tariffs – taxes or duties to be paid on a particular class of imports or exports
 Embargo - a government-instituted prevention of exports to a certain country. Official ban on trade or other commercial activity. (The United States has imposed several long-running
embargoes on other countries including Cuba, North Korea and Iran)
 Economic Sanctions – commercial and financial penalties applied by one or more countries against a targeted country, group or individual.
Free Trade Areas – a group of countries within which tariffs and non-tariffs trade barriers between the members are generally abolished but with no common trade policy toward non-members.
Both in the sense o geography and price, is the foundation of these trading agreements. However, tariffs are not necessarily complete abolished for all products.

Free trade areas impose exclusivity among its members since the world is not entirely a free trade economy.

WORLD’S MAJOR FREE TRADE AREAS

1. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Free trade between the three member nations, Canada, the US and Mexico
Effective on January 1, 1994 – although tariffs weren’t fully abolished until 2008
By 2014 total trilateral merchandise trade exceeded US$1.12 trillion
Trade with Canada and Mexico supports more than 140, 000 small and medium-size business and over 3 million jobs in the US.
Gains in Canada are reportedly even higher, with 4.7 million new jobs added since 1993. Canada is also the largest exporter of goods in the US.
 
2. Association of Southeast Asian Nations Free Trade Area (AFTA)
The original members were Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Four countries have subsequently joined: Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia
The AFTA was signed in January 1992 in Singapore
The bloc has largely removed all export and import duties on items traded between the nations.
It has also entered into agreements with a number of other nations, including China, eliminating tariffs on around 90% of imported goods.

3. European Union
Is a single market, which is similar to a free trade area in that it has no tariffs, quotas or taxes on trade.
The 28 member countries of EU: Austria, Italy, Belgium, Latvia, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Croatia, Luxembourg, Cyprus, Malta, Czech Republic, Netherlands, Denmark, Poland, Estonia, Portugal,
Finland, Romania, France, Slovakia, Germany, Slovenia, Greece, Spain, Hungary, Sweden, Ireland and United Kingdom.
The European Union’s GDP was estimated to be €14.8 trillion or $17.1 trillion (nominal) in 2016.
In 1957, the Treaty of Rome established the European Economic Community (EEC) or Common Market. However, it was not until 1986 that the Single European Act was signed. This treaty
formed the basis of the single market as we know it, as it aimed to established the free-flow of trade across EU borders. By 1993 this process was largely complete.
 

FREE TRADE ISSUE

In government, free trade is predominately advocated by political parties that hold right-wing economic positions, while economically left-wing political parties generally support
PROTECTIONISM.
Protectionism – the theory or practice of shielding a country’s domestic industries from foreign competition by taxing imports to protect their domestic industries.
Economic Nationalism or Economic Patriotism – an ideology that favors state interventionism in the economy, with policies that emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor, and capital
formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restriction on the movement of labor, goods and capital.

HISTORY OF GLOBAL MARKET INTEGRATION

IN THE 20TH CENTURY
The international economic integration achieved during the 19th century was largely unraveled in the twentieth by two world war and the Great Depressions
World War I brought the liberal economic order of the late 19th century to an abrupt end; 1914 clearly marked a dramatic and discontinuous break in the past.
Import shares fell only marginally in Britain during the war. In France, the import share rose from 20% before the war to 36.7% during it; again, exports fell sharply.
Export rations rose in neutral economies such as Sweden, Japan and North America., where grain production expanded sharply during the war years to meet Allied demand.
The absence of European manufactured exports on world markets stimulated the expansion of industrial capacity, above all in the United Nations and Japan, but also in countries such as India,
Austria, and Latin America
The end of war did nit imply an end to protection. Different tariffs act and restrictions are made.
The Great Depression was of course a major reason for the adoption of severe protection, and not just in the periphery.
Beginning in 1932, there were several signs that at least some countries were trying to moderate, if not reverse, the increase in protectionism of the previous year or two.
Post war economic reintegration was supported by several factors, both technological and political.
 
THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTION IN THE CREATION OF GLOBAL ECONOMY
International Financial Institution
  International non-profit agencies are one of the major sources of financing like regional development banks or banks globally
 To finance productive development projects or to promote economic development

 A. WORLD BANK

 Multinational financial institution established at the end of World War II (1944) to help provide long-term capital for the reconstruction and development of member countries.
 It provides much of the planning and financing for economic development projects involving billions of dollars.
PURPOSE FOR THE SETTING UP OF BANK
 To assist in the reconstruction and development of territories of members
 To promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participation in loans and other investment made by private investors
 To promote the long-range balanced growth of international trade and the maintenance of equilibrium in balance of payment
 To conduct its operations with due regard to the effect of international investment on business conditions in the territories of members
 To assist in bringing about a smooth transition from a wartime to a peacetime economy.
 
WHAT DOES THE WORLD BANK DO?
 The World Bank is the world’s largest source of development assistance, providing nearly $30 billion in loans, annually, to its client countries.
 The main focus is on helping the poorest people and the poorest countries hut for all its clients, the Bank emphasizes the need for:
 Investing in people, particularly through basic health and education;
 Protecting the environment;
 Supporting and encouraging private business development;
 Strengthening the ability of the governments to deliver services efficiently and transparently;
 Promoting reforms to create a stable macroeconomic environment conducive to investment and long-term planning;
 Focusing on social development, inclusion, governance and
 Institution building as key elements of poverty reduction
 The Bank is also helping countries to strength and sustain the fundamental conditions that help to attract and retain private investment.
 They are investing in human resources, infrastructure and environment protection which enhance the attractiveness and productivity of private investment.
 
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
 IMF is a cooperative institution that 182 countries have voluntarily joined because they see the advantage of consulting with one another on this forum to maintain a stable system of
buying and selling their currencies.
 Its policies and activities are guided by its Charter knows as the Articles of Agreement.
 IMF lends money to members having trouble meeting financial obligations to other members, but only on the condition that they undertake economic reforms to eliminate these difficulties
for their own good and that of the entire membership
 Contrary to widespread perception, the IMF has no effective authority over the domestic economic policies of its members.
 There are several major accomplishments to the credit of the International Monetary System.
For example, it
  sustained a rapidly increasing volume of trade and investment;
 displayed flexibility in adapting to changes in international commerce;
 proved to be efficient (even when there were decreasing percentages of reserves to trade);
 proved to be hardly (it survived a number of pre-1971 crises, speculative and otherwise, and the down-and-up swings of several business cycles);
 allowed for a growing degree or international cooperation
 established a capacity to accommodate reforms and improvements.
 To an extent, the fund served as an international central bank to help countries during periods of temporary balance of payments difficulties by protecting their rates of exchange. Because
of that, countries did not need to resort to exchange controls and other barriers to restrict world trade.
 
PURPOSE OF IMF
 To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution that provides the machinery for consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems
 To facilitate the expansion and balance growth of international trade and to contribute, thereby, to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income and to the
development of the productive resources of all members as primary objectives of economic policy.
 To promote exchange stability, to maintain orderly exchange arrangements among members and to avoid competitive exchange depreciation.
 To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments in respect of current transactions between members and in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions which
hamper the growth of world trade
 To give confidence to members by making the general resources of the fund temporarily available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct
maladjustment in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive to national or international prosperity
 In accordance with the above, to shorten the duration and lessen degree of disequilibrium in the international balances of payments of members.
 

How can IFI’s help in Economic Globalization?

 They focus on long-term investment projects, institution-building and on social, environmental, poverty issues.
 Strengthen Economic Governance
 Safeguard the stability and integrity of the international financial system as a global public good
 Encouraging true national ownership of reforms by streamlining the conditions attached to IMF supported programs.
 Recognizes and values the role of civil society organizations
 Ensuring the stability of the international financial system
 Helping individual countries take advantage of the investment opportunities offered by international capital markets, while reducing their vulnerability to adverse shocks or changes in
investor sentiment.
 Trade Liberalization
 Reducing debt burdens
 Setting the stage for the 2030 development agenda
 
GLOBAL CORPARATIONS
 A corporation is an artificial being created by operation of law, having the right of succession and the powers, attributes and properties expressly authorized by law or incident to its existence
(Batas Pambansa Blg. 68 The Corporation Code of the Philippines, Section 2 – Corporation defined)

According to Investopedia, a corporation is a legal entity that is separate and distinct from its owners. Cooperation enjoy most of the rights and responsibilities that an individual possesses; that is,
a corporation has the right to enter into contracts, loan and borrow money, sue and be sued, hire employees, own assets and pay taxes.

Based on Entrepreneur Asia Pacific Small Business Encyclopedia, corporation is a form of business operation that declares the business as a separate, legal entity guided by a group of officers
knows as the board of directors.

THE CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL CORPORATION

A global corporation is generally referred to as multinational corporation (MNC), transnational corporation (TNC), international company

An enterprise that engages in activities which add value (manufacturing, extraction, services, marketing, etc.) in more than one country (United Nations Centre on Transnational Corporations,
1991).

MNC’s place multiple production facilities in multiple countries under the control of a single corporate structure. (Oatley, International Political Economy 5th Edition)

A multinational corporation (MNC) is a company that operates in more than one country. Generally, multinational corporations consist of separate companies (called subsidiaries) in different
countries, all of which answer to a central office located in the firm’s home country (Riggs, Everyday Finance: Economics, Personal Money Management, and Entrepreneurship)  

The difference between 20th century and Contemporary Multinational Corporations

The MNCs of the post WW2 period are different from those of earlier periods in being more focused on manufacturing and services than on extraction of raw materials and commodities (Dicken,
2015) and more likely to be financed by a combination of foreign direct investment (FDI) and local capital rather than international portfolio investments (Gilpin 1975). In addition, contemporary
MNCs are the predominant owners of proprietary technology. MNCs account for at least 50 percent of R&D spending worldwide (Keller 2009; Zeile 2014). In the United States and elsewhere,
most patents are awarded to MNCs (Florida 2005; OECD 2008). In the last two decades of the twentieth century, competing MNCs from a growing number of economies have created
geographically dispersed "value chains" to take advantage of lower R&D, production, and distribution costs made possible by lower barriers to trade and investment flows (Borrus and Zysman
1997; Ernst and Kim 2002; Gereffi 1996; Gereffi et al 2005; Sturgeon 2002; Sturgeon 2007; Sturgeon and Gereffi 2009).

Activities of Multinational Corporations

International companies are importers and exporters, typically without investment outside of their home country;
Multinational companies have investment in other countries, but do not have coordinated product offerings in each country. They are more focused on adapting their products and services to each
individual local market.
 Transnational companies are more complex organizations which have invested in foreign operations, have a central corporate facility but give decision-making, research and develop (R&D) and
marketing powers to each individual foreign market. 

Tactics of Multinational Corporations

Foreign Direct Investment occurs when a firm based in once country builds a new plant or a factory or purchases existing one in a second country a national corporation thus becomes an MNC by
making a foreign direct investment. As consequence, the world's stock of FDI, the total amount of foreign investment in operation has grown from 692.5 billion dollars in 1980 to 16.2 trillion
dollars in 2008 (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2009,251) 2,300 percent increase in less than 30 years.
 
 Types of FDI
Horizontal Integration occurs when firms create multiple production of facilities each of which produces the same good or goods. Firms integrate horizontally when a cost advantage is gained by
placing a number of plants under common administrative control. Intangible asset can be based on patented process or design. These assets are difficult to sell to other firms at a price that
accurately reflect their trite value that's why firms horizontally integrate.
Vertical integration refers to instances in which firms internalize their transaction for intermediate goods. An intermediate good is an output of one production process that serves as an input into
another production process. Specific asset is an investment that is dedicated to a particular long-term economic relationship. By internalizing transactions involving specific assets, therefore,
vertical integration enables welfare-improving investments.

Globalization
Results from the removal of barriers between national economies to encourage the flows of goods, services, capital and labor.
 

What is Global Interstate System?

Global
 Pertaining to the entire globe rather than a specific region or country. Often used interchangeably with the term international, with one exception being in regards
to mutual funds among the countries.
Interstate
 It is between the two or more states; between places or persons among the different states. Concerning or affecting two or more states politically or territorially.
System
 A regular interacting group or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole.
To sum it up…
Global Interstate System is the whole system of human interactions. The modern world system is structured political as an interstate system. It is also a
system of competing and allying states. Political scientist commonly calls this the international system, and it is main focus of the field of international relations.
  
The Modern World System
 Followed the crisis of the feudal system in Europe and helps explain the rise of Western Europe to world supremacy between 1450 to 1670
 World economic system emerged
 Now a global economy with a global political system (the modern interstate system)
 Structured politically as interstate system – a system of competing and allying states
 A single global economy composed of international trade and capital flows, transnational corporations that produce products on several continents, as well as all
the economic transactions that occur within countries and at local levels.
 Rise and fall of hegemonic powers
 
Interstate System – it is fundamental basis of the competitive commodity economy at the global system level. It is also a system of international relations.
 

EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION TO GOVERNMENT

There have been several challenges to the government and ultimately, to state autonomy.
Challenges that affect of the Globalization to the Government
 Traditional Challenges
External intervention can generally be described as invasion by other countries.
Example:
When Saddam Hussein was the ruler of Iraq in 1990 he decided he was going to take over the oil fields of Kuwait. He invaded Kuwait and took it over. As a result,
he was dislodged by international coalition led by the US.
 

 Internal political challenges

Example:
In Syria, the original rebellion against Assad came from the country’s own internal dissenters who wanted to replace the government even though they were also
Syrian nationals
There are also regional organizations challenging states autonomy. The United Nations intervened in Sudan because of the several years of Civil War.
  
 Challenges from national / identity movements
It is important to know that a nation has cultural identity that people attached to, while a state is a definite entity due to its specific boundaries. However different
people with different identities can live in a different state.
For example:
The Kurds resides in several different countries including Iraq, Iran, and Turkey.
 
 Global Economics
Global economy demands the states to conform to the rules of free-market capitalism.
Neoliberal economics or neoliberal capitalism started in the 1980’s
o It focuses on free trade and dismantling trade barriers.
o It made sure that governments did not impose restrictive regulations on corporate presence, as well as on the free flow of capital and jobs.
Neoliberal economics is seen as a threat, in general, because a state cannot protect its own economic interest as a sovereign state.
Example:
Greece is one example that explains how neoliberal economics can threaten the sovereignty of a state.
 
 Global Social Movement
Are movements of people that are spontaneous or that emerge through enormous grassroots organization. These social movements are transnational movements
which means they occur across countries and across borders.
Example:
Human rights movements create a public sentiment, value, and agenda. The idea is that there are certain rights that states cannot neglect or generally, what we
call human rights.
The environmental movement is another example of global social movements related to public policy.
Example:
Consensus on woman’s rights. The biggest between the West and fundamentalist Islam is over the role of women in society, as well as woman’s autonomy.
Rights of personal autonomy, this includes issues on homosexuality, same-sex marriage, and gender equality.
  

WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS?

International relations is an academic discipline that focuses on the study of the interaction of the actors in international politics, including states and non-state
actors, such as the United Nations (UN), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank. It is also the study of interconnectedness of politics,
economics, and law on a global level.
 
Theories of International Relations

1. Realist Theory- they do believe that states are in constant struggle for power. According to them Security can only be achieved in such a system by maintaining
power. States can be reasonably assumed acting in pursuit of their individual interest. The main goal or interest that they are always aiming to win is power among
any other states in the international society. States here as the primary actor of international law are never sure of the intentions of other states towards them, that
is why the only thing for them if on how they are to survive and that is for them to remain in power.  
2. Institutionalist Theory- in international relations they believe that interplay of states in the different institutions is an important act for them to achieve their goals.
We note that the relationship of states are products of their interaction, not only by the states but also by the various institutions and hierarchical structures in
Global Political Sphere. States here are not alone in fulfilling its goal rather they interact with the other actors of international society in order for them to achieve its
goal.
3. Liberalist/Neoliberalist Theory- It holds that human nature is basically good and that innate goodness makes societal progress possible. Liberals also place faith in
international law and legal instruments to settle disputes. They tend to go towards the right path for them to achieve something. This theory proceeds from the
assumption that the States are geared towards GAINS and PROFITS, therefore, relations are often dependent on whether the same would be profitable or not. If
they get something from an agreement then they would take the chance to enter into that agreement to achieve their goal of gaining something.
4. Democratic Peace Theory- Democratic States are hesitant to go to war with other Democratic States. “Respect of one’s Sovereign Rights over the Land” is their
main ideology. For them peaceful way of resolving conflicts are seen as morally superior to violent behavior, and this attitude is transferred to international
relations. Mutual gain from economic cooperation and interdependence also contribute to peace 
5. This provides that the global system is likely to be STABLE when controlled by a single State which would be known as the “HEGEMON”. “The concept of
Hegemons ruling the world” wherein they also provide order similar to that of the central government in the international system. Although the hegemon creates
the system for its own benefits other states tolerate or accept the system because the hegemon provides public goods.
 

GLOBAL GOVERNANCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Factors that lead to emergence of Global Governance

1. Declining power of states

2. Vast flows of all sorts of things across borders
3. Mass Migration
4. Horrendous events within nation states
5. Global problems
 

INSTITUTIONS THAT GOVERN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The following institutions govern international relations; These are:
1. United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization created in 1945, shortly after the end of World War II. The UN was formed by 51 countries in order to
encourage resolution of international conflicts without war and to form policies on international issues. 
The UN system, also known unofficially as the “UN Family”, is made up of the UN itself and many affiliated programs, funds, and specialized agencies, all with
their own membership, leadership, and budget. The programs and funds are financed through voluntary rather than assessed contributions. The specialized
agencies are independent international organizations funded by both voluntary and assessed contributions.
 
 
2. North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NATO is an alliance of 28 countries of bordering North Atlantic Ocean. It includes Canada, the United States, Turkey, and the most members of the European
Union. The organization were created during the 1994 Bretton Woods Conference. NATO mission is to protect the freedom of its members.
 
NATO’s mission is to protect the freedom of its members. Its targets include weapons of mass destruction, terrorism, and cyber-attacks. Security in our daily lives
is key to our well-being. NATO’s purpose is to guarantee the freedom and security of its members through political and military means.
 
 Political – NATO promotes democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on defense and security-related issues to solve problems, build trust
and, in the long run, prevent conflict.    
 MILITARY – NATO is committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fail, it has the military power to undertake crisis-management
operations. These are carried out under the collective defense clause of NATO’s founding treaty – Article 5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United Nations
mandate, alone or in cooperation with other countries and international organizations.
 
3. Non-Government Organization 
 A non-government organization (NGO) is an organization that was not founded by a state therefore, is typically independent of governments. NGO’s are usually
nonprofit organizations that gain at least a portion of their funding from private sources.
 
Two broad groups of NGO’s are identified by the World Bank:
 Operational NGO’s – which focus on development projects;
 Advocacy NGO’s – which are organized to promote particular causes.
Certain NGO’s may fall under both categories simultaneously.
Examples of NGO’s include those that support human rights, advocate for improved health or encourage political participation.
While the term NGO has various interpretations, it is generally accepted to include private organization that operate without government control and that are non-
profit and non-criminal. Other definitions further clarify NGO’s as associations that are non-religious and non-military. Some NGO’s rely primarily on volunteers,
while others support a paid staff.
 
4. World Trade Organization
The only global international organizations dealing with the rules of trade between nations. It is an organization for trade opening. The WTO is a place where
member governments try to sort out the trade problems, they face with each other.
 
It is an organization for trade opening. It is a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements. It is a place for them to settle trade disputes. It operates a
system of trade rules. Essentially, the WTO is a place where member governments try to sort out the trade problems, they face with each other.
 
The WTO is run by its member governments. All major decisions are made by the membership as a whole, either by ministers (who usually meet at least once
every two years) or by their ambassadors or delegates (who meet regularly in Geneva).
 
 
5. North America Free Trade Agreement
The North American Free Trade Agreement history began in 1980. Its purpose is to reduce trading costs, increase business investment and help North America be
more competitive in the global market place. The agreement between Canada, The United States and Mexico.
NAFTA’s main provisions called for the gradual reduction of tariffs, customs duties, and other trade barriers between the three members, with some tariffs being
removed immediately and others over periods of as long as 15 years. The agreement ensured eventual duty-free access for a vast range of manufactured goods
 and commodities traded between the signatories. “National goods” status was provided to products imported from other NAFTA countries, banning any state, local,
or provincial government from imposing taxes or tariffs on such goods.
NAFTA also contained provisions aimed at securing intellectual-property rights. Participating countries would adhere to rules protecting intellectual property and
would adopt strict measures against industrial theft. Other provisions instituted formal rules for resolving disputes between investors and participating countries.
Among other things, such rules permitted corporations or individual investors to sue for compensation any signatory country that violated the rules of the treaty.
 
 
WHO – World Health Organization
ILO - International Labor Organization
FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization
UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
 
 

State
Community of persons more or less numerous, occupying a definite portion of a territory, independent form external control and possessing a government to which
the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience
 
Elements of State
1. People
 This refers to the large numbers of inhabitants living within the state
 It must be small enough to be ruled
 And it must be big enough to be self-sufficient
2. Territory
 This includes the land over which the state excises control
 It also includes the rivers and lakes therein, certain areas of the sea which borders on its coasts and the air space above them.
 A mass of land where people can permanently reside.
3. Sovereignty
 The supreme power of the state to command and enforce obedience from its people as well as to have freedom from foreign control
 It could be manifested internally through its freedom to rule within its territory
 Externally through its freedom to carry out its activities without control by other states.
4. Government
 This refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out.
 This could be referred as the “administration”.
 

INTERNATIONALISM AND GLOBALISM

Other terms to consider in this topic will be globalism and internationalism.
Globalism means "networks of connections spanning multi-continental distances, drawing them close together economically, socially, culturally and
informationally" (Das 2011:18). Looking at the definition of the economic globalism can increase our understanding of globalism. It is a constructive and creative
dimension of globalism and visualizes global economy as an integrated marketplace. In its most fundamental form, it implies that cross-border flows of goods and
services, factors of production, financial assets; as well diffusion of technology takes place in a frictionless manner.
The phenomenon of economic globalism has arguably developed into one of the most important economic policy challenges of the 21" century. It has become a
ubiquitous force that is affecting, if not shaping the contours of major global economic and financial trends.
On the other hand, internationalism is only in the same line as Globalization, but to limited field. Though internationalism is also a process among countries but it is
not as wide as Globalization for example, WTO agreements have effects of Globalization as it involves all economic players, whereas in SAARC (South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation), the agreement will affect internationalism as limited to some countries.
 
 

WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW?

Is the body of legal rules, norms and standards, which apply to sovereign states and such other entities that have been granted international personality.
 
 Relationship of International Law with the Municipal Law or Domestic Law
1. Horizontal vs. Vertical – International Law is horizontal in nature; whereas Domestic/Municipal Law is vertical in nature.
Horizontal: all states are in equal footing; cannot compel each other to act. Vertical: a hierarchy exists whereby those on top can give commands to those lower in
the system.
                                                                                   
 2. Monist vs. Dualist
To monist, there is no substantial distinctions between International Law and Municipal or Domestic Law.
To dualist, there are distinctions.
 
Distinction between International Law and Municipal Law according to Dualist
 

MUNICIPAL LAW INTERNATIONAL LAW

Issued by a political superior for

observance by those under its authority.
Wherein the political superior it is
referring is the government of a country, Is not imposed upon but simply adopted by
as to the Philippines those are the three states as a common rule of action among
(3) branches of our government, namely: themselves. No specific government but
Executive (the President and its Cabinet simply form agreements and from there, rules
members); Legislative (the Senate and and standards are formed.
the House of Representatives); and the
Judiciary (having the Justices with the
Supreme Court as the highest Court of
the land).
Is derived not from any particular legislation
Consists mainly of enactments from the
but from such sources as international
lawmaking authority of each state. The customs, international conventions and the
lawmaking authority in our country is general principles of law. They simply based
mainly the power given to the Legislative all the norms and standards from what each
branch of our government. They do country agreed upon, maybe in an
formulate laws and will be approved by organization wherein those countries are
the President and reviewed by the member into or other treaties passed for the
Judiciary. benefit of particular countries.

Regulates the relations of individuals Applies to the relations inter se of states and
among themselves or with their own other international persons. It does not deal
states. These Municipal or Domestic on the relationship of certain individuals but
the relationship of countries or organizations
 Laws are the set of rules and regulations
people are bounded to follow to create in the international society.
peace and order in the society and make
them be liable on their actions.
Questions of public international law are
resolved through state- to- state transactions
ranging from peaceful methods like
Violations of municipal law are redressed negotiations and arbitrations. They do not
through local administrative and judicial have a specific agency to resolved conflicts
process. If a person will violate laws in but they do it through negotiations.
the country then they will undergo a International may have courts like for
judicial proceeding to settle it wherein the example the International Court of Justice
branch of government who has the power (ICJ) under the United Nations Organization,
to do this is the Judiciary. but then they cannot compel states to face
the ICJ without the consent given by states
themselves.

 
 3. The Theory of Coordination- this Doctrine states that although Municipal Law and International Law are on two separate planes, they may nevertheless affect
each other with regards to OBLIGATIONS. This Obligation will certainly arise if and then any two or more states are both members of any international
organization or formed any agreement or treaty between and among them.
However, that since the two systems lie on different fields, their interaction should not bring them into conflicts with each other since they operate in two different
spheres, and each is being supreme in its own field. (Fitzmaurice)
 
4. Incorporation vs. Transformation
 
Doctrine of Incorporation Doctrine of Transformation
- is expressed in Sec. 2, Art II, Philippine - requires the enactment by the legislative
Constitution, as follows: “The Philippines body of such international law principles
renounces war as an instrument of national as are sought to be part of the municipal
policy, adopts the generally accepted law.
principles of International Law as part of the
law of the land, and adheres to the policy of
peace, equality, justice, freedom, cooperation The treaties that are entered into by our
 and amity with all nations”.

Since we are member of the United Nations country, before it will be part of the law of
Organization and we then adhere to promote our land the Legislative branch of our
Human Rights it is adopted and incorporated in government must enact it and passed to
our constitution that Philippines renounces war take part of our laws.
as a means of resolving conflict. We then
follow negotiation and peace talks to settle
disputes in the international society.
 
 
Functions of International Law:
 The maintenance of international peace and order;
 The protection of State rights and of fundamental human rights thru sanctions, both peaceful and coercive;
 The economic, social, cultural and technological development of states and such other entities as may be possessed of an international personality.

The design is "a map of the world representing an azimuthal equidistant projection centred on  the North Pole, inscribed in a
wreath consisting of crossed conventionalized branches of the olive tree, in gold on a field of smoke-blue with all water areas
in white. The projection of the map extends to 60 degrees south latitude, and includes five concentric circles" (original
description of the emblem).
 

United Nations Organization

 
The United Nations (UN) has six main organs. Five of them are the (1) General Assembly, (2) the Security Council, (3) the Economic and Social Council, (4) the
Trusteeship Council and (5) the Secretariat — are based at UN Headquarters in New York. The sixth, the International Court of Justice, is located at The Hague in
the Netherlands.
 
The United Nations is neither a supra-State nor a government of governments, meaning it does not have its own government like any other country does. It has
the function to make treaties or agreements between and among the member states but it cannot be immediately bound to be followed by everyone. It does not
 have an army and it imposes no taxes in the services it offers. It depends on the political will of its Member States to have its decisions put into action and relies on
the contributions of its Members to carry out its activities.
 
General purpose [cause and object of the Charter] The United Nations in an international organization tasked to:

1. Prevent of war
2. Maintain international peace and security
3. Develop friendly relations among the members of the international community
4. Attain international cooperation, and harmony in the actions of nations
 
 The 6 main Organs of the United Nations:
 1. The General Assembly- The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ of the United Nations. All UN Member States are represented in the General Assembly.
Each Member State has one vote in the decisions the council will carry out. Decisions on such key issues as international peace and security, admitting new
members and the UN budget are decided by a two-thirds majority of those members who vote for a certain agreement to be carried.
 Under the UN Charter, the functions and powers of the General Assembly (GA) include: To discuss any question relating to international peace and security
(except when a dispute or situation is being discussed by the Security Council); To make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of any situation which
might harm the friendly relations among nations; To discuss and make recommendations on the powers and functions of any organ of the United Nations; To
request studies and make recommendations to promote international cooperation, the development of international law, the protection of human rights, and
international collaboration on economic, social, cultural, educational and health issues; To receive and discuss reports from the Security Council and other UN
organs; To discuss and approve the UN budget; To elect non-permanent members of the Security Council, the members of the Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC) and additional members of the Trusteeship Council (when necessary); to elect the judges of the International Court of Justice (jointly with the Security
Council); and on the recommendation of the Security Council, to appoint the Secretary-General.
 
2. The Security Council- The Security Council has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. It has 15 Members, and each
Member has one vote in the decision the council is making.
 Under the Charter, all Member States are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Charter of the United Nations – an international treaty – obligates
member states to settle their disputes by peaceful means, in such a manner that international peace and security and justice are not endangered. They are to
refrain from the threat or use of force against any state, and may bring the dispute before the Security Council. The UN Charter gives the Security Council primary
responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. The Council may convene at any time, whenever peace is threatened. In contrast to the decisions
made by the General Assembly, all Member States are obligated under the UN Charter to carry out the Security Council’s decisions.

 
 3. The Economic and Social Council- A founding UN Charter body established in 1946, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is the place where the
world’s economic, social and environmental challenges are discussed and debated, and policy recommendations issued.

4. The Trusteeship Council- The Trusteeship Council was established to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories and to make sure that adequate
steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government or independence. Western Samoa, Tanganyika, Rwanda-Urundi, Cameroons  under British and
French administration, Togoland under British and French administration, New Guinea, Nauru, Strategic Trust Territory/ Trust territory of the Pacific Islands and
Italian Somaliland are some of the Trust Territories of the United Nations. These territories, referred to as League of Nations Mandates, were renamed United
Nations Trust Territories once the UN Charter came into force in late 1945. 
5. The International Court of Justice- The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. The Court is charged with settling
legal disputes between States and giving advisory opinions to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. The International Court of Justice is composed of
15 judges elected to nine-year terms of office by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council. 

 
6. The Secretariat- The UN Secretariat, consisting of staff representing all nationalities working in duty stations all over the world, carries out the day to day work
of the Organization. The Secretariat services the other principal organs of the United Nations and administers the programs and policies established by them.

MAIN FUNCTION of UN: to maintain peace and security for all of its member-states.
 UN doesn’t have its own military but has peace keeping force which are supplied by the member states. On approval of UN Security Council, these peace makers
are often sent to regions where armed conflict has recently ended to discourage combatants from resuming fighting.
Other Functions:
 UN also aims to protect human rights and provide humanitarian assistance when needed.
 The General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a standard for its human rights operations. Member States who had been violative
of the said declaration may be summon to face the United Nations when cases on Human Rights violation are rampant in member countries of the UN.
 UN currently provides technical assistance in elections, helps to improve judicial structures and draft constitutions, trains human rights officials, and provides food,
drinking water, and other humanitarian services to peoples displaced by famine, war and natural disaster.
 At present, the Holy See and Palestine are the only observer states at the United Nations. Generally, they have limited ability to participate in the Organizations
day to day functioning, and also, they lack the ability to vote or propose resolutions within the organization.
 June 10, 1942 Philippines gained its membership to the United Nations Organization.
 
 ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS TODAY AND IN THE FUTURE
United Nations established what it calls its Millennium Development Goals

Most of its member states and various international organizations have agreed to achieve these goals relating to reducing poverty, child mortality, fighting diseases
and epidemics, and developing global partnership in terms of international development, by 2015.
A report issued as the deadline neared noted the progress that had been made, lauding efforts in developing nations, and noted shortfalls as well that need
continued focus: people still living in poverty without access to services, gender inequality, the wealth gap, and climate change's effects on the poorest people.
 

ASIAN REGIONALISM
Globalization and Regionalization Globalization is the process of dividing an area into smaller segments called regions. In business,
regionalization is used as a management tool.
The development of globalization and regionalization reemerged during the 1980s and heightened after the end of the Cold War in
the 1990s. These two processes are contradicting - the nature of globalization is global while regionalization is naturally regional
            The Regionalization of the world system and economic activity undermines the potential benefits coming out from a liberalized
global economy. This is because regional organization preferred regional partners over the rest. Regional organizations respond to the
states attempt to reduce the perceived negative effects of globalization.
 
 
Regionalization   
 It is the process of dividing an area into smaller segments called regions
 In economics, regionalization or sometimes termed as Localization is a strategy in economics which focuses on a particular region or area.
It employs differentiation based on regions.
Example: 
1. Division of nation into states or provinces.
2. Business also use regionalization as management tool.
 Regionalization is a sort of counter-globalization. In the Survey report in 2007, the financial times revealed that majority of Europeans
consider that globalization brings negative effects to their societies. Policy makers and scholars think that globalization can be countered
what Jacoby and Meunier called managed globalization; it refers to all attempts to make globalization more palatable to citizens.
 
 
Regionalism
 Regionalism was created as a sort of counter-globalization
 Regional Organizations will always prefer regional partners over the rest of the world
Globalization is the process of international integration emerging from the interchange of world perspectives, products, ideas, and other
aspects such as technology etc. But as we have learned from previous discussions there are many controversies about and defining them
is complicated.
 
Globalization
 It is the process of the international integration arising from the interchange of the world views, products, ideas, and other aspects such as
technology etc.

GLOBALIZATION REGIONALIZATION REGIONALISM

Expansion and “The growth of societal Refers to regional

intensification of social integration within a region concentration of economic
relations and consciousness and the often-undirected flows while regionalization
across world time and world- processes of social and refers to a political
 process by economic
policy if cooperation and
coordination are present
among countries
(Mansfield & Wilmer,
1993)
economic interaction” Also pertains to the
space.
(Hurrel, 1995) process of
intergovernmental
collaborations between
two or more states
(Eliassen& Arnadottir,
2012).

 
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REGIONALIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION

Globalization
Regionalization
-       a process by which the people of the
      A process of dividing an area into smaller
world are unified into a single society and
segments called regions.
function together.
 

Regionalism
Regionalization
    is the theory or practice of regional rather
-       division of a nation into states or
than central systems of administration or
provinces.
economic cultural or political affiliation.
 
 Globalization Regionalization
Promotes integration of
Divides an area into smaller
economies across state borders
Nature segments
all around the world

Monopolies are more likely to

develop. Monopoly means one
Allows many corporations to
producer controls supply of a good
trade on international level; it
Market or service, and where the entry of
allows free market
new producers is prevented or
highly restricted.

Cultural & Acceleration to multiculturalism

Societal through free and inexpensive
Relations movement of people Does not support multiculturalism

Globalized international
A regionalized area does not get
communities are more willing to
Aid involved in the affairs of other
aid countries stricken by
areas
disasters

Technological Globalization has driven great Advanced technology is rarely

Advances advances in technology available in one country or region.

HISTORY OF REGIONALIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

 After the Great War, regional leaders around the world looked for a new structure on how they will manage their shared interest,
threats and opportunities.
Marginalized economies that had been excluded from the world market were increasingly seeing renewed opportunities in the
collaboration with neighboring countries.
The ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) is a perfect example of a successful regional cooperation that responds to
external pressures and common challenges.
Regional Integration is the process by which two or more nation-states agree to co-operate and work closely together to achieve
peace, stability and wealth. The entire world is moving towards integration, it is inevitable. In Asia, the Southeast Asian countries have
already formed ASEAN
This regional power block appears to work fine, the member states fit very well together because of the following factors:
 Military Defense - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed to protect Europe from the threat of the Soviet Union; and as
a response, the Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact.
 Economic Crisis - The ASEAN countries along with China, Japan, and South Korea established an emergency fund that stabilized Asian
economies after the rippling effect of the Thai economy’s collapse.
 Resources - Countries need to pool their resources together to make themselves more powerful. The Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) rose in power when they took over domestic production and controlled crude oil prices across the globe.
 Protection of Independence - The countries under the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) refused to side with the capitalists (Western
Europe & North America) or the communists (Eastern Europe). 
 

Factors that are leading the Asian Region into greater integration
 TRADE - The world economy is intertwined with each other whether we like it or not. We all want or need something from another part of
the world, including global trade facilitates. These nations can readily supply each other’s needs.
 SIMILAR CULTURE - The cultures of Asia is diverse but they do share many things. This makes it an easier fit during times of
negotiations.
 COMMON GOALS - The Asian region recognizes the mutual benefit of a slow integration, and that is to accelerate the economic growth,
social progress and cultural development and to promote peace.
 SIMILAR SECURITY NEEDS - aside from small localized rebels, this association needs only to contend with foreign-supported terrorist
groups which are usually handled well.
 SIMILAR SECURITY NEEDS - aside from small localized rebels, this association needs only to contnd with foreign-supported terrorist
groups which are usually handled well.
 

Challenges of Regionalism
 Resurgence of militant nationalism and populism. This involves the conflict between the NATO, the United States, and Vladimir Putin’s Anti-
NATO movement.
 Continuing financial crisis. The continuing crisis in the European Region continues to lead the United Kingdom into exiting the European
Union.
 Conflict between sovereignty and regional stability. The Philippines had a difficulty in letting some countries support its condemnation of
China’s occupation of the West Philippine Sea because China had given great investments and economic aid to these countries.
 Differing visions of regionalism. Developed countries like the US may only see regionalism as a tool for political democratization, but
developing countries see regionalism as an obstacle to economic globalization because public inquiry slows down its implementations
 
What makes Asian nations stronger than ever is the Establishment of collaborations and cooperation based on respect. For one, the
ASEAN, as a regional bloc, pays full respect for sovereignty and independence of its members through consensus and consultation
(Eliassen& Arnadottir, 2012)
August 08, 1967 – Five leaders of Southeast Asian Countries met together in the Department of Foreign Affairs building in Bangkok
Thailand and signed the document where the “Association of Southeast Asian Nations” was born. - by Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Thailand and the Philippines.
Promoted economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the Southeast Asian region through multilateral cooperation
  

“We the nations and peoples of Southeast Asia must get together and form by ourselves a new perspective
and a new framework for our region. It is important that individually and jointly we should create a deep
awareness that we cannot survive for long as independent but isolated peoples unless we also think and act
together and unless we prove by deeds that we belong to a family of Southeast Asian nations bound
together by ties of friendship and goodwill and imbued with our own ideals and aspirations and determined
to shape our own destiny”. He added that, “with the establishment of ASEAN, we have taken a firm and a
bold step on that road”- Tun Abdul Razak
                                                       ASEAN COMMUNITY
Political Security
Economic Community Socio-Cultural Community
Community
Gives importance to human Adheres to significant roles Avenue for cooperation among
rights, drugs, foreign of monitoring –economic the ministers responsible for
relations, defense, law and ministers, finance ministers, culture and arts, sports,
transnational crimes. central bank governors, disaster management,
free trade area, investment education, environment, health,
area, agriculture and information, labour, rural
forestry, transport development and poverty
ministers, eradication, women, youth and
telecommunications and civil service matters.
information technology
ministers, science and
technology, energy,
 minerals, tourism, free
trade agreements with
dialogue partners and
sectoral bodies.
 
 

Five ministers who signed the document:

1. Adam Malik of Indonesia
2. Tun Abdul Razak of Malaysia 
3. Narciso Ramos of Philippines
4. Sinnathamby Rajaratman of Singapore
5. Thanat Khoman of Thailand

ASEAN Member Countries:

 
Indonesia
Capital: Jakarta
Population: 264 million (2017)
Type of Government: Democratic Republic
Government Leader: Joko Widodo (President)
Currency: Rupiah (0.0037 Php)
 
 
 
Thailand
Capital: Bangkok
Population: 69.04 million (2017)
Type of Government: Constitutional Monarchy
Government Leaders: Maha Vajiralongkorn (King); Prayut Chan-o-cha (Prime Minister);
Currency: Baht (1.67 Php)
 
Malaysia
Capital: Kuala Lumpur
Population: 31.62 million (2017)
Type of Government: Federal Constitutional Monarchy Government Leaders: Muhammad V of Kelantan (King); Mahathir Bin Mohamad
(Prime Minister)
Currency: Ringgit (12.99 Php)
 Singapore
Capital: Pulau Ujong
Population: 5.612 million (2017)
Type of Government: Parliamentary Representative Democratic Republic) Government Leaders: Halimah Yacob (President); Lee Hsien
Loong (Prime Minister)
Currency: Singapore dollar (39.12 Php)
 
Philippines
Capital: Manila
Population: 104.9 million (2017)
Type of Government: Democratic Republic
Government Leader: Rodrigo Duterte (President)
Currency: Philippine Peso
 
Vietnam
Capital: Hanoi
Population: 95.54 million (2017)
Type of Government: Communist
Government Leader: Nguyen Phu Trong (President & Head of Party); Nguyễn Xuân Phúc (Prime Minister)
Currency: Vietnamese dong (0.0023 Php)
 
 
 
 Cambodia
Capital: Phnom Penh
Population: 16.01 million (2017)
Type of Government: Constitutional Monarchy
Government Leader: Hun Sen (President and Prime Minister)
Currency: Cambodian riel (0.013 Php)
 
Brunei
Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
 Population: 428,697 (2017)
Type of Government: Absolute Monarchy
Government Leader: Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah
Currency: Brunei Dollar (39.11 Php)
 
Myanmar
Capital: Naypyidaw
Population: 53.37 million (2017)
Type of Government: Parliamentary Republic Government Leader: Win Myint (President)
Currency: Burmese kyat (0.034)
Capital: Vientiane
Population: 6.858 million (2017)
Type of Government: Communist State
Government Leader: Bounnhang Vorachith
Currency: Lao kip (0.0062 Php)

ASEAN: Fundamental Principles

 Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations;
 The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion or coercion
 Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another
 Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;
 Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
 Effective cooperation among themselves.
  

Goal of ASEAN:
Cooperation in terms of:
 Economic
 Social
 Cultural
 Technical
 Educational and other fields.
 
Also, a promotion of Regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law and adherence to the
principles of the United Nations Character.
Akkerman (2007) she stated that the main reason for the ASEAN cooperation is primarily from the outside – the US feared that
communism will spred out all over the region – to prevent this it sponsors the creation of the association for stability purposes. After the cold
war, ASEAN started to expand its own path – it developed cooperation with Lao PDR, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Myanmar and adopting the
ASEAN Free Trade Area to attract foreign direct investment.

CHALLENGES RESPONSES
•       Creation of Asian Monetary Policy
Asian Financial Crisis
•       Bilateral Agreements with China,
(1997-1998) Japan, and South Korea.

•       Take actions towards their Muslim

Terrorists population.
9/11 Bombing in New York City where •       Assess its position that will not
2,996 died. (Including 19 jeopardize the access to the US
terrorists/Hijackers.) market, but neither grants a US
influence in the association’s affairs.
 APEC a regional forum established in 1989 to leverage the growing interdependence of the Asia-Pacific.
 aim to create greater prosperity for the people of the region by promoting balanced, inclusive, sustainable, innovative and secure growth
and by accelerating regional economic integration.
 ensures that goods, services, investment and people move easily across borders. Members facilitate this trade through faster customs
procedures at borders, more favourable business climates behind the border.
 The East Asia Summit is a unique leaders-led forum of 18 countries of the Asia-Pacific region formed to further the objectives of regional
peace, security and prosperity.
 It has evolved as a forum for strategic dialogue and cooperation on political, security and economic issues of common regional concerns.
 EAS is an initiative of ASEAN and is based on the premise of centrality of ASEAN.
 
 
ASEAN, created bilateral agreements with China, Japan and South Korea (APT (ASEAN +3). A framework that besides financial
issues also includes deeper economic cooperation. Its goal is to address the 1997 Asian financial crisis and help each other cope with
crisis. In this context, ASEAN has concretized regionalism in the Asian region.
ASEAN agreed to strengthen partnership with the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of Korea (Korea) and Japan to
address mutual issues and concerns in energy security, natural gas development, oil market studies, oil stockpiling, and renewable energy.
ASEAN Plus Three (APT) can be considered as a forum that functions as coordinator of co-operation between the Association of
Southeast Asian Nation and the three East Asia nations of China, Japan, and South Korea.
 
ASIAN REGIONALISM
 A new concept among the continental communities
 New to cooperation and collaboration goals
 50-year-old ASEAN Group and the failed East Asia Economic group
 

Asian economies are connected through:

BENEFITS OF REGIONALISM TO THE WORLD
RISK OF ASIAN REGIONALISM
 Issues and Concerns of Asian Regionalism
 Asian Regionalism may not play a role in the major and longstanding regional conflicts, especially that are holdovers from the Cold War
period, such as the PRC
 The possible failure of regional trust-building, which is supposed to have been brought about by regional groups like the ASEAN is reflected
in the emergence of what seems to be a significant arms race across the region
 The region is regularly visited by natural calamities, there is no standing regional humanitarian and disaster assistance mechanism in place,
despite periodic attempts to create one.
 Transnational threats such as illegal migration, terrorism, and pandemics continue to be dealt with on an ad hoc or bilateral basis, without
significant multilateral action.
 On human rights and social issues, Asia continues to lag behind other regions, including Africa and Latin America, not to mention Europe,
developing regional human rights promotion and protection mechanisms.
Abstract
 Asian regional groups are not problem-solving or law-enforcing mechanisms, but norm-making and socializing agents. In this respect, they
do conform to the general model of international organization, which generally lack coercive enforcement power, but act as instruments of
socialization and legitimizing actors.
 Asian regional institutions should widen their focus to embrace transnational issues and move beyond being forums for consultations and
dialogue to become an instrument for problem solving.
 
*** END OF WEEK 9-10***

Globalization of Religion
 
“No single force can be said to have had a greater impact on propelling globalization forward than religion, which has always sought to
spread its message”
Reza Aslan (2009)
 
WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION?
It is the networking and expansion of once local products, beliefs, and practices into universal products, beliefs and practices often through
technology.
WHAT IS RELIGION?
It is a collection of cultural systems, beliefs systems, and world views that established symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and to
moral values.
Religion epitomizes the definition due to the fact that it can be spread more efficiently than ever before through the use of different
technological tools.
 
 RELIGION
 The belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods.
 Some Christians declare that Christianity "is not a religion, it is a relationship with Jesus”.
 Some Muslims say "Islam is not a religion - it is a way of life “.
 It used to be the case that "most Hindus do not realize they 'belong' to that religion, for it is a name given by outsiders.
 Thankfully, most adherents understand the utility of words well enough to accept that they belong to specific religions, and nowadays
there is a strong Hindu-awareness movement that heralds a new generation of Hindus.
 
 
 

The belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods. 
A set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman
agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of
human affairs.
Religion, then, consists of beliefs, actions, and institutions which assume the existence of supernatural entities with powers of action, or
impersonal powers or processes possessed of moral purpose.
Religions are shared collections of transcendental beliefs that have been passed on from believers to converts, that are held by adherents
to be actively meaningful and serious and either based on (1) formally documented doctrine (organized religion) or (2) established cultural
practices (folk religion).
 
 

Definitions of religion differentiate between personal beliefs and organized religion.

 
 THE SPREAD OF RELIGION

 Pilgrimage and tourism are a major force in the globalization of culture.

 Christians often Pilger to holy sites e.g. Jerusalem
 Muslims should travel to Mecca to undertake the haji at least once in their life, connecting also to the Islamic communes around the world
 Cultural exchange, missionary activity and pilgrimages are important sectors, which promoted the process of globalization.
 
 
 

Known as the Silk Road, this vast expanse of intercultural trade routes traversed
Eurasia from the Mediterranean all the way to Japan, crossing into India on the way. Textiles, spices and even religions were all exchanged
along the Silk Road starting around 1,000 B.C. and continuing for several millenniums. For much of this time, Islam was the dominant
religion among Silk Road traders coming from western Eurasia, and they brought with them their belief system and a culture rich in
tradition and advancements to millions of people.
 
 
 
 
GLOBALIZATION AND RELIGION – A PARADOX
 Religious actors have been agents of globalization for centuries.
Globalization is often associated with spreading same ideas and views Globalization does not lead to identical responses from all religious
actors, but sometimes globalization is actively pursued by religious actors.
Samuel Huntington sees the universalists vs. individualists as “clash of civilizations” between the West and the Rest.  He predicted that the
‘West and the rest’ would clash because of differences in religion and civilization as the ‘highest cultural grouping of people and the
broadest level of cultural identity people have’. Huntington’s hypothesis was that ‘the fault lines between civilizations would replace Cold
War ideological boundaries as the ‘flash points for crisis and bloodshed’ (Huntington 1993, 29; Huntington 1996, 125). Samuel Huntington’s
(1993, 1996) “clash of civilizations” “paradigm” help explain current Western governments” responses to Muslim migration and related
security issues? The initial premise of the special issue is that understanding relations between the West/Westerners and Muslim-majority
societies/Muslims is impossible without being aware that right-wing populist politicians in the West, as well as some policy makers and
commentators, seem to view all Muslims in a malign way. This indicates a lack of willingness to make a distinction between, on the one
hand, the mass of “moderate,” “ordinary,” and “peaceful” Muslims and, on the other hand, a small minority of Islamist extremists and even
smaller number of Islamist terrorists.
Example:
1. Groups such as Al Qaeda oppose Westernization, but are at the same time products of this phenomenon even utilizing the tools and
techniques to achieve their own globalizing aim. time products of this phenomenon even utilizing the tools and techniques to achieve their
own globalization aim.
 
IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON RELIGION
 

Religion and globalization have always shared a relation of struggle and conflict. Globalization has generally been linked with economic and
political interdependence which ultimately has brought people closer and effect of no event is isolated but is felt in far off places too.
Globalization has diverse, even paradoxical implication of religion.
 Globalization may have implied on faith in the following three possible impacts:

1. Religion is being eroded

2. Religion is being strengthened
3. Religion is declining but it has developed new identities of hybridity.

  
Generally, religion is a "system of beliefs and practices". More specifically, the word comes from the Latin "religare" which means "to bind
together again that which was once bound but has since been torn apart or broken. "Indeed, with the globalization of economics and
politics, individuals feel insecure "as the life they once led is being contested and changed at the same time. Hence, "in order for a person
to maintain a sense of psychological well-being and avoid existential anxiety", individuals turn to scripture stories and teaching that provide
a version about how they can be bound to a "meaningful world", a world that is quickly changing day by day.
 
Nonetheless, the relationship between globalization and religion is one with new possibilities and furthering challenges. On the one hand,
while religion takes advantage of communication and transportation technology, it is at the same time the source of globalization's greatest
resistance by acting as a haven for those standing in opposition to its power. On the other hand, because globalization allows for daily
contact, religion enters a circle of themselves as being world religion."
The relationship between religion and globalization is complex, one with new possibilities and furthering challenges. This essay cannot
provide a comprehensive overview of religion and globalization, as the terrain is to vast. Still does provide several examples to illustrate the
complex relationship between the two.
 
CROSS-DISCIPLINARY CONSIDERATIONS: BEYOND THE SECULARIZATION DEBATE
“The study of religion is an inter- or cross-disciplinary area of inquiry” - Crawford, 2001

“For most of the 20th century, the research agenda of the social sciences has been dominated by the debate over secularization.” - Turner,
2009
 There is a discontinuity between research agendas that focus on secularization and globalization.
 Social scientists have debated the scope, nature, extent and parameters of secularization in an effort to unveil the overall patterns and/or
trajectories of the modern world.
 Initially secularization had a strong following but eventually it was superseded by re-evaluation.
 Various debated lead to re-appraisal.
 
“Modernity inevitably produces a decline of religion” (Berger, 2013). He explained:

When I started out doing sociology of religion—like two hundred years ago—everyone else had the same idea. And I more or less assumed
that it was correct. It wasn’t a completely crazy assumption; there were many reasons why people said that. But it took me about twenty
years to come to the conclusion that the data doesn’t support this, and other people came to the same conclusion.
…
the theory is wrong. Now, to conclude that the theory is wrong is the beginning of a new process of thinking. I came to the conclusion
some years ago that to replace secularization theory—to explain religion in the modern world—we need the theory of pluralism. Modernity
does not necessarily produce secularity. It necessarily produces pluralism, by which I mean the coexistence in the same society of different
worldviews and value systems.
That changes the status of religion. It’s a challenge for every religious tradition. But it’s not the challenge of secularity; it’s a different
challenge. The problem with modernity is not that god is dead, as some people hoped and other people feared. There are too many gods,
which is a challenge, but a different one. So, this, in terms of my career as a sociologist of religion, has been my major change of mind.

Initially had a strong following, but was eventually superseded by critics who forced scholarly re-appraisals/re-evaluations.
 
Theory of Pluralism: The coexistence of different worldviews and value systems in the same society (Berger, 2013) or brings a culture of
pluralism. World’s leading religious traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—teach values such as human dignity,
equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity.
 
2 BROAD STREAMS OF IDEAS CONCERNING SECULARIZATION:
1. Post-secularity – contemporary phase; religion makes a return to the public sphere from where it was cast out during the era of modernity.
It is also is often used to indicate a renewed interest in religion as a social, political and cultural force, acknowledging the need for political
and social engagement with religious as well as non-faith-based groups and voices. Yet in many ways, the term remains unclear, and its
usage inconsistent.
                   - Religious Fundamentalism
                   - “believing without belonging” by Grace Davie (1994)
                   - public ‘flagging’ of religious belief that is not matched by religious practice.

2. Secularism is a multifaceted movement that has caused the onset of secularization in Western societies.

The principles of secularism which protect and underpin many of the freedoms we enjoy are:

1. Separation of religious institutions from state institutions and a public sphere where religion may participate, but not dominate.
2. Freedom to practice one's faith or belief without harming others, or to change it or not have one, according to one's own conscience.
3. Equality so that our religious beliefs or lack of them doesn't put any of us at an advantage or a disadvantage.

Evaluation: Eurocentric, ignoring non-Western regions

 
CHALLENGES
 The Sociology of Religion must overcome its rampant parochialism (Riesebrodt and Konieczny, 2010)
 The major schism that shapes the problem of the relationship between religion and globalization is not only that between a dominant North
and a subordinate South. Of equal importance is the schism between the West and the East or the rest (Turner and Khonder, 2010)
 

GLOBALIZATION: PERSPECTIVES FROM THE FIELD

Globalization is not a process that can be easily narrated within a single authoritative narrative – rather the very notion of various locales
coalescing into the global, promotes the construction of multiple narratives that reflect the manner in which each group, religious tradition,
or region contributed to the construction of the ‘global’. - Roudometof (2015)
 In the Sociology of Religion, the notion of Globalization emerged in the early 1980s in a series of publications of Sociologist Ronald
Robertson and his co-authors – and eventually most of these articles and papers were published in his Globalization: Social Theory and
Global Culture (1992).
In terms of the relationship between churches or more religious institutions and the state, there is broad consensus that both in the
advanced industrial societies as well as in developing countries there is a general tendency for religion to return to the public sphere or
domain – a tendency often referred to as the de-privatization of religion.
The relationship between space-time and globalization is an additional dimension.
Different theorist have tended to emphasize spatial or temporal dimensions.
In this interpretation, emphasis is placed on globalization’s temporality, whereby contemporary developments are said to constitute a new
era or phase or stage that is viewed as qualitatively distinct from past historical era.
On the other hand, Robertson (1992) and Waters (1995) have stressed the spatial dimension of the ‘global’.
Globalization entails a geographical component, which is best expressed in terms of the dialectic of deterritorialization and
reterritorialization.
 
Deterritorialization – is the mechanism by which globalization operates concretely to construct new forms of attachments.
 
Reterritorialization – is the possibility of reconstructing, creating, or recreating locality.
Old forms of territorial attachments are decoupled, and new forms of attachments are forged. This dialectic is prominently displayed both
in terms toward greater ecumenical orientation as well as transnational religion. It is in this sense that the construction of locality can be
viewed as a global phenomenon. (Appadurai, 1995)
 
Since the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, scholarship has explored various facets of the relationship between globalization and
religion.
 Some best examples of religious-centered reactions to the contemporary globalization:
 The Rise of Religious Nationalism (Juergensmeyer, 1994)
 The return of Religion into the Public Life (Cassanova, 1994)
 The Proliferation of International Terrorism (Juergensmeyer, 2001)
 The Increasing Personal bricolage of Individual Religiosity (Beyer, 1994)
As Obadia (2010) argues, theorizing religion and globalization has been subject to two different line of interpretation,
Globalization of Religion, versus Globalization and Religion.
 
In the 1st problematic, the fundamental research question pertains to the spread of religions and specific genres or forms or blueprints of
religion across the world. Beyer (2006) proposed that the very notion of what constitutes a ‘religion’, as a common understood, is a
product of long-term process of inter-civilizational or cross-cultural interactions.
 In the 2nd problematic, the position and place of religion is problematized within the context of globalization. This problematic concerns the
relations and impact of globalization upon religion.  From this point, even religions that are not conventionally considered ‘global’ are
nevertheless influenced by globalization.
 
Globalization is profoundly historical;
Its pace and influence for the crystallization of various religions requires a ‘birds-eye-view’ of historical development.
 

TRANSNATIONAL RELIGION AND MULTIPLE GLOCALIZATIONS

  
“The consciousness of our sacred and inescapable duty to our country and our sense of loyalty to the people of the united states constrain
us to denounce the forgoing acts of the present Governor-General as arbitrary, oppressive and undemocratic.” -Zaide (1990)
 
Relationship with expressions of Religiosity

Transnational Studies
 
International Migration-Provided the means to theorize the relationship between people and religion in a transnational context. -(Casanova
2001)
 Case: God’s Needs No Passport

Migration of Faiths-Across the globe has been a major feature of the world throughout the twentieth
century.
 
 
 
 
 

“Deterritorialization” of Religion - The appearance and, in some instances, the efflorescence of religious traditions in places where these
previously had been largely unknown or were at least in a minority position.
 Transnational Religion emerged through the post WWII spread of several religions. That
is, old forms of territorial attachments are decoupled and new forms of such attachments are forged. This dialectic is prominently displayed
both in trends toward greater ecumenical orientation as well as in transnational religion
 
Example:
Explosion of Protestantism in Catholic Latin America
 
 
 
 Two distinct blends of religious universalism and local particularism.
It is possible for religious universalism to gain the upper hand, whereby religion becomes the central  reference for immigrants. Religion
transnationalism= “religion going global”.
It is possible for local ethnic or national particularism to gain or maintain the most important place for local immigrant communities.
 Indigenization-Connected specific faiths with ethnic groups, whereby religion and culture were often fused into a single unit
 Hybridization-Blend religious universalism with several forms of local (national or ethnic) particularism
 Glocalization- A genre of expression, communication and legitimation of collective and individual identities
 
 GLOBALIZATION ENGENDERING GREATER RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE
 The Golden Rule, alongside with values such as human dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity.
 Through such religious values, globalization engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics, and society.
 
...in terms of politics
 Roman Catholic Church, the World Council of Churches, and the Jewish Diaspora also take part in international affairs such as Jubilee 2000.
 World Faiths Development Dialogue, an effort of international faith leaders along with the World Bank to support development agendas
corresponding to the UN's Millennium Development Goals.
 Religious organizations have, themselves, been involved in interreligious dialogue. The Parliament of the World's Religions of 1993.
 
...in terms of economics
 The main religions of each of those countries have also grown financially, providing more financial resources for religions to spread their
beliefs.
 Missionary Work is strong in many Third World countries
 
…in terms of technological advancements
 Websites provide information and explanations about different religions to any person regardless of his or her geographical location
 As well as provide the opportunity to contact others worldwide and hold debates which allow religious ideas to spread
 Television allows for religious channels that provide visual religious teachings and practices
 Facilities improved as well
...in general
 globalization allows for religions previously isolated from one another to now have regular and unavoidable contact. As a result,
globalization brings to the light the fact that since religions have similar values, not one of them is "correct" and, therefore, can be
changed.
 
 GLOBALIZATION CREATING BACKLASH OF RELIGIOUS PAROCHIALISM
Since globalization is considered as "the first truly world revolution", all revolutions disrupt the traditions and customs of a people—that is,
people's very security, safety, and identity. As globalization disrupts traditional communities, causes economic marginalization, and brings
mental stress, individuals feel these fewer desirable consequences of globalization. With religion's power to "convey a picture of security,
stability, and simple answers" through stories and beliefs—unlike economic plans, political programs, or legal regulations—individuals turn
to religion.
 
Globalization disrupting traditional communities - replaces them with larger, impersonal organizations. It dramatically alters what
individuals traditionally understood themselves by—"citizenship," "nationality," and "immigration." • religious leaders, pointing to modern
society's loss of ethical values and increased corruption, preach, "the only answer to the current 'decay' is a return to traditional values and
religious norms." Religion supplies these individuals with a feeling of being a part of a group that represents their interests and allows them
to regain their traditional sense of who they are.
 
Globalization bringing economic marginalization - as transnational corporations increasingly take over the role of the state's involvement in
the economic sector, the government loses its status as a welfare provider. Westernization, or Americanization - religion plays a social role
and gains more recognition from the marginalized, particularly those in Third World countries - religious organizations such as Catholic
Relief Services, World Vision International, and Islamic Relief Worldwide help serve the disadvantaged in areas such as poverty relief,
health care, the HIV/AIDS crisis, and environment problems.
 
Globalization causing mental stress. It leaves individuals worrying about losing work, status, or other privileges. Globalization favors
material prosperity as the aim of life over inner peace, individuals focus on attaining some material possession such as a house, car, game,
or simply any object. When they attain such item(s), however, they find themselves empty inside and, therefore, realize that inner peace
can never be achieved through material possessions - religion provides them the way to inner peace and the sense of personal fulfillment.
These individuals realize that getting involved within their communities and organizing together in social movements for a good cause
brings more satisfaction to them than do material possessions.
 
In general, in face of rapid changes in the globalized world, to regain the sense of certainty, many individuals turn to religion for a clear
explanation of what is going on in the world. With its strength as a powerful identity that brings the message of unity and security in times
of crisis, religion provides the idea of a "home."
 
GLOBALIZATION SHAPING RELIGIOUS IDENTITY
Religion clings to truth when fulfilling God's word (rules), but of course there will be exception to those who reject to such truth. In times
of uncertainty like globalization, therefore, collective identity is reduced to a number of cultural religious characteristics —"them" and "us"
and "they" and "our." In other words, the abject suddenly becomes recognized as a threat.
 
...furthering challenges
Since the 9/11 attacks, there has been a tendency of the West to link the religion of Islam with terrorist practices while Al-Qaeda links the
US as Christian or a Judeo-Christian nation, attacks on innocent people based on cultural religious characteristics occur today: Muslims in
the United States, Western Europe, or India, Kurds in Iraq, and Jews in France. These cultural religious characteristics become a unifying
force against others not adhering to a particular truth.
 
...in general
Having paved the way for religions to come in direct contacts with one another, globalization has, indeed, brought religions to a circle of
competition and conflicts. As long as religions see themselves as "world religions" and reinforce their specific identities, the chance for
religions to avoid conflict among one another is grey.
 
 
RELIGION TOWARDS GLOBAL PEACE AND CONFLICT
Religious communities also directly oppose repression and promote peace and reconciliation. Interfaith dialogue is another form of religious
peacemaking. Rather than seeking to resolve a particular conflict.
 It is clear that religion has a major role in many conflicts occurring at multiple levels and locations. Religion has also become one of the
main ways in which people connect with each other around the globe.
 
Religion on Terrorism: Islam and Christianity
 Terrorism — the threatened or actual use of violence or illegal force to attain political, economic, religious, or social goal through fear,
coercion or intimidation.
 By understanding both Religion's core teaching we can say that both Islam and Christianity itself has nothing to do with Terrorism
 Though in the public mind, Islam started to be fundamentally associated with terrorism
 
Religion in World Affairs: The Conflict
 In recent decades, religion has assumed unusual prominence in global affairs. The horrendous events of 9/11, the conflagration in Iraq,
and the aggressive assertiveness of quasi-theocratic Iran only confirm in the popular mind that religion lies behind much of contemporary
international conflict.
 Since its creation in 2000, the program has worked with local partners to promote religious peacemaking in many parts of the world,
including Sudan, Nigeria, Iraq, Israel-Palestine, Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. This report represents reflections on
that experience.
 
Religion in World Affairs: Upholding Peace
 No major religion has been exempting from complicity in violent conflict. Yet we need to beware of an almost universal propensity to
oversimplify the role that religion plays in international affairs. Religion is not usually the sole or even primary cause of conflict.
 With so much emphasis on religion as a source of conflict, the role of religion as a force in peacemaking is usually overlooked.
 Religious affiliation and conviction often motivate religious communities to advocate particular peace-related government policies. Religious
communities also directly oppose repression and promote peace and reconciliation.
 Religious leaders and institutions can mediate in conflict situations, serve as a communication link between opposing sides, and provide
training in peacemaking methodologies.
 Interfaith dialogue is another form of religious peacemaking.
 Given religion's importance as both a source of international conflict and a resource for peacemaking, it is regrettable that the U.S.
government is so ill equipped to handle religious issues and relate to religious actors.
 
Religion in Globalization: Ongoing Conflict or Coexistence?
 Aggressive Response
 Receptive Response
 
Communication and Cooperation are the keys to coexistence
 Common perceptions
 Improvement based on peace
 Mutual trust in terms of Government, Economy, Society
 
 

CONCLUSION
 Globalization has a great impact on religion. As people and cultures move across the globe, as ideas are mobilized and transported by
media technology, the religious globalization will go on and on.
 It has its pro and cons. People should cope with the flow of info and choose their own and peaceful way.
 And to our mind, finally, the globalization will end in complete domination of one of them over the rest.
 
The “world religions” can be interpreted as responses to deep insecurities produced by radical social disruptions.
How does it change with globalization?
 
 
** END OF WEEK 11 and 12 **
THE GLOBAL CITY

THE GLOBAL CITY

At its core, the term global city is rooted in economics. Beginning in the 15th century globalization took root and the world’s disparate regional economics began to
converge. As a result, economic hubs began to emerge in key cities around the world. It is to this phenomenon the term “global city” refers to (Washington,2018)
Global city, an urban center that enjoys significant competitive advantages and that serves as a hub within a globalized economic system. (Charnaock,n.d)

A global city is a significant production point of specialized financial and producer services that make the globalized economy run (Renn,2112)
The rise of global cities has been linked with two globalization-related trends: first, the expansion of the role of transnational corporations (TNC’s) in global
production patterns and, second, the decline of mass production along fordist lines and the concomitant rise of flexible production centered within urban areas.
These two trends explain the emergence of networks of certain cities serving the financial and service requirements of TNC’s while other cities suffer the
consequences of deindustrialization and fail to become “global.” Global cities are those that therefore become effective command-and-coordination posts for TNC’s
within a globalizing world economy. 
Sociologist Saskia Sassen popularized the term “global city” in the 1990s. Her criteria for what constitute a global city were primarily economic. In her work, she
initially identified three global cities: New York, London, and Tokyo all of which are hubs of global finance and capitalism.
WHY STUDY GLOBAL CITIES? Globalization is spatial phenomenon….
 Globalization is spatial because it occurs in Physical Spaces.

 
 As all these happen, more poor people are driven out of city centers to make way for new developments.

 Globalization is spatial because what makes it move is the fact that it is based in places.
 Cities act on globalization and globalization acts on cities.
 
   
 
ATTRIBUTES OF GLOBAL CITY
 The foremost characteristic is economic power. Sassen remains correct in saying that economic power largely determines which cities are global. Economic power
largely determines which cities are global.
 Economic opportunities in a global city make it attractive to talents from across the world.
 To ensure the economic competitiveness of a city, The Economist Intelligence Unit has added other criteria like market size, purchasing power of citizens, size of
the middle class, and potential for growth.
 Global cities are also centering of authority.
 The cities that house major international organizations may also be considered centers of political influence.
 Power political hubs exert influence on their own countries as well as on international affairs.
 Finally, global cities are centers of higher learning and culture, A city’s intellectual influence is seen through the influence of its publishing industry.
 It is the cultural power of global cities that ties them to the imagination.
 Today, global cities become culturally diverse. In a global city, one can try cuisines from different parts of the world.
 Example, Berlin and Tokyo offer some of the best Turkish food one can find outside of Turkey. Manila is not very global because of the dearth of foreign residents
(despite the massive domestic migration), but Singapore is, because it has a foreign population of 38%.
 
Global City: Key Indicators

Economic Political Cultural Industrial

Active influence First-name familiarity
Corporate headquarters and participation NEW YORK
multinational corporations, on international TOKYO
events and
International financial PARIS
world affairs
institutions, LONDON Advanced
Hosting transportation system
Significant financial
headquarters for Highly renowned
capacity/output: cultural institutions, Major international
international
city/regional GDP airports and ports
organizations (ex. galleries, sports
Financial service UN) complex, film centers, Advanced
provision e.g., banks, opera communications
Large
accountancy
metropolitan area. Influential media Skyscrapers
Costs of living
Quality of life produced (ex. NYT)
personal wealth; e.g., standards Educational
number of billionaires institutions
Expat
communities Tourism

 
TYPES OF GLOBAL CITY
 Global Giants
These six cities are the world’s leading economic and financial centers. They are hubs for financial markets and are characterized by large populations and a high
concentration of wealth and talent.
       Examples: New York City, Tokyo, London, Los Angeles, Osaka, and Paris
 
 ASIAN Anchors
The six Asian Anchor cities are not as wealthy as the Global Giants; however, they are the command centers in fast growing Asia, drawing on their infrastructure
connectivity and talented workforce.
        Examples: Hong Kong, Seoul, Singapore, Shanghai, Moscow, and Beijing
 
 Emerging Gateways
These 28 cities are transportation and economic entry points for major regional markets.
        Examples: Mumbai, Cape Town, Mexico City, Hangzhou, and Istanbul
 
 Factory China
There are 22 second and third-tier Chinese cities reliant on export manufacturing to power economic growth and international engagement. Although Factory
China displays a GDP growth rate that is well above average, it fails to reach average levels of innovation, talent, and connectivity.
         Examples: Shenyang, Changchun, Chengdu, Qingdao, and Zhengzhou
 
 Knowledge Capitals
These are 19 mid-sized cities in the U.S. and Europe that are considered centers of innovation, with elite, tech-driven research universities producing talented
workforces.
          Examples: San Francisco, Boston, Zurich, San Jose, Seattle, and Stockholm
 
 American Middleweights
These 16 mid-sized U.S. metro areas are relatively wealthy and house strong universities, as well as other anchor institutions.
          Examples: Orlando, Sacramento, Phoenix, Miami, and Charlotte
 
 International Middleweights
These 26 cities span across several continents, internationally connected by human and investment capital flow.
          Examples: Vancouver, Melbourne, Brussels, Tel Aviv, Sidney, Toronto, and Berlin
 
 THE CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL CITIES
 Global cities conjure up images of fast-paced, exciting, cosmopolitan lifestyles. But such descriptions are lacking.
 Cities can be sustainable because of their density, As Richard Florida notes: Ecologists have found that by concentrating their populations in smaller areas, cities
and metros decrease human encroachment on natural habitats.
 Moreover, in cities with extensive public transportation systems, people tend to drive less and thereby cut carbon emissions.
 Some cities like Los Angeles are urban sprawls, with massive freeways that force residents to spend money on cars and gas.
 And while cities like Manila, Bangkok, and Mumbai are dense, their lack of public transportation and their governments’ inability to regulate their car industries
have made them extremely polluted.
 Cities, especially those with global influence, are obvious targets for terrorists due to their high populations and their role as symbols of globalization that many
terrorists despise.

THE GLOBAL MIGRATION

 GLOBAL MIGRATION
As a result of social, economic and political changes migration as a worldwide issue has brought about 80 million migrants and 20 million of them are refugees. the
movement of people from one place to another with the intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily at a new location. 
 Immigration is the movement of people into a country to settle.
 Emigration is the process by which people leave a country to settle in another country.
 
 
 
Two Types of Migration
Internal migration – refers to people moving from one area to another within one country. This refers to a change of residence within national boundaries, such as
between states, provinces, cities, or municipalities. An internal migrant is someone who moves to a different administrative territory.
Example:
1. Movements of Uyghur national minority’ people from the western provinces of China to cities in the east.
 
International migration – refers to people crossing borders of one country to another. This also This refers to change of residence over national boundaries. An
international migrant is someone who moves to a different country. International migrants are further classified as legal immigrants, illegal immigrants, and
refugees. Legal immigrants are those who moved with the legal permission of the receiver nation, illegal immigrants are those who moved without legal
permission, and refugees are those crossed an international boundary to escape persecution.
Example.

1. Boarders between the southern Philippines and Sabah in Malaysia

 
HISTORY…
European expansion and its effects brought migration into world’s agenda. After 2nd World War and especially in the last decades migration became an important
political issue. Migration on the one hand make a country’s population ethnically and culturally colorful but creates hostility towards outsiders on the other.
Movement of people towards the 1st World forced European countries’ to examine their citizenship regulations.
 
CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE WHO MIGRATE
 Emigrant – a person who is leaving one country to live in another. To emigrate is to leave one country or region to settle in another. “Emigrate” implies a

permanent move and only applies to people. For example,

My grandparents emigrated from Norway.
 
The difference between “immigrate” and “emigrate” is that “immigrating” is the act of entering a foreign country to live while “emigrating” is the act of leaving a
country to live in another. Consider the differences in our above examples,
My grandparents immigrated to the United States.
My grandparents emigrated from Norway.
 In this example, my grandparents are immigrants here in the United States, but back in Norway, they are emigrants. The graphic below does a good job
illustrating the difference.
 Immigrant – a person who is entering a country from another to make a new home. To immigrate is to enter and settle in a foreign country, leaving a past home.

“Immigrate” implies a permanent move and applies only to people. For example,
My grandparents immigrated to the United States in the 1920s.
There is one main feature that distinguishes “immigrate” from “migrate.” “Immigrate” means an individual or group of people have moved into a new,
foreign country. “Migrate” does not require moving into foreign land; it just implies moving. “Immigrate” usually refers to the crossing of a political
boundary (moving into a new country) where “migrate” can just be moving to a new region. For instance,
Many Michiganders migrate south for the winter.
In this example, Michiganders aren’t moving to a foreign land, but they are migrating south for the winter.
 
 Refugee – a person who has moved to a new country because of a
problem in their former home. A refugee is a person who has fled their own country because they are at risk of serious human rights violations and persecution
there. The risks to their safety and life were so great that they felt they had no choice but to leave and seek safety outside their country because their own
government cannot or will not protect them from those dangers. Refugees have a right to international protection.
 
 
 
 
 
FOUR MODELS OF MIGRATION
 Classic Model: Immigration is encouraged by the countries of destination like USA, Canada and Australia. The only restriction is annual quotas.
 Colonial Model: Countries are more tolerant to immigration coming from their ex-colonies than other countries of origin. (i.e. immigration to England from the
former British colonies- like hk)
 Worker Model: Immigrants are accepted temporarily as guests workers to fulfil the demand within the labour market without citizenship.
 Illegal Model: Entering an industrialized country secretly and work without legal permission.
 
FORCES BEHIND MIGRATION
Push-Pull Factor
In geographical terms, the push-pull factors are those that drive people away from a place and draw people to a new location. A combination of push-pull factors
helps determine migration or immigration of particular populations from one land to another.
 Push Factors are the dynamics within the country of origin which force people to emigrate such as war, famine, political oppression or population pressures.
                        - REASONS TO LEAVE
                        - Factors that help migrants decide to leave their home
 Pull Factors are characteristics of destination countries that attract immigrant wish to get better living and working conditions.
                        - REASONS TO MIGRATE
                        - Factors that attract people and area where immigrants are going
 
 Macro Level Processes: Overcharging issues such as political situations, laws and regulations between the countries to control migration. Changes in global
economy can be counted as a macro factor for example.
 Micro Level Processes: Resources knowledge and understandings that migrant population has and activate.
 
FOUR TENDENCIES IN GLOBAL MIGRATION Castles&Miller, 1993
 Acceleration: Increase in the number of migrants.
 Diversification: Types of migrants have changed. Labor force, refugees.
 Globalization: In terms of sender or receiver’s migration become global in nature.
 Feminization: Women’s number in migrants are increasing. They are generally hired as cheap labor force like domestic labor or sexual slaves.
 

THE GLOBAL MIGRATION 

Why do people move?

Social Factors
Social factors are things that affect someone’s lifestyle. These could include wealth, religion, buying habits, educational level, family size and structure and
population density.
 
 
 
 
 
 

Cultural Factors
 
The idea of culture is vital to understanding the implications for translation and despite the differences of opinion as to whether language is a part of culture or
not, the two are connected. Culture range from syntax, ideologies, religion, language and dialect, art and literacy.
 
 
 
 
 
Economic Factors
Lack of employment opportunities or differentials in employment opportunities and wages; the lure of a 
well-paid job in a wealthy country is a powerful driver of international migration. Lack of educational institutions across developing countries has also
tremendously contributed to the reasons for migration. For example, all nurses here in the Philippines tried to apply in other country because of the salary wage
we have.
 
 
 

Political Factors
 The unattractiveness of agricultural activities, disasters, lack of basic amenities (roads, electricity, portable water, and inadequate health care facilities) and
industrial ventures in countries have also encouraged international migration.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
“Migration affects both the place of origin and the place of destination on the various aspects such as
environmental, economic, health and social aspects…”
 Environmental Aspects
Migration of people has the direct effect on both, the place of origin and the place of destination. Problems like settlement, over-exploitation of resources, and the
pollution of different kinds will be visible.
 Economic Aspects
The consequence on the place of origin will be a loss of economically active groups of the population.
 Health and Social Aspects
The place of destination are normally those places where facilities are made available to a limited extent so as to fulfill the needs of the native dwellers. However,
the places overcrowd with the constant flow of migrants, and facilities and other needs become insufficient.
 
*** END OF WEEK 13-14 ***

THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The Sustainable Development
 The spread of globalization makes the people around the globe realize that every
nation-state has its own share of injustices as well as unhappiness. But these citizens are striving to create and achieve a just world. where
no man is left behind, where every nation can taste a world of peace and prosperity. enjoying a more livable global environment.
There are some significant downsides to globalize trade perhaps the strongest argument against economic globalization is its lack of
sustainability or the degree to which the earth's resources can be used for our needs, even in the future. Specifically, the development of
our world today by using the earth's resources and the preservation of such sources for the future is called sustainable development. In
other words, development has to be ensured in and for the future generations. One significant global response or approach to economic
globalization is that of sustainable development, which seeks to chart a middle path between economic growth and a sustainable
development (Borghese and Vercelli, 2008). The relationship between globalization and sustainability is multi-dimensional ---it involves
economic, political and technological aspects.
The continuous production of the world's natural resources, such as water and fossil fuel allow humanity to discover and innovate many
things. We were able to utilize energy, discover new technologies, and make advancements in transportation and communication.
However, these positive effects of development put our environment at a disadvantage. Climate change accelerated and global inequality
was not eradicated. This means that development, although beneficial at one hand, entails cost on the other.
 
What is sustainability?
We define the word sustainability, in a general sense, as the tendency to continue. indefinitely, the economic, social or environmental
activities or processes. It can have varied meanings and nomenclature according to different people but the most commonly cited definition
is that of the 'Bruntland' Commission (or the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development 1987) as development
that -meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". It speaks about
something or an activity. which promises or envisions financial viability, environmentally friendly, long-term outlook, or whether such
activity or process can be prolonged indeterminately.
 
How is sustainability different from stability?
Sustainability differs from stability in its subtlety. While sustainability precedes stability, the reverse may not be feasible. Stability is only an
offshoot of sustainability. but not the latter from the former. If there is one element that makes the two concepts different, then that is the
idea of resiliency. No man-made nor natural environmental challenges can shatter a resilient environment, which is the ultimate objective
of the Sustainable Development Goals.
 
Drivers and promoters of gallization have always emphasized the economic benefits it brings to nations that open their borders to global
flows of products. This portion of the module will provide a discussion on how an interconnected world can aid in the sustainable
development and eventual promotion of food security. As the world becomes smaller because of globalization, nations become reachable
and accessible. But can globalization really sustain the global development and food security to every nation-state around the globe? In
this lesson, we will focus first on sustainable development and the discussions on food security will follow in the succeeding section.
 
In 2015. leaders from the United Nations came up with an ambitious plan to liberate the world from famine, poverty, conflict and
devastating effects of climate change. They adopted the following 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with its 17 SDGs (Sustainable
Development Goals).
 
Environmental Degradation

Development, especially economic development, was hastened by the industrial Revolution. This is the
period in human history that made possible the cycle of efficiency. Efficiency means  finding the quickest possible way of producing large
amounts of particular product. This process made buying of goods easier for the people. Ultimately, there was an increased efficiency. This
cycle harms the planet in a number of ways. For instance, the earth's atmosphere is damaged by more carbon emissions from factories
around the world. Another example is the destruction of coral reefs and marine biodiversity as more and more wastes are thrown into the
ocean. Many experts do not think that the planet can sustain a growing global economy. Deforestation, pollution and climate change will
not adjust for us especially if increases in living standards lead people to demand more consumer goods like cars, meat and smart phones.
 

Harvey (2005) noted that neoliberals and environmentalists

debate the impact of free trade on the environment. Environmentalists debate the impact of free trade on the environment.
Environmentalists argue that environmental issues should be given priority over economic issues (Antonio, 2007). Free trade, through its
emphasis on the expansion of manufacturing, is associated with environmental damage. For their part, neoliberals see the effort of
environmentalists as serious impediments to trade.
 
Various efforts are underway to deal with climate change. However, strong resistance on the part of governments and corporations’
counters these. For instance, the Kyoto Protocol aimed a reduction of global carbon emissions, but failed to take off largely because it was
not ratified by the United States (Armitage, 2005). However, momentum is being built in corporate circles in dealing with environmental
problems.
 
 

 
Food Security

The illustration above simply puts emphasis on the importance of food among other basic necessities of humans. It is a globally vital
resource for the survival of all mankind no matter what race, nationality, religious affiliation, or educational achievement they may be
coming from around the world'. Like Hunger Games, citizens of every nation-state must be triumphant in achieving food security through
the collaborative efforts of each country's leaders. If hunger is not properly addressed, then chaos and deteriorating quality of life is sure to
happen as in the case inciting the 1789 French Revolution (like Hunger Games' medieval reliance) and the 2019 Venezuelan food crisis, to
cite a few. This part of the module will deal on global food security seeking to attain the following learning outcomes.
"When all people at all times have access to sufficient safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life," then there exists food
security, declared by The World Food Summit of 1996. Every household in every nation across the globe needs food not only for the time
being but every day, through the next years. In order to maintain food security, there is a need to integrate a degree of resiliency from the
debilitating effects of climate change, economic instability, or insurgencies, among others. Food security entails food stability, which
indicates unwavering supply of food throughout time. It also means food access that suggests "affordability and allocation of food, as well
as the preferences of individuals and households. Another aspect of food security is food availability that talks about food supply via
"production, distribution, and exchange".

However, nowadays, food security can be affected by global water crisis, climate change, land degradation and greedy land deals. "Water
table reserves are falling in many countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread over-pumping and irrigation.
Also, rising global temperatures are beginning to have a ripple effect on crop yields, forest resources, water supplies and altering the
balance of nature. Meanwhile, intensive farming leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields. Also,
Corporations and Governments buying rights to millions of acres of agricultural land in developing countries to secure their own long-term
food supplies".
 
Philippine Agriculture is the Key to Food Security
In the Philippines, agriculture holds the vital responsibility towards the attainment of the nation's sustainable development. "Agriculture is
key to four identified priority areas: sustainable agriculture and food systems; challenges of social inclusion; good governance of extractive
and land resources; and redefining the role of business for sustainable development." The pillars of sustainable development include
economic, social and environmental sustainability. Consequently, biotechnology paves the generation of Genetically Modified seeds for fast
growing, climate-change resistant, and high yielding crops deemed to answer the production problem of the farmers.
 
The demand for food will be 60% greater than today and the challenge of food security requires the world to feed 9 billion people by 2050
(Breene, 2016). Global security means delivering sufficient food to the entire world population. It is therefore, a priority of all countries
whether developed or less developed. Food security means sustainability of society such as population growth climate change, water
scarcity and agriculture. Breene (2016) cited the case of India to show how complex the issue of food security is in relation to other
factors.
 

Genetically Modified (GM) Food and Food Security

The advent of commercialized foods like Genetically Modified (GM) seeds gave impetus to fast and high yielding crops like maize or corn. I
remember one farmer in Bukidnon sharing a story of gripe about his recent corn farming experience. He observed that newly-introduced
commercial corn seeds are yielding high but it produces sterile seeds that is why he cannot save some seeds out of their harvest that will
be used for next planting season. What most farmers do these days is rely and buy on commercially-available seeds. This is called
"terminator seeds". With this situation, what do you think will happen to the farmers' economic status now that crops are genetically
modified? Will the farmers gain more and eventually be alleviated from poverty? Will GM foods help in food security problem of the
country?
 
 ** END OF WEEK 15 **
THE GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
THE GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP

 
The modern students, including the previous ones, must be aware and should have been cognizant to recognize their membership in
human society, not only in the local context but also in the global spectrum. In this lesson, we dispense the subjective domain of
globalization. Here, students are taught that as humans we share in the benefits of 'global standards" and market imports as well as the
pains of global inequality by introducing the concepts of global civil society and global citizenship (Carter. 2013 and Davies, 2006).
Global Citizenship nurtures personal respect and respect for others, wherever they live. It encourages individuals to think deeply and
critically about what is equitable and just, and what will minimize harm to our planet. Exploring Global Citizenship themes help learners
grow more confident in standing up for their beliefs, and more skilled in evaluating the ethics and impact of their decisions.
Cosmopolitanism, as Backgrounder of Global Citizenship
'I am a citizen of the world: This famous declaration by Socrates already gave an idea of a global community back in the ancient periods.
This came from the concept of cosmopolitanism, which denotes citizen of the cosmos or world citizenship. As a theory adapted by the
ancient Stoics, cosmopolitanism emphasizes that men predominantly reside not only in 'local political community' but also in 'great human
community'. The farmer being acquired by virtue of birth. the latter is exemplified as manifestations observing universal moral laws in
humanity's speech and reason. However, cosmopolitanism only became apparent during the advent of travel and communication
technology, which facilitated the growing interconnectedness among different citizens in the world whether in politics. socio-cultural and
economic circles, giving impetus to the concept 'global citizenship.'
Why is Global Citizenship education needed?
With the interconnected and interdependent nature of our world, the global is not 'out there'; it is part of our everyday lives, as we are
linked to others on every continent:
The opportunities our fast-changing globalized world offers young people are enormous. But so too are the challenges. Young people are
entitled to an education that equips them with the knowledge, skills and values they need in order to embrace the opportunities and
challenges they encounter, and to create the kind of world that they want to live in. An education that supports their development as
Global Citizens.
The active, participatory methods of Education for Global Citizenship and Sustainable Development help young people to learn how
decisions made by people in other parts of the world affect our lives, just as our decisions affect the lives of others. Education for Global
 Citizenship and Sustainable Development also promotes pupil participation in the learning process and in decision-making for the following
reasons:
 Everything done in school sends out messages, so we need to exemplify the values we wish to promote. Research shows that in more
democratic schools pupils feel more in control of their learning, and the quality of teaching, learning and behavior is better.
 The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child affirms the right of children to have their opinions taken into account on matters that affect
them.
Education for global citizenship is not an additional subject - it's a framework for learning, reaching beyond school to the wider community.
It can be promoted in class through the existing curriculum or through new initiatives and activities. The benefits are felt across the school
and beyond. Global citizenship helps young people to:
 Build their own understanding of world events.
 Think about their values and what's important to them.
 Take learning into the real world.
 Challenge ignorance and intolerance.
 Get involved in their local, national and global communities.
 Develop an argument and voice their opinions.
 See that they have power to act and influence the world around them.
What's more, global citizenship inspires and informs teachers and parents, too. But above all, it shows young people that they have a
voice. The world may be changing fast, but they can make a positive difference - and help build a fairer, safer and more secure world for
everyone.

What is Global Citizen? 

A global citizen is someone who is aware of and understands the wider world - and their place in it. They take an active role in their
community, and work with others to make our planet more equal, fair and sustainable.
 A Global Citizen is
someone who:
 is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen
 respects and values diversity
 has an understanding of how the world works
 is outraged by social injustice
 participates in the community at a range of levels, from the local to the global
 is willing to act to make the world a more equitable and sustainable place
 Takes responsibility for their actions.
  
Characteristics of Good Citizen
 HONESTYis the most important characteristic of good citizenship. Denbigh students are expected to be honest in their work, leisure, and
relationships with others.
 COMPASSIONis the emotion that you feel when you genuinely care for other people and living things. Our compassion enables us to think
about others and see the importance of their needs.
 RESPECTfor self and others is an important citizenship trait. Self-respect allows us to take pride in our behaviors and our work. Respect
for others ensures that every one of our students genuinely feels a part of Denbigh High School. Respecting others also means valuing
different ideas and points of view.
 RESPONSIBILITYis the skill of becoming accountable and responding wisely. Students take responsibility for their learning and social
wellbeing and recognize their duty to represent our school positively.
 COURAGEmeans doing the things that may be difficult or unpopular in order to help others. Students are expected to make wise and
ethical choices.
 
Global Civil Society
 The advent of technology and the rise of new centers of authority have paved the
creation of global civil society. Because of modern connectivity. citizens around the globe are already a tap and a click away from each
other notwithstanding their geographic distances. A civil society is an organization who accommodates voluntary member citizens
collectively bounded with the uniform interests and actions. Civil society employs all legitimate tools and tactics. which range from dialogue
and coalition-building on specific projects and policies. through non-violent confrontations and protests, when indispensable.
The Green and Gold Tourism
Poverty has been, strikingly, among the social issues around the globe. Locally, Mindanao houses the poorest provinces. However, despite
this social condition among Mindanawans, efforts have been made to address this situation. For example. the State Universities and
Colleges in Mindanao have forged agreement for citizen engagement with the World Bank in their participation in the so-called network of
Knowledge for Development Community (KDCs). Another way of promoting inclusive and sustainable growth is the advancement of eco-
adventure and cultural tourism dubbed as 'green and gold tourism".
 
** END OF WEEK 16 **