International Journal of Public Health Science (IJPHS)

Vol. 11, No. 3, September 2022, pp. 785~792

ISSN: 2252-8806, DOI: 10.11591/ijphs.v11i3.21971  785

Psychometric properties of the smartphone addiction proneness

scale in a sample of Malaysian adolescents

Sii Jiing Chan1, Kee Jiar Yeo1, Lina Handayani2

1
School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the 15-
item smartphone addiction proneness scale (SAPS) among a sample of
Received Apr 13, 2022 Malaysian adolescents. The gathered data were subjected to exploratory and
Revised May 22, 2022 confirmatory factor analysis. There were 922 secondary school students
Accepted Jun 20, 2022 involved in this study. The exploratory factor analysis extracted a three-
factor solution for SAPS. These factors were named disturbance of adaptive
functions, withdrawal and tolerance. Results from confirmatory factor
Keywords: analysis also indicated that the three-factor structure fits well with the data.
Adolescents The internal consistency of the scale was found to be good. The positive and
Problematic smartphone use moderately strong correlation between SAPS and three widely adopted
criterion variables (depression, loneliness and boredom proneness) supported
Psychometric properties the concurrent validity of SAPS. The results of this study showed that the
SAPS SAPS is a reliable and valid instrument for identifying problematic
Validation smartphone use among Malaysian adolescents.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Sii Jiing Chan
School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
The increasing use of smartphones has brought about significant changes in people's daily lives.
People's lives are improved in various ways because of the availability of smartphones. For instance, a
smartphone can increase productivity by allowing mobile access to various organizational tools, such as
reminders, calendars, email and informational web searches.
Since adolescents are the first generation to have grown up surrounded by multiple forms of high-
tech media, smartphone ownership has become practically common in their lives. Umpteen number of
researches carried out on adolescents worldwide have discovered that they view smartphones as an integral
part of survival [1] and consider a smartphone as their second self [2]. In Malaysia, according to the data
from the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission [3], the majority of children in Malaysia
have smartphones by the age of 12, with the youngest participants being five years old. National Health and
Morbidity Survey [4] also reported that 29% of the active internet users in the 13-17 age range were addicted
to the internet and smartphones were the most prevalent device (94%) used.
Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is a term that refers to the pathological use of mobile devices
that causes significant disruption in users' daily life [5]. Compared to adults, adolescents are prone to
developing problematic smartphone use due to the constant pressure to keep up and be accepted by their
peers [6]. Adolescents with poor self-control are also prone to use their smartphone excessively [7]. In
Malaysia, Abdullah [8] identified 51.9% of the secondary school students in her study were in the high

Journal homepage: http://ijphs.iaescore.com

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smartphone user group. Although there is no consensus on the methodology to study the construct of
problematic smartphone use [9], [10], problematic smartphone use has been categorized by some researchers
as a behavioral addiction that focuses on the human-smartphone interactions [5].
There have been reports of negative effects associated with problematic smartphone use in the
physiological, psychological, social and personal safety domains. Problematic smartphone use has been
shown in prior studies to have adverse effects on one's physical health such as musculoskeletal problems [11]
and eyesight loss, as well as mental health issues [12], poor academic performance [13], poor interpersonal
relations [14] and delinquency [15].
Aside from the fundamental symptoms, other psychological factors such as depression, loneliness
and boredom proneness are also associated with problematic smartphone use. According to Davis' cognitive-
behavioral model of problematic internet use, lonely people have distorted self-perceptions, become less
satisfied and have a strong aversion to the actual world [16]. Adolescents may use their smartphones to
connect to the virtual world, temporarily alleviating their loneliness. Various instant communication
applications available on smartphones also offer a less stressful environment for people who are anxious in
face-to-face social interactions to maintain social relationships [17]. However, individuals who rely heavily
on a smartphone for social connections may increase PSU risk [18], [19].
Smartphone users who are suffering from depressive symptoms may also use their devices as a coping
mechanism to ease their unpleasant symptoms [20]. Uncontrolled habitual technology use because of a
depressed mood can increase problematic use tendencies. Depressed individuals may utilize their smartphone to
cope and divert their focus away from their negative affects by engaging in numerous online entertainment
services. Nonetheless, using a smartphone to alleviate depressive symptoms without addressing the root cause
of depression might increase smartphone use and develop problematic smartphone use [20].
Media like Internet/web surfing and computer/video games have largely superseded other social
activities among young adolescents nowadays. Most adolescents' leisure time is occupied by these media use
[21]. Bored adolescents tend to seek external stimulation to alleviate boredom. Therefore, they may spend more
time and resources on the internet (or via smartphones), which may lead to problematic behaviors such as PSU
[22]-[24].
In light of the growing concern about adolescents' smartphone use, it is critical to develop an
instrument that can assess the conditions and levels of PSU to protect them from the adverse effects of PSU.
Although several measures have been developed to assess problematic smartphone use, none has emerged as the
“gold standard”. Smartphone addiction proneness scale (SAPS) created by Kim et al. [25] is one of the
instruments that measure problematic smartphone use among adolescents. The preliminary validation of the
SAPS yielded four factors that constitute the core elements of problematic smartphone usage. Disturbance of
adaptive functions (five items), virtual life orientation (two items), withdrawal (four items) and tolerance (four
items) are the four factors of SAPS. The SAPS has been validated in South Korea, demonstrating its high
psychometric properties [2], [25]. However, the SAPS has not been validated for use with adolescents sample in
Malaysia. Given that the SAPS was initially developed and validated in South Korea, it needs to be validated
among Malaysian adolescents before it can continue to be used in this population to measure their PSU.
To address this need, this study aimed to determine if the SAPS is a suitable tool for measuring
problematic smartphone use among adolescents in Malaysia. The structural validity and reliability of the three-
factor SAPS model structures were investigated in order to attain this goal. In addition, the concurrent validity
of the SAPS is examined in relation to three crucial psychological risk factors of PSU, namely depression,
loneliness and boredom proneness. In Malaysian context, the current study is the first attempt to bridge the
knowledge gap in this area by providing essential information. It should be noted that Malaysian adolescents
refer to adolescents as individuals between ages 10 and 19 [26]. They are specifically a validation sample of
interest, as the research on PSU among Malaysian adolescents is limited. Much of the research has focused on
young adults like university students [27]-[29]. In view of this, this study is sought to contribute to the
development of a more systematic validation of the multidimensional nature of the SAPS by focusing solely on
adolescents in Malaysia.

2. RESEARCH METHOD
Secondary schools students in Form 1, 2 and 4 were recruited for this study. Form 3 students were
excluded from this study as they were required to pass the Form 3 assessment. Initially, a total of 1,076 students
were recruited. However, 154 students were omitted from this study because they did not finish the survey. The
final sample comprised 922 students ranging in age from 13 to 17 years old (Mage=14.16, SD=1.26; 64%
female). The study population was literate and willing to complete the survey forms.
Multistage cluster sampling method was used to randomly select 8 schools among 41 secondary
schools in Johor Bahru, Malaysia. At first, the city was divided into 4 geographical sections based on the

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Department of Education in Johor Bahru. Then, by using a random number table, two schools were randomly
selected from each section. Hence, 8 schools were randomly selected from the 4 locations. Classes and students
were recruited by using the cluster sampling method. In the presence of the researcher, students completed the
paper-and-pencils surveys during their classes. Students' written informed consent was obtained prior to data
collection. Permission from the institution and Education Planning and Research Division (EPRD) from the
Ministry of Education Malaysia were also obtained to comply with ethical considerations in conducting this
study (KPM.600-3/2/3-eras (11130)).
The Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale (SAPS) developed by Kim et al. [25] was used to measure
the severity of PSU among secondary school students. It was developed based on past literature on mobile
phone addiction, digital media addiction and mobile phone addiction. The preliminary SAPS scale was
administered to 795 South Korean elementary, middle and high school students. Based on the results of the
reliability tests, the final 15 items were chosen. Using the translation and back-translation procedures, the
original version of SAPS was translated into the Malay language. In this study, the questionnaire was presented
in both English and Malay language, and it was modified to be a 1-10 rating scale.
The short-form UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8) [30] was selected to measure students' loneliness
because it is the most frequently employed measure of perceived loneliness. The original 4-point Likert scale of
ULS-8 was also modified to be a 10-point rating scale ranging from 1 (never) to 10 (always). Since The
Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 items (DASS-21) was the most widely used measure of depression, it
was adapted in this study to measure depressive symptoms among adolescents. The DASS-21 is a set of self-
report scales developed by Lovibond and Lovibond [31] for measuring the emotional states of depression,
anxiety and stress. Each item was scored on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 do not apply to me at all and 10 being the
most applicable (applied to me much, or most of the time). In this study, the Short Boredom Proneness Scale
(BPS-SR) [32] was employed to measure secondary school students' boredom proneness. This instrument is
designed to be a one-dimensional measurement. Respondents answered 8 items measuring their trait of
boredom. Each item was measured on a 10-point rating scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly
agree).
Several steps were involved in statistical analysis, including (1) exploratory factor analysis (EFA), (2)
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and (3) measurement of reliability and concurrent validity. These statistical
analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 27 while CFA was conducted using AMOS 26. First, the
dataset was randomly divided into two equally sized groups. SAMPLE command in SPSS 27.0 was used to
create two random subsamples of approximately 50% of the cases. The first half of the data (n=460) was
subjected to EFA. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) with oblique promax rotation was used for
components extraction. The number of factors to be extracted was determined by looking at a scree plot in
conjunction with the orthodox cut-off of eigenvalues >1. Items were assigned to the factor with the highest
factor loading.
The second half of the data (n=462) was used for CFA. Three absolute fit indices were used to evaluate
the model fit to the data in CFA, including the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), goodness-
of-fit index (GFI) and standardized root means square residual (SRMR). Besides, incremental fit indices such as
the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and confirmatory fit index (CFI) were also used to find the best factorial solution.
A good fit model was indicated by a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value between 0 and
.05, while an acceptable fit was indicated by a value between .05 and .08. For the standardized root means
square residual (SRMR), values between .05 and .10 are considered acceptable, and values between 0 and .05
are considered a good fit [33]. For the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and confirmatory
fit index (CFI), it was suggested that the values should be greater than .95 for a good fit and above .90 for
acceptable fit [34]. In addition, the chi-square statistic was reported. The psychometric properties of the SAPS
were then validated by testing and comparing the structural validity of the three-factor and four-factor models
using CFA.
Cronbach's alpha was then employed to determine the internal consistency of each factor. Correlation
analyses were performed between the SAPS score, the ULS-8, the DASS-21 and the BPS-SR to examine the
concurrent validity of the SAPS.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA)
The first sub-sample was subjected to the EFA to determine the dimensionality of the SAPS scale.
The suitability of the 15-item SAPS data for EFA was confirmed based on the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
value of 0.875 and the statistical significance of Bartlett's test of sphericity (ꭓ 2=4041.07, df=105, p<0.001).
The EFA of the 15-item revealed three significant factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, accounting for
66.176% of the total variance. Item 6 (Using a smartphone is more enjoyable than spending time with family
or friends) was deleted due to a low communality score (>0.2) [35].
Psychometric properties of the smartphone addiction proneness scale in … (Sii Jiing Chan)
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The remaining 14-item scale explained a total variance of 69.79%. The obtained three-factor
structure was reconfirmed using a scree plot, revealing a definite break after the third component.
Additionally, parallel analysis and the minimum average partial test were run and confirmed a three-factor
model. As shown in Table 1, the first factor (disturbance of adaptive functions) covered five items that
explained 43.21% of the variance and described the negative consequences of overusing smartphones such as
neglecting schoolwork and falling school grades or getting poor grades. The second factor (withdrawal)
consisted of five items, explaining 15.85% of the variance. This factor was related to negative emotions such
as anxiety that emerge when users cannot use their smartphone. The third factor (tolerance) included four
items and explained 10.74% of the variance. This factor encompassed items that referred to users facing
difficulty stopping using a smartphone and spending a long time on a smartphone to fulfill their satisfaction.

Table 1. Factor analysis of the smartphone addiction proneness scale

F1- F2- F3-
Communality Questions
Loading Loading Loading
0.734 My examination grades dropped due to excessive smartphone use. 0.876
0.707 I have a hard time doing what I have planned (study, do homework, or go to 0.863
afterschool classes) due to using smartphone.
0.615 People frequently comment on my excessive smartphone use. 0.750
0.643 Family or friends complain that I use my smartphone too much. 0.686
0.712 My smartphone does not distract me from my studies. 0.882
0.685 When I cannot use a smartphone, I feel like I have lost the entire world. 0.758
0.741 It would be painful if I am not allowed to use a smartphone. 0.815
0.797 I get restless and nervous when I am without a smartphone. 0.906
0.593 I am not anxious even when I am without a smartphone. 0.842
0.654 I feel panic when I cannot use my smartphone. 0.749
0.776 I tried to cut down my smartphone usage time, but I failed. 0.885
0.547 I can control my smartphone usage time. 0.718
0.793 Even when I think I should stop, I continue to use my smartphone too much. 0.884
0.775 Spending a lot of time on my smartphone has become a habit. 0.901
Eigenvalue 6.05 2.22 1.50
% of the variance explained 43.21 15.85 10.74
Cronbach’s alpha α=0.87 α=0.89 α=0.88

3.2. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed on the second sample of subjects (n=462) to
validate the factor structure identified by EFA. After the analysis, the error covariance between item 1 and
item 5 was added, as suggested by the modification indices. The errors of these two items were selected to
covariate because both are related to the negative consequences of smartphone overuse on academic grades
and learning. The data demonstrated that all fit indices met statistical requirements after accounting for error
covariance, showing that the three-factor structure for the 14-item SAPS had a good fit and was structurally
valid. The final factorial graphical solution of the 14-item SAPS is shown in Figure 1. The standardized
factor loadings ranged from 0.61 to 0.90.
Given the inconsistency of the factor structure results, the three-factor structure in the current study
(14 items without item 6) was compared with the results derived from the original study (four-factor structure
with 15 items) [25]. Table 2 shows the structure of the 14-item SAPS with three factors in this study fit the
data better than the original four-factor structure model.

3.3. Reliability
To determine the reliability of the SAPS scale, internal consistency tests were conducted on the
entire sample. The current data produced good values of Cronbach's alpha. The Cronbach's α for the total
SAPS scale was 0.904 and the internal consistency coefficients of the three factors were 0.874, 0.893 and
0.884 respectively. The results suggested that SAPS was a reliable instrument for measuring problematic
smartphone use among adolescents.

3.4. Concurrent validity

Correlational analysis between the three SAPS factor scores and its three primary psychological risk
factors was performed to identify the concurrent validity of the SAPS. The results showed that SAPS had a
significant positive and moderately strong correlation with depression, boredom proneness and loneliness
(r's ranged from 0.326 to 0.444). The results also demonstrated that all three SAPS subscales correlated with
these criterion variables (r's ranged from 0.222 to 418). These associations were all statistically significant
(p<0.01). As reported in Table 3, both sets of the results were consistent with the results based on existing
research, indicating that SAPS is concurrently valid.

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Figure 1. Path diagram for the CFA of the smartphone addiction proneness scale

Table 2. Comparison of fit indices between three-factor structure and four-factor structure SAPS
Model ꭓ2 df RMSEA CFI TLI GFI SRMR
3 Factors 238.35 73 0.07 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.04
4 Factors 507.28 84 0.11 0.90 0.88 0.87 0.06

Table 3. The means, standard deviations and correlations among the scales
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. SAPS-Disturbance of adaptive functions 4.86 1.93
2. SAPS-Withdrawal 4.23 1.99 .374**
3. SAPS-Tolerance 5.27 2.16 .511** .490**
4. SAPS sum score 4.68 1.57 .779** .795** .810**
5. DASS-21 4.13 2.19 .246** .359** .350** .415**
6. BPS-SR 4.53 2.12 .291** .337** .418** .444** .799**
7. ULS-8 4.50 1.85 .222** .251** .292** .326** .673** .659**

The smartphone addiction proneness scale (SAPS) was designed to identify problematic smartphone
usage behaviors in South Korean adolescents. Although it has been widely used in South Korea, the scale has
yet to be validated for use in Malaysian adolescents. Hence, the objective of this study was to investigate the
psychometric properties of the SAPS in a sample of Malaysian adolescents.
The findings of the current study are useful in determining the reliability and concurrent validity of
the SAPS in a Malaysian sample. The SAPS is reported to have good reliability and the findings were similar
to prior validation of this model [25]. SAPS also demonstrated a significant positive and moderately strong
correlation with the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), Short-form UCLA Loneliness Scale
(ULS-8) and the Short Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS-SR). Thus, these results support the concurrent
validity of the SAPS with three primary psychological risk factors of problematic smartphone use. Consistent
with the previous study, the SAPS score was found to have significant and positive associations with
depression, loneliness and boredom proneness [17], [20], [24].
The EFA of the SAPS identified a three-factor structure that explained 69.79% of the total variance.
According to the CFA of the SAPS, the three-factor model fits the data very well. Interestingly, the results of
the current study were inconsistent with the original Korean version of the SAPS scale [25]. Kim et al. [25]
identified four factors in the original validation study with South Korean adolescents. The original four-factor
Psychometric properties of the smartphone addiction proneness scale in … (Sii Jiing Chan)
790  ISSN: 2252-8806

SAPS model had a satisfactory model fit. However, based on the five indices of model fit, the three-factor
model is regarded as more appropriate for measuring problematic smartphone use among adolescents. The
disparity between the two factor models could be due to the differences in culture between Korean and
Malaysian samples, but it could be due to a lack of agreement on the signs and symptoms of problematic
smartphone use.
In EFA, item 6 (Using a smartphone is more enjoyable than spending time with family or friends)
was removed. The participants of this study were adolescents aged between 13 and 17. During adolescence,
friendships are extremely crucial. As children enter adolescence, the nature of their peer interactions changes
dramatically as they spend more time with their friends of the same age [36]. Adolescent friendship then
increasingly expands in terms of commitment, intimacy and acceptance of diversity among friends [37].
Therefore, adolescents enjoy and have a stronger desire to spend time around their teens rather than a
smartphone. This indicated that item 6 might not be adapted to adolescents. Moreover, item 6 had a low
communality score (>0.2) and factor loading. Hence, this item was removed for the conciseness of the model.
Based on the extracted factor, the first factor was named “disturbance of adaptive functions” which
indicates the negative consequences of overusing smartphones. It included three items characterizing that
students getting poor grades and neglecting their schoolwork due to smartphone overuse. Another two items
illustrate students' inabilities to avoid receiving complaints from friends and family about their excessive
smartphone use. Similar to, and in relation to this result, Mahapatra [38] found that family, personal conflicts
and poor academic performance are the significant negative consequence of excessive smartphone use.
The second factor “withdrawal” describes the negative emotions such as anxiety, nervousness and
panic that emerge when users cannot use their smartphone. This result appeared to be consistent with other
prior studies, which provided a relationship between smartphone dependency and increased anxiety [39]. The
third factor was named “tolerance”. It comprised four items indicating students' inability to stop using a
smartphone and reduce their smartphone usage. Adolescents are vulnerable to problematic smartphone use
because they are yet to develop self-control in smartphone use [40]. The practicality of the SAPS for
adolescents could lead to a better understanding of the psychological mechanisms that underpin problematic
smartphone use. Besides, SAPS was found to be a valid and reliable self-reporting questionnaire for
identifying problematic smartphone use among Malaysian adolescents in this study.
This study has several limitations. First, there is currently no standard diagnostic tool or instrument
to identify when smartphone use becomes a problematic or clinical issue. Although the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) [41] classified gambling disorder and Internet
gaming disorder as addictive disorders, additional behavioral addictions such as problematic smartphone use
have no accepted diagnostic criteria. Therefore, the proposed diagnostic criteria for problematic smartphone
use should be taken with caution.
Second, the current study focused solely on adolescents. Therefore, generalizing the results to other
samples may not be warranted. Future research should be conducted on more representative samples to justify
the current findings. Another limitation of this study was the samples were recruited from eight secondary
schools located in an urban region of Johor Bahru state. The psychometric properties of the SAPS can be
studied among active smartphone users using this urban adolescent sample. This sampling technique and the
current findings, however, may not be generalized to Malaysian adolescents living in less developed or rural
areas. Thus, it is suggested that future researchers should investigate the psychometric properties of the SAPS in
samples from less developed areas to see if it is valid among adolescents in these understudied areas.

4. CONCLUSION
Despite the well-documented negative consequences of problematic smartphone use, the absence of
standardized measures may limit the scope of relevant investigations. The current study adds to the body of
knowledge by assessing the SAPS's validity and reliability among adolescents in Malaysia. The findings
revealed that SAPS has good psychometric properties and is useful to measure problematic smartphone use
among adolescents in Malaysia. This study is significant because it contributes to cross-cultural research on the
SAPS scale while also providing a validated instrument for assessing problematic smartphone use in Malaysia.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Sii Jiing Chan is currently a PhD student in Educational Psychology, School of

Education, Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. She
completed Degree in Primary Science Education from Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Batu
Lintang, Kuching, Malaysia in 2013; Master Degree of Educational Psychology from her
current university in 2018. She can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Kee Jiar Yeo is a professor attached to the School of Education, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia. With her vast experience and involvement in the field of
education, her expertise and interest cover a wide scope which includes educational
psychology, early childhood education, and special education and Malay language. Among her
notable involvement includes a few national level projects for research and consultation, as A
Malay Language teacher under Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (Malay for The Institute of
Language and Literature), publications in indexed journals as well as books, book chapters,
and monographs. She has been a speaker and facilitator in many workshops and conferences
centred on her field of specialisation and interest. She can be contacted at email:
[email protected].

Lina Handayani is a senior lecturer in the field of health education and

promotion at the Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
She has more than 18 years of teaching experience in the university. Her field of
specialization, research areas, publication and presentation cover a wide range of health
education and promotion related aspects. Among these are breastfeeding promotion and
education; health behavior; technology and behavior; and parenting. She can be contacted at
email: [email protected].

Int J Public Health Sci, Vol. 11, No. 3, September 2022: 785-792