Plant and Human Health, Volume 1 - Ethnobotany and Physiology (PDFDrive)

Munir
Ozturk · Khalid Rehman Hakeem
Editors
Plant and
Human Health,
Volume 1
Ethnobotany and Physiology
Plant and Human Health, Volume 1
Munir Ozturk • Khalid Rehman Hakeem
Editors
Plant and Human Health,

Volume 1
Ethnobotany and Physiology
Editors
Munir Ozturk Khalid Rehman Hakeem
Vice President of the Islamic World Department of Biological Sciences
Academy of Sciences Faculty of Science
Amann, Jordan King Abdulaziz University
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Department of Botany and Centre for
Environmental Studies
Ege University
Izmir, Izmir, Turkey
ISBN 978-3-319-93996-4 ISBN 978-3-319-93997-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018954546
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This volume is dedicated to
Abu Rayḥan Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Biruni
He was born in Hive-Turkmenistan in the

year 973 and died on December 13, 1051, in
Ghazni in Afghanistan. Al-Biruni was one of
the famous scholars, who contributed much
to the world of science. A book on the
Medicinal Curricula “Kitab al-saydala fi
al-Tıb” published by him covered details on
200 herbal drugs. Pic source: Google.com
Foreword
Her Excellency
If biodiversity underpins life on earth, then medicinal plants and traditional knowl-
edge have underpinned the development of modern medicine. At the dawn of a new
millennium, one of the most pressing challenges of our time is the continuing, and
at times irreversible, loss of biodiversity and its associated precious knowledge on
our planet.
Global efforts to reduce biodiversity loss had begun with the establishment of
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit
and today the CBD has 193 parties (or governments) as members. This seminal
moment has represented a dramatic step forward in the conservation of biological
diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing
of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. Subsequent to this major
effort, the Nagoya Convention further enshrines the need to relook at Access and
Benefit Sharing.
To keep reminding the world of the urgency of preserving our biodiversity,
United Nations has decreed the period 2011–2020 as the Decade on Biodiversity.
However, nowhere is the need for conservation and sustainable utilization of biodi-
versity greater than in sub-Saharan Africa, whose biodiversity wealth is uniquely
important from a global conservation viewpoint.
vii
viii Foreword
The African continent is home to around 60,000 plant species, of which at least
35,000 are found nowhere else. Africa’s biodiversity wealth is unfortunately not
uniformly distributed. Countries including Madagascar and South Africa have been
classified as “megadiverse” countries and the world’s 17 most biologically diverse
countries that together account for nearly 70% of global species diversity.
Despite its enormous natural wealth, sub-Saharan Africa faces daunting conser-
vation challenges. Its flora and fauna are under threats and climate change is not
helping. Biodiversity loss, in Africa and in other parts of the world, has a significant
impact on economic growth and social development. For the rural citizens, it has the
effect of removing key sources of food, fuel, and medicines, as well as adversely
affecting tourism and pharmaceuticals—from a reduction in the availability of
medicinal plants. New knowledge, about conservation and whole plant utilization,
is needed, not just to strengthen the conservation effort but to harness this unique
patrimony of natural resources to foster economic development, reduce poverty, and
protect the environment.
Seen in this context, this volume, Plant and Human Health, Volume 1:
Ethnobotany and Physiology edited by Munir Ozturk and Khalid Rehman Hakeem,
adds new contribution for celebrating traditional knowledge and how the latter has
underpinned our well-being providing us with food and medicine. It will help
advance our understanding of the increasingly crucial role that plants play in the
economic, cultural, medical, and social spheres of our lives. This volume brings on
board contributions from several continents, and it is a welcome addition in terms
of safeguarding this previous knowledge for humanity as a whole.
The volume also highlights the contributions from a diverse range of scholars
who offer fresh, new insights on novel sources of materials and leads including
bryophytes and lichens as well as a wide range of important, related topics, includ-
ing new ethnobotanical explorations that would add to the lore of knowledge for
humanity now and into an uncertain future.
Sustainable utilization and management of plant genetic resources is a topic of
contemporary significance. By marshaling the latest evidence and cutting-edge as
well as age-old knowledge, this volume should find broad appeal among academics,
scientists, farmers, policy-makers, and all those who are committed to reducing
biodiversity loss on our planet and promoting new leads for the development of new
drugs and other products that will sustain our well-being.
Quatre Bornes, Mauritius Ameenah Gurib-Fakim

Preface
The association of living beings on our planet originated with the beginning of life.
The use of herbal products for their healing powers can be traced to earliest of
myths, traditions, and writings. The plant-based medicine systems evolved primar-
ily within local areas and produced the well-known traditional herbal treatment sys-
tems. The history of herbal use now dates back to 60,000 years, because 8 species
of flowering plants have been found at the old burial site in a cave in northern Iraq—
Shanidar. It is followed by the history of the use of cannabis going back to 12,000
years and olive native to Asia Minor, first domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean
between 8000 and 6000 years ago. It spread from Iran, Syria, and Palestine to the
rest of the Mediterranean basin. One of the important herbs used since early times
for medicinal purposes is garlic, which has been used for over 7000 years and was
found in Egyptian pyramids as well as ancient Greek temples. We come across nota-
tions on garlic in medical texts from Greece, Egypt, Rome, China, and India.
The written evidence of herbal use for the treatment of diseases dates back to
over 5000 years, to the Sumerians, who created lists of plants. Very sophisticated
ships loaded with earthenware amphorae were built solely for the olive oil trade. In
fact, olive oil trade may have been the source of wealth for this advanced Minoan
civilization. The earliest reference to opium growth and use is in 3400 BC when the
opium poppy was cultivated in lower Mesopotamia (Southwest Asia). The Sumerians
referred to it as Hul Gil, the “joy plant.” The Chinese book on roots and grasses “Pen
T’Sao,” written by the Emperor Shen Nung circa 2500 BC, treats 365 drugs (dried
parts of medicinal plants), many of which are used even today. The Ebers Papyrus,
written circa 1550 BC, represents a collection of 800 proscriptions referring to 700
plant species and drugs used for therapy such as pomegranate etc. Pharaonic Egypt
used cumin as a medicine around 1550 BC. Saffron was used as medicine on the
Aegean island of Thera.
In Homer’s epics the Iliad and the Odyssey, created circa 800 BC, 63 plant spe-
cies from the Minoan, Mycenaean, and Egyptian Assyrian pharmacotherapy were
referred to. Some of them were given the names after mythological characters from
these epics; for instance, Elecampane (Inula helenium L. Asteraceae) was named in
honor of Elena, who was the center of the Trojan War. As regards the plants from the
ix
x Preface
genus Artemisia, which were believed to restore strength and protect health, their
name was derived from the Greek word artemis, meaning “healthy.” As a digestive
aid, Confucius wrote as far back as 500 BC of never being without ginger when he
ate. It was around 500 BC that turmeric emerged as an important part of Ayurvedic
medicine.
The works of Hippocrates (460–370 BC) contain 300 medicinal plants classified
by physiological action. Wormwood and common centaury were applied against
fever; garlic against intestine parasites; opium, henbane, deadly nightshade, and
mandrake were used as narcotics; fragrant hellebore and haselwort as emetics; sea
onion, celery, parsley, asparagus, and garlic as diuretics; and oak and pomegranate
as astringents. Theophrast (371–287 BC) founded botanical science with his books
De Causis Plantarium. In the books, he generated a classification of more than 500
medicinal plants known at the time. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) wrote about approx-
imately 1000 medicinal plants in his book Historia naturalis. Pliny’s works incor-
porated all knowledge of medicinal plants at the time.
In 65 AD, Dioscorides wrote his Materia Medica, a practical text dealing with
the medicinal use of more than 600 plants. Charles the Great (742–814 AD), the
founder of the reputed medical school in Salerno, in his “Capitularies” ordered
which medicinal plants were to be grown on the state-owned lands. Around 100 dif-
ferent plants were quoted, which have been used to date such as sage, sea onion, iris,
mint, common centaury, poppy, and marshmallow. Al-Kindi (800–870) contributed
to the history of medicine. This scholar was heavily influenced by the work of Galen
and also made unique contributions of his own to the field. In his Aqrabadhin
(Medical Formulary), he described many preparations drawn from plant, animal,
and mineral sources. “Not only is every sensation attended by a corresponding
change localized in the sense-organ, which demands a certain time, but also,
between the stimulation of the organ and consciousness of the perception an interval
of time must elapse, corresponding to the transmission of stimulus for some dis-
tance along the nerves.”
Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna (980–1037 AD), combined the herbal tradi-
tions of Dioscorides and Galen with the ancient practices of his own people. His
book spread through Europe during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Canon
Medicinae and Liber Magnae Collectionis Simplicum Alimentorum Et
Medicamentorum by Ibn Baitar (1197–1248) included descriptions on 1000
medicinal plants. Vasco da Gama’s journeys to India (1498) resulted in many
medicinal plants being brought into Europe. Botanical gardens emerged all over
Europe, and attempts were made for cultivation of domestic medicinal plants and
of the ones imported from the old and the new world. Paracelsus (1493–1541)
was one of the proponents of chemically prepared drugs out of raw plants and
mineral substances.
The great pharmacologist of the Ming dynasty, Li Shizhen (b1518–d1593 AD),
spent 30 years consulting some 800 texts and personally harvesting herbs for use in
treatment to write the great classic, Materia Medica, containing 52 articles.
Withering gives clinical details of how to prescribe extract of foxglove, or digitalis,
in the treatment of dropsy and hints that it may be of use for heart disease.
Preface xi
In 1858, Louis Pasteur wrote that garlic killed bacteria. As he maintained, it was
effective even against some bacteria resistant to other factors. He also noted that
garlic killed Helicobacter pylori. Cocaine was first isolated (extracted from coca
leaves) in 1859 by the German chemist Albert Nieman. In 1886, the popularity of
the drug got a further boost when John Pemberton included coca leaves as an ingre-
dient in his new soft drink, Coca-Cola. From 1966 to 1976, traditional doctors were
purged from the schools, hospitals, and clinics, and many of the old practitioners
were jailed or killed.
According to WHO, nearly 80% of the population rely on plants for their
primary health care globally. Approximately 30,000–70,000 plant taxa are used as
medicaments. This means that nearly 14–28% of the 250,000 identified plant taxa
in the world and 35–70% of all species are used on our earth; more than 50 major
drugs have originated from tropical plants.
The great surge of public interest in the use of plants for medical purposes has
been based on the assumption that these resources will be available on a continu-
ing basis. Among the medicinal plants there are many pharmacopoeial ones. From
about 250,000 species of higher plants around the world, only 17% have been schol-
arly investigated for medical potential. The chemical and biological diversity of
plants represents a potentially limitless renewable source for the use in the develop-
ment of new pharmaceuticals. Traditional Chinese medicine used 5000 of them,
whereas the Native Americans have used only 2564 herbs as medicine. The botani-
cal wisdom accumulated by indigenous people has led to the establishment of the
traditional systems of medicine. The pharmacologist Farnsworth Norman says that
89 plant-derived drugs currently prescribed in the industrial world have been found
with the help of ethnobotanical approach.
Definite signs of plant cultivation first appeared in early Neolithic villages in the
Near East around 7500–7000 BC. The initiation of food production in what could
be called the “nuclear area” was based on the domestication of about 8 species of
local grain plants. Olives were probably first brought into cultivation in the Levant.
Many condiment and dye plants have been cultivated here for thousands of years,
including coriander, cumin, saffron, and safflower. The core of first domestication
of the above-mentioned plants and several others is mainly represented by what is
called the “Fertile Crescent,” considered to be the cradle of civilization and covering
the valleys of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, the southern slopes of the Taurus
Mountains, and the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Herodotus described
the amazing fertility of the irrigated plains around this area.
The knowledge of medicinal plants spread widely in this region; even its conser-
vation was achieved by the scholars from different faiths. Numerous treatises, in
various languages, were written on the use of medicinal plants. The monumental
and celebrated Materia Medica about herbal medicine and related medicinal sub-
stances was widely read for more than 1500 years. It was written in 78 AD by
Pedanius Dioscorides, a physician, pharmacologist, and a botanist, who was born in
Anazarba, today’s Tarsus in Turkey. Many plants out of the 950 drugs given by him
grow wild in the area. The origin, morphological and pharmaceutical features of
these plants were given, in addition to the illustrations. Many herbalists wrote
xii Preface
numerous treatises. Abul-Abbas Ahmed, lbn ara Rumiya (d. 1239 AD) journeyed in
North Africa, Syria, and Mesopotamia and described many plants in his book
The Botanical Journey. One of the most original botanists of the thirteenth century
was Rashid ad-Din ibn as-Suri, who lived in Syria between 1177 and 1243 AD, trav-
eled in the Near East accompanied by a painter, described many unknown plants,
and had them painted as fresh plants and drugs. Ibn al Baitar (1248 AD; Damascus)
wrote a monumental book Al Garni (Collection on Remedies), which is a very valu-
able book about medicinal plants. One of the most well-known treatises on medici-
nal plants is Dhakhirat Uli al-Albab (Memorandum of Intelligent People) written
by Dawud Al-Antaki who was born in Antakya. It contains an alphabetical anno-
tated list of herbal drugs and medical terms. In Iraq, many herbalists wrote about the
medicinal plants and their uses and many treatises appeared.
The effectiveness of foxglove from traditional herbal medicine in the eighteenth
century has been helpful in the treatment of dropsy. More than 30 cardiac glyco-
sides have been isolated from dried foxglove leaves including digitoxin and digoxin.
All these are useful because they increase the force of heart contractions. Nearly
1500 kg of digoxin and 200 kg of digitoxin are prescribed to heart patients globally.
The snakeroot plant was traditionally used for the treatment of insomnia in India.
In 1949, German chemists extracted alkaloid reserpine from its roots, which is used
today for the treatment of high blood pressure. Similarly artemisinin is the biologi-
cally active compound used today to fight malaria. It is a sesquiterpene lactone from
wormwood and was first isolated in 1972 by Chinese chemists. Quinine is another
example coming from Chinchona species used to treat malaria. Madagascar peri-
winkle is used today in the chemotherapy of childhood leukemia and for the treat-
ment of Hodgkin’s disease. The compound taxol with anticancer action comes from
the bark of Pacific yew tree. The extract from opium poppy has been used since the
time of Pharoes as pain killer. It contains morphine, codeine, and heroin alkaloids.
The anesthetic drug cocaine too has been widely used as a local pain killer.
Understanding the relationship among medicinal plants used in traditional medicine
systems can help identify plant materials with potential constituents applicable to
modern medicine. Licorice has been used for the treatment of bronchial asthma in
traditional medicine. Illiterate traditional healers living in the forests around the
globe have used the herbs correctly for medicinal purposes. They learnt all about
these through trial and error; there was some spiritual learning by ritual use of
medicinal plants in religious ceremonies, like “invoking hidden power of the plants”
and meditation; they followed by observing how apes and other animals use the
plants; and finally they strived hard to preserve the oral tradition by passing their
knowledge from generation to generation.
Investigation of plants used in traditional medicine to determine biological
activities is a complicated process. It requires obtaining reliable ethnobotanical data
on use in the traditional system, collecting specimens from the correct genera and
species, investigating the activity of crude extracts and active principles, and analyzing
the chemical structure, synthesis, and structural modification.
Nearly seven billion people and the plants live together on this planet. We need
not forget that plants lived there for millions of years before us. A major difference
Preface xiii
is that plants can live without people, but people cannot live without plants. For a
successful research on potential new sources of medicines from plants, each medicinal
plant has hundreds of biologically active chemical compounds that work synergisti-
cally together as a result of natural selection. Each herb affects humans directly and
indirectly. The former is based on the pharmacological action of its biologically
active compounds, whereas the latter is related to interaction with other plants or
drugs taken. Search for medicinal plants to cure epidemic diseases should include
the plants from the geographical place, where these diseases originated and spread
around. If a plant from a genus has significant medical value, it is not necessary that
other plants from the same genus may have the same medical value—only difference
is potency; other plants from the genus may have more or less potency. The geo-
graphical position, habitat, and correct identification of medicinal plants are very
important. An identification of chemical compounds and genetic markers alone is not
enough; we have to learn about their chemotaxonomy, molecular biology comple-
mented by classical botanical methods. If a particular ethnic group has used plants
for several generations continuously from one traditional herbal medicine system,
those plants remain the first choice for treatment.
As many people globally depend on medicinal plants for health, their sustain-
ability and conservation must be our first priority. We should do everything possible
to preserve the plants for our future generations.
Izmir, Turkey; Amann, Jordan Munir Ozturk

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Khalid Rehman Hakeem
Acknowledgments
We owe a deepest sense of gratitude to our contributors who waited patiently for our
long-lasting submission procedure. Our special thanks are due to our families for
extending their helping hand to us at every and each step. We would like to convey
our most sincere thanks to the staff of Springer Nature, in particular Rahul Sharma,
Project Coordinator (Books), and Ms. Mohanarangan Gomathi, Project Manager
(Content Solutions) at SPi Global-India, for their whole hearted collaboration.
xv
Contents
olecular Biodiversity Convergence with Biogeography

M
and Ethnobotany of Rare and Endangered Medicinal Plants
from Northern Vietnam�� 1
H. V. Huy, H. V. Hung, R. T. Buckney, and L. F. De Filippis
ealth and Illness as a State of Being Human�� 53
H
Nevin Turgay, Özlem Yılmaz, and Fehmi Akçiçek
thnobotanical Explorations in Telangana, the Youngest State
E
in Union of India: A Synoptic Account�� 65
Sateesh Suthari, S. Raju Vatsavaya, and Narasimha Vara Prasad Majeti
thnobotany and Pharmacological Uses of Elaeocarpus floribundus
E
Blume (Elaeocarpaceae)�� 125
Mohamad Fawzi Mahomoodally and Veedooshee Sookhy
edicinal Plants Against Cancer �� 139
M
Sameen Ruqia Imadi, Isra Mahmood, and Alvina Gul
Herbals in Iğdır (Turkey), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan),
and Tabriz (Iran)�� 197
Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Ernaz Altundağ, S. Jamshid Ibadullayeva,
Behnaz Aslanipour, and Tuba Mert Gönenç
he Utilization and Conservation of Plants of Medicinal Value
T
by Local Traditional Medicinal Practitioners and the Associated
Indigenous Knowledge in Dawuro Zone of Ethiopia: Northeast
Africa—An Ethnobotanical Approach�� 267
Moin Ahmad Khan, Mathewos Agize, Abraham Shonga, and Asfaw Tora
edicinal Bryophytes Distributed in Turkey�� 323
M
Munir Ozturk, İsa Gökler, and Volkan Altay
xvii
xviii Contents
Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Pteridophytes in Turkey,

A
Pakistan, and Malaysia�� 349
Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Abdul Latıff, Tabinda Salman,
and Iqbal Choudhry
Medicinal Shrubs and Trees from the Nara Desert, Pakistan �� 391
Rahmatullah Qureshi
Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Plants Used for Diabetes
A
Mellitus in the Traditional Medicine in Turkey, Pakistan,
and Malaysia�� 409
Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Abdul Latiff, M. Asad Ziaee,
M. Iqbal Choudhry, Farzana Shaheen, and Cenk Durmuşkahya
ntidiabetic Plants of Pakistan�� 463
A
Mubashrah Munir and Rahmatullah Qureshi
thno-ecology, Human Health and Plants of the Thandiani
E
Sub Forest Division, Abbottabad, KP, Pakistan�� 547
Waqas Khan, Shujaul Mulk Khan, and Habib Ahmad
thnobotanical Uses of Some Plants of Families Apocynaceae
E
and Asclepiadaceae from the Northwestern Region of Ahmednagar
District, Maharashtra�� 569
Mohan B. Waman and Mahendra S. Khyade
lants, Food, and Health: Some Untold Truths�� 583
P
Ægir B. Kristiansson
otential Medicinal Plants Used in the Hypertension in Turkey,
P
Pakistan, and Malaysia�� 595
Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Abdul Latiff, Samreen Shareef,
Farzana Shaheen, and M. Iqbal Choudhry
pimedium elatum (Morr & Decne): A Therapeutic Medicinal Plant
E
from Northwestern Himalayas of India �� 619
Sajad Ahmad Lone, Ajai Prakash Gupta, Malik Muzafar Manzoor,
Pooja Goyal, Qazi Pervaiz Hassan, and Suphla Gupta
Indian Herbal Drug Industry: Challenges and Future Prospects�� 657
Musadiq H. Bhat, Ashok K. Jain, and Mufida Fayaz
thno-ecology of the Healing Forests of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad,
E
Pakistan: An Economic and Medicinal Appraisal�� 675
Farhana Ijaz, Inayat Ur Rahman, Zafar Iqbal, Jane Alam, Niaz Ali,
and Shujaul Mulk Khan
xploring the Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species
E
in the Chichawatni Irrigated Plantation Pakistan�� 707
Muhammad Arif, Waseem Razzaq Khan, Muhammad Khurram Shahzad,
Amna Hussain, and Cao Yukun
Contents xix
herapeutic Characteristics of Murree Plants: An Emerging Feature�� 719

T
Waseem Razzaq Khan, Muhammad Arif, Sadaf Shakoor, M. Nazre,
and M. Muslim
lant Resources and Human Ecology of Tarnawai area,
P
District Abbottabad, Pakistan�� 731
Raheela Taj, Inayat Ur Rahman, Abbas Hussain Shah, Shujaul Mulk
Khan, Aftab Afzal, Niaz Ali, Zafar Iqbal, and Farhana Ijaz
Licorice in Middle Asia�� 757
F. O. Khassanov
thnobotany of Medicinal Plants for Livelihood and Community
E
Health in Deserts of Sindh-Pakistan�� 767
Ghulam Yaseen, Mushtaq Ahmad, Daniel Potter, Muhammad Zafar,
Shazia Sultana, and Sehrosh Mir
Index�� 793
About the Editors
Munir Ozturk (Ph.D.) has served at the Ege

University Izmir, Turkey, for 50 years in different
positions. He has been elected as the Vice President of
the Islamic World Academy of Sciences; has received
fellowships from Alexander von Humboldt
Foundation, Japanese Society for the Promotion of
Science, and National Science Foundation of the
USA. Dr. Ozturk has served as Chairman of Botany
Department and Founding Director of the Centre for
Environmental Studies, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey;
as Consultant Fellow, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Malaysia; and as Distinguished
Visiting Scientist, ICCBS, Karachi University,
Pakistan. His fields of scientific interest are plant eco-
physiology; conservation of plant diversity; biosaline
agriculture and crops; pollution; biomonitoring; and
medicinal and aromatic plants. He has published 40
books, 50 book chapters, and 175 papers in journals
with significant impact factor.
xxi
xxii About the Editors
Khalid Rehman Hakeem (Ph.D.) is Associate

Professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia. He has completed his Ph.D. (Botany)
from Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India, in 2011. Dr.
Hakeem has worked as Postdoctoral Fellow in 2012
and Fellow Researcher (Associate Prof.) from 2013
to 2016 at Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor,
Malaysia. His speciality is plant eco-physiology, bio-
technology and molecular biology, plant-microbe-
soil interactions, and environmental sciences and so
far he has edited and authored more than 25 books
with Springer International, Academic Press
(Elsevier), etc. He has also to his credit more than 110
research publications in peer-reviewed international
journals, including 40 book chapters in edited vol-
umes with international publishers.
Molecular Biodiversity Convergence
with Biogeography and Ethnobotany
of Rare and Endangered Medicinal Plants
from Northern Vietnam
H. V. Huy, H. V. Hung, R. T. Buckney, and L. F. De Filippis
Introduction
Biogeography, Ethnobotany and Phylogeny
Plants fulfil the basic needs of humans with materials for existence, which can be
medicinal, economic, food and fodder values. From any region plants can be lost,
and the knowledge enclosed within them is also destroyed; sometimes it can disap-
pear forever. In more recent times, plant conservation can be an emotive and a ‘hot’
issue; however, it is known that primarily due to overharvesting medicinal and some
important food, plant populations have become severely reduced. Overexploitation
of plant resources combined with improper harvesting and postharvesting tech-
niques and lack of oversight and protection are increasing pressure on plant biodi-
versity (Ellegren 2008; Garnatje et al. 2017).
‘Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food’; a statement attributed to
Hippocrates (460–about 370 BC), which reflects the approach of the Greek physi-
cian to medicine and food, emphasizing for the first time the importance of diet and
living habits in preventing illness and disease. In the past, a large group of plant
species were used for the preparation of medicines and were also consumed as
foods. This concept was well-established among people who traditionally gathered
wild food plants, and the people were also aware of their health-beneficial proper-
ties. Nowadays, wild food plants are generally known to have high nutritional val-
ues, higher fibre and polyphenol contents and greater antioxidant capacity than the
corresponding cultivated species. Moreover, many wild green plants have been
demonstrated to be effective in preventing chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular
diseases and diabetes. Much of this knowledge has been orally passed from
H. V. Huy · H. V. Hung · R. T. Buckney · L. F. De Filippis (*)

Faculty of Science, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney (UTS),
Broadway/Sydney, NSW, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

M. Ozturk, K. R. Hakeem (eds.), Plant and Human Health, Volume 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_1
2 H. V. Huy et al.
g eneration to generation which has led to the development of the traditional

health-care system, practised in various countries of the world (Savo et al. 2015;
Qureshi et al. 2016).
There are over 300,000 species of seed plants around the globe, of which about
60% of plants have found medicinal and food use in post-Neolithic human history.
Nowadays, people collect plants for medicine and food not only from the wild but
also through artificial cultivation, which are an indispensable part of human civiliza-
tion. Medicinal plants are also essential raw materials of many chemical drugs, e.g.
the blockbuster drugs for antimalaria and anticancer therapy, and, currently, more
than one-third of clinical drugs are derived from botanical extracts and/or their
ingredients (Henry 2012; Shaheen et al. 2017). Different vegetation associations
classified through biogeography and ethnobotany of local ecological knowledge are
called ecotopes (Table 1). The term may also be used to describe how people view,
use and occupy their land. Forests around the world in a large part have been trans-
formed into ‘cultural ecotypes’, since many forests are influenced by natural distur-
bances, as well as by human disturbances. The vegetation patterns, which result
from disturbances, reflect complex interactions between biotic and abiotic charac-
teristics (Kellogg et al. 2016), as well as cultural characteristics (Chivenge et al.
2015; Hao and Xiao 2015).
One selection criterion for plant characteristics used by biogeographers and eth-
nobotanists is based on phylogeny (Table 1). A non-random distribution of used
medicinal plant species across families has been observed in several parts of the
world (e.g. Medeiros et al. 2013). Plants within the same family, with close evolu-
tion ties, are more likely share similar secondary compounds which may have simi-
lar or equal medicinal properties (e.g. Yessoufou et al. 2015), and this has been
intuitively discovered by many traditional communities. Furthermore, plants that
are evolutionarily closely related have generally more total uses than those that are
evolutionarily isolated. Promising predictions of medicinal plant uses have been
developed based on the conjunction of ethnobotanical, phytochemical and molecu-
lar phylogenetic data (Massana 2015). The use of the same (or closely related) spe-
cies in the same way in different cultures indicates that different and often
noninteracting human groups have independently acquired this knowledge. This
results from the fact that some plants have similar morphological characteristics
because they have a close phylogenetic placement (Leonti 2011).
Convergence of Ethnobotany and Molecular Biology
Ethnobotanical studies discover plant resources that can be used for targeting novel
compounds leading to the development of new medicaments for treating compli-
cated and minor diseases. Today, ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology (Table 1) are
being used for targeting new compounds. Tropical regions are rich in plant diversity
and may play key roles in providing germplasm with new bioactive compounds
(Hedrick 2004; Garrick et al. 2015). Plants and humans are engaged in a dynamic
Molecular Biodiversity Convergence with Biogeography and Ethnobotany of Rare… 3
Table 1 Definitions, terms and features commonly used in this review related to biogeography,
ethnobotany, phylogeny, population statistics and population genetics
Term or feature Definition
ANCOVA Analysis of covariance
ANOSIM Analysis of similarity
ANOVA Analysis of variance
Biodiversity The number, variety and genetic variation of different organisms found within
a specified geographic region. A term that describes the number of different
species that live within a particular ecosystem
Biogeography The study of the geographical distribution of living things. A biogeographic
region is a large, generally continuous division of the Earth’s surface having a
distinctive biotic community
Bioprospecting The search for plant species from which medicinal drugs and other
commercially valuable biocompounds can be obtained. The process of
discovery and commercialization of new products based on biological
resources, only recently begun to incorporate indigenous knowledge
Cluster analysis Clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in
the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense) to each
other than to those in other groups (clusters) used in many fields
Ecotypes A group of organisms within a species that is adapted to particular
environmental conditions and therefore exhibits behavioural, structural or
physiological differences from other members of the species
Genomics An interdisciplinary field of science focusing on the structure, function,
evolution, mapping and editing of genomes or an organism’s complete set of
DNA, including all of its genes, DNA sequencing and analysis
MDS Multidimensional scaling
PCA Principle component analysis
Pharmacology The branch of biology concerned with the study of drug action, where a drug
can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural or endogenous (from within
body) molecule which exerts a biochemical or physiological effect on the cell,
tissue, organ or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions
that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or
abnormal biochemical function
Phylogeny The sequence of events involved in the evolution of a species and genus. The
evolutionary development and history of a species or higher taxonomic
grouping of organisms, through evaluation of heritable traits, such as DNA
sequences or morphology under a model of evolution of these traits
Phytochemical The study of chemicals derived from plants and strives to describe the
structures of the large number of secondary metabolic compounds found in
plants, the functions of these compounds in human biology, their biosynthesis
and in many cases the health benefits of these compounds
Pleiotropy When one gene influences two or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits
and the single gene is capable of controlling or influencing multiple (and
possibly unrelated) phenotypic traits
Population A subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between
genetics populations, due to adaptation, speciation, inheritance and population
structure; a part of evolutionary biology usually using statistical analysis
Definitions extracted and modified from the authors
4 H. V. Huy et al.
relationship, where plants evolve creating biodiversity and humans develop strategies
and solutions to use them. In this relationship, plants evolve secondary metabolites
to protect themselves from being used excessively, and people find ways to use
these metabolites to their advantage.
Thus, we propose to use the term ‘convergence’, to label similar uses for plants
included in any node of a phylogeny relationship. Determining the phylogenetic and
genetic relationships among plant species could be an appropriate tool for discover-
ing new drugs based on recorded plant medicinal uses and analysis of ethnobotani-
cal data. New perspectives have emerged with the development of new molecular
tools, especially for DNA sequencing; and these enable phylogenetic reconstruction
and clustering of potentially useful plants (Robertson and Richards 2015; Maestri
2017). For example, extracts from Pterocarpus Jacq. spp. (a phylogenetic cluster)
have the same medicinal uses in geographically distant areas, namely, the neo-
tropics, tropical Africa and Indomalaya. This example of ethnobotanical conver-
gence illustrates that different cultures have discovered related plants that are used
to treat similar disorders. Another example of ethnobotanical convergence is pro-
vided by the spices used as condiments for two products in different geographical
and cultural areas. Pizza in Western cultures is seasoned with Origanum vulgare L.,
and near Eastern similar food (manousheh) is prepared using another species of the
same genus as a condiment, O. syriacum L. Both taxa are phylogenetically very
close, implying a similar chemical composition and thus a similar use. In addition
to the phylogenetic approach, the large data sets obtained using ‘molecular biology’
techniques (e.g. genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics; Table 1)
and their analyses using bioinformatic tools are more often used for identifying
plants with popular ethnobotanical uses and the most promising taxa (or genes
within those taxa) for medicinal and culinary use (Keatinge et al. 2011; Kahane
et al. 2013). These molecular methods and the resulting data sets also provide a
better understanding of the evolutionary history of medicinal and food plants and
are further developments in ethnobotanical convergence with molecular biology
(He et al. 2017).
Genetic Diversity and Population Genetics
Biodiversity is the material foundation of human survival and development and also
is an important symbol to measure the environmental quality status and degree of
ecological state in a region or a country. Biodiversity refers to the sum total of dif-
ferent animals, plants and organisms living on Earth and may include species and
genetic diversity, as well as the variety of habitats and ecosystems where they live
(Table 1). Biodiversity functions to provide direct and beneficial products to humans,
regulation of climate and the environment, formation of unique cultures and other
important functions (Holliday et al. 2017).
Tropical and sub-tropical forests cover only about 7% of the Earth’s land yet
contain up to 50% of all plant species. These regions are important areas of
b iodiversity, containing many endemic vascular plants, yet the nature and integrity
of these important ecological zones are being impacted on at a greater rate than ever.
Therefore much of the biodiversity in these areas is unlikely to survive without
effective protection. This high diversity is in part due to steep ecological gradients,
including microclimatic conditions, sharply defined ecotones and a lower amount of
anthropogenic disturbance compared to temperate and dry forests. The distribution
of plant species within tropical and sub-tropical national parks at present has been
subjected to less human impacts and is likely to be less fragmented (Ford-Lloyd
et al. 2011).
A good example is Vietnam where it is stated that 58% (19 million hectares) of
total land is legally classified as forest, but ecologically speaking only part of this
area actually possesses forest vegetation. Total forest cover has declined steadily
throughout the twentieth century, and this decline has accelerated in recent decades.
Only three million hectares are considered to possess well-stacked healthy forests;
and old-growth forest is estimated to be only two million hectares. In the north and
north-west regions of Vietnam, forest cover has been reduced from 95% in 1943 to
between 14 and 24% in 1995 (Dang 2015). Conservation of these remaining forests
is essential; however, priorities for conservation must use as estimators a number of
economic and evolutionary criteria to be effective, and rare and endangered plants
must form a solid basis for conservation strategies. Hence, it is important to estab-
lish sound criteria and a set of guidelines for the conservation of rare species and at
the same time collect genetic diversity data to help formulate a sound management
plan for endangered species (Comadran et al. 2012; MacDicken et al. 2016).
Natural Foods and Biopharmaceuticals
It is estimated that 80% of the world’s population lives in developing countries and
that over 80% of the world’s population rely on plant-derived foods and medicines
for their primary health care. Based on experience, people in the past knew thera-
peutic potential of medicinal plants without rationale of their efficacy. Because of
advancement, we have a better understanding of the healing powers of plants due to
the presence of multifunctional chemical entities for treating complicated health
conditions. The plant kingdom is an implicit gold mine of new chemical compounds
which are still waiting to be explored. It is estimated that there are approximately
500,000 to 750,000 species of higher plants existing on Earth and less than 10% of
them have been examined for their biochemical constituents. The importance of
ethnobotany must therefore be as an interdisciplinary science.
Traditional medicinal practice (TMP) encompasses a holistic worldview, which
reflects that of the World Health Organizations definition of health, that is, one of
‘physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity’ (Leonti 2011; Savo et al. 2015). This worldview recognizes good health
as a complex system involving interconnection with the land, recognition of spirit
and ancestry and social, mental, physical and emotional wellbeing both of the
6 H. V. Huy et al.
i ndividual and the community. Indigenous people view ill health as the result of one
of three causes—a natural physical cause, a spirit causing harm and/or a sickness
due to sorcery. Traditional healers (THs) are found in most societies and are often
part of a local community, culture and tradition, and they continue to have high
social standing in many places, exerting influence on local health practices (Hedrick
et al. 2013).
Traditional healing is the oldest form of structured medicine and was originally
an integral part of seminomadic and agricultural tribal societies. Archaeological
evidence for its existence dates back to only around 6000 BC; but its origins prob-
ably date back to well before the end of the last Ice Age (Smith and Eyzaguirre
2007). There were and still are differences between the principles and philosophy
of TMP, although there are also many fundamental similarities that arise from the
profound knowledge of natural laws, and the understanding of how these influence
living things, which are shared by all traditional healers. Major factors which affect
medicinal plant diversity loss include razing for pastures, forest encroachment, soil
erosion, over-collection, agro-system use, poverty, forest fires and invasive species
intensifying in that environment. Climate variations and extremes may be addi-
tional influences on dispersal and richness of plant varieties. Deforestation, illegal
trade, habitat loss, growing demand for natural products, industrial pollution and
lack of adequate knowledge and training are other threats (Leonti 2011; Hao and
Xiao 2015).
Aims and Scope
In this chapter we provide an overview of plant biogeography and ethnobotany and

the multidisciplinary approach and convergence with molecular biology. We cover
traditional phylogenetic approaches to drug discovery and move onto new methods
(i.e. gel, fragment, size and sequence based) appropriate for use in molecular biol-
ogy. We provide web-based resources available for use in plant molecular research,
and we describe gel-based methods for use as molecular markers and use in popula-
tion genetic diversity studies for rare, endangered and drug plants (Datta et al. 2010;
Huang et al. 2012; Salgotra et al. 2014; Williams et al. 2014; Unamba et al. 2015).
We also describe the current status of resources and technologies for transcrip-
tomics, proteomics and metabolomics; however, some of these fields are more com-
prehensively described in other literature (Ekblom and Galindo 2011; Alvarez et al.
2012; Egan et al. 2012; Varshney et al. 2014; Guttikonda et al. 2016). Species of
plants used in the research described in this review have been divided into sections
based on rare and endangered plants and plants used for drugs and foods. Resources
and techniques for use in next-generation sequencing (NGS) research will be dis-
cussed, and the integration of computer programmes and bioinformatics across
plants in comparative genomics is outlined (Llaca 2012; Ray and Satya 2014;
Barabaschi et al. 2016; Thottathil et al. 2016; De Filippis 2018). Currently, tradi-
tional and deep sequencing users are faced with an abundance of marker and
sequencing data and analysis tools, both publicly and commercially available. We
intend to point out various aspects to be considered when choosing an analytical
tool and emphasize the relevant challenges and possible limitations so as to assist
the user in picking the most suitable platforms and methods.
The four plant species under detailed investigation in this study have their high-
est frequency in the north of Vietnam adjacent to Ba Be and Cat Ba National Parks
(Fig. 1), and all four are represented by small fragmented populations with a high
risk of local extinction. Sinocalamus mucclure (string bamboo) and Markhamia
stipulata are currently restricted to the volcanic limestone ridges of Ba Be National
Park, and only string bamboo has apparently been recorded elsewhere, in a local-
ized region of Southern China. Cycas fugax has only been described in Phu Tho
Province, 200 m above sea level in very low numbers and in few locations. Celastrus
hindsii is more widely distributed up to an altitude of 2500 m in regions of Northern
Vietnam, China, India and Myanmar. Unfortunately for all four species, their pre-
ferred habitat has also been favoured by local tribal people for collection in tradi-
tional medicine (Ban 2003; Hung et al. 2011). Land clearance and overuse of these
four species have led directly to the endangerment of populations, through direct
removal of individuals, and the division of previously continuous populations into
smaller and smaller fragments separated by inhospitable terrain (Dinh and Bui
2010; Dang 2015; Shaheen et al. 2017).
Traditional Ethnobotanical Methods
Natural and Social Sciences: Crucial Resources for Humans
Biogeography seeks to understand the underlying biotic and abiotic processes

responsible for the spatial and temporal distributions of organisms (Tables 1 and 2).
Evolutionary biogeography uses phylogenetic data to integrate concepts from phy-
logenetic ecology and evolutionary biology (Weckerle et al. 2011) with ecological
and historical biogeography (e.g. environmental filters, dispersion, variance statis-
tics); the goal is to elucidate biogeographic patterns and processes in a historical and
evolutionary context. Biogeographical studies are traditionally focused on species
diversity and distribution. However, in recent decades, the study of traits across
spatial and temporal scales has proved useful for explaining and describing the
diversity of forms on a biogeographical scale, thus creating the discipline of func-
tional biogeography and ‘the analysis of the patterns, causes, and consequences of
the geographical distribution of the diversity of form and function’ has lead to a
convergence of natural and social sciences (Tables 1 and 2).
Ethnobotany is also located at a critical interface of natural and social sciences
and has numerous applications to plants, especially related to human health and
wellbeing (Table 1). Plants with exceptional traits and market or end-user potential
must be identified; genetics and breeding can then help to resolve some of the cur-
rent issues which are preventing the more extensive use of these species, but it must
8 H. V. Huy et al.
Fig. 1 Map of Vietnam including the locations of populations and sampling sites for the two rare
and endangered plants and the two drug and food plants used in this study
Table 2 Definitions, terms and features commonly used in this review related to molecular
biology, bioinformatics and next-generation sequencing (NGS)
Term or
feature Definition
AFLP Amplified fragment length polymorphism
Bioinformatics An interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for
understanding biological data. An interdisciplinary field of science, combining
computer science, biology and mathematics and referencing to specific analysis
‘pipelines’ that are repeatedly used in the field of genomics
DNA barcodes A taxonomic method that uses a short genetic marker in an organism’s DNA to
identify it as belonging to a particular species. It differs from molecular
phylogeny in that the main goal is not to determine patterns of relationship but
to identify an unknown sample in terms of a preexisting classification. The
most commonly used barcode region is the internal transcribed spacer between
rRNA genes, and in plants multiple regions are now advocated.
EST Expressed sequence tags
Ethnobotany The study of a region’s plants and their practical uses through traditional
knowledge of a local culture and people. The practical uses of local flora for
many aspects of life, such as plants as medicines, foods and clothing
Genetic The total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic make-up of a species
diversity and serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. It is
distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic
characteristics to vary
ESI-MS/MS Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (MS)
NGS Next-generation sequencing
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
Proteomics The large-scale study of proteins, a vital parts of living organisms, with many
functions. Proteomics is an interdisciplinary domain, and the proteome is the
entire set of proteins that are produced or modified by an organism or system
RADseq Restriction site-associated DNA sequencing
RAMP Random amplification microsatellite polymorphism
RAPD Random amplification polymorphic DNA
RNAseq RNA sequencing
SDS-PAGE Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
SNP Single-nucleotide polymorphism
SSR Simple sequence repeats
TE Transposable elements
Definitions extracted and modified from the authors
be a focused effort and is likely to be enabling, rather than transformative. For

instance, with regard to geographical distribution, a species that might be underuti-
lized in some regions may not be in other areas (Foley et al. 2011). Metacommunity
analysis suggests that the influence of environmental factors on mean trait variation
relies heavily on spatial biogeographical clade sorting. This implies that biogeo-
graphical lineage distribution should be taken into account in analyses seeking to
correlate environmental variables with mean trait variations.
10 H. V. Huy et al.
Ethnobotany Information: Bioprospecting and Traditional Uses
During evolution, plants develop tactics of chemical defences, leading to the evolu-
tion of specialized metabolites with diverse potencies. A correlation between phy-
logeny and biosynthetic pathways could offer a predictive approach, enabling more
efficient selection of alternative and/or complementary plants for guaranteeing
clinical use and novel food discovery. This relationship has been rigorously tested
and the potential predictive power subsequently validated. A phylogenetic hypoth-
esis was put forwards for medicinal plants in the subfamily Amaryllidoideae
(Amaryllidaceae) based on parsimony and tested whether alkaloid diversity and
activity in bioassays related to the central nervous system were significantly corre-
lated with molecular phylogeny. Evidence for a significant phylogenetic signal in
these traits has been found, but the effect was not that strong (Fierst 2011; Archmiller
et al. 2015).
Bioprospecting for new drugs with a botanical origin and for new food crops has
traditionally been based on ethnobotanical information. Ethnobotanically directed
bioprospecting has become more powerful than random assays for finding and iden-
tifying bioactive compounds from plants. Aspirin (from Filipendula ulmaria
L. Maxim), codeine and papaverine (from Papaver somniferum L.), colchicine
(from Colchicum autumnale L.), digoxin and digitoxin (from Digitalis purpurea
L.), tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol (from Cannabis sativa L.) and vinblas-
tine and vincristine (from Catharanthus roseus L. Don) are among the most impor-
tant classical drugs developed from ethnobotanical leads (Leonti 2011; Ahmad et al.
2012). The first evidence for the anticancer properties of paclitaxel, from Taxus L.
spp., came from its toxic effects on murine leukaemia cells, in agreement with the
well-known general toxicity of these genera of plants. The success of Taxus-related
anticancer products highlights the promising role of plant products in drug develop-
ment. More recently, during the avian flu epidemic, oseltamivir was developed from
Illicium verum Hook based on ethnobotanical data from Chinese traditional medi-
cine. Ethnobotanical records have also led to the isolation and development of arte-
misinin (from Artemisia annua L.) as a powerful antimalarial drug (Yessoufou et al.
2015), whose relevance was recognized with the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine.
Examples from a social point of view of high nutritional foods are leafy vegeta-
bles, a group of several species used by millions of people in South America and
sub-Saharan Africa. Yet poor marketing makes them largely underutilized in eco-
nomic terms, and any underutilized plant species can make an important contribu-
tion to a better diet for local communities (Weinberger 2007; Yang and Keding
2009). Oca (Oxalis tuberosa), ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus) and mashua (Tropaeolum
tuberosum), three traditional Andean tuber plants, are richer in vitamin A and vita-
min C than the well-known potato. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), cañahua
(Chenopodium pallidicaule) and amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus), grains from the
Andean region, contain far higher amounts of certain essential amino acids than
wheat. The leaves of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) can provide significant
amounts of calcium, iron, phosphorous, vitamin A, vitamin C, proteins and the
amino acid methionine, scarce in commonly marketed vegetables (Uusiku et al.
2010; Kahane et al. 2013).
Phylogeny and Chemical Methods
Medicinal plants synthesize an arsenal of protective (even toxic) molecules, most of

which are secondary metabolites, which can be ingested by animals and humans.
Plants evolving in the same lineage have more medicinal uses than evolutionarily
isolated species, and the diversity of medicinal uses is correlated with the evolution-
ary history of the species. Species-rich clades are more likely than species-poor
clades to contain taxa with more uses, while ancient taxa are less abundant in the
flora and, therefore, are less used in traditional medicine (Savolainen et al. 2013;
Rai et al. 2017). Given that chemical properties are evolutionarily conserved
(Weckerle et al. 2011), bioscreening could be targeted to the lineages identified as
‘hot nodes’ for medicinal properties. Current nature-derived drugs come mostly
from drug-productive families that tend to be clustered rather than scattered in phy-
logenetic trees. Only 62 of the 457 families of angiosperms and gymnosperms are
used as sources for medicinal drugs (Xu et al. 2011; Memon 2012). As a result of
evolution, species that have a wide geographical distribution may be more capable
of synthesizing metabolites that enable them to adapt to such a wide distribution
compared with species with a restricted distribution and with a local evolutionary
history.
Nevertheless, the relationship between one specific bioactive compound and
medicinal activity is not always clear, complicating the phylogenetic prediction of
plant use. Phylogenomics can be integrated into the flowchart of drug discovery and
development and extends the field of pharmacophylogeny at the molecular level.
Phyloproteomics can also be used in a proteome-based phylogeny study and may be
used to examine the evolutionary relationship at the epigenomic level, and phylo-
metagenomics is also applicable in the exploration of medicinal plant-associated
microbiota (Albert 2013; Hao and Xiao 2015).
Metabolomics and Proteomics: Evolutionary-Conserved Traits
The rapid development of the main techniques used in the analyses of metabolites
(e.g. gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography and nuclear
magnetic resonance) is increasing the application of metabolomics in many aspects
of natural drug (and food) discoveries (Zhang et al. 2010; Saxena and Cramer 2013;
Jensen et al. 2016). Metabolomics, which is designed to provide general qualitative
and quantitative profiles of metabolites in organisms exposed to different condi-
tions, enables us to monitor the spatial and temporal distribution of target phyto-
chemicals. In fact, assigning bioactive compounds from complex mixtures is a
12 H. V. Huy et al.
central challenge of natural product research. The combination of bioassay-guided

fractionation with untargeted metabolite profiling improves the identification of
active components (Wong et al. 2014). Metabolomics is also enabling a better
understanding of medicinal plants and the identification of important metabolic
quantitative trait loci for enhanced breeding. The integration of the metabolomics
approach with genome-based functional characterizations of gene products for eth-
nobotanically important plants is helping to accelerate the discovery of novel bio-
synthetic pathways of specialized bioactive metabolites.
Biochemical integration has strongly enhanced the potential discovery and pro-
duction of pharmaceutical and culinary products. For example, the production of the
antimalarial drug artemisinin is being enhanced via traditional breeding, with new
high-yielding hybrids to convert A. annua into a robust cropping system, and by the
reconstitution of the biosynthetic artemisinin pathway in re-engineered microbial
hosts (Ahmad et al. 2012). Genomics, proteomics and metabolomics are high-
throughput technologies that may help speed up the determination of the mode of
action of phytomedicines and allow investigation of herbal extracts without promi-
nent active principles. Although metabolomics and proteomics techniques have
generally proven valuable, they still face substantial challenges, including large-
scale metabolite identification. However, further development of the metabolomics
field in general could provide better tools for the discovery of the next generation of
natural products inspired by popular knowledge gathered in ethnobotanical studies
and enhanced by recent phylogenetic approaches.
Meta-analysis was most succinctly defined as ‘the analysis of analyses’. In other
words, the authors of a meta-analysis compile and quantitatively synthesize the results
of available and pertinent studies using a meaningful common statistic to address a
specific research question (Frankham 2015). Such meta-analytical techniques are rec-
ommended to synthesize the available literature because they often have higher statisti-
cal power than an individual primary study, due to the increased precision of the
summary effects (Connor et al. 2011; Madden and Paul 2011). However, the power of
meta-analysis relies on very specific methodological and statistical treatment of the
individual studied. Meta-analysis can be applied to traditional biogeography studies
but is better suited to studies using molecular methods and NGS approaches.
Molecular Ethnobotanical Methods
Molecular DNA Methods
For about 25–30 years, DNA markers have been the most widely used molecular
markers in plants, owing to their abundance and polymorphism. Most of these
markers can be selectively neutral because they are usually located in non-coding
and non-regulatory regions of DNA (Hoang et al. 2009; Allendorf 2017). The first
plant DNA markers were based on difficult restriction fragment length polymor-
phisms (RFLPs) and Southern blot-based methods. Eventually these were replaced
by safer, less complex and more cost-effective PCR-based markers including

random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD), random amplification of mic-
rosatellite DNA (RAMP), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), mic-
rosatellite or simple sequence repeats (SSR), sequence-characterized amplified
regions and cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences (see reviews by Carrière
et al. 2013; De Filippis 2013; Teixeira da Silva et al. 2016). Recent sequence-based
markers (mostly from NGS), especially single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
(Gupta et al. 2014; Jeffries et al. 2016), are now the most important and can be
applied to a large number of non-model plant species. Direct array technology
(DArT) also commonly uses SNP as a base (Sansaloni et al. 2011; Table 2). When
some of the non-NGS markers are used for marker-assisted selection in plant breed-
ing, they have limitations owing to some markers being dominant, genetic recombi-
nation may give rise to false positives, and some produce inconsistent results.
High-throughput sequencing techniques and technical developments in NGS have
led to an increase in identification and consistency of NGS molecular markers (Ray
and Satya 2014; Garrick et al. 2015).
RAPD-PCR (Table 2) is a simple technique that can be applied where no knowl-
edge of the target DNA is available and no information about the region amplified is
possible with RAPD-PCR, but it is likely that middle or highly repetitive DNA is
primarily targeted (Hung et al. 2011; Yang et al. 2015). The results from this study
suggest that RAPD-PCR was able to identify genetic differences between individuals
and populations, which have been isolated/disturbed over a period of time and dis-
tance, and this has also been reported for other plants (Heider et al. 2007; Tripathi
and Goswami 2011; Fu et al. 2013). These results must be considered and evaluated
with some caution since the nature of the RAPD-PCR method means that normally
it over estimates genetic differences. This overestimation appears consistent with this
study where RAPD-PCR was able to detect a large number of polymorphic band dif-
ferences between population sites (Treangen and Salzberg 2011; Long et al. 2015).
SSR (RAMP-PCR) (Table 2) analysis also requires no prior knowledge of the tar-
get DNA, nor are specific microsatellite primers needed for each species or population
tested. Microsatellite makers are codominant and very informative; however, it is
uncertain if SSR loci are codominant (Zhao et al. 2016). Comparison of microsatellite
primers with six and eight two base repeats demonstrated that each had different abili-
ties to target sites on DNA. It is likely that the ability of an SSR primer to amplify a
sequence in target DNA depends on how abundant the sequence repeat is in the
genome (Baruah et al. 2017). Differences in the frequency of repetition of dinucleo-
tide microsatellites have been reported in other species of plants (Hung et al. 2011). In
this study with a number of different ISSR primers, the bases in the repeat sequences,
number of repeats and G + C content were also important, especially the GC content
which is best at values above 50%. In general, dinucleotide repeats amplify slightly
more DNA bands than trinucleotide repeats, so the longer the repeat sequence is, the
fewer bands are amplified. There is some evidence that SSR, and other multilocus
microsatellite fingerprinting methods, captures only some of the polymorphisms asso-
ciated with microsatellites and SSR repeats, and this must be considered in interpreta-
tion of data (Treangen and Salzberg 2011).
14 H. V. Huy et al.
Microarray and Protein Methods
Microarray flow cytometry has been used to determine the genome size of four
Panax species with Oryza sativa as the internal standard. P. notoginseng (San Qi in
traditional Chinese medicine) has the largest genome (2454 Mb), followed by P.
pseudoginseng (2433 Mb), P. vietnamensis (2018 Mb) and P. stipuleanatus
(1947 Mb), but their genomes are smaller than the P. ginseng genome (∼3.2 Gb)
(Angres 2005). A more reliable and sound approach for species identification with-
out a reference genome is a genome survey with non-deep sequencing (30 times
coverage), followed by bioinformatics analysis; this can be highly valuable in assess-
ing the genome size, heterozygosity, repeat sequence and GC content (Okou et al.
2007; Hurd and Nelson 2009; Karakach et al. 2010; Farsani and Mahdavi 2011).
Proteomics with 2D SDS-PAGE and electrospray ionization tandem mass spec-
trometry (ESI-MS/MS) was used to identify the expression of proteins and enzymes
present in Robinia pseudoacacia L. based on peptide (amino acid) fingerprint
sequencing. Proteins strongly expressed in sapwood were responsible for carbohy-
drate metabolism and flavonoid turnover. Proteins strongly expressed in the transi-
tion zone were mainly responsible for flavonoid biosynthesis. Lectins were found in
both sapwood and transition zone, and heat stress proteins were detected only in the
transition zone. The results were further proof that flavonoids were synthesized
directly at the transition zone between sapwood and heartwood (De Filippis and
Magel 2012). A pattern based on a small number of peptides usually cannot gain
enough confidence in representing the data and also cannot sufficiently reflect diver-
gence during evolution. As more peptides and proteins are sequenced, pattern search
procedures applied to all peptides in database will be updated accordingly (He et al.
2012; Marmiroli and Maestri 2014).
Epigenetic mechanisms are important in ecology and evolution, and are begin-
ning to be studied using methylation-sensitive AFLP (MS-AFLP), but this approach
provides relatively few anonymous and dominant markers per individual. A more
promising approach to address this problem is to apply a reduced representation
bisulphite sequencing (RRBS) approach, which may also be based on next-
generation sequencing (NGS) methods in an ecological context (Pu et al. 2009;
Albers et al. 2010; Hufford et al. 2012; Robertson and Richards 2015). RNA inter-
ference mediated by short RNA molecules is another epigenetic mechanism yet to
be fully investigated for transmission and effects on genetic diversity in plants
(Taylor et al. 2007; Gupta et al. 2014).
Transposable elements (TEs) have the potential to elucidate challenging ques-
tions in evolutionary biology, such as the nature of adaptive genetic variation and
reproductive isolation. A growing body of work highlights that the merging of
divergent genomes goes beyond the reshuffling of existing variation from related
species and promotes mutations (Chiu et al. 2010; Abbott et al. 2016). However, to
what extent such genome instability generates evolutionary significant variation
remains largely elusive (Gupta et al. 2014; Dennenmoser et al. 2017). Transposable
elements (TEs) in established hybrids represent an inspiring opportunity to further
address the possible association between genome dynamics and ‘rapid evolution of
hybrid species’ (Schoch et al. 2012; Choudhury and Parisod 2017).
Bioinformatics, Computers and Statistics
Molecular population genetics is being invigorated by the ever-growing amount of

markers and nucleotide sequence data available. As a result, during the last two
decades, considerable efforts have been devoted to designing and applying analyti-
cal methods for detecting the ‘footprint of natural selection’ at the molecular level.
Finding genomic regions under selection is one of the first steps required to bridge
the gap between the genotype and phenotype of adaptive traits and is thus crucial for
understanding the process of adaptation. Multilocus DNA sequence data also pro-
vide opportunities to gain detailed insight into population history and structure
using explicit models that incorporate demographic features of populations. This
represents an important challenge because both selection and population history
have important influences on the amount and patterns of genetic variation (Buerkle
and Gompert 2013; Jacobs et al. 2013).
Methods developed in the last few decades to test for selection and molecular varia-
tion mostly stem from the neutral theory of molecular evolution (Kimura 1993). In a
nutshell, the neutral theory posits that: the fate of segregating polymorphism is effec-
tively determined by genetic drift, as most variation is neutral with regard to natural
selection. Fixed differences in alleles between species (divergence) are mostly neutral,
with a negligible contribution from adaptive substitutions, and neutral loci are not
affected by the effects of linked selection. Although this theory has stimulated much
debate since its inception (Anderson et al. 2013), it soon became widely used as a ‘null
hypothesis’ in molecular population genetics against which to test for selection.
However, several crucial assumptions of the standard neutral model, namely, no popu-
lation structure, a constant population size and random mating, make it a composite
hypothesis (Nielsen et al. 2011; Linquist et al. 2015). Thus, the mere rejection of neu-
trality does not point unambiguously to an effect of selection but could also result from
the violation of one (or several) of the assumptions.
Because even a single high-throughput experiment produces large amount of
data, powerful statistical techniques of multivariate analysis are well suited to
analyse and interpret data sets. Many different multivariate techniques are avail-
able, and often it is not clear which method should be applied to particular data
(see reviews by Zhang et al. 2011; Valle and Berdanier 2012; Belcaid and Toonen
2015; Paliy and Shankar 2016; Table 2).
Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
PCA can be used as a simple visualization tool to summarize data set variance and
show the dominant gradients in low-dimensional space. PCA results are usually
displayed as a two- or three-dimensional scatter plot, where each axis corresponds
to a chosen principal component and each object is plotted based on its corresponding
PC values.
16 H. V. Huy et al.
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)
MDS is a unique ordination technique in that a small number of ordination axes are
explicitly chosen prior to the analysis and the data are then fitted to those dimen-
sions. Thus, if only two or three axes are chosen, there will be no nondisplayed axes
of variation at the end of the analysis. Similar to PCA, a matrix of object dissimilari-
ties is first calculated using a chosen distance metric.
Cluster Analysis
The goal of cluster analysis is to separate variables into groups based on the similar-
ity of the variable scores among objects, so that variables within each group (clus-
ter) are more similar to one another than to variables in other groups. The algorithms
used usually minimize the within-group distances and maximize between-group
distances.
Mantel Test
Mantel (r) test typically compares two distance matrices that were calculated for the
same set of objects but are based on two independent sets of variables (e.g. a species
dissimilarity matrix and population site distance matrix) (Mantel 1967). The test
calculates the correlation between values in the corresponding positions for two
matrices. The significance of the linear relationship between matrices is assessed
through basic permutation statistics.
ANOSIM and ANOVA
ANOSIM and ANOVA are statistical tests of significance; ANOSIM tests for sig-
nificant difference between two or more classes of objects based on any (dis)simi-
larity measure (Clark and Gorley 2001, 2006). It compares the ranks of distances
between objects of different classes with ranks of object distances within classes.
The basis of this approach is similar to the MDS ordination technique described
above. As ANOSIM is based on ranks, it has fewer assumptions compared to regres-
sion techniques such as analysis of variance (ANOVA).
The power of meta-analysis relies on very specific molecular methodological
and statistical treatment and bioinformatics of the individual studies. In practical
meta-analysis, FST and analogues such as genetic differentiation (GST), Nei genetic
diversity (H) and Jost differentiation statistic (D) (Nei 1973, 1987; Jost 2008, 2009)
are somewhat constrained by expected within-population heterozygosity, which
may hinder cross-study comparisons. Despite this, we recommend the use of
standardized analogues GST, H and D, as meta-analysis may be affected by size;
however, these indices are the best way to alleviate the confounding effects of
different maximum possible values across studies (Jost 2008, 2009; Heller and
Siegismund 2009). Authors must also consult the literature for advantages and dis-
advantages, as well as the proper application of these statistics in order to choose the
appropriate metric for the research question (Whitlock et al. 2000; Whitlock 2011;
Dufresne et al. 2014). Finally, we conclude that GST, H and D meet the criteria and
consistency for including effective size differences and avoid the difficulty of calcu-
lating errors for these values (Archmiller et al. 2015).
Advantages and Disadvantages
There has been an enormous increase in the amount of data on DNA sequence poly-
morphism available for many organisms in the last decade. New sequencing tech-
nologies provide great potential for investigating natural selection in plants using
population genomic approaches. However, plant populations frequently show sig-
nificant departures from the assumptions of standard models used to detect selec-
tion, and many forms of directional selection do not fit with classical population
genetics theory. Evolutionary analysis of genomic data is still in its infancy, and
many formidable challenges face the field of evolutionary bioinformatics (for a
thorough review, see Pool et al. 2010; Valle and Berdanier 2012).
An important problem involves the sheer amount of data that must be dealt with,
which imposes a strong constraint on bioinformatic automation and computational
demand. The comparison of observed patterns of variation at thousands of loci
makes it all the more difficult to avoid false positives, and inclusion of sequencing
errors (e.g. appearing as rare SNPs) can skew diversity estimates and perhaps lead
to spurious inferences. One possible solution is removing rare variants (Turner et al.
2010; Griffin et al. 2011), but for many analyses, low-frequency variations are of
direct interest when testing for the action of selection. It thus appears that for the
first time in population genetics history, the limiting factor is the availability of
methods and models and not the data on which to address evolutionary questions.
However, improved methods are beginning to appear and more will surely follow.
Even if the challenges are daunting, there are grounds for optimism. The parallel
improvement of NGS techniques and computational and analytical tools should
allow large-scale interspecific comparisons of the historical and contemporary
context in which selection operates at the molecular level (Dohm et al. 2008; Gilad
et al. 2009).
Multivariate analyses also exhibit some limitations. The outputs of these algo-
rithms are more difficult to interpret compared to those generated by univariate
analyses (although it is much less time-consuming to interpret single multivariate
analysis than hundreds of individual univariate outputs). The assumptions of a par-
ticular method are sometimes not easy to assess or meet. It is also important to
18 H. V. Huy et al.
remember that revealed associations among variables and patterns of object

distribution do not inherently imply causality and that synthetic ordination axes or
cluster groups might not necessarily match any biological effects or gradients.
Finally, many multivariate techniques are very computationally demanding and
require significant computing resources when applied to very large data sets
(Gompert and Buerkle 2011; Belcaid and Toonen 2015; Hoban et al. 2016). A com-
mon expression of the data is to build a phylogenetic tree, i.e. a picture of species
relationships based on differences found within their underlying sequences. Multiple
sequence alignments are central to phylogenetics and are the best way to construct
a phylogenetic tree (cluster analysis, Table 2). A group of taxa may include an
ancestral taxon but not all descendants, and a molecular clock may be calculated by
using the hypothesis that nucleotide or amino acid substitutions occur at more or
less fixed rates over a long time. The sequences may or may not contain phyloge-
netic signals for the relationships of interest; these might be too conserved or too
variable, because some DNA or proteins might be highly conserved, while others
are not (Schmidt-Lebuhna et al. 2017).
Computer science is becoming an essential part in training the next generation of
data-enabled biologists, not only as a tool during the inevitable integration of com-
puter science in biology but also to foster productive interactions in the new era of
multidisciplinary and large-scale genetics. Undergraduate and graduate programmes
are beginning to include bioinformatics; however, precious few students seem to
understand the principal computational concepts underlying the tools they use on a
regular basis in their research (Felsenstein 2015; Paliy and Shankar 2016; Schmidt-
Lebuhna et al. 2017).
Next-Generation Sequencing and Ethnobotany
Molecular Approaches
Phylogeographers have been working to collect multilocus data ever since a series
of theoretical papers pertinent to the discipline demonstrated that estimates of key
demographic parameters improve as the number of loci increases (e.g. Gupta 2008;
Krauss et al. 2013; Garrick et al. 2015). Recent improvements in DNA sequencing
technology have led to platforms with greater speed, resolution and/or output. Given
that phylogeographic studies often focus on organisms for which few or no genomic
resources exist, new technical developments were required to enable detailed inves-
tigations of non-model species and expand the complexity and scope of questions
that can be addressed. Before NGS, variation within and between plants (genetic
diversity) at the genome level was restricted to those working on well-studied model
organisms (or close relatives) possessing a wide scope of genomic resources rang-
ing from sequenced EST libraries (Table 2) to whole-genome sequences (Imelfort
et al. 2009; Jackson et al. 2011; De Filippis 2017). Ecologists and evolutionary
biologists need data from large numbers of individuals, and, until recently, those
working on non-model plants were limited to slow and costly gene- by-
gene
approaches. It is true that even low-coverage data, which does not aim to assemble
complete nuclear sequences, provides genomic sequences of DNA sufficiently good
to provide high-quality assemblies (Allendorf 2017; De Filippis 2017).
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have produced a substantial
decrease in the cost and the complexity of generating sequence data and are allow-
ing researchers to tackle questions that were not previously possible. Along with
this remarkable progress in data acquisition, parallel advances in computational sci-
ences, such as in machine learning and high-performance computing, are allowing
researchers to answer complex biological problems using creative computational
and quantitative techniques. The big advantage of high-throughput sequencing
(HTS) tools in molecular diversity surveys is the huge number of reads obtained at
once, obviating the time-consuming cloning step needed in Sanger sequencing. On
the other hand, the main challenge is bioinformatic analysis to extract relevant and
useful information from these large data sets. Next-generation plant breeding aims
to develop more efficient technologies and programmes for low-cost, high-
throughput genotyping and screening of large populations in a shorter time (Gepts
2004; Sansaloni et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2012; Nicolai et al. 2012).
All biological disciplines that depend on DNA sequence data have been funda-
mentally changed in the last few years due to the development and emergence of
NGS; and our knowledge of biology, particularly molecular genomics, has grown.
NGS creates huge amounts of data, presenting many problems to computational
biologists, bioinformaticians and end-users (especially ecologists and taxono-
mists) endeavouring to assemble and analyse NGS data. A comprehensive discus-
sion of these challenges is outside the scope of this review, but several papers in
these disciplines address some of the key issues and possible strategies in dealing
with them (e.g. Ellegren 2008; Connor et al. 2011; Tsai et al. 2011; Grover et al.
2012; Kvam et al. 2012). NGS data is very cost-effective, and molecular ecolo-
gists are now starting to take advantage of sequencing information and embracing
the discipline of ‘ecological genomics’ (Gilad et al. 2009; Krauss et al. 2013). By
shifting genomics from laboratory-based studies of model plant species towards
studies of natural populations of non-model plants, NGS has been applied to ques-
tions about organisms’ history, with the promise of revolutionizing the field.
However, no systematic assessment of how phylogeographic data sets have
changed over time with respect to overall size and greater information contents is
available (Garrick et al. 2015).
In the last 30 years, a number of DNA fingerprinting methods such as RFLP,
RAPD, RAMP, AFLP, SSR and DArT, primarily used in marker development for
molecular plant breeding, have found their role in ecology, genetic diversity and
species and population studies. However, it remains a daunting task to identify
highly polymorphic and closely linked molecular markers for targeted traits in
many plants (Ochatt and Jain 2007; Ritchie and Krauss 2012; Yoder et al. 2014).
NGS technology is far more powerful than any existing genetic DNA fingerprint-
ing methods mentioned above in generating DNA markers and continues to
20 H. V. Huy et al.
present problems and challenges in plant molecular biology. The widespread

implementation of NGS analyses of the whole genome (the entire DNA content)
and the whole transcriptome (the genes being expressed) is becoming common-
place. NGS enables the analysis of a vast amount of previously unattainable
genetic information. Despite this potential, NGS has yet to be widely imple-
mented in genetic studies of the majority of plants. This is perhaps not surprising
as projects involving NGS are still costly in terms of equipment, biochemicals
and experienced researchers (Shokralla et al. 2012, 2014; De Filippis 2017,
2018).
Methods to Consider
Restriction Site-Associated DNA Sequencing (RADseq)
RADseq provides researchers with the ability to record genetic polymorphism

across thousands of loci for non-model plants, potentially revolutionizing the field
of molecular ecology. However, as with other genotyping methods, RADseq is
prone to a number of sources of error that may have consequential effects for
population genetic inferences, and these have received only limited attention in
terms of the estimation and reporting of genotyping error rates. Several sources of
bias specific to RADseq are not explicitly addressed by current genotyping tools,
namely, restriction fragment bias, restriction site heterozygosity and PCR GC
content bias (Buggs et al. 2012; Arnold et al. 2013; Davey et al. 2013; Mastretta-
Yanes et al. 2015).
RNA Sequencing (RNAseq)
RNAseq adds large-scale transcriptomics to the toolkit of ecological and evolu-

tionary biologists, enabling differential gene expression (DE) studies in non-
model species without the need for prior genomic knowledge. Sequencing costs
have plummeted, yet RNAseq studies still underutilize biological replication, as
finite research budgets force a trade-off between sequencing effort and replica-
tion in RNAseq experimental design; and the state of play of RNAseq in ecol-
ogy and evolution is difficult to assess. Biological replication is often low,
regardless of whether pooled DNA libraries were used, and much of the current
RNAseq literature appears to be under-replicated. Pooled study designs were
poorly designed. These included the number of true biological replicates. No
information available on whether or not library preparation involved pooled
samples or not, if so, how many samples were pooled per library not clear (De
Wit et al. 2012; Zhou et al. 2015; Jeffries et al. 2016; Todd et al. 2016).
DNA Barcoding
DNA barcoding has the potential to tell all of the world’s species apart, and this
involves sample sizes of many millions. Given this scale of the task, the crux
issue is allocating minimal sequencing effort per sample to achieve the DNA
barcoding impacting on biodiversity. The elegant simplicity of establishing
massive-scale databases for a few barcode loci is continuing to change our
understanding of species diversity patterns and continues to enhance the ability
to distinguish among species. In plants, the choice of the standardized barcode(s)
has been more complex. The low substitution rates of plant mitochondrial DNA
(Schoch et al. 2012; Ruhsam et al. 2015) precluded the use of the ‘CO’ locus.
As a consequence, alternative barcoding regions were investigated, leading to
selection of two plastid DNA (ITS) regions, the rbcL gene the matK gene, with-
out clear and consistent standardisation. The same ITS regions have also been
suggested as the core barcode region for fungi (Barley and Thomson 2016;
Coissac et al. 2016).
Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP)
SNP from multiple individuals per species are increasingly used to study population
structure, species delimitation and shallow phylogenetics. Properly chosen data
summary approaches to inferring species trees from SNP data may represent a
potential alternative to currently available individual-level coalescent analyses espe-
cially for quick data exploration. With the rapid increase in production of genetic
data from new sequencing technologies, a myriad of new ways to study genomic
patterns in non-model organisms are currently possible. Because genome assembly
still remains a complicated procedure, and because the functional role of much of
the genome is unclear, focusing on SNP genotyping from expressed sequences pro-
vides a cost-effective way to reduce complexity while still retaining some function-
ally relevant information (Bianco et al. 2014; De Wit et al. 2015; Schmidt-Lebuhna
et al. 2017).
Epigenetic Modifications
Epigenetic modifications are expected to occur at a much faster rate than

genetic mutations, potentially causing isolated populations to stochastically
drift apart or, if they are subjected to different selective regimes, to direction-
ally diverge. A high level of genome-wide epigenetic divergence between indi-
viduals occupying distinct habitats is often predicted. Bisulphite-converted
restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (bsRADseq), an approach to quan-
tify the level of DNA methylation differentiation across multiple individuals, is
useful (Abbott et al. 2016; Trucchi et al. 2016). This reduced representation
method is flexible in the extent of DNA sequences interrogated. Although DNA
22 H. V. Huy et al.
methylation frequency between different positions of a genome varies widely,

there is a surprisingly high consistency in the methylation profile between indi-
viduals thriving in divergent ecological conditions (Gupta et al. 2014;
Dennenmoser et al. 2017).
Informatics and Computers
A comprehensive discussion of the genetic and statistical analysis employed in

population genetics is beyond the scope of this review, but I refer you to the fol-
lowing books and reviews (Clark and Gorley 2001, 2006; Pu et al. 2009; De
Filippis 2013; see also section “Molecular Ethnobotanical Methods”). Population
gene family data sets are usually produced by computational procedures, includ-
ing a step that conducts an all-against-all sequence similarity analysis and then a
step for building clusters of inter- and intrapopulation analysis parameters, by
methods such as Markov clustering (MCL), multidimensional scaling (MDS)
and principal component analysis (PCA) in programmes like PRIMER and
Arlequin. Discriminatory methods are an extension of the interpretive multivari-
ate techniques and are usually called discrimination analyses (DA). The goal of
DA is to define discriminant functions (synthetic variables) or hyperspace planes
that will maximize the separation of objects among different classes. Stand-alone
software packages such as CANOCO (R Core Team 2017), PRIMER v6 (Clark
and Gorley 2006) and PAST (Price and Casler 2012) are available as alternatives
to MATLAB and R statistics. Advanced software statistics (e.g. PopGen, Tree
Viewer, IBD genetics, GenAlEx) can yield indices and information from data-
bases that are useful for further phylogenetic studies using analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA), analysis of similarity and analysis of variance (ANOVA) (De
Filippis 2017, 2018). These methods and indices could contribute significantly to
an understanding of population structure but have not been used much in ecology
and ethnobotany.
NGS contain short read lengths and high data volumes that have made chal-
lenges more difficult from a computational perspective. Repeats create ambigui-
ties in alignment and assembly, which in turn can produce biases and errors when
interpreting results. Simply ignoring repeats is not an option as this creates prob-
lems of its own and may mean that important biological phenomena are missed.
Although some repeats appear non-functional, others have played a part in evolu-
tion, at times creating novel functions but also acting as independent ‘selfish
sequence elements’. Repeats arise from a variety of mechanisms; they come in
all shapes and sizes and can be widely interspersed in the plant genome and can
constitute over 80% of the genome in maize and over 65% in potato (Treangen
and Salzberg 2011).
Advantages and Disadvantages
Kane et al. (2012) sequenced plastid and ribosomal DNA with the goal of producing
‘barcodes’ (taxon-specific molecular profiles) below the species level. Using
Illumina sequencing, they examined whole plastid genomes and nearly 6000 bases
of nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences. The large amount of data vastly exceeded
that of traditional barcoding, which uses short sequences from defined regions of
the genome. They term their approach ‘ultrabarcoding’ and used it to examine dif-
ferent geographic locations, nine genotypes of three varieties of Theobroma cacao
L. and an individual of a related species T. grandiflorum (Sprengel) Schumann.
They obtained 4.2–11 times coverage of the nuclear genome and had enough cover-
age for plastid and nuclear ribosomal DNA. The data clearly separated T. cacao
from T. grandiflorum and showed two strongly supported clades in T. cacao, corre-
sponding to two of the three varieties of T. cacao (i.e. Forastero and Criollo), and the
maternal lineages of the third variety (Trinitario) came from both Forastero and
Criollo. The authors suggest that ultrabarcoding is very useful as a supplement to
traditional barcoding methods and showed that taxon-specific profiling can be suc-
cessful below the species level.
Wet laboratory procedures, parallel sequencing and species-specific genome
data also contribute to error in several ways, leading to variance in (a) the total num-
ber of reads per individual, (b) the number of loci represented in each individual, (c)
the read count per locus and (d) the read counts of alternative alleles at polymorphic
loci (Hohenlohe et al. 2012). Amplification success during the PCR step may lead
to variation in the depth of coverage among loci and individuals, potentially causing
locus or allelic dropout. The consequences of sequencing errors and statistical
methods to account for it have been widely discussed for other molecular makers,
from AFLPs and microsatellites (Price and Casler 2012) to whole-genome sequence
data (Gompert and Buerkle 2011; Nielsen et al. 2011; Pool et al. 2010). Errors may
lead to incorrect biological conclusions, such as an artificial excess of homozygotes
(Jacobsen et al. 2015; Wayne and Shaffer 2016), false departure from Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium, overestimation of inbreeding, unreliable inferences about
population structure and incorrectly inferring demographic expansion from the con-
founding influence of low-frequency error-derived SNPs (Jeffries et al. 2016; Pool
et al. 2010; Schmidt-Lebuhna et al. 2017).
Principles of standardization in barcodes must include ‘agreed’ regions of DNA
(so that joint efforts build a shared global resource), quality control (to ensure the
library of DNA sequences is reliable) and minimalism (using one or a few regions
of DNA to ensure scalability). These so-called extended barcodes or ultrabarcodes
should have the following features:
(a) Additional data must increase the phylogenetic signal in the data set, enabling
a single data set to work effectively for species discrimination and assessing
true phylogenetic relationships.
24 H. V. Huy et al.
(b) Generate whole plastid genomes and ribosomal sequences, circumventing

preferences for different loci for some meta-barcoding based studies, as all rel-
evant loci are routinely recovered.
(c) Additional sequence data from sequenced plastid genomes and ribosomal
repeats should lead to an increase in levels of species discrimination (Ruhsam
et al. 2015; Coissac et al. 2016).
At current market rates, the consumables cost for sequencing one gigabase of data
is about $80, but before the sequencing step, specific adaptors must be ligated onto
each side of the fragmented genomic DNA (i.e. library preparation). The cost of
building the library is still relatively high. At the bioinformatic level, a large and
complex database and an automated workflow must be designed to process and
manage this amount of data (Mardis 2011; Hayden 2014). Counteracting this is that
genomic studies of medicinal plants lag behind those of most other plants and
important food crop plants. The genome sequences encompass essential informa-
tion of plant origin, evolution, development, physiology, inheritable traits, epig-
enomic regulation, etc., which are the premise and foundation of deciphering
genome diversity and chemodiversity (especially various secondary metabolites
with potential bioactivities) at the molecular level. High-throughput sequencing of
medicinal plants could not only shed light on the biosynthetic pathways of medici-
nal compounds, especially secondary metabolites, but also their regulation mecha-
nisms; this information is vital and plays a major role in the molecular breeding of
high-yielding medicinal cultivars and molecular farming of transgenic medicinal
strains.
Molecular Biology of Rare and Endangered Plants
Geography and Occurrence
Cycas fugax
Cycads represent a very primitive group of vascular plants that have been in exis-
tence for more than 200 million years (Hedrick 2004). Thus, all cycad species have
been listed in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora. Generally, Vietnam has the greatest diversity of cycads at the
regional level and the highest number of species of any country except Australia
(Hill and Weir 2011). The genus Cycas in Vietnam includes 27 species, and 9 of
them have been described as new, 1 species is listed critically endangered (Cycas
fugax) and 3 are considered endangered (C. aculeate, C. hoabinhensis and C. mul-
tipinnata); the others are either vulnerable or near threatened (Osborne et al. 2007).
Cycas fugax is one of the rarest cycad species assessed as critically endangered
(CR) (possibly extinct) in the 2010 IUCN Red List of Vietnam (Osborne et al.
2010). The species is known only from Phu Tho Province in the north of Vietnam,
and it is estimated that more than 80% of Cycas fugax populations have been
reduced due to natural habitat destruction by agriculture encroachment and urban-
ization (Osborne et al. 2010).
Sinocalamus mucclure
The rare ‘string’ bamboo (Ampelocalamus sp./Sinocalamus sp. McClure) is only

found in Ba Be National Park, Vietnam, on the limestone forest areas with high
humidity around lakes and rivers. This species has been widely known and utilized
by local people but has so far not been documented in the better-known bamboo
flora of Vietnam (Dinh and Bui 2010; Hung et al. 2011). Bamboo has emerged as
one of the important non-timber forest products (NTFP) in the world. However, not
much scientific research has been done to prove these claims. Sinocalamus sp. have
been used for making twine and are believed to possess bioactive compounds and
used as a medicinal herb by the local people.
Morphology and Taxonomy
Cycas fugax
Cycas fugax has a subterranean flask-shaped stem, about 18 cm long, 15 cm in dim-
eter at the base and 10 cm at the apex, which may be larger and branched in older
specimens. The stem holds one to three leaves at the crown. Leaves are bright to
deep green; moderately glossy, with an orange tomentum which is lost as the leaf
expands; and from 280 to 380 cm long and flat (not keeled) in section. There are
80–100 leaflets and the rachis ends consistently with a pair of leaflets; the basal
leaflets are 12–30 cm long and are abruptly replaced by petiolar spines. The median
leaflets are simple, strongly discoloured, angled forwards, decurrent at the base and
flat in section, with margins flat or wavy, with apex softly pointed and with midrib
raise. The petiole is 150–220 cm long (50–60% of total leaf length) and glabrous
and spinescent for 90–100% of its length (Osborne et al. 2007). Male cones are soli-
tary, spindle-shaped, cream in colour, 10–12 cm long and 2.5–4 cm in diameter.
Female cones are 20–25 cm long, brown-tomentose and has 2–4 glabrous ovules.
Seed is ovoid, 25–27 mm long and 18–21 mm wide (Osborne et al. 2007).
Sinocalamus mucclure
Sinocalamus sp. McClure is a monocotyledon species with healthy root systems,

copious branching and strong rhizomes. The stem is long (500–600 cm), separated
into merostomial parts of 40–50 cm and diameter from 0.4 to 0.6 cm. The bamboo
shoot is tender and immature, and young stalks emerge from the nodes of the pseudo
26 H. V. Huy et al.
rhizome. It is the most important product in ethnomedicinal use, as an excellent

source of vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins and minerals. Bamboo shoots have been
regarded as a customary medicinal constituent and proclaimed to be beneficial to
human health, by promoting motion and peristalsis of the intestine, helping diges-
tion and preventing and curing cardiovascular diseases and cancers (Staya et al.
2012). Furthermore, bamboo shoots are a rich source of antioxidant compounds like
flavonoids, phenols and phenolic acids which are key ingredients in dietary fibre
and possess anticancer, antibacterial and antiviral activities.
Examples and Results
The G-statistic for differentiation (GST), Nei genetic diversity (H) and Jost genetic
differentiation (D) demonstrated that both C. fugax and M. stipulata contained mod-
erate genetic diversity but consistently low GST values (Table 3). Values for RAPD-
PCR analysis showed slightly higher values than using RAMP-PCR. These values
suggested that similarities detected between individuals at any one site in this study
were only moderate (not low) and suggested that significant genetic differences
were present in individuals. Even the similarity between what might have been
unrelated and distant sites was moderate (Xiao et al. 2004; Hung et al. 2011). In
summary, results from the molecular data showed that a considerable amount of
genetic variation between populations was present at the fragmented sites sampled.
Similar results were found in a study of the legume Flemingia macrophylla and
Table 3 List of population genetics parameters for the two rare and endangered plants used in this
review
Population genetics C. fugax M. stipulata
Parameters RAPD RAMP RAPD RAMP
Number of populations 4 4 4 4
Number of polymorphic bands 46 48 90 73
Percent of polymorphism (%) 74.2 72.7 64.7 70.2
Nei genetic diversity (H) 0.24 0.25 0.18 0.21

Shannon information index (I) 0.36 0.37 0.31 0.32
Estimation of gene flow (Nm) 0.80 0.66 0.65 0.59

Genetic differentiation (GST) 0.38 0.40 0.24 0.28
Jost genetic differentiation (D) 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.20
Mantel r test (probability) −0.14 0.22 0.33 0.68

(P = 0.48) (P = 0.12) (P = 0.02) (P = 0.002)
Summary of some data extracted and modified from Hung et al. (2011) and other data provided
from the authors
other cycads in North Vietnam and China, in which the authors discovered that the
genetic composition of lowland accessions differed significantly from those in
upland regions (Xiao and Gong 2006; Heider et al. 2007).
It is often the case that variability in smaller populations of plants can appear to
contain nearly the same amount of variation as is contained in larger populations, and
therefore our data was in agreement with these findings. However care should be
taken in drawing conclusions from the study since it is not known how many of those
seedlings sampled would have eventually reached maturity (Frankham et al. 2010;
Allendorf 2017). The findings provide evidence for a slower than expected loss of
genetic diversity and consequently a higher than expected long-term evolutionary
potential in small fragmented populations. Recommendation that Nm (estimation of
gene flow) should be larger than 0.5–0.6 to avoid inbreeding depression is present and
consistent with our data (Table 3; Schou et al. 2017). Genetic diversity at the species
level (and at the population level) was consistently different and suggested that much
more genetic polymorphisms existed among populations than within populations.
In cycads, low genetic variation within populations and relatively high genetic
differentiation between populations are characteristics of the biology and evolution
of the genera. Multivariate statistical methods show that all populations of C. fugax
and M. stipulata have low genetic variation and effective methods of sexual repro-
duction (pollination) should be implemented. PCA and MDS are consistent among
RAPD and RAMP data and clearly show that in C. fugax populations 1 and 3, 4 are
further apart genetically; in M. stipulata populations 1 and 4 are most apart (Figs. 2
and 3); however the MDS analysis for C. fugax is not as clear as is PCA analysis.
Therefore, both species would benefit from the introduction of genetic diversity by
breeding and hybridization particularly the natural forest population identified by
population 4 (NF). Cluster analysis (dendrograms, Fig. 6) tends to support the struc-
ture and genetic diversity between the populations. Therefore, we believe that further
genetic rescue efforts on one or a few of the populations would be considered inad-
equate for either species, and all four populations should be preserved, especially as
all four sites in the one species are within a very short geographic zone.
Fig. 2 Principal component analysis (PCA) of the two rare and endangered plants. (a) C. fugax
using RAPD-PCR data (closed symbols) and RAMP-PCR data (open symbols); (b) M. stipulata
using RAPD-PCR data (closed symbols) and RAMP-PCR data (open symbols)
28 H. V. Huy et al.
pop 1
a b Column 3
pop 2
Column 4
pop 3
Column 5
pop 4 Column 6
pop 1 Column 8
pop 2 Column 9
Column 10
pop 3
Column 11
pop 4
Fig. 3 Multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the two rare and endangered plants. (a) C. fugax using
RAPD-PCR data (closed symbols) and RAMP-PCR data (open symbols); (b) M. stipulata using
RAPD-PCR data (closed symbols) and RAMP-PCR data (open symbols)
Conservation and Protection
Many species have fragmented distribution with small isolated populations suffer-
ing some degree of inbreeding depression and/or reduced ability to evolve. Without
gene flow from another population within the species (genetic rescue), these popu-
lations are likely to be near exhausted. However, there have been only a few pub-
lished cases of such outcrossing for conservation purposes and probably a very low
proportion of populations that would potentially benefit. One impediment to genetic
rescues is the lack of an overview of the magnitude and consistency of genetic res-
cue effects in wild species. Fitness benefits also increase significantly with maternal
inheritance (reduction in inbreeding coefficient due to gene flow) and for naturally
outbreeding versus inbreeding species. However, benefits did not differ significantly
among invertebrates, vertebrates and plants. Evolutionary potential for fitness char-
acters in inbred populations also may benefit from gene flow. There are no scientific
impediments to the widespread use of outcrossing to genetically rescue inbred pop-
ulations of naturally outbreeding species, provided that potential crosses have a low
risk of outbreeding depression. Revised guidelines for the management of genetic
rescue have been outlined (Primmer 2009; Frankham 2015).
A key theory of evolutionary and conservation biology is that loss of genetic
diversity can be predicted from population size, but is this on very shaky ground? In
the face of increasing human-induced species depletion and habitat fragmentation,
this question and the study of genetic diversity in small populations are paramount
to understanding the limits of species responses to environmental change and to
providing remedies to endangered species conservation. The authors reveal a slower
rate of loss of genetic diversity in small populations under varying conditions than
theoretically expected and hence an unexpected retention of genetic diversity. It is
entirely plausible that there is associative overdominance, wherein homozygosity of
deleterious recessive alleles are especially disfavoured in genomic regions of low
recombination. The results in this study contribute to a budding literature on the
varying mechanisms underlying genetic diversity in small populations and encourage
further such research towards the effective management and conservation of

fragmented or endangered populations (Anderson et al. 2013; Fraser 2017).
The risk of extinction now faced by the remaining populations of C. fugax and
S. mucclure is compounded by the species’ own biology, i.e. they require a spe-
cialized habitat, they have poor seed dispersal mechanisms, and they are slow
growing after harvest. These factors make the species particularly susceptible to
inbreeding, with subsequent potential loss of genetic variation, accumulation of
deleterious alleles and inbreeding depression (Wayne and Shaffer 2016). Previous
studies have found that a loss of genetic diversity decreases the ability of wild
populations to survive climatic extremes, pollutants, pests, diseases and exploita-
tion (Frankham et al. 2010). According to Frankham (2015), the maintenance of
genetic diversity and heterozygosity in natural populations may provide the best
general strategy for ensuring the survival of most organisms. Smaller fragmented
populations are more susceptible to deterministic effects that include inbreeding
and loss of genetic variation. Schou et al. (2017) have claimed that there is no
evidence that populations in the wild suffer from inbreeding depression and that
catastrophes, over-exploitation and demographic or environmental factors are
more important causes of extinction than inbreeding. Waller (2015) however
makes a valid point, in that extinctions may be incorrectly attributed to non-
genetic factors alone, when it is the interaction between genetic and non-genetic
factors that is important.
Molecular Biology of Drugs and Food
Geography and Occurrence
Celastrus hindsii
C. hindsii Benth belong to the genus Celastrus which include species of aromatic
herbaceous perennials, almost exclusively native to Asia. Celastrus belongs to the
family Celastraceae and is comprised of about 35 species, distributed in the sub-
tropics and tropics, with a few representatives in temperate areas around the world;
the highest densities are in East Asia, Oceania and both North America and
Madagascar with the present centre of distribution lying in Southeast Asia (Liang
et al. 2016). In Vietnam, the genus Celastrus was known to have eight species: C.
hindsii, C. gemmatus, C. hookeri, C. monospermus, C. orbiculatus, C. annamensis,
C. stylosus and C. paniculatus (Ban 2003). Celastrus have been used as natural
insecticides and also as important folk medicine to treat fever, chill, joint pain,
oedema, rheumatoid arthritis, muscle pain and paralysis, leprosy and bacterial
infection in Asia for a long time. They are well known to produce a large spectrum
of structurally and biogenetically diverse secondary metabolites, such as sesquiter-
penes, alkaloids, triterpenes, diterpenes and flavonoids.
30 H. V. Huy et al.
Markhamia stipulata
M. stipulata is commonly found in evergreen forest on limestone mountains, mixed

with Aglaia gigantea, Cinnamomum obtusifolium and Dracontomelon dao. In
Vietnam, M. stipulata has been recorded with three varieties: M. stipulata var. ker-
rii, M. stipulata var. pierrei and M. stipulata var. canaense (Pham 1999; Dang
2015). Its distribution is from North to South Vietnam but concentrated in two
northern province of Tuyen Quang and Lang Son, while M. stipulata var. canaense
is known only from a very restricted area of about 20 hectares in Ca Na of Thuan
Nam District, Ninh Thuan Province (South Vietnam), at an elevation of about
19–20 m (Dang 2015). The roots, barks, stems and leaves of Markhamia species
have been used by traditional healers for the treatment of miscellaneous disease
conditions such as microbial and parasitic diseases, anaemia, diarrhoea, backache,
sore eyes, intercostal pain, pulmonary troubles, gout, scrotal elephantiasis, rheuma-
toid arthritis and external skin diseases (Kanchanapoom et al. 2002). The plants
have also been used in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, pain and inflammation
in veterinary patients (Ibrahim et al. 2016).
Morphology and Taxonomy
Celastrus hindsii
The genus Celastrus is a deciduous or evergreen woody vine, featured by alternate

simple leaves, axillary or terminal cymes with mostly five-merous pale-green bisex-
ual or unisexual flowers, three- to six-seeded capsules and seeds (≤5 mm in length)
covered by a distinct red or orange fleshy aril (Mu et al. 2012). The genus also can
be distinguished by the typically scandent shrubs, a distinct articulation on the stalk,
consistent three-valved fruits and complete cup-shaped aril. Due to overlapping
morphologies of inter- and intraspecies, mainly variable leaves and inconspicuous
flowers, several species have been defined in the literature. Leaves are elliptic to
oblong or broadly ovate to orbicular (Liang et al. 2016). Recent molecular studies
investigating the phylogenetic relationships within the genus Celastrus have been
implemented (Simmons et al. 2008, 2012; Zhang et al. 2010); however, the sum-
mary data is still rudimentary.
Markhamia stipulata
Markhamia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Bignoniaceae with about

100 genera and 800 species, and at least 10 species are widely distributed from
tropical Africa, China (Zhang and Santisuk 1998), Thailand and Vietnam (Mabberley
2008). The plants of this genus are trees or shrubs with opposite, compound pinnate
leaves and yellow-green flowers and are grown mostly for social, agri-horticultural
and medicinal purposes. Trees are small (3–6 m) and young branches sparsely
puberulous to glabrescent. Leaves are compound, opposite and 14–20 cm long; leaf-
lets 7–9 are opposite, oblong, ovate-oblong or elliptic-oblong; base is broadly acute
to rounded; and lateral veins 5–7 on each side of midrib, along with main veins,
convex on both sides. The petiole is 2–2.5 cm long, and inflorescences are terminal,
8–14-flowered raceme, and the flowering period is from April to June, with a fruit-
ing period from July to September (Pham 1999; Dang 2015).
Examples and Results
Genetic diversity indices GST, H and D demonstrated that both C. hindsii and S.
mucclure contained moderate genetic diversity, but low GST values (Table 4). Values
for RAPD-PCR analysis also consistently showed higher values than using RAMP-
PCR. These values suggest that similarities detected between individuals at any one
site in this study were only moderate (not low) and suggested that significant genetic
differences were present in individuals. Even the similarity between what might
have been unrelated and distant sites were moderate (Xiao et al. 2004; Xiao and
Gong 2006; Hung et al. 2011). In summary, results from the molecular data showed
that a considerable amount of genetic variation between populations was present at
the fragmented sites sampled. Similar results were found in our study of C. fugax
and M. stipulata, in which we suggest that the genetic composition of the two rare
and endangered plants was similar.
Table 4 List of population genetics parameters for the two medicinal drug and food plants used
in this review
Population genetics C. hindsii S. mucclure
Parameters RAPD RAMP RAPD RAMP
Number of populations 4 4 8 8
Number of polymorphic bands 98 46 102 81
Percent of polymorphism (%) 81.7 66.7 70.8 71.1

Nei genetic diversity (H) 0.28 0.20 0.22 0.25
Shannon information index (I) 0.42 0.31 0.35 0.38
Estimation of gene flow (Nm) 0.95 0.89 0.77 0.79

Genetic differentiation (GST) 0.32 0.36 0.24 0.28
Jost genetic differentiation (D) 0.15 0.10 0.16 0.19
Mantel r test (probability) 0.55 0.51 0.34 0.49

(P = 0.03) (P = 0.05) (P = 0.22) (P = 0.09)
Summary of some data extracted and modified from Hung et al. (2011) and other data provided
from the authors
32 H. V. Huy et al.
Often it is the case that variability in smaller populations of plants can appear to
contain nearly as much variation as is contained in larger populations; however, care
should be taken in drawing conclusions from such studies in general (Frankham
et al. 2010; Allendorf 2017). The findings provide evidence for a slower than
expected loss of genetic diversity and consequently a higher than expected long-
term evolutionary potential in small fragmented populations. Nm (estimation of
gene flow) should be larger than 0.5–0.6 to avoid inbreeding depression, and this is
true with our data for C. hindsii and S. mucclure (Table 4; Schou et al. 2017).
Genetic diversity at the species level (and at the population level) was consistently
different and suggested that much more genetic polymorphisms existed among pop-
ulations than within populations.
Natural forest populations for both C. hindsii and S. mucclure contained higher
percentage of polymorphic bands, and both appeared to be in a habitat that was
conducive to maintaining diversity in the wild. Perhaps in their natural forests, the
populations are subjected to minimal impacts from biotic and abiotic stress.
Multivariate statistical methods show that all populations of C. hindsii and S.
mucclure have low genetic variation and effective methods of sexual reproduction
(pollination) should be implemented. PCA and MDS are consistent among RAPD
and RAMP data and clearly show that in C. hindsii populations 1,2 and 3,4 are
further apart genetically; in S. mucclure populations 1, 2, 3 and 5, 7, 8 are most
apart (Figs. 4 and 5). In the situation of S. mucclure with eight populations, sepa-
rating groups was difficult as expected, but it was clear that it was not possible for
populations 4 and 6 to be consistently assigned. However both species would
benefit from breeding and hybridization. Cluster analysis (dendrograms, Fig. 6)
tends to support the structure and genetic diversity between the populations in
both species but especially genetic diversity between populations 1, 3 and 7, 8 for
S. mucclure. We also conclude that further genetic rescue efforts on one or a few
Fig. 4 Principal component analysis (PCA) of the two drug and food plants. (a) C. hindsii using
Fig. 5 Multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the two drug and food plants. (a) C. hindsii using
A C
pop1 pop1
pop2
pop3
pop3
pop4
pop5
pop2 pop6
pop7
pop4 pop8
5 4 3 2 1 0 10 0
B D
CYCAS FUGAX RAMP RAMP CELASTRUS HINDSII
4 5
4
3
3
Distance
Distance
2
2
1
1
0 0
TV
NF
PT
HP
HB
HN
LV1
LV2
Fig. 6 Dendrograms (cluster analysis using Nei genetic diversity in RAMP-PCR) of the two rare
and endangered plants and the two drug and food plants. (a) M. stipulata, (b) C. fugax, (c) S. muc-
clure and (d) C. hindsii
34 H. V. Huy et al.
of the populations would be considered inadequate for either species, and all four
populations should be preserved, especially as all four sites in the one species are
within a very short geographic zone.
Ethomedicinal Use and Markets
Forest trees are an unparalleled group of organisms in their combined ecologi-

cal, economic and societal importance. Forest trees have widespread distribu-
tion, predominantly random mating systems and large population sizes; most
tree species harbour extensive genetic variation both within and among popula-
tions. Yet it has been from forest resources that most medicinally important
plants have originated. At the same time, demographic processes associated
with Pleistocene climate oscillations and land-use changes have affected con-
temporary range-wide diversity and may impinge on the potential for future
adaptation of forest trees. Forests cover approximately 30% of the Earth’s ter-
restrial surface from boreal to tropical latitudes (Araki and Ishii 2015;
MacDicken et al. 2016), and many tree species play foundation or keystone
roles in their respective ecosystems while at the same time representing a renew-
able resource that is a principal driver of economic activity in many areas.
Forests also contain approximately three-quarters of the Earth’s terrestrial bio-
mass, tightly linking them with atmospheric carbon budgets (Jensen et al. 2016;
Holliday et al. 2017). With a growing awareness of the role that different geo-
graphic origins (provenances) play in adaptability and productivity, forest
genetics emerged as a research discipline in the early part of the twentieth cen-
tury. A key goal of modern forest genomics is to couple provenance studies of
phenotypic variation with genome wide data to characterize the genomic under-
pinnings of adaptive traits. In addition, in situ sampling of native forests pro-
vides insights into past evolutionary history and population dynamics.
For health-care providers, it is important that they have an appreciation and under-
standing of indigenous belief systems in relation to health care and work to incorpo-
rate this understanding into their plant-derived medicinal selection and service
delivery. One way to do this would be to adopt a family-centred, integrative approach
that works with the individual, in concert with their family and cultural support.
Applying this type of approach not only respects indigenous people choice to utilize
bush medicine as a part of community treatments and their overall search for health
and wellbeing but also recognizes and begins to work with a holistic epidemiology.
It is also of value for practitioners to know that their patients may be taking bush
medicine because there can be potential risks involved in using both. Plants, leaves
and trees used in making bush medicines may be bioactive and can have physiologi-
cal, emotional and psychological effects. A well-known example of a herbal drug
that interacts with biomedicines is St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum), which is
a traditional European herbal drug used to treat mild depression, but may negatively
interact with a wide number of biomedicines, including antiretroviral drugs, oral
contraceptives and warfarin (Mayes et al. 2012; Tabata and Sawa 2014).
Plant Breeding Cultivation and Management
Plant Breeding and Selection for Sustainability
Small and isolated plant populations face threats from genetic drift and inbreeding.
To rescue populations from these threats, conservation biologists can augment gene
flow into small populations to increase variation and reduce inbreeding depression.
Spectacular success stories have mostly addressed endangered animals (Madsen
et al. 1999; Johnson et al. 2010; Hohenlohe et al. 2012). In plants, the only attempts
at rescuing inbred populations primarily have described chestnut reintroduction
efforts (Wheeler and Sederoff 2009; Miller et al. 2014) and maybe willow (Mosner
et al. 2012), although the latter has been poorly documented. However, we also
know that performing such crosses risks introducing genes that may be poorly
adapted to local conditions or genetic backgrounds. A number of examples of such
‘outbreeding depression’ have led Frankham (2015) to advocate using assisted gene
flow more widely; however, the studies analysed so far in this meta-analysis may
not adequately test for latent outcrossing depression (Waller 2015).
Plant breeding is a continuous attempt to alter genetic architecture of plants for
efficient utilization as food, fodder, fibre, fuel or other end use. In North America
alone, an estimated 3000–5000 species of wild plants were once used as food, but
most have been abandoned (Meyer et al. 2012; Keatinge et al. 2011). Although the
scientific concepts in plant breeding originated well over 100 years ago, domestica-
tion and selection by humans of desirable traits have contributed a great deal to
ensure increased production (Ochatt and jain 2007). The review by Jain and Gupta
(2013) considered information on breeding achievements in 203 major and minor
crop plants compiled across 36 categories, including centres of domestication,
changes in phenotype and progression from the wild to the cultivated forms and
conservation status. Conclusions from these studies include:
(a) Marginality of species, by which crops are domesticated after removal from
their native range, is not common, and many of these cases are recent domesti-
cates produced by intensive agricultural research and not by gradual directed
breeding methods.
(b) There are major gaps in the literature for many crops, particularly with
regard to ancestors, region of origin, domestication dates, expansions of
major civilizations and increased trade effects, giving biogeographers here
a key role to play.
Unfortunately, most medicinal plants have not been domesticated, and currently
there is no toolkit to improve their medicinal attributes for better clinical efficacy.
Immoderate harvesting has led to supply crisis of phytomedicine, exemplified by
the taxane-producing Taxus sp. plants. On the other hand, successful domestication
and improvement are not realistic without deeper insights into the evolutionary
pattern of medicinal plant genomes. Artificial selection can be regarded as an
accelerated and targeted natural selection. Studies of medicinal plant genome
36 H. V. Huy et al.
evolution are crucial not only for the understanding of the ubiquitous mechanisms
of plant evolution and phylogeny but also for plant-based drug discovery and
development, as well as the sustainable utilization of plant pharmaceutical
resources (Kroc et al. 2014).
The effects of outcrossing on fitness in rare and endangered plants can be consis-
tently beneficial, resulting in higher composite fitness in stressful conditions and
even greater benefits for outbreeding species. There are also highly consistent and
substantial benefits of outcrossing on evolutionary adaptation for fitness. The finan-
cial costs of augmenting gene flow may also impede their use. However, improve-
ments in fitness are worthwhile in comparison with many other procedures. There
are legitimate concerns about spreading diseases, pest and parasites if these differ
significantly between the populations to be crossed. However, populations that have
experienced gene flow in the recent past are likely to already share these organisms
(or will in the future). Movement of individuals across political jurisdictions (coun-
tries, states and provinces) may be required for genetic rescue. However, botanic
gardens regularly move taxa across state and country boundaries, and several
genetic rescues have involved such movements. None of the non-genetic issues
impeding genetic rescue attempts is insuperable, especially given the large and con-
sistent benefits typically revealed by genetic rescue attempts. Large improvements
in fitness and evolutionary potential can be made by augmenting gene flow into
small inbred populations (Frankham 2015).
NGS applications in ecology will greatly increase the contribution that molecu-
lar tools can make to ecological restoration and enable progress in restoration genet-
ics and rescue beyond what is possible with current methods. The benefits, addressed
in small detail by NGS, are largely due to an enhanced capacity to develop molecu-
lar markers, a significantly enhanced sampling of genomes, a greater ability to
assess adaptive variation and a new capacity to characterize species composition
and/or functioning via meta-barcoding or metagenomics as mass-throughput bio-
monitoring techniques (Stapley et al. 2010; De Filippis 2018).
Cultivation and Sustainable Active Product Production
Restoration and propagation genetics have their roots in genealogical research

stemming back more than 200 years. Common garden and reciprocal transplant
provenance trials clearly demonstrated the important role of environmental selec-
tion in shaping genetic variation within species (Turesson 1922). In a restoration,
propagation and cultivation context, this has been identified as a ‘home ground
(site) advantage’ (Montalvo and Ellstrand 2001). Many of the gel-based molecular
methods provide a powerful resource to infer genetic provenance guidelines from
life history properties for species with no population genetic knowledge. With the
development of PCR, AFLP, microsatellites and recently SNPs have become the
tools of choice for population genetics, enabling the assessment of genotypic vari-
ability across hundreds, even thousands, of markers and/or highly polymorphic loci.
Restoration ecology through active propagation and cultivation is a young scientific

discipline underpinning improvements in the rapid global expansion of ecological
information. The application of molecular tools over the past 25 years has made an
important contribution to understanding genetic factors influencing ecological suc-
cess. Novel applications include a dramatically enhanced capacity to measure adap-
tive variation for optimal seed sourcing, high-throughput assessment and monitoring
of natural and restored biological communities above ground and below ground and
gene expression analysis as a measure of genetic resilience in restored populations
(McKay et al. 2005; Fraser 2017).
Nursery propagation of elite genotypes, cultivation in selected locations (small
plots of land) and small-scale breeding can, and has often provided valuable plant
resources, however such ventures on a relatively large, professional scale are few.
Tissue culture, somatic embryogenesis may be applicable in selecting ‘elite plants’
for field nurseries, and these type of facilities must be developed (Jain and Gupta
2013; De Filippis 2014). Synthetic seed production is another useful approach
where seeds can be stored and are viable for a long period of time; however, infra-
structure and money must be invested. Long-term monitoring and effects of seed
stability and the genetic stability of elite plants may also be required. In this period
of genetic advancements, both traditional markers and NGS markers are indispens-
able; however, funding for further research is urgently required. Efforts must be
made to involve the community, business and governments at all levels with sound
conservation policies and planning for such ventures.
After decades of discussion, there is little consensus on the extent to which
‘hybrids’ between rare and endangered medicinal species should be protected by
law. As increasingly larger genome-scale data sets are developed, we can identify
individuals and populations with even trace levels of genetic mixture, making the
‘hybrid problem’ all the more difficult to analyse. A decision tree framework for
evaluating hybrid protection must include the processes that produced hybrids
(human mediated or natural), propagation and cultivation and the ecological
impact of hybrids on natural ecosystems. This decision tree approach for case
studies is drawn from the available literature, and management outcomes that this
approach provides for cultivation and hybridization are discussed by Wayne and
Shaffer (2016).
Management of Resources
Ex situ conservation and cultivation are not always practised. The most effective
way to achieve this is to educate and practise sustainable management of resources
and provide opportunities to modify cultivation practices. In this way the misuse of
native flora might be reduced. The results from this study suggest that small popula-
tion fragments of C. fugax, S. mucclure, M. stipulata and possibly also C. hidsii in
Vietnam are well worth conserving as part of an overall strategy to maintain genetic
diversity. Management to ensure better conservation of all four species however
38 H. V. Huy et al.
must be more proactive than at present. A first step would be to present this information
to the management of these resources and make sure that they understand the
significance of the findings. The second step is to promote ex situ conservation in
buffer zones and cultivation steps and in situ monitor the remaining fragmented
populations. A third step would be to preserve as much as possible the shallow soils
of the area. A fourth step would be to educate the indigenous population not to col-
lect material from the wild and develop a plan to invest in methods of propagation
that will allow growing of these valuable species in domestic situations. Domestic
plants could be harvested with ease and without the need for collection from wild
populations, eventually also providing a wider genetic basis for the species. Finally,
the conservation of these endangered plants would benefit considerably by intercon-
necting the present fragmented populations via corridors to help guarantee continu-
ing genetic exchange (Siol et al. 2010).
All of these aspects cannot be given the coverage that they deserve in a single
article like this. Therefore the focus has been on genetic diversity and, specifically,
on the potential of new breeding and genetic research to overcome some of the con-
cerns and constraints when dealing with rare, endangered and medicinal plants.
Time is another factor that must be taken into consideration. Plant species may sud-
denly become popular and have the focus of research in one area (or country), while
in another area they continue to be poorly studied, marketed and managed, causing
confusion that may actually create even more problems and misunderstanding and
lead to poor management.
Markets and Benefits
A number of other conservation problems may be present in developing countries

like poverty, lack of education or awareness, lack of proper marketing, heavy human
and animal pressure and lack of adequate government regulation and providing
inadequate courses and training. A significant correlation was observed in some
species between populations and geographic distance as determined by the Mantel
test, and distance appeared to be a major contributing factor to changes in genetic
diversity. This relationship was apparent for both M. stipulata and C. hindsii,
although for C. fugax and S. mucclure, this relationship was not significant (Tables
3 and 4). Plants from the botanic garden site for M. stipulata and forest area for
C. hindsii (Tables 3 and 4) had high genetic variation but may represent a method of
temporal genetic transfer among closely related populations (Schou et al. 2017).
Similar results were found in a study of the annual plant Lesquerella fendleri in
which the author discovered that the genetic composition of plants differed accord-
ing to geographic distance and how far these populations had been transported away
from their point of origin (Staya et al. 2012).
Resequencing methods in forest trees may shed some more light on neutral pro-
cesses shaping patterns of intra- and interspecific diversity and local adaptation.
Functional and epigenomics of adaptation and natural hybrid zones are useful tools
to study adaptation. The longer breeding cycles of forest trees mean that practical
applications of genomic prediction methods are still in early stages, because a wide
variety of marker genotyping platforms are in use. A multilayered approach to
incorporate genomic information into an ongoing breeding programme for mari-
time pine (Pinus pinaster) using a 9 k SNP array has been described by Holliday
et al. (2017). Divergent natural selection promotes local adaptation and can lead to
reproductive isolation of populations in contrasting environments; however, the
genetic basis of local adaptation remains largely unresolved in natural populations.
Local adaptation might result from antagonistic pleiotropy where alternate alleles
are favoured in distinct habitats, and polymorphism is maintained by selection.
Alternatively, under conditional neutrality some alleles may be favoured in one
environment but neutral at other locations, as in common garden experiments of
polygenic local adaptation (Anderson et al. 2013; Waller 2015). Conditional neu-
trality can result in local adaptation at the organismal level, especially when limited
gene flow prevents the assembly of recombinant genotypes carrying conditionally
beneficial alleles at different loci (Fournier-Level et al. 2011; Wetterstrand 2014).
Perspective and Future Direction
Biogeography, Ethnobotany and Conservation
The Living Planet Index, which reflects changes in the health of the Earth’s ecosys-
tems, declined between 1992 and 2012 by 12% at the global level and by 30% in the
tropics (Cao et al. 2014; Ebert 2014). The dramatic decline in the tropics is indica-
tive of a severe degradation of biodiversity due to high deforestation rates of pri-
mary forests and transformation into agricultural land and pastures (Jacobsen et al.
2013; Ebert 2014). Juma (2011) lists six measures for sustainable intensification of
agriculture: (a) use the same or less land and water, (b) efficient and prudent use of
inputs, (c) minimize greenhouse gas emissions, (d) increase natural capital, (e)
strengthen resilience and (f) reduce environmental impact. However, understanding
the reasons that drive people to select and exploit plants in a certain area is still
rudimentary. Our study shows that selection criteria for plants (including medicinal
plants) could not be limited to phylogeny, and it is likely that plants are selected for
multiple different reasons.
Domestic plants could be harvested with ease and without the need for wild col-
lections, eventually also providing a wider genetic basis for both species. Finally,
the conservation of these endangered plants would benefit considerably by intercon-
necting the present fragmented populations via corridors to help guarantee con-
tinuing genetic exchange. A promising recent development in molecular biology
involves viewing the genome as a mini-ecosystem, where genetic elements are com-
pared to organisms and the surrounding cellular and genomic structures are regarded
as the local environment. Ecological restoration and propagation genetics is a dis-
cipline underpinning these issues and is aided by the knowledge that almost all
40 H. V. Huy et al.
species show spatial genetic structure across their range, with varying levels of
genetic variation within populations. Within a propagation context, genetic markers
have been used to characterize genetic variation within populations and the differ-
entiation between them, with a primary focus on the issue of ‘how local is local’;
and importance is placed on the use of local provenance material so as to minimize
negative impacts on the environment (Weckerle et al. 2011).
New Molecular Developments
Future improvement in NGS approaches will be the use of tagged samples,

wherein multiple individuals/populations can be genotyped simultaneously. These
approaches are predicted to change the way we investigate plant breeding, phylo-
geography, demography and conservation genetics, by massively increasing the
number of loci studied (Grover et al. 2012). This improvement will require the
development of new software tools to make the analyses feasible from a compu-
tational point of view. Realistically, genomics will be applied to plant breeding,
biogeography, ethnobotany and ecology when it becomes easy and cost-effective
to do so.
As the amount and quality of sequence information generated per run keeps
increasing, which allows even higher level analysis and lower costs per samples, it
can be anticipated that the high density of markers from NGS will be extensively
applied to all plant methods, old and new. NGS provides enormous new potential
for delineating locally adapted source populations for restoration and propagation
through investigating natural selection in plants using population genomic
approaches. However, a major challenge for models used to infer selection comes
from confounding demographic variation (e.g. changes in population size and sub-
division), which is common in plant populations. Although there is great potential
in NGS technology, ultimately it is the science that needs to direct the research, not
the technology. What is the issue and what data are needed to answer it are the
questions that need to be answered. For many objectives in ecological genetics, cur-
rent tools such as AFLP and microsatellites will continue to make significant cost-
effective contributions, as will traditional field, nursery and cultivation trials.
Cost of genotyping is another determining factor for adopting appropriate NGS
technologies in plant ecology and breeding (Hayden 2009; Mardis 2010). Since
plant ecology and breeding handle large population sizes, it is an expensive process
(Mardis 2011; Hayden 2014). However, a word of caution is that additional associ-
ated cost for target-enriched library preparation and bioinformatic analysis that pre-
cedes and succeeds the sequencing steps may not decrease as rapidly as the cost of
sequencing itself. The cost of data mining and efficiency to extract and use informa-
tion may be more crucial than genotyping costs themselves. NGS lengths are con-
siderably shorter (50–150 bp) than Sanger sequences (800–1000 bp) which makes
assembly more difficult, but the depth of coverage and cost of NGS are considerably
better. In a pessimistic sense, the scans may simply produce long lists of candidate
genes (where the list appears to be largely dependent on the statistical method
chosen; Biswas and Akey 2006; Fournier-Level et al. 2011) for which any follow-up
functional study would be extremely difficult and rarely undertaken.
Common Mistakes in Molecular Biology
The most common mistake in molecular biology is giving more attention to

genotyping than to sampling. The following specific situations are well worth
remembering:
(a) High-throughput sequencing projects have for the time being generally had
lower sample sizes than classical genotyping studies, making it more important
to know where the included individuals are present. Many tools are available for
doing population genetic simulations (Hoban et al. 2016), some of which can
simulate realistic geographical scenarios (Meirmans 2015).
(b) Failing to perform or report experimental randomization in the laboratory. PCR
may cause differences in band intensity and therefore lead to differences in
genotypes when gels are scored. Most types of errors may be gel or plate spe-
cific, including stutter bands, ghost bands, mistakes in the estimation of band
length and other artefacts. With NGS studies, the coverage, and hence the
degree of missing data, may vary greatly.
(c) Equating geopolitical borders with biological borders. In practice, the groups
are often made by simply dividing the sampled area into, for example, an ‘east-
ern’ and a ‘western’ cluster. Such groupings can even be based on purely
anthropogenic factors, such as geopolitical borders. It is obvious that there is
very little insight to be gained from such a ‘random split’ analysis.
(d) Testing significance of clustering output as nonindependence as the grouping
genotyping data is essentially multivariate. Avoid this problem by not reporting
the P-values of an ANOVA that is based on clustering, but note that it is per-
fectly fine to report the G, H and D statistics.
(e) Misinterpreting Mantel’s (r) statistic that individuals that are close together tend
to exchange more genes than those that are far apart. The main problem is that
Mantel’s r (or the r2 from a linear regression) does not provide an accurate
decomposition of all the genetic variation.
(f) Forgetting that only a small portion of the genome will be covered. Andrew
et al. (2012) tested for climatic adaptation in plants using a set of SNPs. After
applying a set of criteria to avoid false positives, they presented a list of only a
few SNPs that were actually statistically associated with fitness. The use of
multiple methods concurrently may help to select the loci that show the most
robust pattern. But be careful, however, that different methods may be sensitive
to similar biases, and it is nearly impossible to completely avoid false
positives.
(g) Interpreting results should be more focused on biological relevance than on
statistical significance. That does not mean that significance is unimportant and
42 H. V. Huy et al.
results that have a straightforward interpretation insignificance. On the other

hand, one should not be blinded by results that are strongly significant. In the
genomics era, with thousands upon thousands of loci, strong significance is eas-
ily obtained even for biologically marginal processes.
Management and Sustainability
It is apparent that knowledge of traditional natural remedies for healing human dis-
eases is quickly disappearing. The few people who still retain this knowledge are
mostly elderly, and they worry that the chain will soon be broken and modern phar-
maceuticals will replaced many natural remedies; and there will someday remain no
real traditional medicinal knowledge in the area. For many agricultural people in
mountainous regions, swidden agriculture is an integral part of natural resources
management and genetic resources conservation but also of ethnic identity and bio-
cultural heritage (Qureshi et al. 2016; Fraser 2017). In areas rich with natural biodi-
versity, the persistence of swidden cultivation is mostly seen as a ‘problem’ that
obstructs the achievement of conservation objectives, and policies originating from
a forest conservation perspective often seek to eradicate this form of agriculture.
However, traditional rotational ‘shifting cultivation’ contributes to the maintenance
of diversity of plant genetic resources, and these play important roles in maintaining
cultural identity. Because the location of our study sites are neighbouring on China,
Laos and Myanmar, only some plant varieties are likely to be unique to the region.
Genetic diversity, variety diversity and species diversity of forest resources in the
area have declined, and some plant varieties have even disappeared. For any ethnic
group engaged in agriculture, better agricultural production is a core part of eth-
nic culture, and traditional agriculture is an important part of the culture of ethnic
minorities. Traditional ecological knowledge, religion, and the concept of the uni-
verse are highly interrelated, and many younger villagers have lost interest in tradi-
tional culture and are unwilling to return to traditional practices. In situ conservation
and sustainability, including techniques developed for propagation, cultivation, on-
farm and off-farm management, new variety breeding and scientific studies, are also
important for agrobiodiversity to be maintained (Schou et al. 2017; Wayne and
Shaffer 2016).
In many mountain/forest areas, local food and medicinal plant security is mostly
dependent on conservation of agricultural biological and plant resources, so in situ
conservation measures by local farmers are very important. We can recommend the
following conservation strategies:
(a) Promote consensus among different stakeholders on the value of agrobiodiver-
sity conservation: A way to alleviate the contradiction between traditional vari-
ety conservation and new variety extension. It may be necessary to implement
strong promotion of certain plants.
(b) Encourage households to conserve traditional varieties in permanent plots: The
advantages of traditional variety conservation through individual household
cultivation may be realized by ensuring local villagers can take personal

ownership of germplasm (seed) resources.
(c) Convene seed exchange facilities among farmers: Crop diversity can be
enhanced by facilitating seed exchange among farmers. Farmers may be retain-
ing traditional older crop seeds and expect that if, in the future, they want to
plant these crops, they will be able to obtain seeds.
(d) Make a visual documentary of the indigenous knowledge related to cultivation:
Considering the cultural significance and abundance of traditional knowledge
of various resources, it is necessary to record the status, distribution, use and
cultural management for policymakers.
(e) Provide traditional agricultural products to tourists: The feasibility of develop-
ing processed products using traditional crop varieties for sale to tourists can be
explored as a means to promote agrobiodiversity conservation. Local govern-
ments could help villagers in tourism centres.
(f) Ex situ conservation of agrobiodiversity: Rare and endangered plant and medic-
inal species may be particularly appropriate for certain plant varieties. In addi-
tion to preserving endangered species, ex situ conservation also provides good
sources of plant material for research if needed.
To conclude, Northern Vietnam is a multi-ethnic region considered to be a global
biodiversity and cultural ‘hotspot’. In the study area, there are abundant farming
crops and livestock resources, and that agrobiodiversity is central to local livelihood
and traditional culture. However, due to rapid economic development and land-use
changes, local agrobiodiversity and related traditional rare and endangered plants
have suffered losses and faced tremendous challenges. Some traditional plant and
crop resources have declined and some have even disappeared. Conservation mea-
sures such as preserving seeds and replanting stocks of rare and endangered species
are very important methods for conserving local biodiversity but need to be enhanced
(Evans et al. 2014). Thus in future conservation of biodiversity, sustainable protec-
tion measures based primarily in the local communities should be considered and
most probably adopted.
References
Abbott RJ, Barton NH, Good JM (2016) Genomics of hybridization and its evolutionary conse-
quences. Mol Ecol 25:2325–2332
Ahmad P, Ashraf M, Younis M, Hu X, Kumar A, Akram NA, Al-Quariny F (2012) Role of trans-
genic plants in agriculture and biopharming. Biotechnol Adv 30:524–540
Albers CA, Lunter G, Mccarthur DG, McVean G, Ouwehand WH, Durbin R (2010) Dindel: accu-
rate indel calls from short-read data. Genome Res 21(6):961–973. https://doi.org/10.1101/
gr.112326.110
Albert M (2013) Peptides as triggers of plant defence. J Exp Bot 64:5269–5279
Allendorf FW (2017) Genetics and the conservation of natural populations: allozymes to genomes.
Mol Ecol 2:420–430
Alvarez M, Schrey AW, Richards CJ (2012) Ten years of transcriptomics in wild populations: what
have we learned about their ecology and evolution? Mol Ecol 24:710–725
44 H. V. Huy et al.
Anderson JT, Lee CR, Rushworth CA, Colautti RI, Mitchell-Olds T (2013) Genetic trade-offs and
conditional neutrality contribute to local adaptation. Mol Ecol 22:699–708
Andrew RL et al (2012) Adaptation with gene flow across the landscape in a dune sunflower. Mol
Ecol 21:2078–2091
Angres B (2005) Cell microarrays. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 5:769–779
Araki M, Ishii T (2015) Towards social acceptance of plant breeding by genome editing. Trends
Plant Sci 20:145–149
Archmiller AA, Bauer EF, Koch RE, Wijayawardena BK, Ammu A, Kottwitz JJ, Munsterman AS,
Wilson AE (2015) Formalizing the definition of meta-analysis in molecular ecology. Mol Ecol
24:4042–4051
Arnold B, Corbett-Detig RB, Hartl D, Bomblies K (2013) RADseq underestimates diversity and
introduces genealogical biases due to nonrandom haplotype sampling. Mol Ecol 22:3179–3190
Ban NT (2003) Catalogue of Vietnam’s plant species, vol II. Agriculture Publishing House, Hanoi
Barabaschi D, Tondellia A, Desiderioa F, Volanteb A, Vaccinoc P, Valèb G, Cattivelli L (2016) Next
generation breeding. Plant Sci 242:3–13
Barley AJ, Thomson RC (2016) Assessing the performance of DNA barcoding using posterior
predictive simulations. Mol Ecol 25:1944–1957
Baruah J, Gogoi B, Das K, Ahmed NM, Sarmah DK, Lal M, Bhau BS (2017) Genetic diversity
study amongst Cymbopogon species from NE-India using RAPD and ISSR markers. Ind Crop
Prod 95:235–243
Belcaid M, Toonen RJ (2015) Demystifying computer science for molecular ecologists. Mol Ecol
24:2619–2640
Bianco A, Cestaro DJ, Sargent E, Banchi S, Derdak M, Di Guardo S, Salvi J, Jansen R, Viola I, Gut
F, Laurens D, Chagné R, Velasco E et al (2014) Development and validation of a 20K single
nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) whole genome genotyping array for apple (Malus × domes-
tica Borkh). PLoS One 9:e110377
Biswas S, Akey JM (2006) Genomic insights into positive selection. Trends Genet 22:437–446
Buerkle CA, Gompert Z (2013) Population genomics based on low coverage sequencing: how low
should we go? Mol Ecol 22:3028–3035
Buggs RJA, Renny-Byfield M, Chester IE, Jordon-Thaden LF, Viccini S, Chamala AR, Leitch R
et al (2012) Next generation sequencing and genome evolution in allopolyploids. Am J Bot
99:372–382
Cao K, Zheng Z, Wang L, Liu X, Zhu G (2014) Comparative population genomics reveals the
domestication history of the peach, Prunus persica, and human influences on perennial fruit
crops. Genome Biol 15:415
Carrière SM, Rodary E, Méral P, Serpantié G, Boisvert V, Kuli CA, Lestrelin G, Lhoutellier L,
Moizo B, Smektala G et al (2013) Rio+20, biodiversity marginalized. Conserv Lett 6:6–11
Chiu RWK, Sun H, Akolekar R, Clouser C, Lee C, McKernan K, Zhou D et al (2010) Maternal
plasma DNA analysis with massively parallel sequencing by ligation for non-invasive prenatal
diagnosis of trisomy 21. Clin Chem 56:459–463
Chivenge P, Mabhaudhi T, Modi AT, Mafongoya P (2015) The potential role of neglected and
underutilised crop species as future crops under water scarce conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Int J Environ Res Public Health 12:5685–5711
Choudhury RR, Parisod C (2017) Jumping genes: genomic ballast or powerhouse of biological
diversification. Mol Ecol 26:4587–4590
Clark KR, Gorley RN (2001) Primer version 5.2.7 user manual/tutorial. Plymouth Marine
Laboratory, PRIMER-E Ltd, Plymouth
Clark KR, Gorley RN (2006) Getting started with Primer version 6. Plymouth Marine Laboratory,
PRIMER-E Ltd, Plymouth
Coissac E, Hollingsworth PM, Lavergne S, Taberlet P, Leca F (2016) From barcodes to genomes:
extending the concept of DNA barcoding. Mol Ecol 25:1423–1428
Comadran J, Kilian B, Russell J, Ramsay L, Stein N, Ganal M, Shaw P, Bayer M, Thomas W,
Marshall D, Hedley P, Tondelli A, Pecchioni N, Francia E, Korzun V, Walther A, Waugh R
(2012) Natural variation in a homolog of Antirrhinum centroradıalıs contributed to spring

growth habit and environmental adaptation in cultivated barley. Nat Genet 44:1388–1392
Connor DJ, Loomis RS, Cassman KG (2011) Crop ecology-productivity and management in agri-
cultural systems, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 562
Dang VS (2015) A new variety of Markhamia stipulata (Bignoniaceae) from Southern Vietnam.
Taiwania 60:129–132
Datta S, Datta S, Kim S, Chakraborty S, Gill RS (2010) Statistical analyses of next generation
sequence data: a partial overview. J Proteomics Bioinform 3:183–190
Davey JW, Cezard TE, Fuentes-Utrilla P, Eland C, Gharbi K, Blaxter ML (2013) Special features
of RAD sequencing data: implications for genotyping. Mol Ecol 22:3151–3164
De Filippis LF (2013) Bioinformatic tools in crop improvement. In: Hakeem KR, Ahmad PA,
Ozturk MA (eds) Crop improvement – new approaches and modern techniques. Springer
Business, Dordrecht, pp 49–122
De Filippis LF (2014) Crop improvement by tissue culture. In: Hakeem KR, Ahmad PA, Ozturk
MA (eds) Crop improvement – new approaches and modern techniques. Springer Business,
Dordrecht, pp 49–122
De Filippis LF (2017) Plant bioinformatics: next generation sequencing approaches. Hakeem
KR, Malik A, Ozturk MA, Sukan FV Plant bioinformatics: decoding the phyta, 1-40, Springer
Business Dordrecht
De Filippis LF (2018) Underutilised and neglected crops: next generation sequencing approaches
for crop improvement and better food security. In: Hakeem KR, Malik A, Ozturk MA, Sukan
FV (eds) Plant bioinformatics: decoding the phyta. Springer Business, Dordrecht, pp 1–44
De Filippis LF, Magel E (2012) Identification of biochemical differences between the sapwood and
transition zone in Robinia pseudoacacia L. by differential display of proteins. Z Holzforschung
66:543–549
De Wit P, Pespeni MH, Ladner JT, Barshis DJ, Seneca F et al (2012) The simple fool’s guide to
population genomics via RNA-Seq: an introduction to high-throughput sequencing data analy-
sis. Mol Ecol Resour 12:1058–1067
De Wit P, Pespeni MH, Palumbi SR (2015) SNP genotyping and population genomics from
expressed sequences – current advances and future possibilities. Mol Ecol 2:2310–2323
Dennenmoser S, Sedlazeck FJ, Iwaszkiewicz E, Li X-Y, Altmuller J, Nolte AW (2017) Copy num-
ber increases of transposable elements and protein coding genes in an invasive fish of hybrid
origin. Mol Ecol 26:4712–4724
Dinh NL, Bui DH (2010) Conservation and management for climbing bamboo- Truc Day
(Ampelocalamus sp) in Ba Be National Park. Vietnam J Sci Technol., Thai Nguyen University
14:138–142
Dohm JC, Lottaz C, Borodina T, Himmelbauer H (2008) Substantial biases in ultrashort read data
sets from high-throughput DNA sequencing. Nucleic Acids Res 36:e105
Dufresne F, Stift M, Vergilino R, Mable BK (2014) Recent progress and challenges in population
genetics of polyploidy organisms: an overview of current state-of-the-art molecular and statis-
tical tools. Mol Ecol 23:40–69
Ebert AW (2014) Potential of underutilised traditional vegetables and legume crops to contribute to
food and nutritional security, income and more sustainable production systems. Sustainability
6:319–335
Egan AN, Schlueter J, Spooner DM (2012) Applications of next-generation sequencing in plant
biology. Am J Bot 99:175–185
Ekblom R, Galindo J (2011) Applications of next generation sequencing in molecular ecology of
non-model organisms. Heredity 107:1–15
Ellegren H (2008) Sequencing goes 454 and takes large-scale genomics in the wild. Mol Ecol
17:1629–1631
Evans LM, Slavov GT, Rodgers-Melnick E, Martin J, Ranjan P et al (2014) Population genomics
of Populus trichocarpa identifies signatures of selection and adaptive trait associations. Nat
Genet 46:1089–1096
46 H. V. Huy et al.
Farsani SF, Mahdavi MA (2011) Quantification of gene expression based on microarray In:
Mahdavi MA (ed), Bioinformatic-trends and methodologies. InTech Publications. http://www.
intechopen.com/books/bioinformatics
Felsenstein J (2015) Theoretical evolutionary genetics. Seattle, Washington. http://evolution.
gs.washington.edu/pgbook/pgbook.html
Fierst JL (2011) A history of phenotypic plasticity accelerates adaptation to a new environment.
J Evol Biol 24:1992–2001
Foley JA, Ramankutty N, Brauman KA (2011) Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature
478:337–342
Ford-Lloyd BV, Schmidt M, Armstrong SJ, Barazani O, Engels J, Hadas R, Hammer K, Kell SP,
Kang D, Khoshbakht K, Li Y, Long C, Lu B-R, Ma K, Nguyen VT, Qiu L et al (2011) Crop wild
relatives-undervalued, underutilized and under threat? Bioscience 61:559–565
Fournier-Level A, Korte A, Cooper MD et al (2011) A map of local adaptation in Arabidopsis
thaliana. Science 334:86–89
Frankham R (2015) Genetic rescue of small inbred populations: metaanalysis reveals large and
consistent benefits of gene flow. Mol Ecol 24:2610–2618
Frankham R, Ballou JD, Briscoe DA (2010) Introduction to conservation genetics, 2nd edn.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Fraser DJ (2017) Genetic diversity of small populations: not always “doom and gloom”? Mol Ecol
26:6499–6650
Fu J, Yang L, Khan MA, Mei Z (2013) Genetic characterization and authentication of Lonicera
japonica Thunb. by using improved RAPD analysis. Mol Biol Rep 40:5993–5999
Garnatje T, Pnuelas J, Valles J (2017) Ethnobotany, phylogeny, and ‘omics’ for human health and
food security. Trends Plant Sci 22:187–191
Garrick RC, Bonatelli IAS, Hyseni C, Morales A, Pelletier TA, Perez MF, Rice E, Satler JD,
Symula RE, Thome MTC, Carstens BC (2015) The evolution of phylogeographic data sets.
Mol Ecol 24:1164–1171
Gepts P (2004) Crop domestication as a long-term selection experiment. Plant Breed Rev 24:1–44
Gilad Y, Pritchard JK, Thornton K (2009) Characterizing natural variation using next-generation
sequencing technologies. Trends Genet 25:463–471
Gompert Z, Buerkle CA (2011) A hierarchical Bayesian model for next-generation population
genomics. Genetics 187:903–917
Griffin PC, Robin C, Hoffmann AA (2011) A next-generation sequencing methods of overcoming
the multiple gene copy problem in polyploid phylogenetics, applied to Poa grasses. BMC Biol
9:19
Grover CE, Salmon A, Wendel JE (2012) Targeted sequence capture as a powerful tool for evolu-
tionary analysis. Am J Bot 9:312–319
Gupta PK (2008) Single-molecule DNA sequencing technologies for future genomics research.
Trends Biotechnol 26:602–611
Gupta K, Sengupta A, Saha J, Gupta B (2014) The attributes of RNA interference in relation to
plant abiotic stress tolerance. Gene Technol 3:1 ISSN:2329–6682 GNT
Guttikonda SK, Marri P, Mammadov J, Ye L, Soe K, Richey K, Cruse J, Zuang M, Gao Z, Evans
C, Rounsley S, Kumpatia SP (2016) Molecular characterisation of transgenic events using
next generation sequencing approach. PLoS One 11:e0149515. https://doi.org/10.1371/jour-
nal.pone.0149515
Hao D-C, Xiao P-G (2015) Genomics and evolution in traditional medicinal plants: road to a
healthier life. Evol Bioinforma 11:197–212. https://doi.org/10.4137/EBO.S31326
Hayden EC (2009) Genome sequencing: the third generation. Nature 457:768–769
Hayden EC (2014) The $1000 genome. Nature 507:294–295
He R, Kim MJ, Nelson W, Balbuena TS, Kim R et al (2012) Next-generation sequencing-based
transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of the common reed Phragmites australis (Poaceae)
reveals genes involved in invasiveness and rhizome specificity. Am J Bot 99:232–247
He Q, Prado JR, Knowles LL (2017) Inferring the geographic origin of a range expansion: latitu-
dinal and longitudinal coordinates inferred from genomic data in an ABC framework with the
program X-ORIGIN. Mol Ecol 26:6908–6920
Hedrick PW (2004) Recent developments in conservation genetics. Forest Ecol Manag 197:3–19
Hedrick PW, Allendorf FW, Waples RS (2013) Let nature control adaptation. Nature 503:303
Heider B, Anderson MS, Schulze-Kraft R (2007) RAPD variation amongst Vietnamese Flemingia
macrophylla (Willd.) Kuntze ex Merr. accessions. Biodivers Conserv 16:1617–1631
Heller R, Siegismund HR (2009) Relationship between three measures of genetic differentiation
GST, DEST, and GST: how wrong have we been? Mol Ecol 18:2080–2083
Henry RJ (2012) Next-generation sequencing for understanding and accelerating crop domestica-
tion. Brief Funct Genomics 11:51–56
Hill WG, Weir BS (2011) Variation in actual relationship as a consequence of Mendelian sampling
and linkage. Genet Res 93:47–64
Hoang TML, De Filippis LF, Le XT (2009) Salt tolerance and screening for genetic changes in
rice mutants after gamma irradiation using RAPD and microsatellite (RAMP) markers. Open
Hort J 2:62–69
Hoban S, Kelley JL, Lotterhos KE et al (2016) Finding the genomic basis of local adaptation:
pitfalls, practical solutions, and future directions. Am Nat 188:379–397
Hohenlohe PA, Bassham S, Currey M, Cresko WA (2012) Extensive linkage disequilibrium and
parallel adaptive divergence across three spine stickleback genomes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond
B Biol Sci 36:395–408
Holliday JA, Aitken SN, Cooke JEK, Fady B, Gonzalez SC, Martinez ME, Correa J, Lexer C,
Staton M, Whetten RW, Plomion C (2017) Advances in ecological genomics in forest trees and
applications to genetic resources conservation and breeding. Mol Ecol 26:706–717
Huang YL, Fang XT, Lu L, Yan YB, Chen SF et al (2012) Transcriptome analysis of an invasive
weed Mikania micrantha. Biol Plantarum 56:111–116
Hufford KM et al (2012) Inbreeding and outbreeding depression in Stylidium hispidum: implica-
tions for mixing seed sources for ecological restoration. Ecol Evol 2:2262–2273
Hung HV, De Filippis LF, Buckney RT (2011) Population structure and genetic diversity of the
rare and endangered Sinicalamus mcclure and Markhamia stipulata in Ba Be National park,
Vietnam. Asian J Plant Sci 10:312–322
Hurd PJ, Nelson CJ (2009) Advantages of next-generation sequencing versus the microarray in
epigenetic research. Brief Funct Genomic Proteomic 8:174–183
Ibrahim MB, Kaushik N, Sowemimo AA, Odukoya OA (2016) Review of the phytochemical and
pharmacological studies of the genus Markhamia. Pharmacogn Rev 10:50–59
Imelfort M, Duran C, Batley J, Edwards D (2009) Discovering genetic polymorphisms in next-
generation sequencing data. Plant Biotechnol J 7:312–317
Jackson SA, Iwata A, Lee S-H, Schmutz J, Shoemaker R (2011) Sequencing crop genomes:
approaches and applications. New Pytol 191:915–926
Jacobs DF et al (2013) A conceptual framework for restoration of threatened plants: the effective
model of American chestnut (Castanea dentata) reintroduction. New Phytol 197:378–393
Jacobsen S-E, Sørensen M, Pedersen SM, Weiner J (2013) Feeding the world: genetically modified
crops versus agrobiodiversity. Agron Sustain Dev 33:651–662
Jacobsen S-E, Sorensen M, Pedersen SM, Weiner J (2015) Using our agrobiodiversity: plant-based
solutions to feed the world. Agron Sustain Dev 35:1217–1235
Jain SM, Gupta SD (eds) (2013) Biotechnology of neglected and underutilized crops. Springer,
Berlin
Jeffries DL, Copp GH, Handley LL, Akan Olsen KH, Sayer CD, Hanfling B (2016) Comparing
RADseq and microsatellites to infer complex phylogeographic patterns, an empirical perspec-
tive in the Crucian carp, Carassius carassius, L. Mol Ecol 25:2997–3018
Jensen JD, Foll M, Bernatchez L (2016) The past, present and future of genomic scans for selec-
tion. Mol Ecol 25:1–4
Johnson WE, Onorato DP, Roelke ME et al (2010) Genetic restoration of the Florida panther.
Science 329:1641–1645
Jost L (2008) GST and its relatives do not measure differentiation. Mol Ecol 17:4015–4026
Jost L (2009) D vs GST: response to Heller and Siegismund (2009) and Ryman and Leimar (2009).
Mol Ecol 18:2088–2091
48 H. V. Huy et al.
Juma C (2011) The new harvest – agricultural innovations in Africa. Oxford University Press, Inc.,
Oxford, p 296
Kahane R, Hodgkin T, Jaenicke H, Hoogendoorn C, Hermann M, Keatinge JDH, Hughes JDA,
Padulosi S, Looney N (2013) Agrobiodiversity for food security, health and income. Agron
Sustain Dev 33:671–693
Kanchanapoom T, Kasai R, Yamasaki K (2002) Phenolic glycosides from Markhamia stipulata.
Phytochemistry 59:557–563
Kane N, Sveinsson S, Dempewolf H, Yang JY, Zhang DZ, Engels MM, Cronk Q (2012) Ultra-
barcoding in cacao (Theobroma spp; Malvaceae) using whole chloroplast genomes and nuclear
ribosomal DNA. Am J Bot 99:320–329
Karakach TK, Flight RM, Douglas S (2010) An introduction to DNA microarrays for gene expres-
sion analysis. Chemom Intell Lab Syst 104:28–52
Keatinge JDH, Yang R-Y, Hughes JDA, Easdown WJ, Holmer R (2011) The importance of veg-
etables in ensuring both food and nutritional security in attainment of the millennium develop-
ment goals. Food Sci 3:491–501
Kellogg JJ et al (2016) Biochemometrics for natural products search: comparison of data analysis
approaches and application to identification of bioactive compounds. J Nat Prod 79:376–386
Kimura M (1993) The neutral theory of molecular evolution. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge
Krauss SL et al (2013) An ecological genetic delineation of local seed-source provenance for eco-
logical restoration. Ecol Evol 3:2138–2149
Kroc M, Koczyk G, Swiecicki W, Kilian A, Nelson MN (2014) New evidence of ancestral poly-
ploidy in the Genistoid legume Lupinus angustifolius L (narrow-leafed lupin). Theor Appl
Genet 127:1237–1249
Kvam VM, Liu P, Si Y (2012) A comparison of statistical methods for detecting differentially
expressed genes from RNA-seq data. Am J Bot 99:248–256
Leonti M (2011) The future is written: impact of scripts on the cognition, selection, knowledge and
transmission of medicinal plant use and its implications for ethnobotany and ethnopharmacol-
ogy. J Ethnopharmacol 134:542–555
Liang XQ, Ferguson DK, Jacques FMB, Su T, Wang L, Zhou ZK (2016) A new Celastrus species
from the middle Miocene of Yunnan, China and its palaeoclimatic and palaeobiogeographic
implications. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 225:43–52
Linquist S, Cottenie K, Elliott T, Saylor B, Cremer SC, Gregory TR (2015) Applying ecological
models to communities of genetic elements: the case of neutral theory. Mol Ecol 24:3232–3242
Liu L, Li Y, Li S, Hu N, He Y, Pong R, Lin D, Lu L, Law M (2012) Comparison of next-generation
sequencing systems. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012:251364. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/251364
Llaca V (2012) Sequencing technologies and their use in plant biotechnology and breeding. In:
Munshi A. DNA sequencing – methods and applications. InTech. ISBN: 978-953-51-0564-0
Long Y, Cheng J, Mei Z, Zhao L, Wei C, Fu S, Khan MA, Fu J (2015) Genetic analysis of litchi
(Litchi chinensis Sonn.) in southern China by improved random amplified polymorphic DNA
(RAPD) and inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR). Mol Biol Rep 42:159–166
Mabberley DJ (2008) Mabberley’s plant-book: a portable dictionary of plants, their classification
and uses, 3rd edn. Cambridge University Press, New York, p 1,021
MacDicken K, Jonsson O, Pina L et al (2016) Global forest resources assessment 2015. Food and
Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations (FAO), Rome
Madden LV, Paul PA (2011) Meta-analysis for evidence synthesis in plant pathology: an overview.
Phytopathology 101:16–30
Madsen T, Shine R, Olsson M, Wittzel H (1999) Restoration of an inbred adder population. Nature
402:34–35
Maestri R (2017) Using phylogenetic clade composition to understand biogeo-graphical variation
in functional traits. Front Biogeogr 9(3):e34435
Mantel N (1967) The detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach. Cancer
Res 27:209–220
Mardis ER (2010) The $1,000 genome, the $100,000 analysis? Genome Med 2:84
Mardis ER (2011) A decade’s perspective on DNA sequencing technology. Nature 470:198–203
Marmiroli N, Maestri E (2014) Plant peptides in defense and signaling. Peptides 56:30–44
Massana R (2015) Getting specific: making taxonomic and ecological sense of large sequencing
data sets. Mol Ecol 24:2904–2906
Mastretta-Yanes A, Arrigo N, Alvarez N, Jorgensen TH, Pinero D, Emerson BC (2015) Restriction
site-associated DNA sequencing, genotyping error estimation and de novo assembly optimiza-
tion for population genetic inference. Mol Ecol Resour 15:28–41
Mayes S, Massawe FJ, Alderson PG, Roberts JA, Azam-Ali SN, Hermann M (2012) The potential
for underutilized crops to improve security of food production. J Exp Bot 63:1075–1079
McKay JK et al (2005) ‘How local is local?’ – a review of practical and conceptual issues in the
genetics of restoration. Restor Ecol 13:432–440
Medeiros PMD, Ladio AH, Santos AMM, Albuquerque UPD (2013) Does the selection of medici-
nal plants by Brazilian local populations suffer taxonomic influence? J Ethnopharmacol
146:842–852
Meirmans PG (2015) Seven common mistakes in population genetics and how to avoid them. Mol
Ecol 24:3223–3231
Memon AR (2012) Transcriptomics and proteomics analysis of root nodules of modern legume
plants. In: Asharaf M, Ahmad MSA, Ozturk M, Aksoy A (eds) Crop production for agricultural
improvement. Springer Science – Business Media, Berlin
Meyer RS, DuVal AE, Jensen HR (2012) Patterns and processes in crop domestication: an histori-
cal review and quantitative analysis of 203 global food crops. New Phytol 196:29–48
Miller AC, Woeste KE, Anagnostakis SL, Jacobs DF (2014) Exploration of a rare population of
Chinese chestnut in North America: stand dynamics, health and genetic relationships. AoB
Plants 6:plu065
Montalvo AM, Ellstrand NC (2001) Transplantation of the subshrub Lotus scoparius: testing the
home-site advantage hypothesis. Conserv Biol 14:1034–1045
Mosner E et al (2012) Floodplain willows in fragmented river landscapes: understanding spatio-
temporal genetic patterns as a basis for restoration plantings. Biol Conserv 153:211–218
Mu XY, Zhao LC, Zhang ZX (2012) Phylogeny of Celastrus L. (Celastraceae) inferred from two
nuclear and three plastid markers. J Plant Res 125:619–630
Nei M (1973) Analysis of gene diversity in subdivided populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
70:3321–3323
Nei M (1987) Molecular evolutionary genetics. Columbia University Press, New York
Nicolai M, Pisani C, Bouchet J-P et al (2012) Discovery of a large set of SNP and SSR genetic
markers by high-throughput sequencing of pepper (Capsicum annuum). Genet Mol Res
11:2295–2300
Nielsen R, Paul JS, Albrechtsen A, Song YS (2011) Genotype and SNP calling from next-
generation sequencing data. Nat Rev Genet 12:443–451
Ochatt S, Jain SM (2007) Breeding of neglected and under-utilized crops, spices and herbs.
Science Publishers Inc, Enfield, NH
Okou DT, Steinberg KM, Middle C, Cutler DJ, Albert TJ, Zwick ME (2007) Microarray-based
genomic selection for high throughput resequencing. Nat Methods 4:907–909
Osborne R, Hill KD, Nguyen HT, Ke LP (2007) Cycads of Vietnam. Osborne and Roy, Singapore
Osborne R, Hill KD, Nguyen HT, Phan KL (2010) Cycas fugax, The IUCN red list of threat-
ened species: e.T42039A10635348. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-3.RLTS.
T42039A10635348.en
Paliy O, Shankar V (2016) Application of multivariate statistical techniques in microbial ecology.
Mol Ecol 25:1032–1057
Pham HH (1999) Illustrated flora of Vietnam. Youth Publishing House, Hanoi (in Vitnamese)
Pool JE, Hellmann I, Jensen JD, Nielsen R (2010) Population genetic inference from genomic
sequence variation. Genome Res 20:291–300
Price DL, Casler MD (2012) Simple regression models as a threshold for selecting AFLP loci with
reduced error rates. BMC Bioinformatics 13:268
50 H. V. Huy et al.
Primmer CR (2009) From conservation genetics to conservation genomics. Ann N Y Acad Sci
1162:357–368
Pu P, Zhang Z, Kang C, Jiang R, Jia Z, Wang G, Jiang H (2009) Downregulation of Wnt2 and beta-
catenin by siRNA suppresses malignant glioma cell growth. Cancer Gene Ther 16:351–361
Qureshi R, Ghazanfar SA, Obied H, Vasileva V, Tariq MA (2016) Ethnobotany: a living science
for alleviating human suffering. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2016:9641692 3 pages
R Core Team (2017) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for
Statistical Computing, Vienna
Rai A, Saito K, Yamazaki M (2017) Integrated omics analysis of specialized metabolism in medici-
nal plants. Plant J 90:764–787
Ray S, Satya PN (2014) Next generation sequencing technologies for next generation plant breed-
ing. Front Plant Sci 5:367
Ritchie AL, Krauss SL (2012) A genetic assessment of ecological restoration success in Banksia
attenuata. Restor Ecol 20:441–449
Robertson M, Richards C (2015) Opportunities and challenges of nextgeneration sequencing
applications in ecological epigenetics. Mol Ecol 24:3799–3801
Ruhsam M, Rai HS, Mathews S et al (2015) Does complete plastid genome sequencing improve spe-
cies discrimination and phylogenetic resolution in araucaria? Mol Ecol Resour 15:1067–1078
Salgotra RK, Gupta BB, Stewart CN Jr (2014) From genomics to functional markers in the era of
next-generation sequencing. Biotechnol Lett 36:417–426
Sansaloni C, et al. (2011) Diversity arrays technology (DArT) and next-generation sequencing
combined: genome-wide, high throughput, highly informative genotyping for molecular breed-
ing of Eucalyptus. Proc BMC P54, BioMed Central Ltd
Savo V, Caneva JRG, McClatchey WC (2015) Plant selection for ethnobotanical uses on the Amalfi
coast (southern Italy). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 11:58
Savolainen O, Lascoux M, Merila J (2013) Ecological genomics of local adaptation. Nat Rev
Genet 14:807–820
Saxena A, Cramer CS (2013) Metabolomics: a potential tool for breeding nutraceutical vegetables.
Adv Crop Sci Technol 1:106. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329.8863.1000106
Schmidt-Lebuhna AN, Aitken NC, Chuah A (2017) Species trees from consensus single nucleotide
polymorphism (SNP) data: testing phylogenetic approaches with simulated and empirical data.
Mol Phylogenet Evol 116:192–201
Schoch CL, Seifert KA, Huhndorf S et al (2012) Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS)
region as a universal DNA barcode marker for fungi. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:6241–6246
Schou MF, Loeschcke F, Bechsgaard J, Schlotterer JC, Kristensen TN (2017) Unexpected high
genetic diversity in small populations suggests maintenance by associative overdominance.
Mol Ecol 26:6510–6523
Shaheen S, Bibi Y, Hussain M, Iqbal M, Saira H, Safdar I, Mehboob H, Tul Ain Q, Naseem
K, Laraib S (2017) A review on Geranium wallichianum D-don ex-sweet: an endangered
medicinal herb from Himalaya region. Med Aromat Plants (Los Angles) 6:2. https://doi.
org/10.4172/2167-0412.1000288
Shokralla S, Spall JL, Gibson JF, Hajibabaei M (2012) Next-generation sequencing technologies
for environmental DNA research. Mol Ecol 21:1794–1805
Shokralla S, Gibson JF, Nikbakht H, Janzen DH, Hallwachs W et al (2014) Next-generation DNA
barcoding: using next-generation sequencing to enhance and accelerate DNA barcode capture
from single specimens. Mol Ecol Res 14:892–901
Simmons MP, Cappa JJ, Archer RH, Ford AJ, Eichstedt D, Clevinger CC (2008) Molecular phy-
logenetics and evolution phylogeny of the Celastreae ( Celastraceae ) and the relationships
of Catha edulis inferred from morphological characters and nuclear and plastid genes. Mol
Phylogenet Evol 48:745–757
Simmons MP, Mckenna MJ, Bacon CD, Yakobson K, Cappa JJ, Archer RH, Ford AJ (2012)
Molecular phylogenetics and evolution phylogeny of Celastraceae tribe Euonymeae inferred
from morphological characters and nuclear and plastid genes. Mol Phylogenet Evol 62:9–20
Siol M, Wright SI, Spencer C, Barrett H (2010) The population genomics of plant adaptation. New
Phytol 188:313–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03401.x
Smith FI, Eyzaguirre P (2007) African leafy vegetables: their role in the World Health Organization’s
global fruit and vegetables initiative. Afr J Food Agric Nutr Dev 7:1–17
Stapley J, Reger J, PGD F, Smadja C, Galindo J, Ekblom R et al (2010) Adaptation genomics: the
next generation. Trends Ecol Evol 25:705–712
Staya S, Singhal P, Bal LM, Sudhakar P (2012) Bamboo shoot: a potential source of food security.
Med J Nutrition Metab 5:1–10
Tabata R, Sawa S (2014) Maturation processes and structures of small secreted peptides in plants.
Front Plant Sci 5:311
Taylor KH, Kramer RS, Davis JW, Guo J, Duff DJ, Xu D et al (2007) Ultra-deep bisulfite sequenc-
ing analysis of DNA methylation patterns in multiple gene promoters by 454 sequencing.
Cancer Res 67:8511–8518
Teixeira da Silva JA, Jin X, Dobránszki J, Lu J, Huizhong Wang H, Zotz G, Cardoso JC, Songjun
Zeng S (2016) Advances in Dendrobium molecular research: applications in genetic variation,
identification and breeding. Mol Phylogenet Evol 95:196–216
Thottathil GP, Jayasekaran K, Othman AS (2016) Sequencing crop genomes: a gateway to
improved agriculture. Trop Life Sci Res 27:93–114
Todd EV, Black MA, Gemmell NJ (2016) The power and promise of RNA-seq in ecology and
evolution. Mol Ecol 25:1224–1241
Treangen TJ, Salzberg SL (2011) Repetitive DNA and next-generation sequencing: computational
challenges and solutions. Nature 13:36–46
Tripathi V, Goswami S (2011) Genetic relationship amongst Cassia L., Senna Mill. and Chanaecrita
Moench using RAPD markers. Int J Biodivers Conserv 3:92–100
Trucchi E, Mazzarella AB, Gilfillan GD, Lorenzo MT, Schonswetters P, Paun O (2016)
BsRADseq: screening DNA methylation in natural populations of non-model species. Mol
Ecol 25:1697–1713
Tsai H, Howell T, Nitcher R, Missirian V, Watson B, Ngo KJ, Lieberman M, Fass J, Uauy C, Tran
RK, Khan AA, Filkov V, Tai TH, Dubcovsky J, Comai L (2011) Discovery of rare mutations in
populations: TILLING by sequencing. Plant Physiol 156:1257–1268
Turesson G (1922) The genotypical response of plant species to their habitat. Hereditas 3:211–227
Turner TL, Bourne EC, Von Wettberg EJ, Hu TT, Nuzhdin SV (2010) Population resequencing
reveals local adaptation of Arabidopsis lyrata to serpentine soils. Nat Genet 42:260–263
Unamba CIN, Nag A, Sharma RK (2015) Next generation sequencing technologies: the door-
way to the unexplored genomics of non-model plants. Front Plant Sci 6:art1074. https://doi.
org/10.3389/fpls.2015.01074
Uusiku NP, Oelofse A, Duodu KG, Bester MJ, Faber M (2010) Nutritional value of leafy veg-
etables of sub-Saharan Africa and their potential contribution to human health: a review. J Food
Composit Anal 23:499–509
Valle D, Berdanier A (2012) Computer programming skills for environmental sciences. Bull Ecol
Soc Am 93:373–389
Varshney RK, Terauchi R, McCouch SR (2014) Harvesting the promising fruits of genomics:
applying genome sequencing technologies to crop breeding. PLoS Biol 12(6):e1001883.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001883
Waller DM (2015) Genetic rescue: a safe or risky bet? Mol Ecol 24:2595–2597
Wayne RK, Shaffer HB (2016) Hybridization and endangered species protection in the molecular
era. Mol Ecol 25:2680–2689
Weckerle CS, Cabras S, Castellanos ME, Leonti M (2011) Quantitative methods in ethnobotany
and ethnopharmacology: considering the overall flora—hypothesis testing for over- and under-
used plant families with the Bayesian approach. J Ethnopharmacol 137:837–843
Weinberger K (2007) Are indigenous vegetables underutilised crops? Some evidence from Eastern
Africa and Southeast Asia. Acta Hortic 752:29–34
52 H. V. Huy et al.
Wetterstrand KA (2014) DNA sequencing costs: data from the NHGRI genome sequencing
program. http://www.genome.gov/sequencingcosts
Wheeler N, Sederoff R (2009) Role of genomics in the potential restoration of the American chest-
nut. Tree Genet Genomes 5:181–187
Whitlock MC (2011) GST and D do not replace FST. Mol Ecol 20:1083–1091
Whitlock M, Ingvarsson PK, Hatfield T (2000) Local drift load and the heterosis of interconnected
populations. Heredity 84:452–457
Williams AV, Nevill PG, Krauss SL (2014) Next generation restoration genetics: applications.
Trends Plant Sci 19:529–537
Wong KL, Wong RNS, Zhang L, Liu WK, Ng TB, Shaw PC et al (2014) Bioactive proteins and
peptides isolated from Chinese medicines with pharmaceutical potential. Chin Med 9:19
Xiao LQ, Gong X (2006) Genetic differentiation and relationships of populations in the Cycas
balansae complex (Cycadaceae) and its conservation implications. Ann Bot 97:807–812
Xiao L, Ge X, Gong X, Hao G, Zheng S (2004) ISSR variation in the endemic and endangered
plant Cycas guizhouensis (Cycadaceae). Ann Bot 94:133–138
Xu J, Ge X, Dolan MC (2011) Towards high-yield production of pharmaceutical proteins with
plant cell suspension cultures. Biotechnol Adv 29:278–299
Yang R-Y, Keding GB (2009) Nutritional contributions of important African indigenous vegeta-
bles. In: Shackleton CM, Pasquini M, Drescher AW (eds) African indigenous vegetables in
urban agriculture. Earthscan, London, pp 105–143
Yang H, Li C, Lam H-M, Clements J, Yan G, Zhao S (2015) Sequencing consolidates molecular
markers with plant breeding practice. Theor Appl Genet 128:779–795
Yessoufou K, Daru BH, Muasya AM (2015) Phylogenetic exploration of commonly used medici-
nal plants in South Africa. Mol Ecol Resour 15:405–413
Yoder JB, Stanton-Geddes J, Zhou P, Briskine R, Young ND et al (2014) Genomic signature of
adaptation to climate in Medicago truncatula. Genetics 196:1263–1275
Zhang ZY, Santisuk T (1998) Flora of China. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH (eds) , vol 18. Science Press,
Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, pp 213–225
Zhang ZH, Lee HK, Mihalek I (2010) Reduced representation of protein structure: implications on
efficiency and scope of detection of structural similarity. BMC Bioinformatics 11:155
Zhang Z, Bajic VB, Yu J, Cheung K-H, Townsend JP (2011) Data integration in bioinformatics:
current efforts and challenges. In: Mahdavi MA (ed), Bioinformatic – trends and methodolo-
gies. InTech Publications. http://www.intechopen.com/books/bioinformatics
Zhao H, Wang Y, Yang D, Zhao X, Li N, Zhou Y (2016) An analysis of genetic diversity in
Marphysa sanguinea from different geographic populations using ISSR polymorphisms.
Biochem System Ecol 64:65–69
Zhou L et al (2015) Identification of domestication-related loci associated with flowering time
and seed size in soybean with the RAD-seq genotyping method. Sci Rep 5:9350. https://doi.
org/10.1038/srep09350
Health and Illness as a State
of Being Human
Nevin Turgay, Özlem Yılmaz, and Fehmi Akçiçek
Introduction
Humans have been contemplating about life and death ever since their existence on
the planet earth. They are regarded as the only living beings aware of being mortal,
and knowing this has led us to think about the concept of health and illness. This
concept and the struggle to cope with ailments are a common characteristic of
global human communities. Nevertheless, it is clear that health-disease concept is
not a stable one and that there is a continuous transformation related to the age and
culture.
Concept of Health from Past to Present
The earliest definition of health was a very simple one: a person with no illness is a
healthy one. Today, when it comes to the concepts of health and illness, the first that
comes to mind is the field of medicine and the relevant concepts and practices.
However, to be able to understand all aspects of health and illness concepts, they
cannot be limited only to their biological aspects, but social and cultural aspects
need to be included. While the illness is a universal phenomenon, its perception and
treatment methods are different. Health and illness occur within a social structure
and are shaped by it, what makes these concepts meaningful are the way that the
N. Turgay
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Ö. Yılmaz
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
F. Akçiçek (*)
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Geriatrics, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_2
54 N. Turgay et al.
society perceives them (Mechanic 1978; Kleinman 1981). For this reason, the
concept of health-illness cannot be considered different from the era, geography,
and society where human beings live. Capra (1982) notes that health depends on a
person’s perspective of a living organism and the interactions with its environment,
and as this perspective changes in the course of time and in relation to the cultures,
our understanding of health also changes. Therefore, the consideration of health and
illness varies, based on historical periods.
In the historical process, the concepts of health-illness have changed consider-
ably and acquired their present meaning after passing through different stages. The
first stage was the period which lasted for thousands of years until the creation of
alphabet and initiation of settled life. Findings from archaeological excavations
indicate that diseases occurred at the same time as humans came into existence. In
the prehistoric period, it was believed that the body was robust and healthy as long
as there was no effective external factor (Bayat 2016). During the hunter-gatherer
period, people were losing their lives due to changes in the climatic conditions and
natural disasters. The most important factor determining health/illness status then
was the natural conditions. At that time, a very large number of babies died at birth,
while the average life span for those who did survive was between 18 and 20 years
(Cirhinlioğlu 2001). Under these circumstances, feeling powerless and helpless
against nature, man believed that diseases emerged from supernatural powers or as
a punishment from the Gods due to their sinful behaviors. This period, when poly-
theistic religions ruled, is the one when superstitious beliefs and magic were domi-
nant. Therefore, the clergies and shamans were consulted for the treatment of
diseases, and there was no systematic method for treating diseases; the primary goal
being to protect life (Rivers and Köksaldı 2004).
Nearly 12000 years ago, a significant change occurred in the diet due to the onset
of sedentism and farming, and people started to feed on the products they grew and
to benefit from the animals domesticated by them. In this period, food-borne dis-
eases and infectious and parasitic diseases resulting from these involvements went
up as more people started to live together and with their animals, diseases became
widespread, and epidemics became the greatest cause of death. Approximately
6000 years ago, a different lifestyle emerged in the form of urban life, which was a
transition from the rural living conditions, and different illnesses began to appear
(Fitzpatrick 1991).
In Mesopotamia, which is regarded as the first place where settled life began,
tablets have been discovered showing treatments such as prayers and magic used to
soothe the anger of Gods and to expel the evil spirits capturing the body, and spe-
cific medicines for illnesses have been recorded in here. The Sumerian tablets
(2000 AD), where hundreds of prescriptions tested for centuries were inscribed, are
the world’s oldest documents describing how to prepare medicines for different
diseases (Materia Medica) and show that the pharmacy was highly developed at that
time (Bayat 2016).
The mythical stories that have survived until today also tell the pursuit of humans
to protect their health and to be immortal. In this regard, the epic of Gilgamesh is
the oldest known text. The epic of Gilgamesh, estimated to be written between 2500
Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 55
and 3000 BC, is the first written epos in history that was found in Mesopotamia. In
the epic of Gilgamesh mentioned in Akkad and Sumer mythologies, a king pursuing
immortality is narrated. This saga reflects a sense of eternal life and fear of death, as
well as other human emotions such as loneliness, love, grief, hate, revenge, and
addiction to fame and power. Therefore, it continued to exist as a popular epic in
Mesopotamia and neighboring lands for thousands of years and in different time
periods. The people found a piece of themselves in this epos that reflects transition
from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a settled life. A serpent swallows the immortality
herb that the king tries to reach and rejuvenates by changing skin (Çığ 2002). The
serpent, which has an important place in Eastern mythology, was later accepted as a
symbol of eternal life and also adopted as a symbol of eternal life in Egyptian, in
Indian, and later in ancient Greek mythologies. Asclepius, who was considered as
the God of Health and Healing in ancient Greece during the polytheistic periods, is
shown with a serpent-entwined staff symbolizing the tree of life in paintings and
sculptures. Asclepius continued to exist in the western civilization influenced by the
ancient Greek. In classical Greek civilization, all physicians were known as
Asclepiad (Asclepius disciples). Even after the adoption of Christianity, Asclepius
cult continued. Asclepius is also regarded as a talented physician who achieved
God’s inspiration in the Islamic civilization. Throughout the ages, the serpent figure
has continued to symbolize health-related issues. At present, health professions and
institutions, in particular the schools of medicine, are symbolized by the image of a
snake entwining itself around various objects such as a tree, a rod, a goblet, etc.
(Bayat 2016).
In Asia Chinese and Indian civilizations, which emerged at the same time as the
Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, approaches to health/illness were rather
different. Recent studies have shown that the influence of Chinese and Indian civi-
lizations influenced Greek and later Islamic civilization through Mesopotamia.
Medical information about the Chinese civilization dates back to 3000 BC. According
to Taoism, the religious and philosophical system of the Chinese, the universe, the
living being, and the matter are the work of two great powers, called Yin and Yang,
which complement each other but, at the same time, which are quite opposite of
each other. Diseases occur when the balance of Yin and Yang or the harmony
between the internal energy of the body (Chi) and the external energies is disrupted
(Bayat 2016). In the therapy book by the Chinese Emperor Huang-Di (2700 BC) in
the East, named Yellow Emperor’s Canon of Internal Medicine, he emphasizes the
need to take measures to prevent health problems before they occur (Unschuld
2003).
In Indian civilization, it was believed that the seasonal changes, the environment,
our life style and eating habits, and our mental health determine our overall health.
This approach was different in the Ayurvedic period that started in 3300 BC and
continued until 800 BC and that focused on mainly religious information and in
Brahmanic period between 800 BC and 1000 AD when physicians were prominent
(Tez 2010; Bayat 2016).
In the ancient Greek period, religion was part of everyday life, and it was believed
that every aspect of life was under the protection of Gods. It was believed that the
56 N. Turgay et al.
Gods had divine powers such as granting of life and death, healing a patient, or
extending life. During these periods, healing temples called Asclepion were built in
the name of Asclepius, who was regarded as the God of Health and Healing, starting
from the sixth century BC. The clergies and physicians provided health services
here. At the same time, it is known that there are around 200 Asclepions which also
served as educational places. The most famous ones were located in Epidaurus,
Knidos, Kos, and Pergamon – all around the Aegean Sea. Religious treatments in
these temples were carried out along with practices such as diet, music, mud bath,
and herbal medicine. On the entrance gate of the temple of Asclepion in Bergama
(Pergamon), built in the name of Asclepius the health god, there is an inscription
mentioning that “The place where death cannot enter.” This temple is close to the
State of Izmir in Turkey and still standing today; the patients with incurable deadly
diseases were not allowed to enter this temple (Tez 2010). Asclepius was a philoso-
pher physicians who lived around sixth and fifth centuries BC and tried to under-
stand the world and the humans through free and systematic thought. He wanted to
explain supernatural events with cause-effect relations and to understand medical
cases with observations and experiments.
The first one to explain the occurrence of diseases from a scientific point of view
was Hippocrates (430–370 BC), from the island of Kos (Tez 2010). He argued that
the emergence of diseases is not because of a supernatural and mysterious power, but
there is a physical and rational cause. Since he came from the Asclepion tradition, he
believed that the physicians benefit from both the power of God and the healing
power of nature. He first established the rules of medical ethics and practices, and, in
this regard, he was the founder of the first medical school teaching medical ethics and
practices (Bayat 2016). Hippocratic oath, which has been regarded as the moral law
of medical profession throughout the ages and has preserved its essence until today,
is an oath that should be taken by medical graduates who will start their professional
lives as a physician. Hippocrates’s understanding of rational medicine from the fifth
century BC eventually evolved into today’s modern medicine.
Dioscorides, a citizen of Anazarba, nowadays Tarsus in Turkey, who wrote De
Materia Medica, was a Roman physician who lived in the first century. He is
regarded as one of the most important herbal doctors who wrote the medicine guide
books of ancient times and has been a source for books published in Europe later on.
Galen of Pergamon (130–200 AD), who was regarded as the greatest physician
after Hippocrates and as the father of pharmacy in ancient times, systematized the
Hippocrates’ principles. Many medicines and methods developed for the treatment
of diseases by Galen have been used for centuries (Bayat 2016). Physicians such as
Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Al-Razi, Al-Zahravi, and Al-Biruni, who were educated during
the Abbasid period, also wrote about a large number of herbal medicines against
diseases in their books. The works El Kanun (The Canon of Medicine) and Kitab-ül
Şifa (Book of Healing), in which Ibni Sina compiled medical information, have
remained among the classical books for medical education for centuries. According
to the Great Medical theorists, The Canon of Medicine is the greatest book of all
times, including twentieth century. Until the eighteenth century, it was used as a
main text book in medical schools around the world (Nasser et al. 2009).
During the Medieval times, when the Roman Empire got disintegrated in the
eighth to fourteenth centuries, the Islamic civilization was ruling over a vast geog-
raphy from Spain to India. Islam has served as a binding link for civilizations of
Egypt-Mesopotamia and Greek-Roman cultures and today’s western civilization.
The most common diseases leading to death during the Medieval times were epi-
demics such as tuberculosis, cholera, and plague. At that time, the strict dogmatic
attitudes of the churches in Europe led to the oblivion of the old developments, and
the mysticism/magical thought gained dominance; however, there were significant
developments in the description and treatment of diseases in Islamic medicine
(Bayat 2016).
Since human body is considered sacred in many belief systems, no study has
been done on human body. As the religion has lost its social power over time, there
has been an increasing interest for medicine in the society. After the seventeenth
century, when positive sciences started to develop, the religious institutions had to
abandon health-related functions to medicine. The roles of the physicians and the
clergymen got separated, and the churches were replaced by clinics (Cirhinlioğlu
2001). An unprecedented era began with the discovery of microscope and germs
and, thus, with better hygienic measures. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
with the introduction of industrialization, the concept of health has changed a lot.
The eighteenth century can be regarded as the initiation of an era when health-
illness concepts were discussed from theoretical and methodological perspectives.
The Cartesian thought (dualism) argues that the body and the spirit are independent
from each other. This has played an important role in the emergence of the concept
of illness (Locker 1983). The body began to be analyzed as a whole, which is func-
tioning within itself and has its own rules. The sociopolitical and socioeconomic
incidents such as the French Revolution (1789–1799) and the Industrial Revolution
(1760–1830) were influential in understanding that health-illness interact with the
social environment as well. Physiologist Claude Bernard (1813–1878), who intro-
duced the concept of homeostasis, suggests that the disruption of the internal physi-
ological balance, the inability of the individual to cope with environmental factors,
and the loss of ability of adaptation to the external environment lead to illnesses
(Noble 2008). In the nineteenth century, when the era of modern medicine began,
the discovery of germs and the vaccines, developed against different diseases, has
resulted in the significant improvements in human health (Hilleman 2000). Pasteur
and Koch, who emphasized the necessity of an external cause for the emergence of
any infectious disease, made an important contribution to the concept of public
health.
After the nineteenth century, during the intensive period of industrialization and
mechanization, the studies on human body were legalized; however, the view on
health started to be limited only to the human body (Baloğlu 2006). Physicians
started to make experiments with reproducible results and publish them in scientific
journals. Significant progress was made in the treatment of diseases. Nowadays, the
fact that the average life span is 70 years and over, especially in the developed
countries, is a result of this progress. Most of the infectious diseases have disap-
peared; however, more chronic diseases have come to the forefront with chronic
58 N. Turgay et al.
aging, changes in diets, and lifestyle. A multidimensional approach to health-illness

concept is needed to explain chronic diseases. For this reason, the idea that dis-
eases occur with the interaction of many biological, social, and psychological fac-
tors has begun to be adopted.
Parsons (2001) has defined health-illness concepts from a sociological point of
view. Every society has a pattern for patient’s role in how the individual will behave
when sick. The patient’s role also includes the behaviors that the patient must dis-
play and certain privileges. According to him, health is the ability of an individual
to function and fulfill his role and responsibilities in society (Parsons 2001). On the
other hand, health has also been regarded as a matter of adaptation, an ability to
adapt to changes in the environment and ability to grow, to age, to heal, to suffer,
and to be able to expect death in a peaceful way (Illich 1995). Medical institutions
take control of the individual’s control over their own lives. Some also argue that
health-illness concepts do not emerge as a natural phenomenon. The Birth of the
Clinic according to Foucault (2012) has been dominating power in the society
(power), tending to control individuals through their bodies in order to impose a
desired mode of life. As such, a new understanding of health has emerged in this
direction in the modern age (Foucault 2012).
Therefore, it is clear that there are no precise health-disease concepts and that
these concepts transform continuously with time and culture.
Food consumption and staying healthy or getting recovery from an illness has
always been integrated closely to each other. In essence food was ever at the heart
of being healthy. From the time of Hippocrates, physicians had counseled their
patients on what, how, and when to eat. What they considered “healthy to eat,” and
why. This changed over time. Beyond everything, people at least living in the devel-
oped countries seem to be wary of the relationship between food, diet, and health as
never before. Rather, recent obsession we have with “nutritionism” evolves from the
media supported medicalization of food intake and diet. So we are anxious more on
the nutrition particular foodstuffs provided, instead of a joyful moment they might
give or the social grace related to their consumption.
An Overview of Health at Present
While “being healthy” was defined as “having no sign of any disease” until the
1940s in medical terms, it is seen that the World Health Organization (WHO) started
to define “health” as “being physically, mentally and socially healthy/a complete
well-being” considering the spiritual destructions following the Second World War
in 1948 over the masses. As a biological condition, being healthy is defined as the
ability of the individual to function in harmony with the environment physically,
emotionally, mentally, and socially and to have well-being in the body and soul
(Callahan 1973).
It is thought that the main factors affecting the quality of life of the individuals
are in fact associated with the state of health. Among the determinants in this area
include the occupation of an individual and daily routines (career well-being), being
economically competent and sufficient (financial well-being), having a powerful
relationship/love in his/her life (social/emotional well-being), and having good
physical conditions and sufficient energy and the ability to perform daily activities
(physical/mental well-being), the ability to adapt to the community (societal/com-
munity well-being), and the desire and effort to read and learn new and various
things constantly through a high level of awareness of the world around him/her
trying to increase the level of education (intellectual well-being). In a study con-
ducted by the Gallup research company in more than 150 countries from Zimbabwe
to Afghanistan, individuals were asked how good their life is in terms of health,
wealth, and social relationships and how they feel about these items. A big percent-
age, 66% of those included in the survey, defined themselves as good in only one of
these headlines, while only 7% rated themselves as good in all (Rath and Harter
2010).
What Is a Healthy Diet Actually?
In modern times, the concept of a “healthy diet” is directly associated to being

healthy. However, when it comes to diet, the question is “should we eat to lower
certain numerical values (cholesterol, blood sugar, etc.) or to get pleasure?”
Centuries ago, as a Hellenistic philosopher, Epicurus (341–270 BC) said, “before
you eat or drink anything, consider carefully who you eat or drink with rather than
what you are to eat or drink: for feeding without a friend is the life of a lion or a
wolf.” This is an answer to the question. When we eat, the emotions which are hard
to explain, happiness, and the feelings such as the repair of the losses and the expan-
sion in one’s life span are realized to appear. Therefore, when eating, the fact that
one should ask him/herself is “what is good for me” and be aware of these feelings
will heal him/her.
ifferent Dietary Habits Between Societies and Possible

D
Consequences
It is known that the definition of a healthy diet varies based on eating habits. The
“French paradox,” one of the most important examples of this, is known as the low
rate of coronary heart diseases (CHD) in France against diets rich in saturated fat.
In the early 1990s, Serge Renaud from the University of Bordeaux used the defini-
tion of “French paradox” for the first time and saw in a crowded study consisting of
a group of middle-aged French men that they took their 15% of calorie from satu-
rated fats with daily foods containing butter, cheese, eggs, and cream. Nevertheless,
it is noteworthy that the proportion of CHD in the group followed was only about
40% of that in the United States. It has been concluded that the consumption of 2–3
60 N. Turgay et al.
glasses of red wine per day reduces the mortality rates due to all diseases by 30%,
but some side effects of increasing this amount to four glasses can occur. It was also
concluded that alcohol and antioxidants in red wine generally reduced the incidence
of CHD (Renaud and de Lorgeril 1992; Simini 2000). In particular, regular wine
consumption is considered a noteworthy; however, high vegetable and fruit con-
sumption rates and regular physical activity are also considered to support this pro-
tection. In addition to the presence of resveratrol in the red wine, it has been shown
that the polyphenol compound is also present in apples, blackberries, blueberries,
red plums, and peanuts. In recent years, in addition to the cardiovascular effects, it
has been shown to have a positive effect in anti-inflammatory, neurodegenerative,
metabolic, and age-related conditions (Bonnefont-Rousselot 2016). However, res-
veratrol has a very short-time bioavailability. It should be also kept in mind that
excessive use of alcohol will cause various malignancies, primarily breast cancer,
especially in women (Weiskirchen and Weiskirchen 2016), and mortality rate in
traffic accidents due to the use of alcoholic beverages in France is very high.
The first large-scale study examining the effects of nutrition on health has been
carried out by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1948. After the Second World War,
Crete Island was taken as a model for analyzing the dietary problems encountered
in Europe and their effects on health. However, on the contrary to what was expected,
researchers determined that the Cretan people could not have a better diet in terms
of health. At that time, when the food consumed by the local people was recorded,
it was observed that there were little amount of wine, milk, and dairy products in the
coastal regions as well as vegetable proteins, fresh vegetables, and plants/herbs col-
lected from the nature during the right season and little amount of goat meat and
game meat. It has been found that the need for dessert is usually covered from sea-
sonal fruits. In addition, when the amount of fat consumed per day is examined, it
is noteworthy that approximately 120 mL olive oil per person is consumed. At that
time, drinking olive oil from small glasses on an empty stomach in the morning was
observed as a surprising habit. Over the years, the diet of the islanders has changed,
but the Crete cuisine, still one of the most successful examples of Mediterranean-
style food, is at the head of the healthiest cuisines ever known (Coultier and
Adamson 2009).
While the average life span of the world population was 50 years in the 1940s
and 65 in the 1970s, it is expected to reach 75 in 2025. On the other hand, in
Okinawa, the largest island of the Ryukyu Islands in the south of Japan, where 1.5
million people live, the average age is reported to be 80 for men and 88 for women
today. Okinawa Island attracts attention as the place where most people over the
age of 100 live in the world. Okinawa eating habits include sweet potatoes, green
vegetables, and soya products. All these traditionally seem to reduce the risks of
cardiovascular diseases. Eating unprocessed carbohydrates, vegetable proteins,
and fish-based diets just as in the Mediterranean diet, the DASH diet, and the
Portfolio diet helps to have a better survival. It is worth noting that in the island
every meal is consumed consciously in the way of being healthy like a healing tool.
The rhythm of life is slower, and the elderly are active in all stages of life and in all
activities. However, it is also noteworthy that the rate of illness has increased due
to the fact that this philosophy of life has not continued among the young people
who left the island and settled in the United States or started consuming fast food
(Willcox et al. 2014).
Tips for a Life Full of Wellness
Genetic inheritance is important for a lifetime wellness. However, it is seen in the

studies that it is effective at only 30% level (Driscoll 1990). In addition, when the
main factors affecting health are examined, it is observed that social conditions
count to 10%, medical conditions to 5%, and climatic conditions to 5%, whereas
lifestyle and pollution brought about by modern life count up to 50% and later have
gained much more importance in our present-day living conditions. When it comes
to modern pollution, the first thing that comes to mind is the electromagnetic fields
and environmental pollution (air, water, and food pollution) that we are exposed to
in our homes and in outdoor environment in everyday life (WHO 2009).
It is known that it is crucial to focus on peace and serenity, sending messages of
love to his/her own body, mind, and soul for individual wellness. The emotional
stability of an individual is of great importance in the way of being healthy. One of
the most important components of this is having strong family/friendship relation-
ships. The basic approach in relationships is to avoid being hurt and hurting some-
one’s feelings. It is noteworthy that individuals with much stronger sense of
belonging have a much healthier/stronger physical conditions in situations where
they act with feelings of love, tolerance, forgiveness, and compassion. While it
seems that all kinds of stress in daily life trigger serious risks for health, it has been
seen that strong individuals, especially those with spiritual feelings, are living their
lives more healthy.
One of the things that can be taken care of personally is the personal investment
to protect the memory. The desire to learn new things, the efforts to increase intel-
lectual capacity, and the various hobbies are known to be very important in the long
run for mental wellness. It may be beneficial in the long run to do regular reading,
to follow new and intellectual publications, to do some memory exercises (such as
puzzles), and to take folic acid, vitamin C, and vitamin E supplements. It should not
be forgotten that antacids, aluminum containers, and foil papers, which are heavily
used in daily life, may cause toxicity to the brain (Lo 2017). It is observed that the
individuals with habits of smoking and intensive alcohol use and drug addiction
have more health problems in the general sense and the risk for malignancies is
higher for them. Given the eating habits, eating less is of great importance. It is
necessary to be careful about the amount of food in the people over 50 years old. It
is seen that Eskimos eat the small fish with bones, thus taking more than 2000 mg
calcium per day, which results in the over-hardening of their bones and an increase
in hip joint fractures after falling down. It should also be kept in mind that daily
eating habits might lead to unexpected risks. At certain ages there are risks caused
by some eating habits (Mazess and Mather 1974).
62 N. Turgay et al.
From the perspective of eating habits, strong muscles and bones over 60 years of
age are of great importance. It is especially important to have a physically active
life, and attention should be paid to bone health. In an active and dynamic daily life,
it is very valuable to do exercises regularly for many years that can strengthen mus-
cles (Ferrucci et al. 2014). It should be known that bone fracture risk may increase
with long-term usage of medications regulating stomach acidity, diuretics, and cor-
ticosteroids, excess smoking or alcohol usage, and various thyroid, liver, and adre-
nal gland diseases in women especially after menopause (Duncan et al. 2015). The
fact that the fractures in the hip, shoulder, and wrists possibly affect the quality of
life adversely should be considered, and necessary precautions should be taken. It is
also beneficial to use calcium supplements if necessary.
The hazards of excessive food intake over 70 years old should not be forgotten.
Eating less should be emphasized, and it should be kept in mind that excess food
may cause serious health problems. When making all choices, the goal should be
getting older in a quality manner.
In order to strengthen the immune system, importance should be given to vacci-
nation when necessary. Vaccination programs are important for protection from
infections such as hepatitis, HPV, influenza, pneumonia, and for the maintenance of
health. It is also known that Echinacea, vitamin C, zinc, beta-glucan, and vitamin B
supplements serve as natural supports to strengthen the immune system when nec-
essary (Sheerin et al. 2017).
Successfully managing the stress in daily life and avoiding all kinds of unneces-
sary drug intakes (especially antibiotics) are also very important.
It is known that adequate and quality sleep is beneficial to health. The resting
period supported by quality sleep has a vital importance for the organisms to recover
themselves, as well as for spiritual and physical wellness. Psychological or physical
problems that cause sleep to be interrupted should be defined properly. Etiological
causes and treatment options of sleep apnea and snore complaints should be inves-
tigated (Jike et al. 2017). It is also beneficial to try various herbal alternatives (such
as essential herbal oils) in the first place to support sleep. It would be beneficial to
seek medications if the herbal solutions remain inadequate.
For vascular health, it is also important to follow blood lipids regularly. It is ben-
eficial to regularly measure the levels of blood lipids such as LDL, HDL, total cho-
lesterol, triglycerides, and lipoproteins. In addition, regular arterial blood pressure
measurements are useful to prevent problems due to long-term high-pressure expo-
sure of the arterial wall structure. It is important to limit the intake of salt, take care
of keeping fit, and make the necessary adjustments between stress and sleep, so that
the blood pressure can be followed and maintained at normal limits. Programs that
are supported by regular exercises to take weight under control will ensure for long
years of vascular health (Qian et al. 2016).
It is also advisable to have thyroid hormone levels tested every year to monitor
the function of the thyroid gland, which acts like the orchestra conductor for all the
systems of the body.
It is beneficial not to delay the routine checkups, considering the mouth and
dental health. To maintain a sense of enjoyment from what you eat is becoming
more important as you get older. Care for oral and dental hygiene, gingival health,
and regular dental checkups allow for the maintenance of a healthy diet.
It should not be forgotten that the personal efforts of an individual are also very
valuable in the long run for health. It is important to consciously see life from a
positive point of view and to make efforts to be more cheerful. It is best for a person
to live in a circle of love with friends, family, and loved ones, to go out on short or
long journeys, and to have enjoyable moments. Supporting all of these with a strong
spirituality will allow us to make great steps for a life full of health and wellness.
Conclusion
Being under the control of a health center and a physician on a regular basis with
access of health information, guidance, proper follow-up, and treatment options are
important as a guarantee of a healthy life. Just as even though the slow-changing
process of seasons is not felt for some months, it is important to be prepared at the
beginning of an early winter, and it is also important to be aware of what expects us
as when we get older. When a long, energetic lifestyle that focuses on a pleasant,
healthy, and balanced soul/body is embraced, it will be easier to get in physical
form, to achieve success in the workplace and in social life. It should be kept in
mind that life means making a fresh start on an every new day.
References
Baloğlu B (2006) Ekonomik ve sosyolojik bakış açısıyla sağlık ve hastalık. Der Yayınevi, İstanbul
Bayat AH (2016) Tıp Tarihi. Merkezefendi Geleneksel Tıp Derneği, İstanbul
Bonnefont-Rousselot D (2016) Resveratrol and cardiovascular diseases. Nutrients 8(5):E250
Callahan D (1973) The WHO definition of ‘health’. Stud Hastings Cent., The Concept of Health
1(3):77–87
Capra F (1982) The turning point: a new vision of reality. Futurist 16(6):19–24
Çığ Mİ (2002) Gilgameş Tarihte İlk Kral Kahraman. Kaynak Yayınları, İstanbul
Cirhinlioğlu Z (2001) Sağlık Sosyolojisi. Nobel Kitapevi, Ankara
Cloutier M, Adamson E (2009) The Mediterranean diet. Harper Collins Publisher, New York
Driscoll CE (1990) Chapter 215: The family history. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW (eds)
Clinical methods: the history, physical, and laboratory examinations, 3rd edn. Butterworths,
Boston
Duncan R, Francis RM, Jagger C, Kingston A, McCloskey E, Collerton J, Robinson L, Kirkwood
TB, Birrell F (2015) Magnitude of fragility fracture risk in the very old--are we meeting their
needs? The Newcastle 85+ study. Osteoporos Int 26(1):123–130
Ferrucci L, Baroni M, Ranchelli A, Lauretani F, Maggio M, Mecocci P, Ruggiero C (2014)
Interaction between bone and muscle in older persons with mobility limitations. Curr Pharm
Des 20(19):3178–3197
Fitzpatrick R (1991) Surveys of patients satisfaction: I-Important general considerations. BMJ
302(6781):887
Foucault M (2012) The birth of the clinic. Routledge, London and Newyork
64 N. Turgay et al.
Hilleman MR (2000) Vaccines in historic evolution and perspective: a narrative of vaccine

discoveries. Vaccine 18(15):1436–1447
Illich I (1995) Sağlığın gaspı: medical nemesis. Süha Sertabiboğlu (Çev) Ayrıntı, İstanbul
Jike M, Itani O, Watanabe N, Buysse DJ, Kaneita Y (2018) Long sleep duration and health out-
comes: a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Sleep Med Rev 39:25–36
S1087-0792(17)30027–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2017.06.011
Kleinman A (1981) Patients and healers in the context of culture-an exploration of the borderland
between anthropology, medicine and psychiatry. University of California Press, London
Lo RY (2017) The borderland between normal aging and dementia. TCMJ 29(2):65–71
Locker D (1983) Disability and disadvantage: the consequences of chronic illness. Tavistock,
London
Mazess RB, Mather W (1974) Bone mineral content of north Alaskan Eskimos. Am J Clin Nutr
27(9):916–925
Mechanic D (1978) Medical sociology. The Free Press, New York
Nasser M, Tibi A, Savage-Smith E (2009) Ibn Sina's canon of medicine: 11th century rules for
assessing the effects of drugs. J R Soc Med 102(2):78–80
Noble D (2008) Claude Bernard, the first systems biologist, and the future of physiology. Exp
Physiol 93(1):16–26
Parsons T (2001) Sağlık ve Hastalık: Sosyolojik Bir Eylem Perspektifi. Tülin Kurtarıcı (Çev)
Toplumbilim Dergisi (13)99–108
Qian F, Korat AA, Malik V, Hu FB (2016) Metabolic effects of monounsaturated fatty acid-
enriched diets compared with carbohydrate or polyunsaturated fatty acid-enriched diets in
patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled
trials. Diabetes Care 39:1448–1457
Rath T, Harter J (2010) Wellbeing: the five essential elements. Gallup Press, New York
Renaud S, de Lorgeril M (1992) Wine, alcohol, platelets and the French paradox for coronary heart
disease. Lancet 339(8808):1523–1526
Rivers WHR, Köksaldı İE (2004) Tıp, Büyü ve Din. Epsilon, İstanbul
Sheerin D, Openshaw PJ, Pollard AJ (2017) Issues in vaccinology: present challenges and future
directions. Eur J Immunol 47:2017. https://doi.org/10.1002/eji.201746942
Simini B (2000) Serge Renaud: from French paradox to Cretan miracle. Lancet 355(9197):48
Tez Z (2010) Tıbbın Gizemli Tarihi. Hayy Kitap, İstanbul
Unschuld PU (2003) Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient
Chinese Medical Text: With an appendix: The Doctrine of the Five Periods and Six Qi in the
Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA
Weiskirchen S, Weiskirchen R (2016) Resveratrol: how much wine do you have to drink to stay
healthy? Adv Nutr 7(4):706–718
WHO (2009) Global health risks. Mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected
major risks. WHO Press, Geneva, http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/
GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf. Accessed 19 Sept 2017
Willcox DC, Scapagninid G, Willcox BJ (2014) Healthy aging diets other than the Mediterranean:
a focus on the Okinawan diet. Mech Ageing Dev 136–137:148–162
Ethnobotanical Explorations in Telangana,
the Youngest State in Union of India:
A Synoptic Account
Sateesh Suthari, S. Raju Vatsavaya, and Narasimha Vara Prasad Majeti
Introduction
On the planet Earth, all the heterotrophic organisms, including human beings,
directly or indirectly depend on the autotrophic plants for their survival. Over mil-
lennia, the humans have learnt the art of using and domesticating the other life for
the provisions such as food, fodder, milk, medicine, fuel, textiles, fibre and scores
of others. The human success, both in cultural and economic, depended on the abil-
ity to utilize and exploit the natural resources.
Plants are the primary source for the prevention and treatment of different dis-
eases or disorders of human beings and animals. With the advent of human civiliza-
tion, many therapeutical systems have been developed majorly based on plants.
Ayurveda, Unani, Sidda and Homeopathy are our traditional systems of medicines.
More than three-quarters of population of the world rely on the plant-based tradi-
tional medical systems for the primary health care. According to the report of the
World Health Organization (WHO), ca. 80% of the world population mainly depend
on traditional system of medicine for the primary health care (Akerele 1992).
Indigenous herbal treatment is an integral part of the tradition, and it is a domi-
nant therapeutical method in most of the developing countries. These traditional
phytoremedies, with a considerable extent of effectiveness, are socially accepted
and economically viable and mostly are the only available means. Even today,
one-third of the modern pharmaceutical preparations have been originated from
S. Suthari · N. V. P. Majeti (*)

Department of Plant Sciences, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
S. R. Vatsavaya
Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Telangana, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_3
66 S. Suthari et al.
plants only. Medicinal plant trade at international level is increasing enormously

due to the intensified adoption of crude drug extracts from the plants for self-
consumption by the local people in developed countries. In India huge number of
medicinal plants were used for the treatment of common ailments since ancient
times. It was officially recognized that 2500 plant species have medicinal value,
while over 6000 plants are estimated to be explored in traditional, folk and herbal
medicine (Huxley 1984).
Ethnobotany deals with the aboriginal people and plants. Ethnobotanical
research can provide a wealth of information regarding both past and present rela-
tionships between plants and the traditional people. Investigations into traditional
use and management of local plant wealth have demonstrated the existence of
extensive traditional knowledge of many plant species not only about the physical
and chemical properties but also the phenological and ecological features in the
case of domesticated species. In addition to its traditional roles in economic botany
and exploration of human cognition, ethnobotanical research has also been applied
to current areas of study such as biodiversity prospecting and vegetation manage-
ment. It is hoped that, in the future, ethnobotany may play an important role in
biodiversity conservation and sustainable development (Rajasekaran and Warren
1994). In other words, it is all about the ‘plants and people’. Ethnobotanical
research can provide the value of plants in the day-to-day life and wealth of infor-
mation from the past through present, with an insight into the future relationships
between plants and the primitive societies. Ethnomedicine is the study of useful
plants used by the ethnic people to cure different ailments and shows the relation-
ship between plants and ethnic people.
Traditional Botanical Knowledge (TBK), broadly speaking, includes all types of
knowledge pertaining to identification, processing and management of plants used
in subsistence, material culture and medicine. It includes its original, spiritual and
sociological context as well. It is the overall botanical knowledge held by any non-
industrial community. It incorporates the utilitarian, ecological and cognitive
aspects of plant use as well as the vegetation management (Cotton 1996). Parallel to
the advancement of medicine and biochemistry, there were sincere attempts made
to utilize the plant world to benefit human kind and their pet animals. Rapid devel-
opments in phytochemical isolation methods, screening techniques for bioactive
compounds and reliable biochemical and pharmacological tools on one hand and
the synthetic compounds as ‘drugs’ for disease control, on the other, have their pro-
found impact on ethnomedicine. When the modern drug use evinced harmful side-
effects on the patients, lack of effective medicine for threatening diseases like AIDs,
cancer and the troublesome ailments like rheumatism made the scientific commu-
nity to look for effective alternatives. Furthermore, WHO and the Rio Earth Summit
have directed the nations towards the use of traditional knowledge of the people for
health-care management. The ever-increasing prices of drugs along with the spuri-
ous ones are taxing the marginalized sections of the society. The gestation period
and the costs of discovering a new drug with good efficacy are the hurdles to the
present-day allopathic practice.
Ethnobotanical Explorations in Telangana, the Youngest State in Union of India… 67
Ethnobotanical investigations have led to the documentation of a large number of

wild plants used by the indigenous people to meet their multifarious needs
(Anonymous 1990). In India, the Botanical Survey of India (Howrah) initiated an
official programme in the Economic Botany Section, and with this, the ethnobotani-
cal exploration studies were carried out by Janaki Ammal for the first time in 1954.
Consequently, Jain started intensive field exploration studies among tribal areas of
central India (Jain 1963a, b, c, 1964a, b, c, Jain 1965a, b). All these publications
have triggered the young minds of botanists, anthropologists and Ayurvedic medical
practitioners in ethnobotanical activities in the early 1960s. The All India
Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Ethnobiology came into operation from
1982 at NBRI, Lucknow, and four centres/circles, namely, Shillong, Howrah,
Coimbatore and Port Blair of Botanical Survey of India. Mudgal (1987) docu-
mented a synoptic account of ethnobotanical studies and Binu et al. (1992) reported
the ethnobotanical work carried out in India. Later, Lalramnghinglova and Jha
(1999) reviewed the work on ethnobotany of the world with special reference to
India. An important prerequisite for proper utilization of raw materials of the coun-
try is the survey of its natural resources and the preparation of an inventory. It is
necessary to have a full knowledge about the occurrence, abundance, distribution
and phenology of various plants for their sustainable utilization. The forests of
Telangana have great potential in terms of economic benefits to ethnic people. The
Telangana State is one of the timber and non-timber-rich forests in the country.
Probably for the first time in Telangana, the ethnobotanical uses of few medicinal
plants were recorded in the Forest Flora of Hyderabad (Khan 1953). Kapoor and
Kapoor (1980) listed the wealth of medicinal plants from Karimnagar district.
Ramarao (1988) visited Rangapur and Thupakulagudem hamlets and interacted
with Koyas and Lambadis of Warangal district for his doctoral work. Ravishankar
(1990) worked on the ethnobotany of Adilabad and Karimnagar districts for his
doctoral degree. Ravishankar and Henry (1992) published a brief account of ethno-
botany of Gonds of Adilabad district. Later on, notes on ethnomedicinal uses of
some important plant taxa of Mahabubnagar district (Pullaiah and Kumar 1996;
Kumar and Pullaiah 1998) and folk treatment of bone fracture in Ranga Reddy dis-
trict (Padmarao and Reddy 1999) were published. Reddy et al. (1998) recorded the
ethnoveterinary plants from Warangal district, and of these, 49 plant taxa were
included in Dictionary of Ethnoveterinary Plants of India by Jain (1999) as an
appendix. Upadhyay and Chauhan (2000) provided an account of the ethnobotany
of Gundala mandal in Khammam district. The floristic studies of Karimnagar
(Naqvi 2001) and Warangal (Reddy 2001) districts and the chemotaxonomic study
of Crotalaria (Samata 2007) included ethnobotanical information. Reddy and Rao
(2002) documented the folklore and ethnomedicinal drugs from Ranga Reddy dis-
trict. Reddy (2003) documented ethnobotanical plants for Khammam district.
Reddy and Raju (2002) published the ethnobotanical uses by Konda Reddis of
Mothugudem, and Raju and Reddy (2005) enlisted the ethnobotanical-medicinal
plants for diarrhoea and dysentery. A brief report on the ethnoveterinary practices
by Koyas in Pakhal wildlife sanctuary by Murthy et al. (2007). Sudharani et al.
(2007) made a survey of ethnobotanical plants whereas Reddy (2008) recorded the
medicines from bio-fencing plants form Nalgonda district. Sreeramulu (2008)

recorded 313 ethnomedicinal plants from Nalgonda and Warangal districts for his
doctoral degree. Reddy et al. (2010) reported 82 medicinal plant species of ethnic
use in Medak district. The utilization pattern and diversity of NTFPs from Adilabad
district was documented by Omkar et al. (2012). Later, Sreeramulu et al. (2013)
reviewed the ethnobotanical medicine for common human ailments in northern
(Warangal) and southern (Nalgonda) Telangana districts. Suthari et al. (2014a)
investigated the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used by Koya community
inhabiting in and around Eturnagaram wildlife sanctuary area, and they recorded
237 species of 75 families of Magnoliophyta and four ferns of Pteridophyta as the
resources of medicine. Suthari et al. (2014b) enumerated 204 climbing plants of
northern Telangana and their ethnomedicinal uses. Saidulu et al. (2015) published
the ethnobotany of Pocharam wildlife sanctuary in the former Medak and Nizamabad
districts. Recently, Suthari and Raju (2016) reported the traditional knowledge on
124 flowering plant taxa for poisonous snake bites used by Koyas of Warangal dis-
trict, whereas Suthari et al. (2016) documented 470 species of 318 genera and 95
angiosperm families used by Koyas of Warangal North Forest Division of northern
Telangana. Mohan et al. (2017a) enlisted 198 ethnomedicinal plants of 165 genera
belonging to 72 families, whereas Mohan et al. (2017b) recorded 22 antirheumatic
plant taxa of 22 genera and 17 families from Kawal wildlife sanctuary of Mancherial
district (Table 1).
Multidisciplinary Subjects of Ethnobotany
Ethnobotany is majorly based on botany and anthropology, of which can provide a

valid information about useful plants which were practiced by the indigenous peo-
ple. Ethnobotany is the interdisciplinary science between botany and ethnology. It
includes interdisciplinary subjects like medicine, pharmacology, narcotics, ecol-
ogy, etc. and the subdisciplines of ethnobotany have in different subjects and parts
of botany like ethnophycology, ethnomycology, ethnolichenology, ethnobryology
and ethnopteridology which is the knowledge and use of that particular group of
plants by the different ethnic groups. It is carved out of several interrelated subjects
like agriculture (ethnoagriculture), ecology (ethnoecology), forestry (ethnofor-
estry), taxonomy (ethnotaxonomy), phytochemicals (ethnophytochemistry),
medicine (ethnomedicine), pharmacology (ethnopharmacology), gynic issues
(ethnogynaecology), narcotics (ethnonarcotics), health care of children (ethnope-
diatrics), cosmetics (ethnocosmetics), knowledge of soils (ethnopedology), archae-
ological sites (archaeoethnobotany), toxicology (ethnotoxicology), music
(ethnomusicology), etc.
Table 1 Ethnobotanical work carried out in Telangana State, India, during 1953–2017
District/area
Work carried out covered Year Author/s
Ethnic uses of some medicinal plants Hyderabad State 1953 Khan
Gonds of Adilabad Adilabad 1979 Heimondorf
Medicinal plant wealth Karimnagar 1980 Kapoor and
Kapoor
Ethnobotanical knowledge from Rangapur and Warangal 1988 Ramarao
Thupakulagudem
Medicinal value of plants Karimnagar and 1990 Hemadri
Warangal
Ethnobotanical studies Adilabad and 1990 Ravishankar
Karimnagar
Ethnobotany of Gonds Adilabad 1992 Ravishankar
and Henry
Utility of herbal plants from Mannanur forest Mahabubnagar 1996 Pullaiaha and
Kumar
Ethnomedicinal use of plants Mahabubnagar 1998 Kumar and
Pullaiah
Ethnoveterinary practices Warangal 1998 Reddy et al.
Folk treatment of bone fractures Ranga Reddi 1999 Padmarao and
Reddy
Folklore biomedicine for veterinary diseases Nalgonda 2000 Reddy and Raju
Ethnobotany of Gundala mandal Khammam 2000 Upadyay and
Chauhan
Note on rare and endemic medicinal plant Khammam 2001 Reddy et al.
Ethnomedicinal use of plant taxa Karimnagar 2001 Naqvi
A review on ethnoveterinary medicine Andhra Pradesh 2001 Raju
Ethnic uses of important medicinal plants Warangal 2001 Reddy
Ethnobotanical observations on Konda Reddis Khammam 2002 Reddy and Raju
of Mothugudem
Ethnomedicine and folklore drugs from Ranga Ranga Reddy 2002 Reddy and Rao
Reddy
Ethnomedicinal plants from Khammam district Khammam 2003 Reddy
Ethnobotanical medicine for dysentery and Khammam 2005 Raju and Reddy
diarrhoea
Ethnobotanical information of some Crotalaria Warangal 2007 Samata
Plants used in ethnoveterinary practices by Warangal 2007 Murthy et al.
Koyas
Traditional botanical knowledge on wild food Andhra Pradesh 2007 Reddy et al.
plants
Survey on ethnomedicinal plants from Nalgonda Nalgonda 2007 Sudharani et al.
Traditional botanical knowledge of local people Nalgonda and 2008 Sreeramulu
of Nalgonda and Warangal districts Warangal
Ethnomedicinal uses of bio-fencing plants Nalgonda 2008 Reddy
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
District/area
Documentation of the traditional medicine Warangal 2008 Reddy et al.
knowledge of Gond community
Ethnomedicinal observations among the Konda Khammam 2008 Reddy et al.
Reddis of Khammam
Ethnobotanical uses of orchids Andhra Pradesh 2008 Raju et al.
Ethnobotanical uses of sedges Andhra Pradesh 2008 Raju et al.
Ethnobotanical knowledge from Adilabad Adilabad 2009 Swamy
district
Medicinal plant taxa of ethnic use Medak 2010 Reddy et al.
Utility pattern and diversity of major NTFPs Adilabad 2012 Omkar et al.
Ethnomedicinal plants used by Gonds of Adilabad 2012 Murthy
Adilabad
Useful plants for bone fractures used by Nizamabad 2012 Dinesh and
indigenous people Sharma
A review on ethnobotanical medicine for Warangal and 2013 Sreeramulu
common human ailments Nalgonda et al.
Documentation of ethnomedicinal plants used Adilabad 2013 Lingaiah and
by tribal traditional healers of Adilabad Rao
Ethnobotanical uses of some plant barks used by Adilabad 2013 Kumar et al.
Gondu tribes
Study on ethnomedicine for rheumatism by the Khammam 2013 Manjula et al.
tribal people
Traditional uses of Euphorbiaceae Khammam 2013 Padal and
Sathyavathi
Traditional botanical knowledge of plant Warangal 2014a Suthari et al.
medicines of Koya tribe
Ethnomedicinal and economic uses of 204 Northern 2014b Suthari et al.
climbing plants Telangana
Utilization of ethnomedicinal plants by ethnic Adilabad 2014 Krishna et al.
tribes of Adilabad
Medicinal plants used by ethnic people of Adilabad 2014 Ramakrishna
Adilabad and Saidulu
Ethnobotany of Pocharam wildlife sanctuary Medak and 2015 Saidulu et al.
Nizamabad
Documentation of traditional knowledge of Mahabubnagar 2015 Singh and
medicinal plants used by tribes Singh
Studies on ethnomedicinal plants of Adilabad 2015 Ramakrishna
Leguminaceae family et al.
Documentation of ethnomedicinal plants of Khammam 2015 Rao et al.
Parnasala sacred grove
Study on ethnomedicinal plants used by the Mahabubnagar 2015 Reddy
tribals of Achampet forest division
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
District/area
Ethnic knowledge on 124 angiospermous plant Warangal 2016 Suthari and
taxa for poisonous snake bites used by Koyas Raju
Four hundred and seventy medicinal plants Warangal 2016 Suthari et al.
documented with ethnic uses
Ethnomedicinal uses of 198 plant taxa from Adilabad 2017a Mohan et al.
Kawal wildlife sanctuary
Ethnic use of 22 antirheumatic plants from Adilabad 2017b Mohan et al.
Kawal wildlife sanctuary
Fig. 1 Map showing the study area: (a) India; (b) Telangana State with 31 districts
Study Area
Telangana is the 29th state of India and was formed on 2 June 2014 with the capital
of Hyderabad district, and it is the youngest and 12th largest state. It lies in between
latitudes 15°48′32″ to 19°55′46″N and longitudes 77°09′02″ to 81°18′ 51″E. It is
bounded on the north and north-west by Maharashtra, west by Karnataka, north-east
by Chhattisgarh, east by Odisha and south by Andhra Pradesh. The government has
reorganized the then 10 districts into 31 districts in 2016 (Fig. 1). Geographically, it
spreads over an area of 1,12,077 km2 (Table 2) and predominantly drained by two
major rivers, namely, Godavari and Krishna. The state is very warm and dry during
the summer (March–May), and the temperature rises up to 50 °C in coal mining
regions. It is the hottest in Godavarikhani, Ramagundam, Kothagudem, Manuguru
and the coal belt Bhupalpally. The rainfall is high along the river Godavari. In
December and January, the temperature drops during nights and is very cold. Some
parts of the state drops up to 4 °C (Suthari 2013).
Table 2 Demographical statistics of Telangana State, India

Demography Details
1 Geographical area (km2) 112,077
2 Number of districts 31
3 Capital city Hyderabad
4 Revenue divisions 68
5 Population (in lakhs) 351.94
6 Male 177.04
7 Female 174.90
8 Sex ratio (M:F) 1000:988
9 Rural population (in lakhs) 215.85
10 Urban population 136.09
11 Tribal population 31.78
12 Literacy rate (%) 66.46
13 State tree Jammi (Khejri: Prosopis cineraria)
14 State flower Tangedu (Tanner’s Cassia: Senna auriculata)
15 State bird Pala pitta (Indian roller: Coracias
benghalensis)
16 State animal Jinka (deer: Antilope cervicapra)
Source: Anonymous (2017)
Ethnic People of Telangana
There are about 20 scheduled tribes, inhabiting both the hilly and plain regions of
Telangana State. Of these, 11 ethnic tribal groups of central India are found in
Telangana, viz. Koyas, Konda Reddis, Gonds, Kolams, Naikpods, Pardhans
(Pradhans), Thotis, Andhs, Mannewars, Bhils and Gowaris. The Yerukulas and
Lambadis are largely found in the plains. There are Chenchus of Nallamalais settled
in Nallamalai forest region of Mahabubnagar and some pockets of Warangal district
(Regonda mandal), Vikarabad forest region (Ranga Reddy district) and Nalgonda
district on the bank of Krishna river. The total schedule tribe population is 31.78
lakh and accounts for 9.03% of total population of the state (Table 3). Most of the
ethnic tribes (ca. 53%) inhabit in the erstwhile districts of Khammam (20.68%),
Warangal (16.7%) and Adilabad (15.6%). The predominant tribes are Lambadis
(20.46%), Koyas (4.86%), Gonds (2.98%) and Yerukalas (1.44%). Nakkala and
Dhulia communities were recognized as tribes in 2002–2003, and they distributed
sporadically in the state. The newly formed government has announced that the
communities such as Boyas and Mathura Lambadis can also be considered under
scheduled tribes in 2017. Most of the tribal people were settled in nine districts,
namely, Adilabad, Komaram Bheem Asifabad, Mancherial, Jayashankar
Bhupalpally, Warangal Rural, Mahabubabad, Bhadradri Kothagudem, Khammam
and Nagarkurnool (Kannabiran et al. 2017).
Table 3 District-wise geographical, demographical and forest cover information of Telangana

State
Geo. Population Forest Forest
area (2011 Sex ratio Literacy Tribal area cover
District (km2) census) (F/1000 M) rate population (km2) (%)
1 Adilabad 4153 708,972 989 63.46 224,622 1706.89 41.1
2 Kumaram 4878 515,812 998 56.72 133,627 2420.17 49.61
Bheem
Asifabad
3 Nirmal 3845 709,418 949 57.77 80,576 1213.08 31.55
4 Mancherial 4016 807,037 911 64.35 56,969 1761.17 43.85
5 Jagtial 2419 985,417 1036 60.26 23,351 554.91 22.94
6 Nizamabad 4288 1,571,022 1044 64.25 107,035 853.21 19.9
7 Peddapalli 2236 795,332 992 65.52 14,945 304.91 13.64
8 Kamareddy 3652 972,625 1033 56.51 81,656 868.99 23.79
9 Rajanna 2019 552,037 1014 62.71 22,990 379.14 18.78
Sircilla
10 Karimnagar 2128 1,005,711 993 69.16 12,779 3.47 0.16
11 Jayashankar 6175 711,434 1009 60.33 123,544 4505.05 72.96
Bhupalpally
12 Sangareddy 4403 1,527,628 965 64.08 86,710 203.68 4.63
13 Medak 2786 767,428 1027 56.12 72,900 563.41 20.22
14 Siddipet 3632 1,012,065 1008 61.61 25,010 252.18 6.94
15 Jangaon 2188 566,376 997 61.44 62,662 30.75 1.41
16 Warangal 1309 1,080,858 997 76.17 33,306 28.76 2.2
Urban
17 Warangal 2175 718,537 994 61.26 105,300 163.59 7.52
Rural
18 Mahabubabad 2877 774,549 996 57.13 292,778 1490.7 51.81
19 Bhadradri 7483 1,069,261 1008 66.4 392,034 4286.98 57.29
Kothagudem
20 Vikarabad 3386 927,140 1001 57.91 94,623 432.97 12.79
21 Medchal 1084 2,440,073 957 82.49 55,244 89.19 8.23
22 Hyderabad 217 3,943,323 954 83.25 48,937 1.43 0.66
23 Yadadri 3092 739,448 973 65.53 43,318 116.97 3.78
Bhuvanagiri
24 Suryapet 3607 1,066,560 996 64.11 141,271 117.78 3.27
25 Khammam 4361 1,401,639 1005 65.95 199,342 621.89 14.26
26 Ranga Reddy 5031 2,446,265 950 71.95 138,710 292.73 5.82
27 Nalgonda 7122 1,618,416 978 63.75 209,252 644.85 9.05
28 Mahabubnagar 5285 1,486,777 995 56.78 132,131 370.0.84 7.02
29 Nagarkurnool 6924 861,766 968 54.38 106,880 2498.49 36.08
30 Wanaparthy 2152 577,758 960 55.67 46,062 118.74 5.52
31 Jogulamba 2928 606,660 972 49.87 9376 6.79 0.23
Gadwal
Source: Anonymous (2017)
Fig. 2 The Koya tribal women and one of the others with the Koya tribe
Koyas
The land of Koyas is obscure. Largely, they are inhabitants of Godavari valley or
Koya-Konda Reddi region, along the Godavari valley. They are Gonds and believed
to have migrated to southeast from Bastar in Chhattisgarh. The word ‘koya’ comes
from the word ‘koi’ or ‘koitor’ (Ramarao and Henry 1996). They started speaking
Telugu and became Koya. They are nomadic by nature but now settled agricultur-
ists. They still indulge in podu cultivation though occasionally. As Koyas live proxi-
mate to forests, their lifestyle revolves around the local flora and fauna. Majority of
the Koyas practice agriculture, though some have turned out or pushed to be labour-
ers in their own lands (Haimendorf 1979). They also gather non-timber forest prod-
ucts (NTFPs), largely tendu leaf, gum karaya, broom grass, mahua flowers, cleaning
nuts, etc. The process of deculturation and modernization has affected this group
tremendously. The Koyas ruled parts of Jayashankar Bhupalpally district, as tribal
kings. The war waged against Kakatiya Kings by Sammakka and Saralamma is
well-known, and the episode is now almost mythology. The place of this historic
war is near Medaram, in Tadvai mandal of Jayashankar Bhupalpally district.
The Koyas are divided into two groups, namely, those who speak in Gondi dia-
lect and those who speak Telugu. They usually choose the foot hills and plains in the
forest areas as their places of abode (Fig. 2). The Koyas are more progressive than
Konda Reddi and other tribal groups though they nowhere stand near Lambadis, the
exotic counterparts, in their political power. The settlements of Koyas consist of
groups of hamlets scattered over the village land. Although Koyas raise the same
food crops as the Konda Reddis, both exchange certain household articles and agri-
cultural implements on barter basis. For instance, the Koyas provide iron imple-
ments to Konda Reddis, while the Konda Reddis weave baskets and supply them to
the Koyas (Reddy 2003).
The Koyas are divided into a number of groups after their occupations or the
tracts of inhabitation. The Koyas have a Kula Panchayat which exercises control
over the community. The marriages in Koyas are either by proposal or by force
which include elopement and capture. In the case of a marriage by proposal, the
bridegroom gives a wedding feast and pays the bride’s price. The most striking fea-
ture of marriage is the dance with bison horn. The Telugu-speaking Koyas refer to
their community as ‘Dorala Sattam’ and do not intermarry the other groups.
Konda Reddis
Konda Reddis are one of the most primitive tribes of northern Telangana. They call
themselves Pandava Reddis. Konda Reddis are largely in Khammam district. The
small settlements of Konda Reddis are usually perched on hillsides or neatly tucked
in the jungle clearings. The settlements on hills or jungle clearings are exclusively
inhabited by Konda Reddis. In foothills, they live in association with Koyas. Even
if they live in the same village along with Koyas, their houses are distanced from
Koyas as they treat them inferior in social status. Their thatched huts are square to
rectangular in shape. Bamboo wattle with mud plastering or mud walls provide the
outer walls and inner partitions of the house. The roof is usually constructed with
locally available bamboo while timber stakes providing the support beams and
poles. The roof is covered with thatch or palm leaves.
Physically, Konda Reddis are of small height with sturdy stature. Legs are short
in comparison with the length of the body. The skin colour varies from a very light
copper brown to dark chocolate. The hair is usually wavy but almost straight as well
as curly. Konda Reddi women dress generally with a sari, a small loin-cloth and in
some areas a bodice. In the hills, the women wear short, narrow pieces of saris,
which they wrap round the hips. Men wear a loin-cloth called ‘gochi’. Dhoti and
shirt have now become common with some of the Konda Reddi youth. Their primi-
tive technology is of preagricultural times and characterized by digging stick and
bow and arrow (Fig. 3). Podu (shifting) cultivation is still practiced by Konda Reddi.
Authority is patriarchal, i.e. father or elderly male member is the highest
authority in the family. Divorce and widow remarriage are socially approved.
Polyandry is strictly prohibited. Bride price or ‘oli’ is invariably paid to the par-
ents of the bride. Marriage negotiations are initiated by bridegroom’s parents.
Marriage is also performed in the house of the bridegroom. ‘Pedda Kapu’ is the
chief of the Konda Reddi village. His decisions are governed by the majority
opinion of the family heads in the village. The highest institution of social con-
trol is ‘Kula Pedda’. Disputes between two Konda Reddi are referred to ‘Kula
Pedda’ whose decision is final.
The main food of Konda Reddis is jowar. It is often substituted with bajra, ragi
and other millets. Rice is also increasingly consumed, especially by wage earners
like forest labourers. Red gram is the most popular of the pulses which is also raised
on podu fields, for family consumption. Green leaves, immature fruits, roots and
tubers from the forest around are cooked and eaten as curries. Chilly chutney and
tamarind pulp boiled in water with salt are the regular items of their food. In periods
of scarcity, wild tuber and roots like ‘Adda dumpa’ and ‘Niluvu dumpa’ form their
diet. Both indigenously brewed and liquors locally purchased are consumed
Fig. 3 The Konda Reddi

tribe with his bow and
arrow in the forest for
hunting
frequently. Toddy is tapped by Konda Reddis from Caryota urens, and Borassus
flabellifer (palms) fills the ‘cup of joy’ for them. It is a must drink during the
rituals.
To ensure the protection and success of agricultural operations, several deities
are propitiated. They may be categorized as benevolent and malevolent. The former
are revered and propitiated to secure their sustained blessings, while the later are
feared and offered bloody sacrifices to escape their wrath.
Gonds
The Gonds are an important ethnic tribe in central India. They gave the name the
‘Gondwanaland’, the southern land mass of Pangea, the super continent. In northern
Telangana, Gonds are called ‘Raj Gonds’ and ‘Durve Gonds’. In this region,
Naikpod is equal to the Raj Gonds (as per the approved list of Scheduled Tribes).
But, in tribal areas of erstwhile Adilabad district, Naikpod is a separate tribe. The
Gonds not only constitute the principal rural population in greater parts of central
India but also once formed a ruling race equal in power and material status
Fig. 4 Collection of data from the Gond tribes of Kumaram Bheem Asifabad district
comparable to that of many a contemporary Hindu Prince in the neighbourhood

(Haimendorf 1979). The Gonds are known for their geographic, ethnic, cultural and
linguistic diversity and the extent of dependence on the local forests (Fig. 4).
Gonds are a dominant tribal community in northern Telangana in the land north
of Godavari and west of Pranahita rivers. The Gonds also reside further down in
parts of Warangal and Khammam districts of Godavari valley. They speak Gondi,
Marathi and Telugu as per their stay with other local communities in the region.
Moreover, the population of Gonds in Jayashankar Bhupalpally district is steadily
brought under the cultural influence of other tribes (the descendant Koyas) or non-
tribes, which form the local commanding community.
Kolams
The Kolam is a primitive tribal group in northern Telangana. These people call
themselves as Kolavar. Kola, in their dialect, is bamboo or stick. As Kolams prepare
baskets, wattles and winnowing fans with bamboo, they might have been calling
themselves as Kolavar. The suffix ‘war’ or ‘var’ means people of that family or sect.
Kolams use herbal medicines, diagnose the diseases and forecast events by measur-
ing a charmed magic stick of bamboo called ‘Kolam’. The Raj Gonds call Kolams
as ‘Pujaris’ (priests). Both enjoy equal social status. The Kolams and Gonds cele-
brate a colourful ‘Ghusadi’ festival after Dasara and perform ‘Dandari’ dance dur-
ing the festival, which resembles the association of Adivasis with the nature.
Naikpods
The Naikpods live in forest areas of northern Telangana, like Nayaks. The generic
word Nayak means ‘leader’ but the suffix pod is corruption of wad which means
that person. They prefer podu cultivation. Naikpod community is largely found
inside scheduled areas and sparsely outside them; they are divided into a number of
exogamous groups on the basis of surnames or sects. The surname only regulates
the matrimonial relations. These Naikpods are not to be confused with Lambadis,
who keep Naik as suffix to their names to identify their community.
Pardhans (Pradhans)
The Pardhans are traditional bards to Gonds and recite mythologies, folk tales and
songs of their deities at various festivals, ceremonies and fairs for which they are
paid. Each Gond family has a Pardhan family, as traditional bard. Gonds call them
‘Patadi’, meaning singer. Pardhans claim that they are called Pardhans since they
served as ministers and advisors to past Gond kings in the region.
Thotis
The Thotis are inhabitants of erstwhile Adilabad and Karimnagar districts and listed
as a Scheduled Tribe. They are numerically the smallest tribes in the district. The
tribe is divided into four exogamous phratries, just as saga of Gonds. The mother
tongue of Thotis is Gondi. Gonds call the Thotis as Birdal (receiver), while Thotis
call the Gonds as Dhani (donor).
Andhs
The tribe Andh is one of the branches of Gonds. Probably, the word ‘Andh’ is origi-
nated from the Sanskrit ‘Andhra’, a connection given by the ancient Aryans to an
aboriginal tribe dwelling in the Andhra Desh. Andhs appear in dark complexion and
thick lips and resemble the Gonds. They worship the Hindu gods and employ
Brahmins for religious and ceremonial purposes. They eat all kinds of items of
foods available in the regions and drink spirituous and fermented liquors. They
spread sporadically in Adilabad and Mancherial districts. They are usually consid-
ered born hunters, and many of them are sustaining as labourers. They collect non-
timber forest produce like honey, firewood, wild fruits, etc. for their day-to-day
livelihood (Ul-Hassan 1920).
Mannewars
The tribe Mannewar is an ancient tribal group of India and belonging to Dravidian
family. They live in and around forest areas of Adilabad and Mancherial districts.
They are the smallest group of Adivasis in the region and isolated from Koya tribe.
They usually speak Telugu themselves, but with others, they speak either Hindi or
Marathi. The word ‘Mannewar’ is derived from Telugu word, meaning ‘a jungle’ or
‘forest’. The Telugu-speaking people call them as ‘Mannewarlu’ meaning people
living in the forest areas. They worship usually lord Vishnu or Shiva. They normally
eat chapathi of jawar, bajra and wheat, rarely take rice. Both the genders drink coun-
trymade liquor during festivals. They collect forest produce for their livelihood and
firewood for cooking.
Bhils
Bhil tribe is a primitive and backward group. They are yet assimilated enough to be
hardly distinguished. They are inhabited in Adilabad district only. They live along
with other ethnic communities like Kolams and Andhs. Bhils are the recognized
tribal group in Telangana, but the population is negligible and is only 604 as per
Census 2011 (Satyanarayana 2014).
Gowari
The word ‘Gowari’ is derived from ‘gao’ or ‘gai’, which means ‘cow’ and Gowari
means ‘cowherd’. They are basically cattle herders. They live in and around forests
and graze their cattle in the forests. They found in Adilabad about 8–10 families and
work mainly as labourers. The tribe is the subgroup of the ‘Gond’ in the Government
of India list for Scheduled Tribe. They are distinct community. They worship god in
nature but today most of them are Hindus. They are very poor in facilities and lack-
ing in education and opportunities like other communities in STs.
Yerukalas
These people are found in the plains, in the outskirts of towns or employed in gov-
ernment service. They are chiefly engaged in making baskets and brooms and rear-
ing pigs (Fig. 5). They have small houses constructed with bamboo poles and
thatched grass. The women of this tribe are noted for their soothsaying (Sodhi in
Telugu, which is now a fading art). They are mostly wanderers.
Fig. 5 A Yerukala woman

is weaving a basket
Lambadis
Lambadis are emerging as one of the major tribes in Telangana districts and pre-
dominated tribe with 20.46%. These are an exotic tribe, living in thandas, exclu-
sively of their communities. Each thanda has a chief, known as Naik (Headman).
The word Lambadi might have been derived from the Sanskrit word, lavana, mean-
ing salt. The forefathers of Lambadis were traders of salt across Rajasthan desert. In
northern India, they are Banjaras. The word ‘Banjara’ must have evolved from
Prakrit, Hindi and Rajasthani words ‘bana/ban’ or ‘van/van’ meaning forest or
moorland and ‘chara’ meaning ‘movers’ or dwellers.
The Lambadis have a good stature with fair complexion. Men dress simply with
a shirt of handloom cloth, dhoti and a turban on their head. The women wear patch-
work, petticoats and light fitting bodies of some material with several rows of bead
necklaces, while their arms are covered with bracelets up to the elbow though this
ornamentation is now hardly seen in this part of the country (Fig. 6). They are
almost Hindus and worship Sevalal Maharaj. Since a decade, the religious conver-
sion has taken place to Christianity in the community by offering attractive emolu-
ments to the poor families.
The Lambadis eat all kinds of meat including fouls and pork. Gudumba is their
favourite drink which is distilled from jaggery though they drink toddy from wild
date palm (Phoenix sylvestris; eatha), Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer; thaati)
and fishtail palm (Caryota urens) ‘giraka thaati’ in Warangal and ‘jiluga’ in
Khammam. The Lambadis better utilize all opportunities for their socio-economic
development. Some of them have taken to pastoralism, agriculture and various types
of labour, while their women collect forest produce (NTFPs), sell fire wood, etc.
The literates invariably migrate to cities and are better employed.
Fig. 6 The Lambadi women on their way to collect tendu leaves (Diospyros melanoxylon) in tra-
ditional dresses
Chenchus
These are aboriginal tribes and native of Nallamalais, in Mahabubnagar district of

southern Telangana. They are migrated and settled in a few pockets of Vikarabad
forest region of Ranga Reddi and Regonda mandal of Jayashankar Bhupalpally dis-
trict. The Chenchus are hunter gatherers. They have good skills in collecting the
honey and other forest produce like tendu leaves, Litsea bark, bamboo culms, amla
fruits, etc.
Boyas
The Boya is one of the primitive tribes in India. Boyas are the descendants of
Maharshi Valmiki, who wrote ‘Ramayana’, an ancient Indian epic. These are primi-
tive, economically poor, have no specific profession and inhabitants of agencies and
platues. This tribe was under Scheduled Tribe category before 1976; later they were
included in BC-A. The present Telangana government is planning to include this
tribe into Scheduled Tribe category again.
Mathura Lambadis
The tribe Mathura Lambadis is confined to only a few villages of erstwhile Adilabad
and Nizamabad districts. These are nomadic people, their settlements are known as
‘Thandas’ and hereditary leader is ‘Naik’. These people are almost Hindus and wor-
ship Lord Krishna. They are very fare looking and cleaner in habits than other com-
munities and also wear sacred thread. They cook their own food and do not allow
any other community to offer or cook their food. They are very specific in that cul-
ture. They do not eat flesh.
Nakkala
In 2003, the Nakkala community was included in the Scheduled Tribe. The tribe is
a wandering community, nomadic hunters and traders. They hunt small animals and
birds for livelihood. These people are also known as ‘dove’ catchers (guvvalavallu),
‘bird’ catchers (pittalollu), ‘oosikora’ (needle sellers) and shikaris (hunters). The
women play a significant role in all the economic activities of the family. Their
dialect is ‘Nakkala basha’, with no script.
Dhulia
In Telangana, the Dhulia community is a Scheduled Tribe since 2003. The word
‘Dhulia’ was derived from ‘Dhuli’, which means ‘dust’. Dhulias found sporadically
in Mancherial and Kumaram Bheem Asifabad districts. They are either farmers or
agricultural labourers. They also collect forest produce from the surrounding forest
areas for their day-today survival. Their deity is ‘Nisani Devanta’, which is a small
boulder installed under a huge tree outside the village.
Gothi Koya
Gothi Koyas are migrants from Chhattisgarh. They have started occupying the for-
est lands and made their permanent settlement by clearing forest lands majorly in
the northern part of Telangana. Primarily, they are agricultural labourers, hunters
and NTFP gatherers. Gothi Koyas are settling in the forest habitations of the region
along the southern bank of river Godavari. Their presence is perceived as a threat to
the forest vegetation and wild life. They are indulging the podu cultivation (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7 Gothi Koya community at a hamlet and podu cultivation by Gothi Koya tribe in nearby
forest areas
Fig. 8 The huts of Raj

Koya tribe at
Dudekulapalli of
Jayashankar Bhupalpally
district
Raj Koya
Raj Koyas are migrants from the neighbouring Chhattisgarh state and are rehabili-
tated in some hamlets of Jayashankar Bhupalpally and Bhadradri Kothagudem dis-
tricts. They are hunters and collect non-timber forest products for their survival;
now they are sustaining agricultural coolies without any facilities. These people
have come predominantly for the land and labour work. They live in forest fringes
and very far from other villages (Fig. 8). They walk for kilometres to get water for
their domestic use, and there are no electricity facilities in their villages. The ham-
lets are known as Raj Koya gudems.
Forests
Telangana State has a forest cover of 20,419 km2, which is 18.22% of its geo-
graphical area (ISFR, 2017). The erstwhile districts in Telangana with good for-
est cover are Adilabad (35.32%; 5688 sq km), Khammam (33.42%; 4433 sq km)
and Warangal (22.72%; 2918 sq km). These occupy 64% of the total forest cover
of the state (ISFR 2017). The forests in northern Telangana are largely of tropical
dry deciduous type, with teak dominating and forming pure stands in Adilabad
district which extend to south and southeastern part where it forms Tectona-
Terminalia transition zone and then Terminalia-Hardwickia association, further
to Madhuca-Terminalia-Cleistanthus zone along the river Godavari towards the
east (Raju et al. 2014).
Prior Informed Content (PIC)
The study of traditional knowledge usually relies on interactions with a few mem-
bers of the community to represent the knowledge held by the entire community.
Many ethnobotanists adopt the cultural consensus model developed by Romney
et al. (1986). Although this model has some limitations, it devalues differences in
knowledge and focuses on consensus. Prior informed content (PIC) is an impor-
tant concern underlying the philosophical and political environment of bio-
prospecting research involving indigenous societies (Rosenthal 2006). In
compliance with the convention on biological diversity (CBD), the PIC should
establish for relevant discussions with the tribal communities regarding the
intended use of their knowledge in any form. The mutual understanding was that
any benefit derived from research pursued after their medicinal plant knowledge
shall belong to them. In India, there is a general and urgent need to pattern the
process of PIC after educating the local ethnic groups in different regions of IPR,
as per a standard scale. The scientific approach towards the collection of ethnome-
dicinal data from the forest inhabitants was initiated through University Grants
Commission. Furthermore, the majority of the local people in India are of the
opinion that the knowledge could be displayed in full text for non-commercial and
academic purposes (Singh 2008; Suthari et al. 2014a, b).
Wildlife Sanctuaries
There are a good number of wildlife sanctuaries in the study area created by the then
Nizam Government and then the erstwhile Government of Andhra Pradesh, for on-
site conservation of wildlife (Table 4). To mention the major ones, district-wise:
Table 4 Information on wildlife sanctuaries in Telangana State, India

District/s covered Sanctuary name Area (km2)
Mancherial Kawal 893
Mancherial Pranahita 136
Mancherial Sivaram 38.66
Jayashankar Bhupalpally Eturnagaram 803
Mahabubabad Pakhal 860
Bhadradri Kothagudem Kinnerasani 635.41
Medak and Nizamabad Pocharam 129.85
Sangareddy Manjeera (Crocodile) 20
Khammam, East and West Godavari Papikondalu 591
Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Guntur, Kurnool and NSTRa 3568
Prakasam
a
NSTR Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
Ethnic Tribes: Health Care and Status
Literacy rate is an indicator of development achieved by a community in a region,

which indicates the health condition, social status and hygiene. According to the
Census 2011, Jogulamba Gadwal district bears the lowest literacy rate, i.e. 49.87%,
followed by Nagarkurnool (54.38%) and Wanaparthy (55.67%) where the highest
rate was shown by Hyderabad district with 83.25, immediately followed by Medchal
(82.49%) and Warangal Urban (76.17%). Health status plays an important role in
the development of a society or community. When compared to the towns, the tribal
people have resistance to many ailments. The ethnic or aboriginal people have their
thoughts generated from nature and way of living. They have nothing to deal with
teaching or textbook procedures. The cognitive ability of the ethnic groups is differ-
ent. It is connected to thinking or mental process. Even within the same tribe (intra-
cultural), how the cognizance related to utilization of plant resource varies with the
local, forest around and level of economic development was demonstrated for the
first time in India by Suthari et al. (2014a), with Koyas of Eturunagarm wildlife
sanctuary as the case study. The primitive tribes of Telangana usually inhabited in
forest fringes, and these people are safe from some health problems like high blood
pressure and diabetes due to their food habits compared to urban people. These
tribes do not have proper transport facilities to check up their health condition even
today. They are in very pathetic condition in health status due to unavailability of
minimum facilities and lack of awareness.
During rainy season, in agency areas the floods do not allow them to travel to
nearby towns even in emergency time also. Primarily, most of the pregnant ladies
and the persons who are suffering from fever or some other diseases have lead them
to lost their lives only because of lacking hospital facilities (Fig. 9). Even today, the
government medical services are unable to meet the minimum health needs of the
tribal people. Poorly equipped facilities, appearance of old buildings, poor
performance and non-availability of qualified doctors in remote areas during day
and night led to reduce the quality of treatment.
Fig. 9 (a) The tribal people carrying ill person on a cot during rainy season due to unavailability
of transport in remote areas. (b) The dead fatal baby, a common phenomenon in the region due to
lack of proper medication
For typical diseases or in serious conditions, the tribal people used to approach
nearby government or private hospitals; otherwise, they depend on traditional practi-
tioners and local healers for common ailments. In Telangana, the ethnic practitioners
and local healers greatly depend on plant resources to cure diseases from nearby
forest areas. They used to collect plant parts such as roots/rhizomes of Rauvolfia
serpentina and Gloriosa superba; leaves of Gymnema sylvestre, Moringa concanen-
sis, etc.; fruits of Aegle marmelos, Balanites roxburghii, Terminalia bellirica,
Terminalia chebula and Phyllanthus emblica; seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica,
Strychnos potatorum and Abrus precatorius; whole plants of Andrographis panicu-
lata, Anodendron paniculatum and Centella asiatica; and bark of Litsea glutinosa,
Bombax ceiba, Lannea coromandelica, etc. (Fig. 10). The opportunities for gathering
medicinal plants for self-consumption and sale for the resident ethnic groups are
immense in the erstwhile Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal and Khammam districts.
Ethnic Tribes: Agriculture
The main occupation of the tribes in the study area is agriculture and gathering for-
est produce. They are also professional cattle breeders. The tribes indulged in podu
cultivation. Now, they are largely agricultural labourers and receive supplementary
income through gathering non-timber forest produce (NTFP). On the other, the
modern agriculture has its profound impact on the use of inputs and price rise lead-
ing to farmer suicides, while the traditional agriculture was remunerative, cost-
effective and with no adverse effects on the fertility of the soil and the health of the
consumers. They cultivate majorly cotton, maize, green gram, chickpea, ground nut,
jowar and cow pea due to insufficient irrigation facilities. Most of the ethnic people
are illiterate, landless and marginal agricultural coolies. The local people are not
well equipped to do agriculture because of their poorly developed skills and
restricted access to the resources required.
Fig. 10 Ethnomedicinal plants used by the tribes with high importance. (a) Abrus precatorius for
insect bite; (b) Andrographis paniculata leaves for ephemeral fever; (c) Centella asiatica for mem-
ory boosting; (d) Anodendron paniculatum for bone fracture; (e) Paederia foetida leaves for dys-
entery; and (f) Gloriosa superba tubers for snake bite
Ethnic Tribes: Beliefs
Basically the tribes worship god in nature. They offer either vegetables, fruits or
animals, which depend on the specific deity type. The tribes celebrate many occa-
sions connected manly with the agricultural seasons and birth-death ceremonies.
There are about 20 tribal communities that celebrate the occasions of their own
which is purely dependent on their community and beliefs. Each community has its
own identity and celebrations. For example, the Koya tribe could not cut mahuwa
(Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia); they treat that tree as a sacred one, which pro-
vides fresh corolla, fruits, etc. for their sustenance. Ancestor worship is prevalent
among the community members. The dead are buried (Ramarao and Henry 1996).
Sickness, illness and other situations of travail and tribulations are attributed to the
work of angered malevolent deities. To identify the trouble-making deity, the ser-
vices of an established spirit medium are commissioned. Diagnosis and treatment of
sickness involve a series of magico-religious practices besides administering herbal
medicine. While spirit medium is called Manthragadu, the local doctor is known as
Vejju.
Ethnic Tribe: Sacred Groves
The cultural, ancestral and magico-religious beliefs have great influence on the
availability of a species, as well as the vegetation of a particular area. A sacred grove
is a protected area where the natural vegetation patch is present and is protected by
the local communities considering it as the abode of their ancestral deities or spirits.
The IUCN considers the sacred groves as sacred natural sites (SNSs), classified as
‘the natural areas of special spiritual significance to people and communities which
include the natural areas recognized as sacred by the indigenous and traditional
people as well as natural areas recognized by institutionalized religious faiths as the
places of worship and remembrance’. The WWF-Telangana has recorded 65 sacred
groves in the state as of erstwhile district-wise, namely, Adilabad 2, Nizamabad 7,
Karimnagar 4, Warangal 3, Khammam 4, Medak 4, Hyderabad 13, Nalgonda 9,
Ranga Reddy 10 and Mahabubnagar 9 (Suthari et al. 2016), but there are hundreds
of sacred groves which are available and protected in the state where natural vegeta-
tions with rare and threatened species are highly protected by the local people in the
name of beliefs in their deities and spirits (Fig. 11). Very important plant taxa such
as Anodendron paniculatum, Paederia foetida, Flagellaria indica and Dysolobium
pilosum are seen only inside the Mallur sacred grove where there is no single record
of availability of these taxa in the study area. Some of the species like Madhuca
longifolia var. latifolia, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula and Ficus bengha-
lensis are common within the sacred grove, but we can rarely observe outside.
Fig. 11 Sacred groves in the forests: places for the worship by the ethnic tribes
Ethnic Tribes: Politics
The constitution of India made special provision for political participation of STs,
their social and economic welfare. The tribes have 6% reservations in Telangana
State. The current state government is planning to hike reservations from 6 to 12%
as per the population of STs through TS Reservation Act, 2017. The primitive tribes
of Telangana are illiterate, very poor and innocent compared to exotic tribes. The
provided reservations were fully occupied by the migrated tribes. The Lambadis are
predominantly utilizing all the opportunities in many aspects.
Ethnic Tribes: Associated Festivals and Fairs
Like other religious fests, the tribal groups have also their own identical and ances-
tral fairs and festivals per year. Each community has their own festivals and fairs.
They celebrate according to their rituals, deities and beliefs (Fig. 12). There are
many fairs and festivals celebrated by the tribal people in Telangana, but there are
two major tribal festivals have been celebrating in Telangana, i.e. Sri Sammakka-
Sarakka Jatara and Nagoba Jatara in Tadvai and Indravelli mandals, respectively
(Fig. 13).
Fig. 12 A bride groom of

the Gond tribe on his
marriage ceremony
Fig. 13 The historic massive tribal fairs Sri Sammakka-Sarakka (a, b) and Nagoba (c) Jataras in
Telangana
Sri Sammakka-Sarakka Jatara is the biennial tribal congregation which about

1.2 crore people attend only in 4 days of main jatara. It is the event of Koya tribe.
The festival attracts tribes and nontribal people across the country and the states
which include mainly Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. It is the biggest tribal congregation in Asia and
popularly known as ‘South Kumbhmela’.
Nagoba Jatara is the annual gathering of Gond tribe at Keslapur of Adilabad
district. The Gonds used to worship an anthril under a tree. This was initiated in
1941 and is organized by Mesram clan of Gond tribes. For the convenient of tribal
people, Christopher von Furer-Haimendorf started the ‘darbar’ (to address the
grievances of the Gonds) on the third day of Jatara in 1944.
Ethnic Groups: Economic Source from Major NTFPs
The ethnic people, who live in and around the forests, collect, use and sell non-
timber forest products (NTFPs). Chandrasekharan (1995) has broadly catego-
rized the NTFPs into food and food additives, fodder, fibril and flosses, fertilizer,
herbal portions, phytochemical and aroma chemicals, oils, latex, resins and exu-
dates, organic construction materials, decorative articles, different kinds of ani-
mal products and services such as grazing and recreation. Around 70 million
ethnic people, spread all over the globe, largely depend on forests for their liveli-
hood, of which 50 million people obtain their livelihood from forests. The New
Forest Policy 1988 has clearly envisaged the need and means for involving for-
est-dependent communities (mainly ethnic groups) as partners in the manage-
ment of the forest resources. Although 3000 NTFP species are known to be in use
in India, only 126 have marketability (Maithani 1994). It is because the NTFPs
are associated with traditional uses and are not widely known and often linked to
subsistence. The NTFPs have been identified as one of key income sources for
rural households, and the examples indicate an income share greater than that
from cash crops or informal cash incomes (Dovie 2003). The diversity of NTFPs
in Telangana is a rich forest resource to the ethnic people to exploit for livelihood
by self-employment. The gums (karaya, tiruman and konda gogu), seeds (visha
mushti, chilla, Pongamia, chinta), roots (sarpagandha) and leaves (tumiki) pro-
vide the bulk of the income, and a considerable proportion of the poor house-
holds use NTFPs for self-consumption than their wealthier counterparts. The
NTFPs alone have such potential to provide good income to the local communi-
ties, provided they are harvested on a sustainable basis (Omkar et al. 2012). The
NTFPs are a good economic source for Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Kerala and several other north-east states in India. Combined state of Andhra
Pradesh earned about 10 crore rupees on yearly average from 2005–2006 to
2015–2016 (GCC 2016).
The tribes and scores of other forest-dependent people are actively involved in
the collection of NTFP species like tendu leaves (Diospyros melanoxylon), bam-
boo culms (Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea), gum karaya
(Firmiana simplex), axle wood gum (Anogeissus latiofolia), nux-vomica seeds
(Strychnos nux-vomica), cleaning nut seeds (Strychnos potatorum), mahua
corolla/seeds (Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia), bastard myrobalan seeds
(Terminalia bellirica), myrobalan seeds (Terminalia chebula), amla fruits
(Phyllanthus emblica), tallow laurel bark (Litsea glutinosa), silk cotton gum
(Cochlospermum religiosum), soap nut fruits (Sapindus emarginatus), marking
nut seeds (Semecarpus anacardium), etc. (Table 5). Women folk were found
excellent with the collection of NTFPs for the family (Omkar et al. 2008). The
Girijan Cooperative Corporation Limited (GCC) in Eturnagaram Division
(Telangana) alone procured NTFPs from the local people for worth rupees more
than one crore from April 2014 to February 2015 (GCC 2015). Conversely, NTFPs
not only have the potential for significant contribution to improve the rural liveli-
hoods at household level but also the economy of states at macro level (Suthari
et al. 2018).
Table 5 The NTFPs availability in Telangana for which Girijan Cooperative Corporation has a
price index
Scientific name Trade name NTFP Grade Price (per kg)
1 Firmiana simplex Gum karaya Gum I 270
II 220
III 125
2 Anogeissus latifolia Axle wood Gum I 80
II 60
III 50
3 Cochlospermum religiosum Karita gum Gum I 200
II 150
III 120
4 Rauvolfia serpentina Indian snakeroot Root 150
5 Litsea glutinosa Indian laurel Stem bark 32
6 Strychnos nux-vomica Poison nut Seed 30
7 Strychnos potatorum Cleaning nut Seed 18
8 Pongamia pinnata Kanuga Seed 10
9 Tamarindus indica Tamarind Fruit With seed 18
Seedless 32
10 Sapindus emarginatus Soap nut Fruit 6
11 Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia Mahuwa Corolla 10
Seed 14
13 Thysanolaena maxima Broom grass Shoot 18
14 Terminalia chebula Karakkaya Fruit 6
15 Phyllanthus emblica Amla Fruit 15
16 Gardenia resinifera Dikamali Resin 12
17 Semecarpus anacardium Marking nut Seed 12
18 Honey Honey Honey 130
19 Honey bees wax Wax Wax 120
Bioprospecting and Ethnobotany
Bioprospecting and ethnobotany indicate the screening of bioactive compounds or

active principles from ethnomedicinally important plant for a particular purpose.
For any new drug discovery or biochemical resources, formulations, generally the
scientists rely on the guidance of ethnic or local people, who have practical knowl-
edge traditionally for a particular disease or desired activity.
Traditional and ancient knowledge about natural resources still exists in many
locations of the study area. The knowledge among individuals could pass by oral
from generation to generation, or acquired by selected persons and requires system-

atic documentation. The knowledge of tribes about plants around them and their
usage can be studied by personal observation and close association with the primi-
tive tribes. The help of reliable old people and medicine men of the particular area
is taken in collection of information about parts of the plant of economic value,
mode of collection, processing, preparation and administration of drug, dosages,
duration, etc.
Conclusion
Telangana region is known for its primitive tribes as well as the forest richness in
southern India. The present study served the purpose of exploring Telangana State
for its ethnobotany. The present paper on the review of ethnobotanical account from
Telangana State is reporting 403 vascular plant taxa of 93 families under Pteridophyta
and Magnoliophyta. The identified taxa with promising medicinal properties are
arranged alphabetically. Each taxon is provided with the currently accepted name
with vernacular name, family, distribution pattern in the study area, ethnic utility
and useful part (Table 6). The study resulted in proving that the ethnic people in the
state have different cognitive abilities and perspectives of the natural resources
around and how to use them need-based. Of the ethnic tribes, the Koyas and Konda
Reddis are found to possess more traditional knowledge about the plant kinds, dis-
tribution and their uses, followed by Gonds and the related sects. The study also
brought to light the similar use of different medicinal plants for the treatment of
various ailments used by the ethnic people (Table 7) and their dependence on forests
and the need for protecting the local ecosystems for their services to the needy.
Furthermore, the area under forests is steadily decreasing on one hand, and the plant
invasions and exotic tree plantations on the other are eating away the economic
opportunities of the local people. There is a need to document the pattern of plant
resource utilization in traditional ways for subsistence and economic development
of the poor and largely not so literate local people.
Acknowledgements Sateesh Suthari is grateful to the Science and Engineering Research Board
(SERB-DST) for financial support through Start-Up Research Grant (Young Scientists) (No. SB/
YS/LS-70/2014 dated March 11, 2015). The authors are obliged to the Heads of Department of
Plant Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, and Department of Botany, Kakatiya
University, Warangal, for providing facilities.
Table 6 List of some promising and interesting medicinal plants used by the ethnic tribal groups from Telangana State along with their vernacular name,
94
family, growth form, distribution pattern, utility pattern and useful parts to cure various ailments
Botanical name Local name Family Growth form Distribution Ethnic use (part/s useful)
1 Abelmoschus moschatus Kasturi benda Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Abdominal pain (F)
2 Abrus precatorius Gurivinda Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Anthrax, insect bite, snake bite (L, Wh)
3 Abutilon indicum Tutturu benda Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Dysentery, helminthiasis, insect bite (L)
4 Acacia chundra Sandra Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Asthma, fever, trypanosomiasis, wound healing
(Sb)
5 Acacia farnesiana Muriki tumma Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Dog bite (F)
6 Acacia leucophloea Tella tumma Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Boils, ephemeral fever, wound healing (Sb)
7 Acacia nilotica Nalla tumma Fabaceae Tree/Intr Wild Burns (Sb)
8 Acacia pennata Korinda Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Fits (Sb)
9 Acacia torta Konda korinda Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Labour pain (Sb)
10 Acalypha indica Muripinda Euphorbiaceae Herb/I Wild Maggot-infected sores, skin diseases (L)
11 Acalypha lanceolata Penta puti Euphorbiaceae Herb/I Wild Laxative (L)
12 Achyranthes aspera Uttareni Amaranthaceae Herb/I Wild Boils, insect bite, snake bite, wound healing (L,
R, Wh)
13 Acmella paniculata Chinna akkala karra Asteraceae Herb/E Natur Toothache (Infl)
14 Acorus calamus Vasa Acoraceae Herb/I Cult Stomachache (Rh)
15 Adenostemma lavenia Adavi jilakara Asteraceae Herb/I Wild Wound healing (Wh)
chettu
16 Adiantum lunulatum Hamsapadi Pteridaceae Herb/I Wild Dysentery, epilepsy (Wh)
17 Aegle marmelos Maredu Rutaceae Tree/I Wild Corneal opacity, dysentery, impaction (F, L)
18 Aerva lanata Pindi kura Amaranthaceae Herb/I Wild Earache (L)
19 Aerva scandens Konda pindi Amaranthaceae Herb/I Wild Dysentery (L)
20 Agave americana Saga nara Asparagaceae Herb/E Planted Ephemeral fever (L)
21 Ageratum conyzoides Gabbu chettu Asteraceae Herb/E Natur Rheumatism (L)
S. Suthari et al.
22 Ailanthus excelsa Peddamanu Simaroubaceae Tree/E Planted/R_ Piles, tympany (Sb)
wild
23 Alangium salviifolium Oodugu Cornaceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture, oedema, purgative, snake bite
(Sb, R)
24 Albizia procera Tella chinduga Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Rheumatism (Sb)
25 Aloe vera Kala banda Xanthorrhoeaceae Herb/I Planted Insect bite, piles (L)
26 Amaranthus spinosus Mulla thotakura Amaranthaceae Herb/E R_wild Appetite stimulant (L)
27 Ammannia baccifera Agni vednapaku Amaranthaceae Herb/I Wild Skin diseases (L)
28 Ampelocissus latifolia Dobba teega Vitaceae Climber/I Wild Anorexia (S)
29 Ampelocissus tomentosa Atukula baddu Vitaceae Shrub/I Wild Anthrax, bone fracture, insect bite (L, R)
30 Andrographis paniculata Nela vemu Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Dyspepsia/indigestion, ephemeral fever,
snake bite (L, R)
31 Anisomeles indica Dayyam marri Lamiaceae Herb/I Wild Ephemeral fever, snake bite (L)
32 Anisomeles malabarica Dayyam chettu Lamiaceae Herb/I Wild Fever (Wh)
33 Annona squamosa Sheetaphalam Annonaceae Shrub/E Planted/R_ Ephemeral fever, snake bite (L)
wild
34 Anodendron paniculatum Atukudu teega Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Bone fracture (Wh)
35 Anogeissus latifolia Thiruman Combretaceae Tree/I Wild Anthrax, asthma, insect bite (Sb)
36 Argemone mexicana Brahma dandi Papaveraceae Tree/E Wild Skin disease (Lx)
37 Argyreia nervosa Chandra podi Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Skin disease, tympany (L)
38 Aristolochia bracteolata Gadida garapa Aristolochiaceae Herb/I Wild Anthrax, insect bite, purgative, snake bite,
wound healing (R, L)
39 Aristolochia indica Nalla usiri Aristolochiaceae Climber/I Wild Earache, hemiplegia (partial paralysis),
snake bite (R)
40 Artabotrys hexapetalus Muddasampenga Annonaceae Climber/I Cult Fertility (L)
Ethnobotanical Explorations in Telangana, the Youngest State in Union of India…
(continued)
95
Table 6 (continued)
96
41 Asparagus gonoclados Guddelugu bochu Asparagaceae Climber/I Wild Aphrodisiac, skin disease, snake bite (T)
42 Asparagus racemosus Ellamma gaddalu Asparagaceae Climber/I Wild/cult Anthrax, aphrodisiac, dysentery, galactogogue,
insect bite (T, Sh)
43 Asystasia gangetica Lavana valli Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Rheumatism (Wh)
44 Atalantia monophylla Adavi nimma Rutaceae Tree/I Wild Rheumatism (Sb)
45 Azadirachta indica Vepa Meliaceae Tree/E Planted/R_ Ephemeral fever (Sb, Sh)
wild
46 Azima tetracantha Tella uppi Salvadoraceae Shrub/I Wild Infant diseases, rheumatism (Sb)
47 Baccharoides schimperi Davijilakara Asteraceae Herb/I Wild Wound healing (L)
48 Bacopa monnieri Brahmi Plantaginaceae Herb/I Wild Tonic (Wh)
49 Balanites roxburghii Gare Zygophyllaceae Tree/I Wild Corneal opacity, ephemeral fever, Pertusis (Fl, F)
50 Baliospermum solanifolium Danthi Euphorbiaceae Shrub/I Wild Purgative (R)
51 Barleria montana Adavi dishambaralu Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (L)
52 Barleria prionitis Mulla gorinta Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Scorpion sting (R)
53 Barringtonia acutangula Nir kanki Lecythidaceae Tree/I Wild Rheumatism (Sb)
54 Bauhinia malabarica Puli are Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Ephemeral fever (Sb)
55 Bauhinia purpurea Deva kanchanam Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Diarrhoea (Sb)
56 Bauhinia racemosa Aare/aari Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Dysentery (Sb, Fl)
57 Bauhinia semla Goddeti are Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Neck pain, tonic (Sb)
58 Bauhinia vahlii Addaku Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Dyspepsia/indigestion (Sd)
59 Biophytum sensitivum Atti patti Oxalidaceae Herb/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts (L)
60 Blepharis maderaspatensis Nela pariki Acanthaceae Climber/I Wild Purgative (L)
61 Blepharis repens Nela pariki Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Heat and summer stroke (R)
62 Blumea axillaris Kukka pogaku Asteraceae Herb/E Wild Cough, cuts (L)
63 Blumea bifoliata Kukka pogaku Asteraceae Herb/E Wild Cough (L)
64 Blumea lacera Asteraceae Herb/E Wild Blisters (L)
S. Suthari et al.
65 Blumea obliqua Asteraceae Herb/E Wild Wound healing (L)
66 Blumea virens Adavi pogaku Asteraceae Herb/E Wild Skin disease (L)
67 Boerhavia diffusa Atikamamidi Nyctaginaceae Herb/E Wild Trypanosomiasis (L)
68 Boerhavia erecta Punarnava Nyctaginaceae Herb/I Wild Tonic (Wh)
69 Bombax ceiba Buruga Malvaceae Tree/I Wild Anthrax, dysentery, fertility (Sb, Sd)
70 Boswellia serrata Anduga Burseraceae Tree/I Wild Dog bite, rheumatism, scorpion sting (Sb)
71 Breynia retusa Tella pulicheru Euphorbiaceae Shrub/I Wild Aphrodisiac, cough (L)
72 Bridelia montana Panchotkam Euphorbiaceae Tree/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts (L, Sb)
73 Bryophyllum pinnatum Ranapala Crassulaceae Herb/E Planted Snake bite (R)
74 Buchanania axillaris Pedda morri Anacardiaceae Tree/I Wild Wound healing (Fl)
75 Buchanania Chinna morli Anacardiaceae Tree/I Wild Chest pain (Fl, F)
cochinchinensis
76 Butea superba Teega moduga Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Labour pains (Fl)
77 Byttneria herbacea Erra teega Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Anthrax, dysentery, impaction (L)
78 Cadaba fruticosa Vutharasi chettu Capparaceae Shrub/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts (Sb)
79 Caesalpinia bonduc Gatchikai Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Ephemeral fever, hydrocele, rheumatism (Sd, L)
80 Cajanus cajan Kandulu Fabaceae Shrub/I Cult Contraceptive (Sd)
81 Calotropis gigantea Tella jilledu Apocynaceae Shrub/E Natur Constipation, earache, fever, rheumatism, snake
bite (Fl, Lx)
82 Canavalia cathartica Adavi chemma Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Sexually transmitted diseases, scorpion sting
(R, S)
83 Canavalia gladiata Advi chemma Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Rheumatism (L)
84 Canthium coromandelicum Balusu Rubiaceae Shrub/I Wild Insect bite (Sb, F)
85 Capparis divaricata Nalla uppi Capparaceae Climber/I Wild Trypanosomiasis (Sb, F)
86 Capparis sepiaria Uppi Capparaceae Climber/I Wild Anthrax, contraceptive, rheumatism, skin
disease (Sb, F)
87 Capparis zeylanica Adonda Capparaceae Shrub/I Wild Diabetes, dyspepsia/indigestion, impaction
(Sb, F)
97
(continued)
Table 6 (continued)
98
88 Caralluma umbellata Kundeti kommu Apocynaceae Herb/I Wild Burns (Sh)
89 Cardiospermum Budda kakara Sapindaceae Climber/I Wild Ephemeral fever, hydrocele (L, R)
halicacabum
90 Careya arborea Budda darmi Lecythidaceae Tree/I Wild Labour pains, snake bite (Fl)
91 Casearia elliptica Kanusiri Salicaceae Shrub/I Wild Corneal opacity, ephemeral fever (Sb, L, F)
92 Cassia fistula Rela Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Tympany (L)
93 Cassytha filiformis Paachi teega Lauraceae Climber/I Wild Bone fracture (Wh)
94 Cayratia pedata Edakula Vitaceae Climber/I Wild Sexually transmitted diseases (L)
mandulamari
95 Celastrus paniculatus Malleru teega Celastraceae Climber/I Wild Abortion, snake bite (Sb)
96 Celosia argentea Gunugu Amaranthaceae Herb/E Natur Galactogogue (L)
97 Centella asiatica Saraswathi aku Apiaceae Herb/I Wild Memory booster (L)
98 Ceratopteris thalictroides Medha Pteridaceae Herb/I Wild Memory (Wh)
99 Ceriscoides turgida Tella elaka Rubiaceae Tree/I Wild Diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, piles, tympany (Sb)
100 Ceropegia hirsuta Dusari manda Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Diarrhoea (T)
101 Ceropegia juncea Bella gadda Apocynaceae Herb/I Wild Galactogogue (T)
102 Chamaesyce hirta Reddivari nanubalu Euphorbiaceae Herb/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts, skin disease (Wh)
103 Chamaesyce thymifolia Reddivari nanubalu Euphorbiaceae Herb/E Planted Laxative (L)
104 Cheilocostus speciosus Kepu kanda Costaceae Shrub/I Wild Asthma (Rh)
105 Chlorophytum tuberosum Sarala pagada Asparagaceae Herb/I Wild Aphrodisiac (T)
106 Chloroxylon swietenia Billudu Rutaceae Tree/I Wild Neck pain, shivering (Sb)
107 Chromolaena odorata Juttu puvvu Asteraceae Shrub/E Wild Wound healing (L)
108 Cinnamomum zeylanicum Dalchina chekka Lauraceae Tree/I Wild Red leucorrhoea (Sb)
109 Cissampelos pareira Boddi Menispermaceae Climber/I Wild Snake bite, stomachache, tonic (R)
110 Cissus adnata Kakkitayaralu Vitaceae Climber/I Wild Wound healing (T)
111 Cissus quadrangularis Nalleda Vitaceae Climber/I Wild Anorexia, asthma, bone fracture, helminthiasis
S. Suthari et al.
(Sb, L)
112 Cissus vitiginea Adavi draksha Vitaceae Climber/I Wild Stomachache (L)
113 Cleistanthus collinus Nalla kodisha Euphorbiaceae Tree/I Wild Blisters, boils, wound healing (Sb, L)
114 Cleome gynandra Vaminta Cleomaceae Herb/I Wild Head-ache (L)
115 Cleome monophylla Gaddi vaminta Cleomaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (L)
116 Cleome viscosa Kukka vaminta Cleomaceae Herb/I Wild Blisters, boils, skin disease, wound healing (L)
117 Clerodendrum phlomidis Takkali Lamiaceae Shrub/I Wild Rheumatism (L)
118 Clitoria ternatea Gantena Fabaceae Climber/I Planted/R_ Dysentery (L)
wild
119 Coccinia grandis Kaki donda Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild/cult Blisters, boils, cuts, dysentery, tympany (L, F)
120 Cocculus hirsutus Dusara teega Menispermaceae Climber/I Wild Epistaxis, red leucorrhoea, urinary problems (R)
121 Cochlospermum religiosum Konda gogu Bixaceae Tree/I Wild Piles (L)
122 Coldenia procumbens Cheppu thattaku Boraginaceae Herb/I Wild Wound healing (Wh)
123 Combretum latifolium Yada teega Combretaceae Climber/I Wild Diarrhoea (L)
124 Commelina benghalensis Yennadari Commelinaceae Herb/I Wild Helminthiasis (Sb)
125 Corallocarpus epigaeus Naga donda Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild Diabetes, snake bite (T)
126 Crateva magna Uskia tammidi Capparaceae Tree/I Wild/Cult Tympany (Fl)
127 Crinum asiaticum Penjari gadda Amaryllidaceae Herb/I Wild Snake bite, wound healing (Sb, T)
128 Crotalaria albida Adavi janumu Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Labour pains (R)
129 Crotalaria medicaginea Konda janumu Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Rheumatism (R)
130 Crotalaria verrucosa Tella usiri Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Ephemeral fever, fits, insect bite, snake bite (L,
R)
131 Cryptolepis dubia Adavi pala teega Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Galactogogue, skin diseases (L, Lx)
132 Ctenolepis garcinii Gargoo Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild Throat disorders (Wh)
133 Curculigo orchioides Nela thadi Hypoxidaceae Herb/I Wild Aphrodisiac, ephemeral fever, Galactogogue,
trypanosomiasis (T)
134 Curcuma longa Pasupu Zingiberaceae Herb/I Cult Antiseptic, blisters, bone fracture, cuts (T)
135 Curcuma pseudomontana Adavi pasupu Zingiberaceae Herb/I Wild Anthrax, wound healing (T)
(continued)
99
Table 6 (continued)
100
136 Cuscuta chinensis Pashi teega Convolvulaceae Climber/E Natur Galactogogue (Wh)
137 Cuscuta reflexa Lanja savaram Convolvulaceae Climber/E Natur Purgative (Wh)
138 Cyanthillium cinereum Sahadevi Asteraceae Herb/E Natur Fever (R)
139 Cynodon dactylon Garika Poaceae Herb/I Wild Trypanosomiasis (Wh)
140 Cyperus rotundus Tunga Cyperaceae Herb/I Wild Ephemeral fever (T)
141 Cyphostemma setosum Barre bachali Vitaceae Climber/I Wild Dysentery, rheumatism (Wh)
142 Dalbergia lanceolaria ssp. Patchari Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Baldness (Sb)
paniculata
143 Dalbergia latifolia Jitregi Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Stomachache (Sb)
144 Dalbergia volubilis Teega patchari Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Skin disease (Sb)
145 Datura metel Ummetta Solanaceae Herb/I Wild Snake bite (R)
146 Dendrocalamus strictus Veduru Poaceae Tree/I Wild Oedema (T)
147 Dendrophthoe falcata Vepa vajinika Loranthaceae Shrub/I Wild Fever, tuberculosis (L, Sb)
148 Derris scandens Nalla teega Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Anthrax, impaction, trypanosomiasis (L, Sb)
149 Desmodium gangeticum Konda saru Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Scorpion sting (R)
150 Desmodium heterocarpon Cheppu thatta Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Cough (Wh)
151 Desmodium velutinum Teega veluga Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Scorpion sting (R)
152 Dichrostachys cinerea Velturu Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts, rheumatism (L)
153 Dicliptera paniculata Chebura Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (L)
154 Dillenia pentagyna Revadi Dilleniaceae Tree/I Wild Anthrax, bone fracture, dysentery, rheumatism
(L, F, Fl)
155 Dioscorea alata Bellam gadda Dioscoreaceae Climber/I Wild Aphrodisiac (T)
156 Dioscorea bulbifera Chenna gadda Dioscoreaceae Climber/I Wild Bone fracture, dysentery, dyspepsia/indigestion
(T)
157 Dioscorea pentaphylla Adavi ginsu teega Dioscoreaceae Climber/I Wild Cough, rheumatism (T)
158 Diospyros chloroxylon Illinda Ebenaceae Tree/I Wild Anthrax, snake bite (Fl, R)
S. Suthari et al.
159 Diospyros montana Muchi tuniki Ebenaceae Tree/I Wild Anorexia (Sb, F)
160 Diplocyclos palmatus Putaka kaya Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild Diarrhoea, fever, snake bite (L)
161 Dodonaea viscosa Puli vailu Sapindaceae Shrub/I Wild Bone fracture (Fl, Sb)
162 Dolichandrone falcata Oddi Bignoniaceae Tree/I Wild Anthrax, corneal opacity (Sb, F)
163 Dregea volubilis Bandi gurija Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Neck pain, paralysis, rheumatism, snake bite,
tonic (R, Wh)
164 Drimia indica Adavi ulli Asparagaceae Herb/I Wild Aphrodisiac, ephemeral fever (L)
165 Drypetes roxburghii Putran jivika Euphorbiaceae Tree/I Wild Cough (Sb)
166 Ehretia laevis Pala danthi Boraginaceae Tree/I Wild Dyspepsia/indigestion (F)
167 Ehretia microphylla Boore Boraginaceae Tree/I Wild Snake bite (R)
168 Elephantopus scaber Enugu adugu Asteraceae Herb/I Wild Stomachache, wound healing (R)
169 Eleusine coracana Taidalu Poaceae Herb/I Cult Dysentery (L)
170 Elytraria acaulis Eddu adugu padam Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Tonic (R)
171 Enicostemma axillare Resca Gentianaceae Herb/I Wild Blisters, boils, diabetes, wound healing (Wh)
172 Erythrina suberosa Tella moduga Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Leucorrhoea (Sd)
173 Erythrina variegata Tella vajram Fabaceae Tree/I Planted Heat and summer stroke, impaction,
trypanosomiasis (L)
174 Erythroxylum monogynum Devadaru Erythroxylaceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture (Sb, F)
175 Euphorbia antiquorum Burre jemudu Euphorbiaceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture, gout (lx, L)
176 Euphorbia meenae Pala gaddalu Euphorbiaceae Herb/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts (L)
177 Euphorbia tirucalli Jemudu Euphorbiaceae Tree/I Wild Skin disease (L, Lx)
178 Evolvulus alsinoides Vishnu krantha Convolvulaceae Herb/I Wild Blisters, boils, ephemeral fever, wound
healing (Wh)
179 Ficus altissima Moraceae Tree/I Wild Wound healing (Lx)
180 Ficus benghalensis Marri Moraceae Tree/I Wild Rheumatism (Lx)

181 Ficus infectoria Moraceae Tree/I Wild Snake bite (R)
(continued)
101
Table 6 (continued)
102
182 Ficus mollis Banda juvvi Moraceae Tree/I Wild Wound healing (Sb)
183 Ficus racemosa Medi Moraceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture, infant disease (F)
184 Ficus talboti Juvvi Moraceae Tree/I Wild Diarrhoea (Sb)
185 Ficus virens Banda juvvi Moraceae Tree/I Wild Rheumatism, skin disease (Sb, L)
186 Firmiana simplex Tapsi Malvaceae Tree/I Wild Menstruation pains (L)
187 Flacourtia indica Kan regu Salicaceae Tree/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts (L)
188 Flagellaria indica Kokkem teega Flagellariaceae Climber/I Wild Contraceptive (Rh)
189 Flemingia macrophylla Erri puvvu Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Skin disease (R)
190 Flemingia strobilifera Adavi chappa Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Skin disease (R)
191 Gardenia latifolia Pedda karinga Rubiaceae Tree/I Wild Blisters, boils, piles, wound healing (L)
192 Garuga pinnata Garugu Burseraceae Tree/I Wild Leucorrhoea (Sb, F)
193 Geodorum densiflorum Donthula dumpa Orchidaceae Herb/I Wild Ephemeral fever (T)
194 Glinus lotoides Chatarasi kura Molluginaceae Herb/I Wild Abdominal pain (Wh)
195 Glinus oppositifolius Santrasi Molluginaceae Herb/I Wild Stomachache (L)
196 Globba marantina Konda pasupu Zingiberaceae Herb/I Wild Asthma, earache (T)
197 Gloriosa superba Potti dumpa Colchicaceae Climber/I Wild Abortion, anthrax, insect bite, snake bite (L, T)
198 Gmelina asiatica Kavva gummudu Lamiaceae Shrub/I Wild Epistaxis (L)
199 Gomphrena celosioides Tella pagada banthi Amaranthaceae Herb/E Planted Cough (R)
200 Grewia damine Adavi jana Malvaceae Shrub/I Wild Laxative (F)
201 Grewia hirsuta Jibilika Malvaceae Shrub/I Wild Laxative (F)
202 Grewia rothii Chinna jana Malvaceae Shrub/I Wild Laxative (F)
203 Gymnema sylvestre Poda patri Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Anthrax, diabetes, ephemeral fever,
Galactogogue, snake bite (L, Wh)
204 Gymnosporia emarginata Danthi Celastraceae Shrub/I Wild Mouth ulcers (L)
205 Habenaria marginata Pasupu suddulu Orchidaceae Herb/I Wild Tonic (T)
gadda
S. Suthari et al.
206 Habenaria roxburghii Malle sudulu Orchidaceae Herb/I Wild Tonic (L)
207 Haldina cordifolia Bandaru Rubiaceae Tree/I Wild Stomachache (L)
208 Helicteres isora Nultada Malvaceae Shrub/I Wild Insect bite, trypanosomiasis, tympany (L, Sb)
209 Heliotropium indicum Naga danthi Boraginaceae Herb/I Wild Dog bite (L)
210 Heliotropium supinum Boraginaceae Herb/I Wild Stomachache (S)
211 Hemidesmus indicus Sugandi pala Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Blood purifier, impaction, rheumatism (Wh, L)
212 Hemidesmus indicus var. Sugandhi Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Diabetes, galactogogue (Wh)
pubescens
213 Hibiscus panduriformis Adavi benda Malvaceae Shrub/I Wild Skin disease (R)
214 Holarrhena pubescens Istari pala/ Apocynaceae Tree/I Wild Cough, dysentery, headache (R, Sb)
palakodisa
215 Holoptelea integrifolia Nemali nara Ulmaceae Tree/I Wild Rheumatism, skin disease (R)
216 Holostemma ada-kodien Pala gurugu Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Mouth ulcers (R)
217 Hybanthus enneaspermus Nela kobbari Violaceae Herb/I Wild Aphrodisiac, urinary problems (Wh)
218 Hydrolea zeylanica Langali Hydroleaceae Herb/I Wild Antiseptic (L)
219 Hygrophila auriculata Neeli gorimidi Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Aphrodisiac, oedema (L)
220 Hymenodictyon orixense Chedippa Rubiaceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture, menstrual pains (Sb)
221 Ichnocarpus frutescens Nalla teega Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Diabetes (R)
222 Indigofera cassioides Karu kandi Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Scorpion sting (R)
223 Indigofera trifoliata Baragadamu Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Aphrodisiac (S)
224 Indigofera trita Jidi vempali Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Impaction (L)
225 Iphigenia indica Kaki katuka Colchicaceae Herb/I Wild Gout (T)
226 Ipomoea carnea Tuti kada Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Neck pain, tonic (Wh)
227 Ipomoea eriocarpa Elika chevi Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Skin disease, stomachache (L)
228 Ipomoea hederifolia Kashi ratnam Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Tonic (L)
229 Ipomoea obscura Golla jiddaku Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Stomachache (L)
230 Ipomoea turbinata Katla kaya Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Constipation (L)
(continued)
103
Table 6 (continued)
104
231 Ixora arborea Korivi Rubiaceae Shrub/I Wild Wound healing (R)
232 Jasminum auriculatum Adavi malli Oleaceae Climber/I Wild Anthrax, blisters, boils, cough, tympany, wound
healing (L, Sb)
233 Jatropha curcas Nepalam Euphorbiaceae Shrub/E Planted Maggot-infected sores (L)
234 Justicia adhatoda Addasaram Acanthaceae Shrub/I Wild Anthrax, cough, epistaxis (L)
235 Justicia procumbens Acanthaceae Herb/I Wild Laxative (L)
236 Kydia calycina Konda patti Malvaceae Tree/I Wild Dyspepsia/indigestion (Sb)
237 Kyllinga odorata Thunga Cyperaceae Herb/I Wild Diuretic (Rh)
238 Lagerstroemia parviflora Chennangi Lythraceae Tree/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts (L)
239 Lannea coromandelica Dumpidi Anacardiaceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture, cracked heals, rheumatism (L)
240 Lawsonia inermis Gorinta Lythraceae Shrub/I Wild/planted Jaundice (L)
241 Ledebouria hyacinthoides Adavi tella gadda Asparagaceae Herb/I Wild Aphrodisiac, urinary problems (B)
242 Leea asiatica Neerteega Vitaceae Shrub/I Wild Insect bite, skin disease, snake bite (R)
243 Leea indica Velama sandi Vitaceae Shrub/I Wild Skin disease (R)
244 Leonotis nepetifolia Ranabheri Lamiaceae Herb/E Planted Rheumatism (L)
245 Leptadenia reticulata Mukku tummudu Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Aphrodisiac (Wh)
teega
246 Leucas aspera Thummi Lamiaceae Herb/I Wild Wound healing (L)
247 Leucas decemdentata Konda thummi Lamiaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (L)
248 Limnophila indica Ambuja Plantaginaceae Herb/I Wild Antiseptic (L)
249 Limonia acidissima Velaga Rutaceae Tree/I Wild Dyspepsia/indigestion (Sb)
250 Lindernia ciliata Nela rampi Linderniaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (L)
251 Litsea glutinosa Narra mamidi Lauraceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture, labour pain, red leucorrhoea (F,
Fl)
252 Ludwigia adscendens Neeti bachali Onagraceae Herb/I Wild Dysentery (L)
253 Ludwigia hyssopifolia Neeti lalangam Onagraceae Herb/I Wild Diarrhoea (L)
S. Suthari et al.
254 Luffa aegyptiaca Nethi beera Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild Jaundice (F)
255 Lygodium flexuosum Meka sannu Lygodiaceae Herb/I Wild Fertility, skin disease (L)
256 Madhuca longifolia var. Ippa Sapotaceae Tree/I Wild Galactogogue (Sb, F)
latifolia
257 Maerua oblongifolia Bhu chakram Capparaceae Climber/I Wild Diabetes, fertility, snake bite (T)
258 Mallotus philippensis Kunkuma chettu Euphorbiaceae Tree/I Wild Shivering (Sb, F)
259 Mangifera indica Konda mamidi Anacardiaceae Tree/I Wild Blisters, boils, wound healing (Wh)
260 Marsdenia tenacissima Adavi juttuku Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Purgative, snake bite, wound healing (R)
261 Martynia annua Telukondikaya Martyniaceae Herb/E Wild Blisters, boils, wound healing (Fl)
chettu
262 Melastoma malabarthricum Nekkarika Melastomataceae Shrub/I Wild Skin disease (L, Sb)
263 Melia azedarach Turkavepa Meliaceae Tree/E Planted Rheumatism (Sb)
264 Memecylon umbellatum Alli Melastomataceae Shrub/I Wild Leucorrhoea (L)
265 Mentha spicata Pudina Lamiaceae Herb/E Cult Trypanosomiasis (L)
266 Merremia aegyptiaca Eluka chevvu aku Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Jaundice (L)
267 Merremia emarginata Chevi aaku Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts (Wh)
268 Merremia hederacea Thalantu teega Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Hair tonic/shampoo (Wh)
269 Merremia tridentata Sitha savaram Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Rheumatism (Wh)
270 Merremia tridentata ssp. Soorapu teega Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Toothache (Wh)
hastata
271 Merremia turpethum Leenaku Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Earache (R)
272 Microstachys chamaelea Bapana buraku Euphorbiaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (R)
273 Mimosa hamata Magadadi Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Aphrodisiac (Sb)
274 Mimosa pudica Atti patti Fabaceae Herb/E Natur Diarrhoea, dysentery, maggot-infected sores (L)
275 Mollugo nudicaulis Parpatakam Molluginaceae Herb/I Wild Boils (L)

276 Mollugo pentaphylla Verri chatarasi Molluginaceae Herb/I Wild Stomachache (L)
277 Moringa concanensis Yerri munaga Moringaceae Tree/I Wild Abortion, Anthrax, cough (L)
(continued)
105
106
Table 6 (continued)
278 Moringa pterygosperma Mulaga Moringaceae Tree/I Wild Aphrodisiac, labour pains (Sb)
279 Mucuna pruriens var. Dulagunda Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Abortion, blisters, boils, wound healing (R)
pruriens
280 Mukia maderaspatana Noogu dosa Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild Toothache (R)
281 Naringi crenulata Torri elka Rutaceae Tree/I Wild Piles, snake bite (R)
282 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Parijat Oleaceae Tree/I Wild/planted Bone fracture, fits (L)
283 Ochna obtusata Sonnari Ochnaceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture, snake bite (Sb)
284 Ocimum americanum Kukka tulasi Lamiaceae Herb/E Natur Wound healing (L)
285 Ocimum basilicum Bhu tulsi Lamiaceae Herb/E Natur Corneal opacity, heat and summer stroke,
tympany (L)
286 Ocimum tenuiflorum Tulasi Lamiaceae Herb/E Planted/R_ Fever (L)
wild
287 Olax scandens Turaka toppe Olacaceae Shrub/I Wild Diarrhoea, stomachache (L, Fl)
288 Oldenlandia umbellata Chiruveru Rubiaceae Herb/I Wild Asthma (Wh)
289 Operculina turpethum Tagada Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Purgative (Wh)
290 Oroxylum indicum Dundilam Bignoniaceae Tree/I Wild Purgative, rheumatism (Sb)
291 Osbeckia stellata Adavi gulabi Melastomataceae Herb/I Wild Abortion (R)
292 Oxalis corniculata Puli chinta Oxalidaceae Herb/E Natur Cracked heals (Wh)
293 Oxystelma esculentum Dudipala Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Galactogogue (Wh)
294 Paederia foetida Surya bhakta Rubiaceae Climber/I Wild Diarrhoea, dysentery, rheumatism (L)
295 Paracalyx scariosus Adavi tella kandi Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Skin disease (R)
296 Passiflora foetida Pasi jumiki Passifloraceae Climber/E Natur Headache (L)
297 Pavetta indica Papidi Rubiaceae Shrub/I Wild Anthrax, maggot-infected sores, ophthalmic
diseases (Sb, L)
298 Pavonia odorata Chitti benda Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Stomachache (R)
299 Pentanema indicum Adavi chamanti Asteraceae Herb/I Wild Abortion (R)
S. Suthari et al.
300 Pergularia daemia Juttupu Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Blisters, boils, corneal opacity, gout, snake bite,
stomachache, wound healing (L)
301 Phyla nodiflora Bokkena Verbenaceae Herb/I Wild Stomachache (Wh)
302 Phyllanthus amarus Nela usiri Phyllanthaceae Herb/E Wild Ephemeral fever, jaundice (Sb)
303 Phyllanthus emblica Usiri Phyllanthaceae Tree/I Wild/cult Anorexia, Anthrax, impaction, rheumatism (L)
304 Phyllanthus hookeri Erra usiri Phyllanthaceae Tree/I Wild Jaundice (Wh)
305 Phyllanthus nozeranii Erra usirikee Phyllanthaceae Tree/I Wild Appetite stimulant (S)
306 Phyllanthus reticulatus Nalla pulicheru Phyllanthaceae Shrub/I Wild Bone fracture, dysentery, insect bite (L)
307 Phyllodium pulchellum Sarivi Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Scorpion sting (R)
308 Plectranthus mollis Nela marri Lamiaceae Herb/I Wild Wound healing (Wh)
309 Plumbago zeylanica Chitra mulam Plumbaginaceae Shrub/I Wild Abortion, fits, rheumatism, skin disease,
tympany (L, R)
310 Polygala arvensis Chitti janumu Polygalaceae Herb/I Wild Snake bite (R)
311 Pongamia pinnata Kanuga Fabaceae Tree/I Wild/planted Skin disease (Sh, L)
312 Premna mollissima Nelli Lamiaceae Tree/I Wild Oedema (L)
313 Pseudarthria viscida Nayaku ponna Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Rheumatism (R)
314 Pteris multifida Pteridaceae Herb/I Wild Dysentery (Rh)
315 Pteris vittata Pteridaceae Herb/I Wild Wound healing (Wh)
316 Pterocarpus marsupium Peddegi Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Diabetes, fertility, labour pain (F, L)
317 Pueraria tuberosa Nela gummadi Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Ephemeral fever, rheumatism (R)
318 Pupalia lappacea Yerra uttareni Amaranthaceae Herb/I Wild Wound healing (L)
319 Rauvolfia serpentina Sarpagandha Apocynaceae Herb/I Wild Snake bite (R)
320 Rhynchosia minima Adavi kandi Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Abortion (R)
321 Rhynchosia suaveolens Adavi kandi Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Dysentery (S)
322 Ricinus communis Amudam Euphorbiaceae Shrub/E Cult/R_wild Gout (Sh)

323 Rivea hypocrateriformis Boddi kura Convolvulaceae Climber/I Wild Purgative, snake bite (R)
324 Rotheca serrata Gantu barangi Lamiaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (Wh)
(continued)
107
Table 6 (continued)
108
325 Rotula aquatica Jana pamba Boraginaceae Shrub/I Wild Shivering (Sb)
326 Sapindus emarginatus Kunkudu Sapindaceae Tree/I Wild Hair tonic/shampoo (F)
327 Saraca indica Asoka Fabaceae Tree/I Planted Urinary problems (Sb)
328 Sarcostemma acidum Konda pala Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Bone fracture, Galactogogue, snake bite (Sb)
329 Sarcostemma intermedium Soma Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Emetic (Lx)
330 Sarcostemma secamone Pala teega Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Galactogogue (Lx)
331 Schleichera oleosa Pusugu Sapindaceae Tree/I Wild Chest pain (T)
332 Scleria corymbosa Ashta medha Cyperaceae Herb/I Wild Blood purifier (L)
333 Scoparia dulcis Goda tulasi Plantaginaceae Herb/E Natur Menstrual pains (Wh)
334 Secamone emetica Konda pala Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Emetic (F)
335 Selaginella bryopteris Pitta kalu Selaginellaceae Herb/I Wild Infant disease, leucorrhoea, memory (Wh)
336 Selaginella involvens Pitta kalu Selaginellaceae Herb/I Wild Memory (Wh)
337 Semecarpus anacardium Nalla jeedi Anacardiaceae Tree/I Wild Dog bite, fits (Sb)
338 Senna absus Chanupala vittulu Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (S)
339 Senna alata Tamara chettu Fabaceae Shrub/E Natur Skin disease (L)
340 Senna angustifolia Nela tangedu Fabaceae Herb/E Natur Constipation (L, F)
341 Senna italica Nela tangedu Fabaceae Herb/E Natur Constipation (F)
342 Senna obtusifolia Tagarisa Fabaceae Herb/E Natur Insect bite (L)
343 Senna occidentalis Advi chennangi Fabaceae Herb/E Natur Rheumatism (L)
344 Senna tora Tagirisa Fabaceae Herb/E Natur Insect bite (Sb)
345 Sesamum alatum Adavi nuvvulu Pedaliaceae Herb/E Natur Blisters, boils, cuts (Wh)
346 Sida cordata Gayapaku Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Tonic (R)
347 Sida cordifolia Chiru benda Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Appetite stimulant (R)
348 Sida spinosa Naga bala Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Fever (R)
349 Smilax perfoliata Nageti dumpa Smilacaceae Climber/I Wild Abortion, aphrodisiac (T)
350 Smilax zeylanica Firangi Smilacaceae Climber/I Wild Aphrodisiac, sexually transmitted diseases (R)
S. Suthari et al.
351 Solanum surattense Tella mulaka Solanaceae Climber/E Natur Fertility (S)
352 Solanum virginianum Nela mulaka Solanaceae Herb/E Natur Laxative, asthma (F)
353 Solena amplexicaulis Adavi donda Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild Spermatorrhoea (R)
354 Sophora velutina Adavi kanuga Fabaceae Shrub/I Wild Appetite stimulant (Sb)
355 Soymida febrifuga Somi Meliaceae Tree/I Wild Corneal opacity, gout, shivering, snake bite,
tonic (S, L)
356 Sphaerostephanos unitus Hamsapadi Thelypteridaceae Climber/I Wild Scorpion sting (Wh)
357 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Eduru uttareni Verbenaceae Herb/E Planted Tonic (L)
358 Stemona tuberosa Kanepu teega Stemonaceae Climber/I Wild Fever (T)
359 Striga angustifolia Jonna malli Orobanchaceae Herb/I Wild Appetite stimulant (Wh)
360 Strychnos nux-vomica Mushti Loganiaceae Tree/I Wild Dysentery, insect bite (Sd)
361 Symphorema involucratum Konda thakkali Lamiaceae Shrub/I Wild Tonic (L)
362 Synedrella nodiflora Mudi puvvu chettu Asteraceae Herb/E Natur Epilepsy (L)
363 Syzygium cumini Neredu Myrtaceae Tree/I Wild Anthrax, diabetes, epistaxis (R, Sb)
364 Tacca leontopetaloides Adavi kanda Dioscoreaceae Herb/I Wild Piles (T)
365 Tamarindus indica Chinta Fabaceae Tree/E Planted Piles, scorpion sting (Sb, F)
366 Tarenna asiatica Papidi Rubiaceae Shrub/I Wild Fits (R)
367 Tectona grandis Teak Lamiaceae Tree/I Wild Elephantiasis, pregnancy (Sb, F)
368 Telosma pallida Konda malle Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Galactogogue (L)
369 Tephrosia purpurea Vempalli Fabaceae Herb/I Wild Anthrax, cough, scorpion sting (Sd)
370 Terminalia alata Nalla maddi Combretaceae Tree/I Wild Wound healing (Sb)
371 Terminalia arjuna Yeru maddi Combretaceae Tree/I Wild Blisters, boils, ephemeral fever, wound healing
(Sb, Sh)
372 Terminalia bellirica Tani Combretaceae Tree/I Wild Cough, gout (L)
373 Terminalia chebula Kara kaya Combretaceae Tree/I Wild Constipation, cough (L, F)
374 Theriophonum minutum Adavi champa Araceae Herb/I Wild Aphrodisiac (T)
375 Thunbergia alata Nallakandla pula Acanthaceae Climber/I Cult/Natur Bone fracture, head-ache (L)
teega
109
(continued)
110
Table 6 (continued)
376 Tinospora cordifolia Tippa teega Menispermaceae Climber/I Wild Aphrodisiac, bone fracture, impaction, insect
bite, snake bite (S)
377 Toddalia asiatica Konda kasinda Rutaceae Climber/I Wild Blisters, boils, cuts, dog bite (F)
378 Tragia involucrata Dula gondi Euphorbiaceae Climber/I Wild Stomachache (R)
379 Trema orientalis Kaka mushti Cannabaceae Tree/I Wild Diarrhoea (R)
380 Tribulus terrestris Palleru Zygophyllaceae Climber/I Wild Sexually transmitted diseases, urinary problems
(L)
381 Trichodesma indicum Nela nakshatralu Boraginaceae Herb/I Wild Wound healing (L)
382 Trichosanthes cucumerina Adavi potla Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild Dysentery, skin disease (L)
383 Trichuriella monsoniae Yerra pindi Amaranthaceae Herb/I Wild Purgative (Wh)
384 Tridax procumbens Nalla alam Asteraceae Herb/E Natur Antiseptic, blisters, boils, cuts (L)
385 Triumfetta rhomboidea Marla benda Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Galactogogue (R)
386 Tylophora indica Meka meyani aaku Apocynaceae Climber/I Wild Asthma (S)
387 Urena lobata Pedda benda Malvaceae Herb/I Wild Skin disease (R)
388 Vanda tessellata Kodikalla chettu Orchidaceae Herb/I Wild Ephemeral fever, scorpion sting, snake bite (Wh)
389 Ventilago maderaspatana Surala teega Rhamnaceae Climber/I Wild Aphrodisiac, stomachache (R)
390 Vernonia arborescens Sahdevi Asteraceae Herb/E Natur Fever (Wh)
391 Vigna trilobata Pilli pesalu Fabaceae Climber/I Wild Skin disease (L)
392 Vitex negundo Vavili Lamiaceae Tree/I Wild Anthrax, ephemeral fever (Wh, L)
393 Waltheria indica Dubba dulicheru Malvaceae Herb/E Natur Insect bite (L)
394 Withania somnifera Dommadolu gadda Solanaceae Herb/I Cult/R_wild Anthrax, blisters, boils, fertility, wound healing
(R)
395 Woodfordia fruticosa Jaaji Lythraceae Shrub/I Wild Blood purifier, diarrhoea (L)
396 Wrightia arborea Putta pala Apocynaceae Tree/I Wild Menstrual pains (L)
397 Wrightia tinctoria Pala kodisha Apocynaceae Tree/I Wild Anthrax, blisters, boils, ephemeral fever, wound
healing (L)
S. Suthari et al.
398 Xanthium strumarium Matangi Asteraceae Herb/I Wild Galactogogue (L)
399 Xylia xylocarpa Bojja Fabaceae Tree/I Wild Diarrhoea (Sb)
400 Zehneria scabra Adavi dosa Cucurbitaceae Climber/I Wild Diarrhoea, toothache (L)
401 Ziziphus oenopolia Pariki Rhamnaceae Climber/ Wild Dysentery (L)
shrub/I
402 Ziziphus rugosa Enuga pariki Rhamnaceae Tree/I Wild Bone fracture (Sb)
403 Ziziphus xylopyrus Gotti Rhamnaceae Tree/I Wild Ephemeral fever, snake bite, wound healing (Sd,
Sb)
After Sreeramulu et al. (2013), Suthari et al. (2014a, b), (2016), and Suthari and Raju (2016)
Note: Cult cultivated, R_wild running wild, I indigenous, E exotic, Intr introduced, Natur naturalized, R root, S stem, Sb stem bark, L leaf, Sh shoot, Lx latex,
Fl flower, F fruit, Infl inflorescence, Sd seed, Wh whole plant, B bulb, Rh rhizome, T tuber
111
Table 7 Similar use of different medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases by different
ethnic tribes from Telangana State
Category Plant species Genus Species
1 Abdominal pain Abelmoschus moschatus and Glinus lotoides 2 2
2 Abortion Celastrus paniculatus, Gloriosa superba, Moringa 9 9
concanensis, Mucuna pruriens var. pruriens, Osbeckia
stellata, Pentanema indicum, Plumbago zeylanica,
Rhynchosia minima and Smilax perfoliata
3 Anorexia Ailanthus excelsa, Ampelocissus latifolia, Cissus 5 5
quadrangularis, Diospyros montana and Phyllanthus
emblica
4 Anthrax Abrus precatorius, Ampelocissus tomentosa, 25 25
Anogeissus latifolia, Aristolochia bracteolata,
Asparagus racemosus, Bombax ceiba, Byttneria
herbacea, Capparis sepiaria, Curcuma
pseudomontana, Derris scandens, Dillenia pentagyna,
Diospyros chloroxylon, Dolichandrone falcata,
Gloriosa superba, Gymnema sylvestre, Jasminum
auriculatum, Justicia adhatoda, Moringa concanensis,
Pavetta indica, Phyllanthus emblica, Syzygium cumini,
Tephrosia purpurea, Vitex negundo, Withania
somnifera and Wrightia tinctoria
5 Antiseptic Curcuma longa, Hydrolea zeylanica, Limnophila 4 4
indica and Tridax procumbens
6 Aphrodisiac Asparagus gonoclados, A. racemosus, Breynia retusa, 16 18
Chlorophytum tuberosum, Curculigo orchioides,
Dioscorea alata, Drimia indica, Hybanthus
enneaspermus, Hygrophila auriculata, Ledebouria
hyacinthoides, Indigofera trifoliata, Leptadenia
reticulata, Moringa pterygosperma, Tinospora
cordifolia, Smilax perfoliata, S. zeylanica,
Theriophonum minutum and Ventilago maderaspatana
7 Appetite Amaranthus spinosus, Phyllanthus nozeranii, Sida 5 5
stimulant spinosa, Sophora velutina and Striga angustifolia
8 Asthma Acacia chundra, Anogeissus latifolia, Cheilocostus 8 8
speciosus, Cissus quadrangularis, Globba marantina,
Oldenlandia umbellata, Solanum virginianum and
Tylophora indica
9 Baldness Dalbergia latifolia subsp. paniculata 1 1
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
10 Blisters Biophytum sensitivum, Blumea lacera, Bridelia 28 28
montana, Cadaba fruticosa, Chamaesyce hirta,
Cleistanthus collinus, Cleome viscosa, Coccinia
grandis, Curcuma longa, Dichrostachys cinerea,
Enicostemma axillare, Euphorbia meenae, Evolvulus
alsinoides, Flacourtia indica, Gardenia latifolia,
Jasminum auriculatum, Lagerstroemia parviflora,
Mangifera indica, Martynia annua, Merremia
emarginata, Mucuna pruriens var. pruriens, Pergularia
daemia, Sesamum alatum, Terminalia arjuna, Toddalia
asiatica, Tridax procumbens, Withania somnifera and
Wrightia tinctoria
11 Blood purifier Hemidesmus indicus, Scleria corymbosa and 3 3
Woodfordia fruticosa
12 Boils Acacia leucophloea, Achyranthes aspera, Biophytum 30 30
sensitivum, Bridelia montana, Cadaba fruticosa,
Chamaesyce hirta, Cleistanthus collinus, Cleome
viscosa, Coccinia grandis, Curcuma longa,
Dichrostachys cinerea, Enicostemma axillare,
Euphorbia meenae, Evolvulus alsinoides, Flacourtia
indica, Gardenia latifolia, Jasminum auriculatum,
Lagerstroemia parviflora, Mangifera indica, Martynia
annua, Merremia emarginata, Mollugo nudicaulis,
Mucuna pruriens var. pruriens, Pergularia daemia,
Sesamum alatum, Terminalia arjuna, Toddalia
asiatica, Tridax procumbens, Withania somnifera and
Wrightia tinctoria.
13 Bone fracture Alangium salviifolium, Ampelocissus tomentosa, 22 22
Anodendron paniculatum, Cassytha filiformis, Cissus
quadrangularis, Curcuma longa, Dillenia pentagyna,
Dioscorea bulbifera, Dodoanea viscosa, Erythroxylum
monogynum, Euphorbia antiquorum, Ficus racemosa,
Hymenodictyon orixense, Lannea coromandelica,
Litsea glutinosa, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Ochna
obtusata, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Sarcostemma
acidum, Tinospora cordifolia, Ziziphus rugosa and
Thunbergia alata
14 Burns Acacia nilotica and Caralluma umbellata 2 2
15 Chest pain Buchanania cochinchinensis and Schleichera oleosa 2 2
16 Constipation Calotropis gigantea, Ipomoea turbinata, Senna 4 5
angustifolia, S. italica and Terminalia chebula
17 Contraceptives Cajanus cajan, Flagellaria indica and Capparis 3 3
sepiaria
18 Corneal opacity Aegle marmelos, Balanites roxburghii, Casearia 7 7
elliptica, Dolichandrone falcata, Ocimum basilicum,
Pergularia daemia and Soymida febrifuga
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
19 Cough Blumea bifoliata, Breynia retusa, Desmodium 12 13
heterocarpon, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Drypetes
roxburghii, Gomphrena celosioides, Holarrhena
pubescens, Jasminum auriculatum, Justicia adhatoda,
Moringa concanensis, Tephrosia purpurea, Terminalia
bellirica and T. chebula
20 Cracked heals Lannea coromandelica and Oxalis corniculata 2 2
21 Cuts Blumea axillaris, Biophytum sensitivum, Bridelia 15 15
montana, Cadaba fruticosa, Chamaesyce hirta,
Coccinia grandis, Curcuma longa, Dichrostachys
cinerea, Euphorbia meenae, Flacourtia indica,
Lagerstroemia parviflora, Merremia emarginata,
Sesamum alatum, Toddalia asiatica and Tridax
procumbens
22 Diabetes Capparis zeylanica, Corallocarpus epigaeus, 9 9
Enicostemma axillare, Gymnema sylvestre,
Hemidesmus indicus var. pubescens, Ichnocarpus
frutescens, Maerua oblongifolia, Pterocarpus
marsupium and Syzygium cumini
23 Diarrhoea Bauhinia purpurea, Ceropegia hirsuta, Ceriscoides 14 14
turgida, Combretum latifolium, Diplocyclos palmatus,
Ficus talboti, Ludwigia hyssopifolia, Mimosa pudica,
Olax scandens, Paederia foetida, Trema orientalis,
Woodfordia floribunda, Xylia xylocarpa and Zehneria
mysorensis
24 Diuretic Kyllinga odorata 1 1
25 Dog bite Acacia farnesiana, Boswellia serrata, Heliotropium 5 5
indicum, Semecarpus anacardium and Toddalia
asiatica
26 Dysentery Abutilon indicum, Adiantum lunulatum, Aegle 24 24
marmelos, Aerva scandens, Asparagus racemosus,
Bauhinia racemosa, Bombax ceiba, Byttneria
herbacea, Clitoria ternatea, Coccinia grandis,
Cyphostemma setosum, Dillenia pentagyna, Dioscorea
bulbifera, Eleusine coracana, Holarrhena pubescens,
Ludwigia adscendens, Mimosa pudica, Paederia
foetida, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Pteris multifida,
Rhynchosia suaveolens, Strychnos nux-vomica,
Trichosanthes cucumerina and Ziziphus oenopolia
27 Dyspepsia/ Andrographis paniculata, Bauhinia vahlii, Capparis 7 7
indigestion zeylanica, Dioscorea bulbifera, Ehretia laevis, Kydia
calycina and Limonia acidissima
28 Earache Aerva lanata, Aristolochia indica, Calotropis gigantea, 5 5
Globba marantina and Merremia turpethum
29 Elephantiasis Tectona grandis 1 1
30 Emetic Sarcostemma intermedium and Secamone emetica 2 2
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
31 Ephemeral fever Acacia leucophloea, Agave americana, Andrographis 25 25
paniculata, Anisomeles indica, Annona squamosa,
Azadirachta indica, Balanites roxburghii, Bauhinia
malabarica, Caesalpinia bonduc, Cardiospermum
halicacabum, Casearia elliptica, Crotalaria verrucosa,
Curculigo orchioides, Cyperus rotundus, Drimia
indica, Evolvulus alsinoides, Geodorum densiflorum,
Gymnema sylvestre, Phyllanthus amarus, Pueraria
tuberosa, Terminalia arjuna, Vanda tessellata, Vitex
negundo, Wrightia tinctoria and Ziziphus xylopyrus
32 Epilepsy Adiantum lunulatum and Synedrella nodiflora 2 2
33 Epistaxis Cocculus hirsutus, Gmelina asiatica, Justicia 4 4
adhatoda and Syzygium cumini
34 Fertility Anisomeles malabarica, Artabotrys hexapetalus, 9 9
Bombax ceiba, Lygodium flexuosum, Maerua
oblongifolia, Mimosa hamata, Pterocarpus
marsupium, Solanum surattense and Withania
somnifera
35 Fever Acacia chundra, Calotropis gigantea, Dendrophthoe 8 9
falcata, Diplocyclos palmatus, Ocimum tenuiflorum,
Sida spinosa, Stemona tuberosa, Vernonia
arborescens, and V. cinerea
36 Fits Acacia pennata, Chomelia asiatica, Crotalaria 6 6
verrucosa, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Plumbago
zeylanica and Semecarpus anacardium
37 Galactogogue Asparagus racemosus, Celosia argentea, Ceropegia 15 15
juncea, Cryptolepis dubia, Curculigo orchioides,
Cuscuta chinensis, Gymnema sylvestre, Hemidesmus
indicus var. pubescens, Madhuca longifolia var.
latifolia, Oxystelma esculentum, Sarcostemma acidum,
Sarcostemma secamone, Telosma pallida, Triumfetta
rhomboidea and Xanthium strumarium
38 Gout Euphorbia antiquorum, Iphigenia indica, Pergularia 6 6
daemia, Ricinus communis, Soymida febrifuga and
Terminalia bellerica
39 Hair tonic/ Merremia hederacea and Sapindus emarginatus 2 2
shampoo
40 Headache Cleome gynandra, Holarrhena pubescens, Passiflora 4 4
foetida and Thunbergia alata
41 Heat and summer Blepharis repens, Erythrina variegata and Ocimum 3 3
stroke basilicum
42 Helminthiasis Abutilon indicum, Cissus quadrangularis and 3 3
Commelina benghalensis
43 Hydrocele Caesalpinia bonduc and Cardiospermum halicacabum
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
44 Impaction Aegle marmelos, Byttneria herbacea, Capparis 9 9
zeylanica, Derris scandens, Erythrina variegata,
Hemidesmus indicus, Indigofera trita, Phyllanthus
emblica and Tinospora cordifolia
45 Infant Azima tetracantha, Ficus racemosa and Selaginella 3 3
bryopteris
46 Insect bite Abrus precatorius, Abutilon indicum, Achyranthes 18 19
aspera, Aloe vera, Ampelocissus tomentosa,
Anogeissus latifolia, Aristolochia bracteolata,
Asparagus racemosus, Canthium parviflorum,
Crotalaria verrucosa, Gloriosa superba, Helicteres
isora, Leea asiatica, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Senna
obtusifolia, S. tora, Strychnos nux-vomica, Tinospora
cordifolia and Waltheria indica
46 Jaundice Lawsonia inermis, Luffa aegyptiaca, Merremia 4 5
aegyptiaca, Phyllanthus amarus and P. hookeri
47 Labour pains Acacia torta, Butea superba, Careya arborea, 7 7
Crotalaria albida, Litsea glutinosa, Moringa
pterygosperma and Pterocarpus marsupium
48 Laxative Acalypha lanceolata, Chamaesyce thymifolia, Grewia 5 7
damine, G. hirsuta, G. rothii, Justicia procumbens and
Solanum virginianum
49 Leucorrhoea Cerascoides turgida, Erythrina suberosa, Garuga 5 5
pinnata, Memecylon umbellatum and Selaginella
bryopteris
50 Maggot-infected Acalypha indica, Jatropha curcas, Mimosa pudica and 4 4
sores Pavetta indica
51 Memory Centella asiatica, Ceratopteris thalictroides, 3 4
Selaginella bryopteris and S. involvens
52 Menstrual pains Firmiana simplex, Hymenodictyon orixense, Scoparia 4 4
dulcis and Wrightia arborea
53 Mouth ulcers Holostemma ada-kodien and Maytenus emarginata 2 2
54 Neck pain Bauhinia semla, Chloroxylon swietenia, Dregea 4 4
volubilis and Ipomoea carnea
55 Oedema Alangium salviifolium, Dendrocalamus strictus, 4 4
Hygrophila auriculata and Premna latifolia
56 Ophthalmic Pavetta indica 1 1
diseases
57 Paralysis Dregea volubilis 1 1
58 Hemiplegia Aristolochia indica 1 1
(partial paralysis)
59 Pertussis Balanites roxburghii 1 1
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
60 Piles Ailanthus excelsa, Aloe vera, Ceriscoides turgida, 8 8
Cochlospermum religiosum, Gardenia latifolia,
Naringi crenulata, Tacca leontopetaloides and
Tamarindus indica
61 Pregnancy Tectona grandis 1 1
62 Purgative Alangium salviifolium, Aristolochia bracteolata, 10 10
Baliospermum solanifolium, Blepharis
maderaspatensis, Cuscuta reflexa, Marsdenia
tenacissima, Operculina turpethum, Oroxylum
indicum, Rivea hypocrateriformis and Trichuriella
monsoniae
63 Red leucorrhoea Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cocculus hirsutus and 3 3
Litsea glutinosa
64 Rheumatism Albizia procera, Ageratum conyzoides, Asystasia 32 33
gangetica, Atalantia monophylla, Azima tetracantha,
Barringtonia acutangula, Boswellia serrata,
Caesalpinia bonduc, Calotropis gigantea, Canavalia
gladiata, Capparis sepiaria, Clerodendrum phlomidis,
Crotalaria medicaginea, Cyphostemma setosum,
Dichrostachys cinerea, Dillenia pentagyna, Dioscorea
pentaphylla, Dregea volubilis, Ficus benghalensis, F.
virens, Hemidesmus indicus, Holoptelea integrifolia,
Lannea coromandelica, Leonotis nepetifolia, Melia
azedarach, Merremia tridentata, Oroxylum indicum,
Paederia foetida, Phyllanthus emblica, Plumbago
zeylanica, Pseudarthria viscida, Pueraria tuberosa and
Senna occidentalis
65 Scorpion sting Barleria prionitis, Boswellia serrata, Canavalia 9 9
cathartica, Cyclosorus unitus, Desmodium
gangeticum, D. velutinum, Phyllodium pulchellum,
Tamarindus indica, Tephrosia purpurea and Vanda
tessellata
66 Sexually Canavalia virosa, Cayratia pedata, Smilax zeylanica 4 4
transmitted and Tribulus terrestris
diseases
67 Shivering Chloroxylon swietenia, Mallotus philippensis, Rotula 4 4
aquatica and Soymida febrifuga
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
68 Skin disease Acalypha indica, Ammannia baccifera, Argemone 34 37
mexicana, Argyreia nervosa, Asparagus gonoclados,
Barleria montana, Blumea virens, Capparis sepiaria,
Chamaesyce hirta, Cleome monophylla, C. viscosa,
Cryptolepis dubia, Dalbergia volubilis, Dicliptera
paniculata, Dolichos trilobatus, Euphorbia tirucalli,
Ficus virens, Flemingia macrophylla, F. strobilifera,
Hibiscus panduriformis, Holoptelea integrifolia,
Ipomoea eriocarpa, Leea indica, Leucas
decemdentata, Lindernia ciliata, Lygodium flexuosum,
Melastoma malabarthricum, Microstachys chamaelea,
Paracalyx scariosus, Plumbago zeylanica, Pongamia
pinnata, Rotheca serrata, Senna absus, S. alata,
Trichosanthes cucumerina and Urena lobata
69 Snake bite Abrus precatorius, Achyranthes aspera, Alangium 38 39
salviifolium, Andrographis paniculata, Anisomeles
indica, Annona squamosa, Aristolochia bracteolata, A.
indica, Asparagus racemosus, Bryophyllum pinnatum,
Calotropis gigantea, Careya arborea, Celastrus
paniculatus, Cissampelos pareira, Corallocarpus
epigaeus, Crinum asiaticum, Crotalaria verrucosa,
Datura metel, Diospyros chloroxylon, Diplocyclos
palmatus, Dregea volubilis, Ehretia microphylla, Ficus
infectoria, Gloriosa superba, Gymnema sylvestre,
Leea asiatica, Maerua oblongifolia, Marsdenia
tenacissima, Naringi crenulata, Ochna obtusata,
Pergularia daemia, Polygala arvensis, Rauvolfia
serpentina, Rivea hypocrateriformis, Sarcostemma
acidum, Soymida febrifuga, Tinospora cordifolia,
Vanda tessellata and Ziziphus xylopyrus
70 Spermatorrhoea Solena amplexicaulis 1 1
71 Stomachache Acorus calamus, Cissampelos pareira, Cissus 16 17
vitiginea, Dalbergia latifolia, Elephantopus scaber,
Glinus oppositifolius, Haldina cordifolia, Heliotropium
supinum, Ipomoea eriocarpa, I. obscura, Mollugo
pentaphylla, Olax scandens, Pavonia odorata,
Pergularia daemia, Phyla nodiflora, Tragia
involucrata and Ventilago maderaspatana
72 Throat disorders Ctenolepis garcinii 1 1
73 Tonic Bacopa monnieri, Boerhavia erecta, Cissampelos 10 11
pareira, Elytraria acaulis, Habenaria marginata, H.
roxburghii, Ipomoea hederifolia, Sida cordata,
Soymida febrifuga, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis and
Symphorema involucratum
74 Tonsils Bauhinia semla, Dregea volubilis and Ipomoea carnea 3 3
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
75 Toothache Acmella paniculata, Melothria maderaspatana, 5 5
Merremia tridentata ssp. hastata, Mukia
maderaspatana and Zehneria scabra
76 Trypanosomiasis Acacia chundra, Boerhavia diffusa, Capparis 9 9
divaricata, Curculigo orchioides, Cynodon dactylon,
Derris scandens, Erythrina variegata, Helicteres isora
and Mentha spicata
77 Tuberculosis Dendrophthoe falcata 1 21
78 Tympany Ailanthus excelsa, Argyreia nervosa, Cassia fistula, 10 10
Cerascoides turgida, Coccinia grandis, Crateva
magna, Helicteres isora, Jasminum auriculatum,
Ocimum basilicum and Plumbago zeylanica
79 Urinary problems Cocculus hirsutus, Hybanthus enneaspermus, 5 5
Ledebouria revoluta, Saraca indica and Tribulus
terrestris
80 Wound healing Acacia chundra, A. leucophloea, Achyranthes aspera, 37 40
Adenostemma lavenia, Aristolochia bracteolata,
Baccharoides schimperi, Blumea obliqua, Buchanania
axillaris, Chromolaena odorata, Cissus adnata,
Cleistanthus collinus, Cleome viscosa, Coldenia
procumbens, Crinum asiaticum, Curcuma
pseudomontana, Elephantopus scaber, Enicostemma
axillare, Evolvulus alsinoides, Ficus altissima, F.
mollis, Gardenia latifolia, Indigofera caerulea, Ixora
arborea, Jasminum auriculatum, Leucas aspera,
Mangifera indica, Marsdenia tenacissima, Martynia
annua, Mucuna pruriens var. pruriens, Ocimum
americanum, Pergularia daemia, Plectranthus mollis,
Pteris vittata, Pupalia lappacea, Terminalia alata, T.
arjuna, Trichodesma indicum, Withania somnifera,
Wrightia tinctoria and Ziziphus xylopyrus
References
Akerele O (1992) WHO guideline for assessment of herbal medicines. Fitoterapia 63:99–118
Anonymous (1990) Ethnobiology in India: a status report. Ministry of Environment and Forests,
New Delhi
Anonymous (2017) Telangana State Information.pdf. Website: http://www.telangana.gov.in/about/
districts
Binu S, Nayar TS, Pushpangadan P (1992) An outline of ethnobotanical research in India. J Econ
Tax Bot 10:405–428
Chandrasekharan C (1995) Non-wood forest products – a global view of potentials and challenges.
Minor Forest Produces News 5(1 & 2):23–31
Cotton CM (1996) Ethnobotany: principles and applications. John Willy & Sons, Chichester, NY,
p 424
Dinesh V, Sharma PP (2012) Plants used for bone fracture by indigenous folklore of Nizamabad
district, Andhra Pradesh. Int Multidiscip Res J 2(12):14–16
Dovie DBK (2003) Rural economy and livelihoods from the non-timber forest products trade.
Compromising sustainability in southern Africa? Int J Sust Dev World 10:247–262. https://doi.
org/10.1080/13504500309469803
GCC (2015) Brief note on G.C.C. activities in Warangal & Karimnagar Districts. Girijan
Cooperative Corporation, Eturnagaram Division, Warangal, pp 1–3
GCC (2016) Commodity-wise procurement of MFP/AP from 2005–2016. Girijan Co-op
Corporation Limited, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Haimendorf CVF (1979) The Gonds of Andhra Pradesh. Vikas, New Delhi
Hemadri K (1990) Contribution to the medicinal flora of Karimnagar and Warangal districts (A.P.).
Indian Med 2:16–28
Huxley A (1984) Green inheritance: the World Wildlife Fund book of India. Collins/Harvel,
London
ISFR (2017) India State of Forest Report 2017. Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environment,
Forestry & Climate Change, Dehra Dun
Jain SK (1963a) Studies in Indian ethnobotany-less known uses of fifty common plants from the
tribal areas of Madhya Pradesh. Bull Bot Surv India 5:223–226
Jain SK (1963b) Observations of ethnobotany of the tribals of Madhya Pradesh. Vanyajati
11:177–183
Jain SK (1963c) Studies in Indian ethnobotany-plants used in medicine by the tribals of Madhya
Pradesh. Bull Reg Res Lab Jammu 1:126–128
Jain SK (1964a) The role of botanist in folklore research. Folklore 5:145–150
Jain SK (1964b) Wild plant foods of the tribals of Bastar. Gramodyog 10:557–561
Jain SK (1964c) Native plant remedies for snake-bite among Adivasis of Central India. Indian Med
J 57:307–369
Jain SK (1965a) Wooden musical instruments of the Gonds of Central India. Ethnomusicology
9:39–42
Jain SK (1965b) Medicinal plant-lore of the tribals of Bastar. Economic Bot 19:236–250
Jain SK (1999) Dictionary of ethnoveterinary plants of India. Deep Publications, New Delhi
Kannabiran K, Jeyaranjan J, Swaminathan P (2017) Telangana social development report. Council
for Social Development, Hyderabad
Kapoor L, Kapoor LD (1980) Medicinal plant wealth of the Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh.
Bull Med Ethnobotanical Res 1:120–144
Khan MS (1953) Forest Flora of Hyderabad State. Government Press, Hyderabad
Krishna NR, Varma YNR, Saidulu C (2014) Ethnobotanical studies of Adilabad district, Andhra
Pradesh. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 3(1):18–36
Kumar TD, Pullaiah T (1998) Ethnomedicinal uses of some plants of Mahaboobnagar district,
Andhra Pradesh, India. J Econ Taxon Bot 23:341–345
Kumar RS, Venkateshwar C, Samuel G, Rao SG (2013) Ethnobotanical uses of some plant barks
used by Gondu tribes of Seethagondi grampanchayath, Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh,
India. J Nat Prod Plant Resour 3(5):13–17
Lalramnghinglova H, Jha LK (1999) Ethnobotany: a review. J Econ Taxon Bot 23(1):1–27
Lingaiah M, Rao N (2013) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinalplants used by traditional healers
of Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Biolife 1(1):17–23
Maithani GP (1994) Management perspectives of minor forest produce. MFP News, October–
December, 1994
Manjula RR, Rao KJ, Reddi TVVS (2013) Ethnomedicine for rheumatism by the tribals of
Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh. J Nat Rem 13(2):138–141
Mohan AC, Suthari S, Kandagatla R, Harikrishna L, Ragan A (2017b) Antirheumatic plants used
by indigenous people of Kawal wildlife sanctuary, Telangana. Int J Adv Res Sci Technol
6(1):666–669
Mohan AC, Suthari S, Ragan A (2017a) Ethnobotanical plants of Kawal wildlife sanctuary,
Telangana, India. Ann Plant Sci 6(2):1537–1542
Mudgal V (1987) Recent ethnobotanical works on different States/Tribes of India – A synoptic

treatment. In: Jain SK (ed) A manual of ethnobotany. Deep Publications, New Delhi, pp 58–68
Murthy EN (2012) Ethnomedicinal plants used by gonds of Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh,
India. Int J Pharm Life Sci 3(10):2034–2043
Murthy EN, Reddy CS, Reddy KN, Raju VS (2007) Plants used in ethnoveterinary practices by
Koyas of Pakhal wildlife sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ethnobot Leaflets 11:1–5
Naqvi AH (2001) Flora of Karimnagar District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Kakatiya
University, Warangal
Omkar K, Ragan A, Raju VS (2008) Economic empowerment of tribal women of Adilabad dis-
trict of Andhra Pradesh, utilizing non-timber forest products. In: Proceedings of the National
Seminar on ‘Globalization-Agricultural Development of Tribes, Issues and Challenges’.
Kakatiya University, Warangal, Telangana, pp 96–98
Omkar K, Suthari S, Alluri S, Ragan A, Raju VS (2012) Diversity of NTFPs and their utilization
in Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh, India. J Plant Stud 1(1):33–46
Padal SB, Sathyavathi K (2013) Traditional uses of Euphorbiaceae family of Khammam district,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Int J Pharm Biol Sci 3(2):585–591
Padmarao P, Reddy PR (1999) A note on folk treatment of bone fractures in Ranga Reddy district,
Andhra Pradesh. Ethnobotany 11:107–108
Pullaiah T, Kumar DCT (1996) Herbal plants in Mannanur forest of Mahabubnagar district,
Andhra Pradesh. J Econ Taxon Bot 12:218–220
Rajasekaran B, Warren DM (1994) Indigenous knowledge for socio-economic development and
biodiversity conservation: the Kolli hills. Indigenous Knowl Dev Monit 2:13–17
Raju VS (2001) Ethnoveterinary medicine in Andhra Pradesh. National Symposium ‘21st Century
Perspectives in Plant Sciences’, July 29–31, Andhra University, Waltair, India
Raju VS, Krishna PG, Suthari S (2014) Environmental assessment of climate of a habitat through
floristic life-form spectra, a case study of Warangal north forest division, Telangana, India.
J Nat Sci 2(1):77–93
Raju, V.S., Ragan, A., Omkar, K. and Geetha, S. 2008. Sedges of Andhra Pradesh: Biodiversity at
species and ecosystem levels, along with economic and ethnobotanical value. In: B. Bahadur
(ed.), Proceedings of Andhra Pradesh Akademi of Sciences: Special Issue on ‘Plant Wealth of
Andhra Pradesh’. 12(1&2): 214–226. Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad
Raju VS, Reddy KN (2005) Ethnobotanic medicine for dysentery and diarrhea from Khammam
district of Andhra Pradesh, India. Indian J Tradit Knowl 4(4):443–447
Raju, V.S., Reddy, C.S., Reddy, K.N., Seshagirirao, K. and Bahadur, B. 2008. Orchid wealth of
Andhra Pradesh, India. In: B. Bahadur (ed.), Proceedings of Andhra Pradesh Akademi of
Sciences: special issue on ‘Plant Wealth of Andhra Pradesh’. 12(1&2): 180–192. Osmania
University Campus, Hyderabad
Ramakrishna N, Saidulu C (2014) Medicinal plants used by ethnic people of Adilabad district,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Int J Pharm Res Allied Sci 2:51–59
Ramakrishna N, Sunitha EM, Saidulu C, Rajani A (2015) Studies on some medicinal plants of
Leguminaceae family in Adilabad district, Telangana State, India. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res
30(1):315–318
Ramarao N (1988) The ethnobotany of Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh, India. Ph. D. Thesis.
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore
Ramarao N, Henry AN (1996) The ethnobotany of Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh, India.
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta
Rao DS, Rao VS, Murthy PP, Rao GMN, Rao YV (2015) Some ethno medicinal plants of Parnasala
sacred grove area Eastern Ghats of Khammam district, Telangana, India. J Pharam Sci Res
7(4):210–216
Ravishankar T (1990) Ethnobotanical studies in Adilabad and Karimnagar districts of Andhra
Pradesh, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore
Ravishankar T, Henry AN (1992) Ethnobotany of Adilabad district Andhra Pradesh, India.
Ethnobotany 4:45–52
Reddy CS (2001) Floristic Studies in Warangal District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ph.D. Thesis,
Kakatiya University, Warangal
Reddy KN (2003) Ethnobotany in Khammam District of Andhra Pradesh, India. Ph.D. Thesis,
Reddy AVB (2008) Use of various bio-fencing plants in the control of human disease by Lambada
tribe inhabiting Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ethnobot Leaflets 12:520–523
Reddy DS (2015) Ethnomedicinal plants used by the tribals of Achampet forest division in
Nallamalais, Telangana, India. Int J Plant Anim Environ Sci 5(2):65–73
Reddy KN, Bhanja MR, Raju VS (1998) Plants used in ethnoveterinary practices in Warangal
district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ethnobotany 10:75–84
Reddy CS, Gopalkrishna P, Raju VS (2008) Phytotherapy at rural communities: a case study from
the Gonds of Warangal district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Res J Bot 3(2):97–102
Reddy KN, Pattanaik C, Reddy CS, Raju VS (2007) Traditional knowledge on wild food plants in
Andhra Pradesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl 6(1):223–229
Reddy CS, Raju VS (2000) Folklore biomedicine for common veterinary diseases in Nalgonda
district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ethnobotany 12:113–117
Reddy KN, Raju VS (2002) Ethnobotanical observations on Konda Reddis of Mothugudem in
Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh. Abstract published in National seminar on Conservation
of Eastern Ghats 24–26th March, Tirupati
Reddy PR, Rao PP (2002) A survey of plant crude drugs in folklore from Ranga Reddy district,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Indian J Tradit Knowl 1(1):20–25
Reddy KN, Reddy CS, Jadhav SN (2001) Heterostemma deccanense (Talb.) Swarup & Mangaly
(Asclepiadaceae): An endangered and endemic taxon in Andhra Pradesh. Indian For
127:1403–1404
Reddy KN, Reddy CS, Raju VS (2008) Ethnomedicinal observations among the Kondareddis of
Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ethnobot Leaflets 12:916–926
Reddy KN, Trimurthulu G, Reddy CS (2010) Medicinal plants used by ethnic people of Medak
district, Andhra Pradesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl 9(1):184–190
Romney AK, Weller SC, Batchelder WH (1986) Culture as consensus: a theory of culture and
informant accuracy. Am Anthropol 88(2):313–338
Rosenthal JP (2006) Politics, culture, and governance in the development of prior informed con-
sent in indigenous communities. Curr Anthropol 47(1):119–142
Saidulu P, Suthari S, Ramesh K, Ragan A, Raju VS (2015) Ethnobotanical knowledge studied
in Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary, Telangana, India. Notulae Scientia Biologicae 7(2):164–170
Samata A (2007) Chemosystematics of the genus Crotalaria (Papilionaceae) in Andhra Pradesh,
India. Ph.D. Thesis, Kakatiya University, Warangal
Satyanarayana D (2014) Tribes of Telangana: society, religion and culture. Negadu, Telangana
Resource Centre, Hyderabad, Telangana
Singh RK (2008) Implications of prior informed consent for the conservators of indigenous bio-
logical diversity of Northeast India. Indian J Tradit Knowl 7(4):655–665
Singh PS, Singh DSRR (2015) Documentation of tribal’s traditional knowledge of medicinal
plants from Renlagadda Thanda, Kodangal Mandal, Mahabubnagar Dist, Telangana, India. Int
Lett Nat Sci 8:13–24
Sreeramulu N (2008) Traditional botanical knowledge of local people in Nalgonda and Warangal
Districts of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Kakatiya University, Warangal
Sreeramulu N, Suthari S, Omkar K, Raju VS (2013) Ethno-botanico-medicine for common
human ailments in Nalgonda and Warangal districts of Andhra Pradesh, India. Ann Plant Sci
2(7):220–229
Sudharani T, Umadevi M, Rajani B, Padmavathi V, Maiti RK (2007) Ethnobotanical survey of
Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Res Crops 8(3):700–715
Suthari S (2013) Biodiversity characterization and aboveground vegetation carbon pool assess-
ment in Northern Telangana at landscape level using geospatial technique. Ph.D. Thesis,
Kandagatla R, Ragan A, Raju VS (2016) Plant wealth of a sacred grove: Mallur Gutta, Telangana
State, India. Int J Gen Med 9:369–381
Suthari S, Prasad MNV, Ragan A, Raju VS (2018) Are non-timber forest products boon to peo-
ple and bane to forests? pp: 116–125. In: Pindi PK, Rathod V (eds.), Recent Trends in Life
Sciences: Current Archives in Life Sciences. Lambert Academic Publishing, Mauritius (ISBN:
978-613-9-84380-0)
Suthari S, Raju VS (2016) Antidote botanicals for snake-bite from Koyas of Warangal district,
Telangana, India. J Herbs Spices Med Plants 22:57–68
Suthari S, Sreeramulu N, Omkar K, Raju VS (2014a) The climbing plants of northern Telangana in
India and their ethnomedicinal and economic uses. Indian J Plant Sci 3(1):86–100
Suthari S, Sreeramulu N, Omkar K, Reddy CS, Raju VS (2014b) Intracultural cognizance of
medicinal plants of Warangal North Forest Division, Northern Telangana, India. Ethnobot Res
Appl 12:211–235
Swamy NSN (2009) Ethnobotanical knowledge from Adilabad District, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Ph.D. Thesis, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Ul-Hassan SS (1920) The castes and tribes of H.E.H. The Nizam’s Dominions, vol I. The Times
Press, Bombay, p 651
Upadhyay R, Chauhan SVS (2000) Ethnobotanical observations on Koya tribe of Gundala Mandal
of Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh. Ethnobotany 12:93–99
Ethnobotany and Pharmacological Uses
of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
(Elaeocarpaceae)
Mohamad Fawzi Mahomoodally and Veedooshee Sookhy
Introduction
Plants have always been a reservoir of therapeutic molecules since the dawn of
humanity. The use of plants to cure minor and major ailments has been passed on
through old scriptures, through cultures, and orally. While plants were used on a
trial and error basis for its therapeutic roles, these traditional approaches have meta-
morphosed into evidence-based approach. Presently, there has been a drive to unveil
new plants and its proposed therapeutic aspects. Researchers are ambitious to find
safer, cheaper, and easily accessible alternate that plant-based drugs offer. Today,
ethnobotanical and pharmacological studies have been used as a medium to spot
new plants and compounds (Gurib-Fakim 2006).
According to WHO, medicinal plants, food plants, and herbs are among the pre-
vailing forms of medication, with 85% of drugs used in primary health care derived
from plants (Abbasi et al. 2010). Moreover, the acceptability of plant-based drugs
will not pose an issue since men have been using them without knowledge of its
efficacy. The plant kingdom is an implicit gold mine of new chemical compounds,
which are still waiting to be explored. It is estimated that there are approximately
500,000 to 750,000 species of higher plants existing on earth and less than 10% of
them are examined for their biochemical constituents. In the past few years, ethno-
botany has contributed to the discovery and the isolation of numerous active com-
pounds like morphine from opium, cocaine, codeine, digitoxin, and quinine (Butler
2004). Keeping this thought in mind, researchers are on the hunt for new plants for
their pharmacological properties. One family of species that has gained much inter-
est is the Elaeocarpaceae owing to their resemblance with the Cucurbitaceae, which
are known for its multiple pharmacological activities. The Elaeocarpaceae family
M. F. Mahomoodally (*) · V. Sookhy

Faculty of Science, Department of Health Sciences, University of Mauritius,
Reduit, Mauritius
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_4
126 M. F. Mahomoodally and V. Sookhy
has attracted much interest since they harbour both indolizidine alkaloids, which
have exhibited ability to inhibit enzymatic activity of glucosidases and cucurbitacin
with chemotherapeutic potential (Wiart 2006). Belonging to the Elaeocarpaceae
family, Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume, also locally known as “olive,” has been
used as phytomedicine in African and Asian folkloric medicine to treat and/or man-
age ailments such as dysentery, diabetes, and inflamed gums. Elaeocarpus floribun-
dus Blume belongs from genus Elaeocarpus consisting of 350 species (Das 2014).
The plant is widely distributed across Madagascar, India, Southeast Asia, Malaysia,
China, and Japan as well as Australia, Fiji, and Hawaii (Sukari et al. 2013). It is
known by different names in several countries, namely, medang teja (Malaysia),
Jolpai or Indian olive (Bangladesh), rugged oil fruit in England, and “Olivier” in
Mauritius (Sukari et al. 2013). The members of this genus usually grow in hill
slopes and ridges with sandy to clay soil. Nevertheless, they also grow well in sunny
to moderately shaded areas only requiring fertile, moist, but well-drained soil (Das
2014). Few pharmacological studies on this plant have expressed promising results.
In this present chapter, we attempt to review the traditional, pharmacological,
and ethnobotanical studies amassed till date on Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume.
The Elaeocarpaceae Family
The species of Elaeocarpaceae are mostly tropical and subtropical with most spe-
cies evergreen. They are commonly distributed in Madagascar, Southeast Asia,
Malaysia, Eastern Australia, New Zealand, West Indies, and Chile (Zaman 2016).
The plants are hermaphrodite or dioecious and bear flowers clustered in inflores-
cences (Wiart 2006). These species are distinguished by three main botanical fea-
tures: the blade, the petiole, and the inflorescences (Wiart 2006). The blades are
dark green, elliptical, and glossy with petioles that are straight, woody, and kneeled
at the apex. The inflorescences are the most recognizable feature with terminal bell-
shaped flowers that matures into olive-like fleshy drupes. The plant’s fruiting stage
is usually all round the year, while its flowering stage happens during the September
to December period (Fig. 1). The fruits of some species of Elaeocarpaceae are edi-
ble with sour, sweet taste, and the stones are often used as beads for rosaries,
Fig. 1 Common botanical features of Elaeocarpaceae: (a) bell-shaped flowers, (b) olive-like
drupes, (c) straight woody petioles
Ethnobotany and Pharmacological Uses of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume… 127
22
20
18
16
14 Flowering
12
Fluiting
10
8
6
4
2
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Fig. 2 Flowering and fruiting stage of Elaeocarpaceae species
necklaces, bracelets, and other ornamental objects. The leaves and the barks are also
used as local medicines (Burkill et al. 1966) (Fig. 2).
As mentioned previously, one attractive attribute that the Elaeocarpaceae
family has to offer is their ability to elaborate an array of steroids or cucurbita-
cins which so far has been expressed by the Cucurbitaceae and Begoniaceae
families (Wiart 2006). This flourishing source of cucurbitacins in this family
indicates enthralling potential as cytotoxic agents (Fang et al. 1984; Rodriguez
et al. 2003; Ito 2002). One chemotherapeutic evaluation carried by Ito and col-
leagues on the bark of Elaeocarpus mastersii resulted in the isolation of cucur-
bitacin D and cucurbitacin F as cytotoxic principles and two new ellagic acid
derivatives, 4′-O-methylellagic acid 3-(2″,3″-di-O-acetyl)-α-l-rhamnoside and
4,4′-O-methylellagic acid 3-(2″,3″-di-O-acetyl)-α-l-rhamnoside (Sukari et al.
2013). Other prominent indolizidine alkaloids, such as elaeocarpenine, isoelaeo-
carpine, isoelaeocarpicine, and elaeocarpine, were successfully isolated from
leaves of Elaeocarpus fuscoides (Ito 2002; Katavic et al. 2006; Piao et al. 2009).
Furthermore, another study isolated three flavonoids from leaves of Elaeocarpus
lanceofolius and were identified as 4′-methylmyricetin, myricetin, and
3-O-rhamnoside (Ray et al. 1976).
Another line of interest in Elaeocarpaceae is the presence of abundant indoli-
zidine alkaloids which has fascinated researchers due to their enzyme inhibitory
effect on glucosidases. Their ability to inhibit the enzyme activity of glucosidases
is credited to similar structural differences to glucose. Hence, Elaeocarpaceae has
promising potential to be unveiled and be delved into the treatment/management
of diabetes, cancer, and HIV (Wiart 2006). However, only a small number of
plants from the Elaecarpaceae species have been studied. Thus, it is of absolute
must to bring to light the other members of the family and probe for valuable
pharmacological activities (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Examples of bioactive compounds from the Elaeocarpaceae family
Elaeocarpus Genus
The name Elaeocarpus is derived from a Greek word form by a combination of the
words Elaei and Carpus which mean “wild olive” tree and fruit, respectively; thus,
the seed from the fruit is known as Elaeocarpus. This genus constitutes more than
200 species which are widely distributed in warm regions from Madagascar,
Socotra, and Mauritius westward to Hawaii eastward, including the whole
Southeast Asia regions, Himalaya to southern China, Formosa and southern Japan,
Celebes, Moluccas, New Guinea, the eastern part of Australia, New Caledonia,
New Zealand, and other islands of the Pacific regions. The center of the distribu-
tion is New Guinea with over 100 species (Coode 1984). Many species of
Elaeocarpus, especially in Southeast Asia regions, are rather small trees not reach-
ing to timber size. However, some from New Guinea and Australia regions are
large enough, attaining 30–40 m tall and 100 cm in diameter. Woods of light colors
are suitable for drawer sides, boxes, match box and splints, interior finish, mold-
ings, lower class furniture, and veneer. Elaeocarpus trees are planted for ornamen-
tal purposes as bunches of blue fruits all over the tree which give a very scenic
look (Shah et al. 2011).
This genus has been used traditionally to treat ulcers, rheumatism, piles, pneu-
monia, and leprosy (Nandy et al. 2015a; b). Plants of this genus have been reported
to be used in traditional medicine particularly in India. Species from this genus that
is much publicized is Elaeocarpus ganitrus commonly known as Rudraksha which
holds a very important place in the Hindu religion. It is used in folk medicine in
treatment of stress, anxiety, depression, palpitation, nerve pain, epilepsy, migraine,
lack of concentration, asthma, hypertension, arthritis, and liver diseases (Nandy
et al. 2015a, b). Studies on the Elaeocarpus ganitrus have revealed sedative, anti-
epileptic hypnotic, tranquillizing, and antihypertensive activities (Sakat et al. 2009).
Other species of this genus has expressed worthy pharmacological properties like
Elaeocarpus grandis indolizidine alkaloids grandisine A and isoelaeocarpiline
compounds bind to opoid receptor and have analgesic effect (Carroll et al. 2005).
Another study showed that Elaeocarpus sylvestris which has 1,2,3,4,6-penta-
O-galloyl-b-d-glucose as a major chemical constituent possesses several biological
effects, such as antitumor, vasodilatory, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, hepa-
toprotective, and anti-angiogenic activities (Choi et al. 2002; Kang et al. 2005; Lee
et al. 2003; Oh et al. 2001; Pae et al. 2006). Numerous alkaloids and phytochemi-
cals have been isolated over the past years on different species of Elaeocarpus.
Fig 4 shows the various compounds isolated from this genus. A chloroform-soluble
extract of the bark of Elaeocarpus mastersii was found to exhibit significant cyto-
toxic activity when investigated against a series of human cancer cell lines
(Kinghorn et al. 1999). In addition, various compounds have been isolated from this
genus whixh tend to justify the need for further studies to probe into its therapeutic
properties.
Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume, also locally known as “olive,” has been used as
phytomedicine in African and Asian folkloric medicine to treat and/or manage
ailments such as dysentery, diabetes, and inflamed gums. Elaeocarpus floribun-
dus Blume belongs to the Elaeocarpaceae family with its genus Elaeocarpus con-
sisting of 350 species (Das 2014). The plant is widely distributed across
Fig. 4 Various isolates of Elaeocarpus genus
Madagascar, Mauritius, India, Southeast Asia, Malaysia, China, and Japan as well
as Australia, Fiji, and Hawaii (Sukari et al. 2013). This species has been intro-
duced in some warm countries like Madagascar and Mauritius. It is known by
different names in several countries, namely, medang teja (Malaysia), Jolpai or
Indian olive (Bangladesh), rugged oil fruit in England, and “Olivier” in Mauritius
(Sukari et al. 2013). The members of this genus usually grow in hill slopes and
ridges with sandy to clay soil; nevertheless they also grow well in sunny to mod-
erately shaded areas only requiring fertile, moist but well-drained soil (Das 2014).
It is commonly grown in lowland hills and mountains up to an altitude of 1500 m
in India, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines
(Wiart 2006).
Fig. 5 Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume: (a) tree, (b) flower, (c) leaf, (d) seed, (e) fruits
Botanical Description
The name Elaeocarpus has been attributed to the plant in reference to the shape of
its fruit which has the appearance of the olive fruit (Crayn 2006). It is an evergreen
medium-sized tree growing around 49 m tall with spreading crown and clean bole
of around 12–16 m in length (Zaman 2016).The fruits are green, fleshy drupes about
2.5–3.5 cm long, narrow at the base and with pointed apex (Zaman 2016).
Additionally, theses acidic drupes have smooth surfaces with a sour taste. The single
seed embedded inside the fruit consists of a stone 3-celled having a spindle shape
(Das 2014). The leaves are elliptical, ovate shaped with pointed tip and toothed
margin with a length varying from 6.5 to 19 cm and width 3 to 9 cm (Zaman 2016).
Some of the leaves are also red or orange in color. The plant usually has white and
creamy white flowers which always occur in cluster form with finely fringed petals
(Zaman 2016). The barks of the trees are brown, rough, and lenticelled with the
inner bark pale yellow in color. The leaves, buds, flowers, and fruits are often dotted
with scabby or pimply pustules (Wiart 2006). Fruit development shows distinct
phases. During 4–9 weeks after flowering, fruits grow fast; during 9–17 weeks, they
grow rather slow; and from 17 weeks onward, growth is again fast until maturity is
reached about 26 weeks after flowering. Elaeocarpus floribundus can be propagated
by stones, which should be sown in the shade and have about 15% germination in
4–8 months (Figs. 5 and 6).
Taxonomical Hierarchy
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Oxalidales
Family: Elaeocarpaceae
Genus: Elaeocarpus
Species: Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
Fig. 6 Taxonomical classification of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
Traditional Uses of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
In Mauritius, the fruit is famously known for its pickle in vinegar or brine or as
chutney and also enjoyed by many as “fruit cristallisés” also known as candied fruit
(Das 2014). The wood of the plant, although under exploited, is used by some for
light interior construction and as plywood (Das 2014).
Medicinally, various parts of the plant are used to treat several diseases. In
Mauritius, a leaf decoction is used as a treatment for diabetes and hypertension
(Gurib-Fakim et al. 1996), while in other parts of the world, such as Sumatra, infu-
sion of leaves and barks is utilized as mouthwash for treating inflamed gums (Wiart
2006). In Malaysia, the leaves are used as poultice to treat ulcers and its extract is
consumed as tonic (Corner 1988). Additionally, the leaves are also used in rheuma-
tism, and its fruit has been recommended in dysentery and diarrhea (Zaman 2016).
Regardless, little literature has been documented on the traditional used of
Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume even though it is highly used in some countries for
treatment of diseases such as India.
Chemical Composition of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
According to the limited literature on its chemical composition, the leaves of the plant
have been reported to compose of vitamin C, myricetin, myricitrin, mearnsetin, and
ellagic acid (Zaman 2016). The fruit of elaeocarpus consists mainly of tannin and an
extensive amount of plant acid including citric acid which is responsible for the acidic
taste to the fruit such as acidic portions of water-soluble dietary fiber of the fruits
comprised of rhamnose (11%), arabinose (26%), galactose (35%), and uronic acid
(27%). The polymeric portion is composed of α-n-galactopyranosyl uronic acid
chains with side chains of rhamnose, galactose, and arabinose residues (Zaman
2016). Figure 7 shows some of the chemical constituent in the leaves and fruit of this
plant.
Fig. 7 Some chemical constituents of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume fruits and leaves
Pharmacological Activity of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
Till now, only a few studies have been conducted on the plant. According to Zaman
(2016), skin care products consisting of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume extracts
expressed excellent active oxygen scavenging action which is postulated to have
notable antiaging and skin whitening activities. The biological activities of
Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume have been reported to be attributed to the array of
phytochemicals. Various phytochemical studies have expressed high level of phe-
nolic compounds such as tannin, flavonoids, phenolic acid, and anthocyanins
(Zaman 2016). In confer with phytochemical evaluation, Sukari et al. (2013)
reported that the methanolic extracts of leaves possess more phenolic substances
than the bark of the plant. In the same study, Sukari and colleagues were the first
researchers to isolate three triterpenoid, namely, friedelin, epifriedelanol, and
β-sitosterol (Fig. 8). When friedelin and epifriedelanol were tested, they have
Fig. 8 First three isolation compounds of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
shown to have potential cytotoxic activities against cancer cells. Among these two
isolates, friedelin showed the most potent inhibitory effect against HeLa cancer
cell with IC50 value of 3.54 ± 0.30 μg/mL (Sukari et al. 2013). Moreover, friedelin
advertises strong cytotoxic activities on the proliferation of four human cancer
cells, namely, A375, L292, HeLa, and THP-1 (Lu et al. 2010). These results con-
verge to promising avenue in the field of cancer and antitumor effects from the
plant. Elaeocarpus floribundus has also been reported to exhibit potential antioxi-
dant activity (Zaman 2016). However, in this scenario, the methanolic extract of
the stem bark was found to have better free radical scavenging ability against
DPPH compared to the leaf extract (Sukari et al. 2013).
Traditionally the plant has been used as an antiseptic and to treat certain infec-
tion (Pullaiah 2006). Antibacterial properties of the leaf extract have been vali-
dated against Gram-positive and Gram-negative human pathogenic bacteria,
having zone diameter of inhibition (ZDI) of 18–22 mm (Zaman 2016). The
extracts were also found to be natural sources of both reducing and stabilizing
agents for the synthesis of nanoparticles with antibacterial activity against some
spoilage and pathogenic bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Khalil et al. 2013). Moreover, the fruits of the
plant have disclosed to have growth inhibitory activity against food-borne bacteria
(Mandal et al. 2017). From well diffusion technique, Mandal and co-workers
found that leaves extracts were effective against a number of S. aureus, for which
the ZDIs ranged 10–22 mm. Effective susceptibility was also found against E. coli
(ZDI, 16 mm) and P. aeruginosa (ZDI, 18 mm). Thus, Elaeocarpus floribundus
could provide advancement as non-antibiotic phytotherapeutics against bacterial
infection to humans.
Elaeocarpus floribundus has also been utilized in treatment of infections in folk
medicines. However there is no scientific validation of this practice. One study con-
tributed to the validation of the use of the plant against infection. An in vitro study
on fruits of Elaeocarpus floribundus by Mandal et al. (2017) in combating MRSA
infection by the agar well diffusion method showed that mesocarp-epicarp extract
expressed potential bacterial growth inhibitory activity against the tested MRSA
isolates (Mandal 2017). The seed, however, exhibited no inhibitory activities.
Antibacterial inhibition against MRSA tend to confirm the evidence that the fruit
and leaves of the plant will unfold an outlet for its use in opposition to bacterial
infections.
Based on the theraputic potential of plants from the Elaecarpaceae to inihibit
key enzymes of clinical relevance, a recent study was conducted to evaluate the
enzyme inhibitory potential of the leaves of the plant against four key enzymes:
α-amylase, α-glucosidases, acetyl-cholinesterase, and elastase. As established by
the Elaeocarpaceae family, the methanolic extract of the leaves expressed excel-
lent α-glucosidase inhibition with an IC50 value lower than the positive control
acarbose which is known as an antidiabetic drug. Followed by excellent
α-glucosidase inhibition, the extracts were effective against α-amylase and elas-
tase. Phytochemical and antioxidant analyses also divulge the presence of very
high content of phenolic compound and good free radical scavenging power which
could be responsible for these biological activities. These preliminary data war-
rant further pharmacological validation of its use as antidiabetic, antiaging com-
ponents and also its emergence as a functional food. To sum, Elaeocarpus
floribundus should be further exploited for its therapeutic and pharmacological
activities since little scientific elucidation has been carried out on its use in treat-
ment of diseases.
Conclusion
Enclosing all the present evidences till date on Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume,
this species could potentially be used as a multi-targeted intervention with its mul-
tiple therapeutic effects in diabetes, cancer, infection, and aging. More research
needs to be designed to discover new chemical entities and pharmacological activi-
ties that this plant has to offer. More ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological
studies should be executed to provide more drive and weight to support and vali-
date its uses.
References
Abbasi A, Khan M, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Jahan S, Sultana S (2010) Ethnopharmacological applica-

tion of medicinal plants to cure skin diseases and in folk cosmetics among the tribal communi-
ties of North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 128(2):322–335
Burkill IH, Birtwistle W, Foxworthy FW, Scrivenor JB, Watson JG (1966) A dictionary of the eco-
nomic products of the Malay peninsula. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Governments of Malaysia
and Singapore, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative
Butler M (2004) The role of natural product chemistry in drug discovery. J Nat Prod
67(12):2141–2153
Choi BM, Kim HJ, Oh GS, Pae HO, Oh H, Jeong S (2002) 1,2,3,4,6- Penta-O-galloyl-beta-D-
glucose protects rat neuronal cells (Neuro 2A) from hydrogen peroxide-mediated cell death via
the induction of heme oxygenase-1. Neurosci Lett 328:185–189
Coode MJE (1984) Elaeocarpus in Australia and New Zealand. Kew Bull 39:509–586
Crayn D, Rossetto M, Maynard D. 2006. "Molecular phylogeny and dating reveals an Oligo-
Miocene radiation of dry-adapted shrubs (former Tremandraceae) from rainforest tree progeni-
tors (Elaeocarpaceae) inAustralia". American Journal of Botany 93(9):1328–1342
Dadhich A, Rishi A, Sharma G, Chandra S (2011) Phytochemicals of Elaeocarpus with their thera-
peutic value: a review. Int J Pharm Bio Sci 4(3):591–598
Das N (2014) The effect of seed sources variation and presowing treatments on the seed germi-
nation of Acacia catechu and Elaeocarpus floribundus species in Bangladesh. Int J For Res
2014:1–2
Fang X, Phoebe CH, Pezzuto JM, Fong HHS, Farnsworth NR, Yellin B, Hecht SM (1984)
Plant anticancer agents, XXXIV. Cucurbitacins from Elaeocarpus dolichostylus. J Nat Prod
47(6):988–993
Gurib-Fakim A (2006) Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol Asp
Med 27(1):1–93
Gurib-Fakim A, Guého J, Bissoondoyal MD (1996) Plantes médicinales de Maurice, tome 2.
Editions de l’Océan Indien, Rose-Hill, Mauritius, p 532
Ito A (2002) Ellagic acid derivatives and cytotoxic cucurbitacins from Elaeocarpus mastersii.
Phytochemistry 61(2):171–174
Kang DG, Moon MK, Choi DH, Lee JK, Kwon TO, Lee HS (2005) Vasodilatory and anti-inflam-
matory effects of the 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloylbeta- D-glucose (PGG) via a nitric oxide-cGMP
pathway. Eur J Pharmacol 524:111–119
Katavic P, Venables D, Forster P, Guyme G, Carroll A (2006) Grandisines C−G, indolizidine alka-
loids from the Australian rainforest tree Elaeocarpus grandis. J Nat Prod 69(9):1295–1299
Khalil MMH, Ismail EH, Baghdady KZ, Mohamed D (2013) Green synthesis of silver nanopar-
ticles using olive leaf extract and its antibacterial activity. Arab J Chem:1–23
Kinghorn AD, Farnsworth NR, Soejarto DD, Cordell GA, Pezzuto JM, Udeani GO, Wani MC,
Wall ME, Navarro HA, Kramer RA, Menendez AT, Fairchild CR, Lane KE, Forenza S, Vyas
DM, Lam KS, Shu YZ (1999) Novel strategies or the discovery of plant-derived anticancer
agents. Pure Appl Chem 71:1611–1618
Lee S, Lee I, Mar W (2003) Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2
activity by 1,2,3,4,6-Penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose in murine macrophage cells. Arch Pharm
Res 26(10):832–839
Nandy B, Hardainiyan S, Kumar K (2015a) Elaeocarpus Ganitrus (Rudraksha): a reservoir plant
with their pharmacological effects. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res 34(1):55–64
Nandy B, Hardainiyan S, Saxena R (2015b) Phytochemical investigation of fruit extract of
Elaeocarpus ganitrus. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci 7(6):415–418
Oh GS, Pae HO, Oh H, Hong SG, Kim IK, Chai KY (2001) In vitro anti-proliferative effect
of 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-beta-D-glucose on human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line,
SK-HEP-1 cells. Cancer Lett 174:17–24
Pae HO, Oh GS, Jeong SO, Jeong GS, Lee BS, Choi BM (2006) 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-beta-
D-glucose up-regulates heme oxygenase-1expression by stimulating Nrf2 nuclear translo-
cation in an extracellular signal-regulated kinase-dependent manner in HepG2 cells. World
J Gastroenterol 12:214–221
Piao M, Kang K, Zhang R, Ko D, Wang Z, Lee K, Chang W, Chae S, Jee Y, Shin T, Park J,
Lee N, Hyun J (2009) Antioxidant properties of 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-d-glucose from
Elaeocarpus sylvestris var. ellipticus. Food Chem 115(2):412–418
Pullaiah T (2006) Encyclopedia of world medicinal plants. Regency Publication, New Delhi,
pp 852–853
Qureshi R, Ghazanfar S, Obied H, Vasileva V, Tariq M (2016) Ethnobotany: a living science
for alleviating human suffering. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
2016:9641692 3 pages
Ray AB, Dutta SC, Dasgupta S (1976) Flavanoids of Elaeocarpus lanceofolius. Phytochemistry
15:1797–1798
Rodriguez N, Vasquez Y, Hussein A, Coley P, Solis P, Gupta M (2003) Cytotoxic Cucurbitacin
constituents from Sloanea zuliaensis. J Nat Prod 66(11):1515–1516
Sakat S, Bodhankar S, Juvekar M, Wankhede S, Mali V, Juvekar A (2009) Study of antihyperten-
sive activity of Elaeocarpus ganitrus water extract in renal artery-occluded hypertensive rats.
Planta Med 74:9
Shah G, Singh P, Mann A, Shri R (2011) Scientific basis for the chemical constituent and thera-
peutic use of Elaeocarpus species: a review. Int J Institutional Pharm Life Sci 1(1):267–278
Sircar B, Mandal S (2017) Screening of Elaeocarpus floribundus fruit extracts for bioactive phyto-
components and antibacterial activity against food-borne bacteria. Int J Res Med Sci 5(8):3665
Sircar B, Mandal M, Mandal S (2017a) Indian olive, Elaeocarpus floribundus fruits in combating
MRSA infection. J Coastal Life Med 5:501–503
Sircar B, Mandal M, Mondal M, Mandal S (2017b) High performance liquid chromatography
analysis and anti-methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus activity of olive fruit ethanolic
extract. Int Res J Pharm 8(7):126–130
Sukari M, Utami R, Khalid N, Rahmani M, Abdul A, Dachriyanus (2013) Phenolic contents, anti-
oxidant and cytotoxic activities of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume. Pak J Pharm Sci 26(2):245
Wiart C (2006) Medicinal plants of Asia and the Pacific. CRC/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton
Zaman S (2016) Exploring the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of Elaeocarpus floribundus
leaves. Indo Am J Pharm Sci 3(2):92–97
Medicinal Plants Against Cancer
Sameen Ruqia Imadi, Isra Mahmood, and Alvina Gul
Introduction
“Medicinal plants are the valuable flora which possess active chemical constituents
in any of their part(s) and when used in the treatment of various ailments; create a
physiological response.” Since time immemorial the practice of using medicinal
plants is prevalent in countries like China, India, Japan, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
and Thailand (Hamayun et al. 2006a; Ahmad 2007).
The earliest records regarding the use of medicinal plants are obtained from
Mesopotamian civilizations and are as old as 2600 BC (Gurib-Fakim 2006). History
shows that plants with medicinal properties had been in use in Assyrians,
Babylonians, Chinese, Greeks, and Hebrews civilizations (Hamayun 2007).
Furthermore, people in rural areas have always used native plants and herbs as
medicines (Shinwari and Khan 2000) partly due to the wide gap of educational,
research, and health facilities between the rural and urban areas and partly because
of socioeconomic issues (Hamayun et al. 2006b).
The mid of twentieth century witnessed an advancement in various fields of life
and simultaneously the use of synthetic chemical compounds for therapeutic
purposes became widespread (Hamayun et al. 2006a). However, in a short time, the
worth of medicinal plants came to spotlight again when the researchers failed to
produce comparatively affordable and safe medicines and thus herbal medicine
experienced a revival especially in Western society. It is still in practice throughout
the world along with corresponding therapies such as traditional Chinese medicine
(TCM), homeopathy, and osteopathy (Hamayun et al. 2006b).
According to an estimate, 20,000 species of plants are used throughout the world
for medicinal purposes (Hamayun 2007) and 50% of all the clinically used drugs are
obtained from natural products and their derivatives (Gurib-Fakim 2006;
S. R. Imadi · I. Mahmood · A. Gul (*)

Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_5
140 S. R. Imadi et al.
Rosangkima and Prasad 2004). World Health Organization (WHO) reckons that
80% of the world’s population depends on plants for health services (Shinwari and
Gilani 2003; Saumya et al. n.d.; Madhuri and Pandey 2008) and in developed
countries 25% of all medicines prescribed contain ingredients derived from
medicinal plants (Qureshi et al. 2009).
Cancer is the second leading cause of death after cardiovascular diseases world-
wide (Jackson 2000). According to American Cancer Society, 3500 million people
are killed every year from cancer (American Cancer Society n.d.). Cancer is defined
as “a group of diseases that are characterized by the presence of malignant cells
which proliferate in an unrestricted manner and ultimately invade the tissues and
disseminate the organs (metastasis) to form secondary areas of growth known as
secondary tumors” (Moura et al. 2001).
According to National Cancer Institute (NCI), 35,000 species of plants out of
250,000–350,000 are used for anti-cancerous purposes worldwide whereas, in
Pakistan, 400–600 out of 6000 species of wild plants are considered to be of
medicinal worth (Hamayun 2007). Saumya reported that 60% of anti-cancerous
drugs used clinically are obtained from natural sources (Saumya et al. n.d.).
After many years of extensive research on medicinal plants possessing chemo-
therapeutic properties (Aphanamixis polystachya, Alhagi pseudalhagi, Annona
squamosa, Calamus rotang, Cirsium rhinoceros, Terminalia arjuna, Euphorbia
jolkini, Polygonum cuspidatum, Myrica rubra Sieb et Zucc, Centella asiatica,
Bupleurum kaoi, Ochrosia elliptica Labill, Stephania tetrandra, Ophiorrhiza mun-
gos, Ornithogalum umbellatum, Taxus brevifolia, Tabernaemontana divaricata,
Paederia scandens, Elephantopus scaber, Impatiens balsamina, Coix lachryma,
Rhei Rhizoma, Taxus wallichiana, Moringa oleifera, Vitex negundo, and many
others) (Kuo et al. 2005a), scientists were successful in the discovery of anethol,
allicin, catechins, curcumin, capsaicin, diallyl sulfide, ellagic acid, eugenol, genis-
tein, lycopene, resveratrol, silymarin, S-allyl cysteine, 6-gingerol, ursolic acid,
and other such compounds (Saumya et al. n.d.) with anti-cancerous properties.
The discovery of anti-cancerous compounds met success when North American
medicinal plants successfully completed clinical trials and were marketed for
use. These plants were licensed for use in ovarian cancer (Taxus brevifolia), leu-
kemia, lymphoma, and lung and testicular cancer (Podophyllum peltatum)
(Gurib-Fakim 2006).
Medicinal plants and their derivatives are effective, economical, and safe with
negligible side effects (Hamayun et al. 2006b; Feng et al. 2005; Rahmawati et al.
2006). Furthermore, they are more accessible (Feng et al. 2005), have better
compatibility (Kamboj 2000), and are highly acceptable (Feng et al. 2005; Ghimire
et al. 2005) with respect to cultural, ethical, and historical issues.
A thorough review of literature shows that countless medicinal plants have been
exploited for their antitumor and anticancer potential. This chapter highlights some
of the renowned anti-cancerous plants and the mechanism of action of their active
constituents as expounded by research. The parts found to be effective for different
ailments are summarized in Table 1.
Medicinal Plants Against Cancer 141
Table 1 Effective parts of medicinal plants

Medicinal plant Effective part(s) References
Achyranthes aspera Linn. Whole plant Ahmad (2009)
Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. Roots Miyamoto (1988), Wang and Jin (2011)
Allium sativum Linn. Bulb Wilson (1997)
Aloe vera Linn. (Burm. f) Pulp of leaves Liao (2004)
Annona squamosa Linn. Fruit, seeds, and Shankar (2006)
leaves
Aphanamixis polystachya Bark Arguello (1998)
Aronia melanocarpa L. Berries, leaves, Missouri Botanical Garde ( n.d.)
(Pers.) and juice
Bacopa monnieri L. Whole plant Warrier (1993)
(Pennell)
Brassica campestris Linn. Seed and seed oil Bilov (2005)
Brassica oleracea Linn. Leaves Gray (1982)
Camellia sinensis Linn. Leaves, flowers, Top Tropicals (n.d.)
(Kuntze) and leaf stems
Centella asiatica (L.) Aerial parts Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Drugs
Urban (2000)
Crocus sativus Linn. Leaves, stigma, Srivastava (2010)
petals, and stem
Curcuma longa Linn. Rhizome Singh and Khar (2006)
Echinacea purpurea L. Roots Hu (2000)
(Moench)
Elephantopus Scaber Whole-plant Poli (1992)
Linn. extract
Nigella sativa Linn. Seeds and seed oil
Petiveria alliacea Roots Soladoye (2010)
Phaleria macrocarpa Leaves, fruit, and Hutapea (n.d.), Gotama (1999), Yoshida (2000),
(Scheff.) Boerl bark Harmanto (2001), Winarto (2003), Tsuda
(2004)
Tabernaemontana Root, leaves, and
divaricata bulb
Thespesia populnea L. sol Bark Friday (2006)
ex Correa
Thuja occidentalis Linn. Whole pant Johnston (n.d.)
Achyranthes aspera Linn.
Achyranthes aspera L., also known as devil’s horsewhip or prickly chaff flower
(Eng), is an annual or perennial (Arshad and Ahmad 2004) herb that belongs to
family Amaranthaceae (Table 2) (Arshad and Ahmad 2004; Ayyanar and
Ignacimuthu 2008). Although the whole plant (Ahmad et al. 2009) (fruit, stem,
leaves, and roots) (Hamayun et al. 2006b; Arshad and Ahmad 2004; Aziz et al.
2005; Subbarayan et al. 2012) is used for medicinal purposes roots of the plant are
considered to be most effective due to the presence of triterpenoid saponins.
Table 2 Families of medicinal plants

Plant Family
Achyranthes aspera Linn. Amaranthaceae
Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. Rosaceae
Allium sativum Linn. Amaryllidaceae
Aloe vera Linn. (Burm. f) Xanthorrhoeaceae
Annona squamosa Linn. Annonaceae
Aphanamixis polystachya Meliaceae
Aronia melanocarpa L. (Pers.) Rosacea
Bacopa monnieri L. (Pennell) Scrophulariaceae
Brassica campestris Linn. Brassicaceae
Brassica oleracea Linn. Brassicaceae
Camellia sinensis Linn. (Kuntze) Theaceae
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Crocus sativus Linn. Iridaceae
Curcuma longa Linn. Zingiberaceae
Echinacea purpurea L. (Moench) Asteraceae
Elephantopus scaber Linn. Asteraceae
Nigella sativa Linn. Ranunculaceae
Petiveria alliacea Phytolaccaceae
Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl Thymelaeaceae
Tabernaemontana divaricata Apocynaceae
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. Combretaceae
Thespesia populnea L. sol ex Correa Malvaceae
Thuja occidentalis Linn. Cupressaceae
Since historic times, Achyranthes aspera L. has been in use as a medicinal plant
in Indian traditional medical system known as Ayurveda (Bagavan et al. 2008). The
plant is known to posses antitumor (Chakrabortya et al. 2002), antibacterial (Aziz
et al. 2005), antifertility (Prakash 1996), and anti-inflammatory (Neogy et al. 1969;
Vetrichelvan and Jegadeesan 2003) properties.
Achyranthes aspera L. has been used for the treatment of fever (Chakrabortya
et al. 2002; Bhom and Liersch 1992; Girach and Khan 1992; Tang and Eisenbrand
1992), asthma (Ahmad et al. 2009; Bhom and Liersch 1992; Girach and Khan 1992;
Tang and Eisenbrand 1992; Singh 1995), dysentery (Ahmad et al. 2009; Chakrabortya
et al. 2002; Bhom and Liersch 1992; Girach and Khan 1992; Tang and Eisenbrand
1992), hypertension (Chakrabortya et al. 2002; Bhom and Liersch 1992; Girach and
Khan 1992; Tang and Eisenbrand 1992), diabetes (Bhom and Liersch 1992; Girach
and Khan 1992; Tang and Eisenbrand 1992), pneumonia, colic (Misra et al. 1991),
diarrhea, cold (Borthakur and Goswami 1995), constipation (Hamayun et al. 2006a),
renal dropsy, leprosy (Jain 1991), skin diseases, and abdominal pains (Ahmad et al.
2009) and for removing kidney stones (Hamayun et al. 2006a). Ash of plant mixed
with honey is given to treat seasonal cough (Ahmad et al. 2009; Jain 1991). A
decoction of plant is used for diuretic purposes (Hamayun et al. 2006a; Misra et al.
1991) and for treating toothache (Ahmad et al. 2009).
The plant has also been exploited for its anti-cancerous potential and has been
used for the treatment of cancer for centuries (Goyal et al. 2007). Either used alone
or in combination, Achyranthes aspera L. can treat solid tumors and pancreatic
cancers (Subbarayana et al. 2010).
Chakrabortya et al. (Chakrabortya et al. 2002) showed that Achyranthes aspera
L. exerts inhibitory effects on a tumor promoter (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-
acetate) in Raji cells in the process of carcinogenesis. He and colleagues studied the
antitumor effects of the methanolic extract (MeOH) consisting of alkaloid, non-
alkaloid, and saponin fractions on Raji cells and found that methanolic extract
(MeOH) inhibits tumor formation by 76%. The non-alkaloid fraction (containing
mainly ecdysterone and dihydroxyketone) was found to be the most effective
among the aforementioned fractions and possess 96.9% (at 100 mg/mL) anticar-
cinogenic activity (Chakrabortya et al. 2002). Several mechanisms have been pro-
posed by which methanolic extract (MeOH) and its non-alkaloid fraction are
thought to inhibit tumor formation. According to Chakrabortya et al. (2002), tumor
inhibition is the consequence of the delay in tumor formation which results in the
formation of fewer papillomas (Chakrabortya et al. 2002). Tahiliani and Kar (2000)
proposed that plant extract works by free radical scavenging mechanism (Tahiliani
and Kar 2000).
Leaf extract (LE) of Achyranthes aspera L. has antiproliferative activity on pan-
creas, prostrate, lung, and colon cancer cell lines in a time- and dose-dependent
manner as documented by Subbarayana et al. (Subbarayana et al. 2010). Pancreatic
cancer cells have found to be the most sensitive to leaf extract (LE) as compared to
other cancer cell lines mentioned before. Leaf extract (LE) inhibits angiogenic and
metastatic genes, two of the vital genes required for the cancer cells to successfully
survive, proliferate, and spread to other body parts. Therefore, pancreatic cancer
cells have found to perish through the prevention of tumor enlargement and
metastasis (Subbarayana et al. 2010).
In a second study published 2 years later, Subbarayan et al. (2012) proposed
another mechanism by which Achyranthes aspera L. inhibits pancreatic cancer in
athymic mice. They suggested that leaf extract (LE) of Achyranthes aspera induces
the transcription of caspase cascade especially caspase-3 and it suppresses or blocks
the expression of Akt-1 kinase. Caspase-3 transduces the apoptotic signal and aids
the cell in the execution of apoptosis (Salvesen and Dixit 1997). However according
to Subbarayan et al. (2012), activation of caspase-3 and suppression of Akt-1 kinase
hampers the proliferation of cancer cells and mediates their death through apoptosis
(Subbarayan et al. 2012).
Agrimonia pilosa LEDEB
Agrimonia pilosa LEDEB. is a perennial plant (Anonymous n.d.-a, n.d.-b) that

belongs to family Rosaceae (Table 2). According to Miyamoto et al. (1988), roots
of the plant are used for the treatment of cancer due to the presence of tannins
(Miyamoto et al. 1988; Wang and Jin 2011).
Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. is known to posses antiviral (Khanina et al. 2010), anti-
oxidant (Khanina et al. 2010; Zhu et al. 2009), nitric oxide (NO)-scavenging (Taira
et al. 2009; Wang et al. 1984), antihemorrhagic (Wang et al. 1984), anticarcinogenic
(Khanina et al. 2010), anti-inflammatory (Khanina et al. 2010), antiplatelet (Wang
et al. 1985), acetylcholinesterase inhibitory (Jung and Park 2007), vasodilating, and
antibacterial activities (Khanina et al. 2010).
In their pursuit to explore the anti-cancerous properties, Koshiura et al. (1985)
conducted research on the methanol extract obtained from the roots of Agrimonia
pilosa Ledeb. to study its effects on murine syngeneic and allogenic tumors in vivo.
They deduced that the extract works by stimulating the macrophages which in turn
activate cytotoxic lymphocytes. Their results clearly indicated that premedication of
tumors with methanolic extract was more effective than post-medication with it
(Koshiura et al. 1985).
According to Sugi (1977), Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. is famous for its antitumor
properties and is even used today in China (Sugi 1977). Agrimoniin, a tannin
compound, is considered to be the main antitumor component of this plant.
Miyamoto et al. (1987) studied the effects of agrimoniin on solid and ascites-type
tumors of rodents. They found that when administered intraperitoneally to mice at
doses of 10 mg/kg of the body weight, agrimoniin strongly dejected the growth of
tumors. In addition, this compound also increased the number of peripheral white
blood cells (WBCs) and monocytes. Spleen size was also increased due to the
intraperitoneal injection of agrimoniin. From their research, Miyamoto et al. (1987)
concluded that agrimoniin, antitumor tannin obtained from Agrimonia pilosa
Ledeb., inhibits tumor formation by boosting the immune response through the
action on tumor cells (Miyamoto et al. 1987).
Apart from boosting immune response, agrimoniin can reduce tumor formation
by other means too as elucidated by Wang and Jin (2011). Agrimoniin can also
induce apoptosis in the tumor cells through the generation of reactive oxygen
species (ROS), by increasing Ca2+ in the cells and by decreasing mitochondrial
transmembrane potential. By decreasing transmembrane potential, it opens
transition pore channels in mitochondria, thus causing the release of Ca2+ from
them. When Ca2+ concentration in the cell increases, it starts the mechanism of
apoptosis (Wang and Jin 2011).
According to a research, water extract of Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. is effective
against hepatocellular cancer line SMMC-7721. The growth of SMMC-7721
cells is inhibited by water extract and apoptosis is induced in them by downregu-
lation of Bcl-2 protein and upregulation of p53 protein (Cancer Research 2012).
p53 protein, also known as “tumor-suppressor protein,” once activated activates
a series of other proteins which combine together to strengthen the apoptotic
signal through the activation of pro-apoptotic proteins and inhibition of anti-
apoptotic proteins.
Allium sativum Linn.
Allium sativa is among the oldest cultivated plants (Thomson and Ali 2003) and
belongs to family Amaryllidaceae (Chase et al. 2009) (Table 2). Onion, leek, and
chive are its close relatives (Block 2010). It is commonly known as serpent garlic
and its bulb is used for medicinal purposes (Wilson et al. 1997).
Medicinal properties of Allium sativum rely mostly on the presence of organosul-
fur compounds in it (Iciek et al. 2009). There are at least 33 different organosulfur
compounds in garlic (Bottone et al. 2002). Many studies have shown the chemopre-
ventive effects of garlic extracts and organosulfur compounds derived from garlic.
It has antioxidant properties and tumor growth inhibition (Thomson and Ali 2003).
The organosulfur compounds in garlic inhibit carcinogen activation by increasing
phase II detoxifying processes, helping in cell cycle arrest, fueling the mitochon-
drial apoptotic pathway, and boosting the acetylation of histones (Iciek et al. 2009).
Active allyl sulfur compounds of garlic have a major contribution in anticancer
properties (Song and Milner 2001). Garlic and its components help to retard
chemically induced cancer at multiple sites of human and murine cell lines, by
inhibiting its proliferation and inducing apoptosis (Milner 2010). Allium sativa has
the ability to inhibit adenosine deaminase activity in cancerous human bladder
tissues (Durak et al. 2007).
Chemically induced tumors can be efficiently blocked by water- and lipid-solu-
ble allyl sulfur compounds of garlic. Its components can block the initiation and
promotion phases of carcinogenicity of many compounds including polycyclic
hydrocarbons. Some of the antitumorigenic properties are due to changes in cellular
thiol and phosphorylation stains (Milner 2001).
Allyl sulfides present in garlic inhibit the initiation as well as propagation of
tumorigenesis of many types of cancers in carcinogenesis models. They suppress
cell growth and induce apoptosis in cancer cells (Ariga and Seki 2006). Diallyl
trisulfide, applied on human colon cancer cell line HCT-15, shows a reduction in
cell proliferation rate (Seki et al. 2008). Rats with aflatoxin B-induced hepatocellular
carcinoma were fed with garlic powder containing different levels of alliin in them.
A strong reduction in cancer was observed in rats fed with garlic containing highest
level of alliin (Bergès et al. 2004).
Organosulfur compounds increase the activity of metabolizing enzymes that
activate cytochrome P450s and detoxify the carcinogens. They also inhibit the
formation of DNA adducts in target tissues, which causes apoptosis and alters the
cell cycle, which proves it to be a potent chemopreventive agent (Bianchini and
Vainio 2001). Garlic is rich in flavanols, especially kaempferol. This compound
contributes to the detoxification of carcinogens (Bilyk and Sapers 1985; Hertog
et al. 1992).
In rodents, diallyl disulfide (DADS) inhibits chemically induced colon carci-

nogenesis. It has anti-promoting effect on tumor cell proliferation (Druesne et al.
2004a). Intake of garlic powder or garlic extract reduces chemically induced skin
and mammary gland carcinogenesis (Rao et al. 1990; Schaffer et al. 1996;
Sadhana et al. 1988). DADS are also involved in reducing genotoxicity of vari-
ous carcinogenic compounds (Le Bon et al. 1997; Guyonnet et al. 2000; Sheen
et al. 2001).
Diallyl trisulfide (DATS) induces apoptosis in human lung cancer cell lines
(A549) by mitochondrium-dependent caspase cascade through decrease in anti-
apoptotic Bcl-2, which results in upregulation of ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and activity of
caspase-3, -8, and -9. DATS could be an ideal anticancer drug (Li et al. 2012). Allyl
sulfur compounds exhibit protective effects on colonic carcinogenesis by
mechanisms including inhibition of carcinogen-induced DNA adduct formation
(Amagase and Milner 1996), blockage of cell growth (Matsuura et al. 2006),
blockage of cell proliferation (Knowles and Milner 2003; Druesne et al. 2004b),
blockage of angiogenesis (Sundaram and Milner 1996), induction of apoptosis,
enhancement of carcinogen detoxifying enzymes (Shirin et al. 2001), suppression
of carcinogen-activating enzymes (Chen et al. 1998; Chung et al. 2004), inhibition
of cyclooxygenase-2 expression (Sengupta et al. 2004), scavenging carcinogen-
induced free radicals (Wu et al. 2005), and inhibition of lipid peroxidation (Sengupta
and Das 2003).
Garlic extract when administered to colon cancer colo 205 cells reduces percent-
age of viable cells, induces apoptosis, and increases the levels of Bax, cytochrome
c, and caspase-3, but decreases the level of Bcl-2. Raw extract of garlic decreases
mitochondrial membrane potential and increases caspase-3 activity and gene
expression (Su et al. 2006). Fresh extracts of garlic arrest the growth and alter the
morphology of MCF7 breast cancer cells. Intake of this extract results in downregu-
lation of cyclin D1, reduced phosphorylation of ERK1, and increased phosphoryla-
tion of elF2-α, which results in morphological changes in cells. Growth is reduced
due to reduced expression of hsp27 and sam68, and elevated levels of Rb and p21
(Modem et al. 2012).
Aged garlic extract (AGE) consists of compounds such as S-allylcysteine and
S-allylmercaptocysteine. These compounds have potent anticarcinogenic effects.
AGE suppresses the sizes and concentration of colorectal adenomas (Tanaka et al.
2006). AGE suppresses the proliferation of three different colorectal cell lines,
HT29, SW480, and SW620. AGE enhances adhesion of endothelial cells to collagen
and fibronectin and suppresses cell motility and invasion. It also inhibits proliferation
and tube formation of endothelial cells. This proves that AGE can be a potent
chemopreventive and therapeutic agent for colorectal cancer (Matsuura et al. 2006).
DATS suppresses growth of human colon cancer cell lines HCT-15 and DLD-1.
It reduces the amount of cells residing at G1 and S phases. It also results in increased
activity of caspase-3. DATS inhibited tubulin polymerization in in vitro cell-free
system (Hosono et al. 2005).
Aloe vera Linn. (Burm. f)
Aloe vera is a plant belonging to the family Xanthorrhoeaceae (Akinyele and Odiyi
2007) (Table 2). Pulp of leaves is used for medicinal purposes (Liao et al. 2004).
Glycoproteins (lectins) and polysaccharides from Aloe vera are claimed to have
anti-cancerous effects (Reynolds and Dweck 1999). Isolated polysaccharides,
especially Acemannan, have been investigated for antitumor activity in in vitro and
animal models. Studies have shown the antitumor activity as it reduces tumor
burden, shrinks tumor, and increases survival rates by necrosis of tumor cells
(Boudreau and Beland 2006). It is also proposed that the anticancer property of Aloe
vera gel is by stimulating the immune system (Steenkamp and Stewart 2007).
Fresh leaf pulp of Aloe vera when given to mice resulted in increase in the level
of acid-soluble sulfhydryl content, NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase, NADH
cytochrome b5 reductase, glutathione S-transferase, DT-diaphorase, superoxide
dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase in liver. It
reduces the level of cytochrome P450 and b5. Besides liver, other organs including
lung, kidney, and forestomach are positively influenced by Aloe vera for detoxifying
chemical carcinogens. Hence Aloe vera can be used as a potent chemopreventive
drug (Singh et al. 2000).
Aloe vera administration affects pleural tumor in rats. This was proved when
growth of Yoshida AH-130 ascites hepatoma cells injected into pleura of male
inbred fisher rats was evaluated at different times. Aloe proved to be a therapeutic
method for cancer treatment in vivo (Corsi et al. 1998). Aloe vera pulp was
administered to Ehrlich ascites tumors in mice. Aloe extracts were injected at an
amount of 55 mg protein/kg of mice, two times in a week for a period of 21 days.
Best effects are shown when Aloe is administered prophylactically, but reduction in
tumor sizes is also observed. Aloe could be used as a prophylactic medicine for
cancer prevention (Akev et al. 2007a). Lectin present in Aloe vera leaf pulp also
shows a prophylactic effect for tumors but this effect is low as compared to that
produced by Aloe extracts. Prophylactic administration of lectin results in decrease
in the level of tumor necrosis factor α and serum sialic acid (Akev et al. 2007b).
Aloe emodin (AE), a compound isolated from Aloe species, inhibits the prolif-
eration of adherent Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) cells. Hence it can be used as an
adjunct, in combination with chemotherapeutic agents to increase the anticancer
effect (Fenig et al. 2004). AE, when administered in T24 human bladder cancer
cells, inhibits cell viability, and induces G2/M arrest and apoptosis of T24 cells. It
increases the level of Wee1 and cdc25c which leads to inhibition of cyclin-dependent
kinase 1 and cyclin B1 and causes G2/arrest. It also induces p53 and p21 expression
and activates caspase-3, which is associated with apoptosis of cells. It also causes
increase in Fas/APO1 receptor and Bax expression, but it inhibits Bcl-2 expression
(Lin et al. 2005). AE is nontoxic to normal cells but it possesses specific toxicity for
neuroectodermal cancer cells (Lina et al. 2002). AE induces cell death is in a dose-
and time-dependent manner in human gastric carcinoma cell lines, AGS, and NCI-
N87. It causes the release of apoptosis-inducing factors and cytochrome c, which
activates caspase-3 and leads to nuclear shrinkage and apoptosis (Chen et al. 2007).
AE also shows effects against melanoma cell proliferation. In light of all experi-
ments done on AE, it can be said that AE is a newborn differentiation therapy of
cancer (Tabolacci et al. 2010).
Succus aloes treatment in tumorous mice and rats results in reduction of tumor
mass, metastatic foci, and metastatic frequency at different stages of tumor
development without major tumor growth. Succus aloe can be used in combination
with 5-fluorouracil and cyclophosphamide as chemotherapy (Gribel and Pashinki
1986).
Effects of Aloe vera were measured for phase I and phase II carcinogen-
metabolizing enzymes. The results showed that Aloe vera induces phase II enzymes
as it increases levels of acid-soluble sulfhydryl content, NADPH cytochrome P450
reductase, NADH cytochrome b5 reductase, glutathione S transferase, DT
diaphorase, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione
reductase in liver. Thus it can detoxify chemical carcinogens and drugs (Singh et al.
2000). Di (2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) is isolated from Aloe vera. It exerts
growth inhibitory effects against three leukemic cell lines, K562, HL60, and U937,
at concentration less than 100 μg/mL. This compound is considered as an active
antileukemic ingredient of Aloe vera (Lee et al. 2010). Aloe vera shows anticancer
effects against Walker tumor. This effect was shown in Wistar rats implanted by
Walker 256 carcinoma. It modulates tumor growth by reducing cell proliferation
and increasing apoptosis (Tomasin and Gomes-Marcondes 2011).
Annona squamosa Linn.
Annona squamosa belongs to the family Annonaceae (Agroforestry Tree Database

2008) (Table 2). It is commonly known as custard apple (Andrade et al. 2001). Fruit,
seeds, and leaves of the plant are used for medicinal purposes (Shanker et al. 2007).
The solvent extract of Annona squamosa fruit pericarp has shown cytotoxicity in
in vitro cultures for Dalton’s lymphoma cells as well as Hela cells (Joy and Remani
2008). Squadiolins A and B isolated from Annona squamosa are cytotoxic to Hep
G2 hepatoma cells and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Squafosacin B also had
effects against HepG2 and 3B hepatoma cells and MCF-7 breast cancer cells (Liaw
et al. 2008). Effects of aqueous and organic seed extracts of Annona squamosa are
studied on histiocytic tumor cell line, AK-5. It causes apoptotic tumor cell death due
to enhanced caspase-3 activity, downregulation of anti-apoptotic genes Bcl-2 and
Bcl-XL, enhanced generation of intracellular ROS, and decreased level of
GSH. Aqueous extracts have more potent activity in killing tumor cells
(Pradhasaradhi et al. 2004).
Ethanolic extracts of leaves and stem of Annona squamosa have anti-cancerous
effects (Bhakuni et al. 1969). Leave extracts of Annona squamosa are potent
chemotherapeutic agents as they reduce chemically induced oral squamous cell

carcinomas in Syrian golden hamsters, at an oral dose of 500 mg/kg of body weight.
Leaf extract of Annona squamosa also modifies the abnormality in cell surface
glycoconjugates in neoplastic formation (Suresh et al. 2007). MCF-7 and K-562
cell lines treated with leaf extracts of Annona squamosa showed condensation of
nucleus, fragmentation of DNA, downregulation of Bcl-2, generation of reactive
oxygen species (ROS), and reduced intracellular glutathione level which results in
apoptosis of tumor cell lines (Pradhasaradhi et al. 2005).
Annonaceous acetogenins are extracted from the plant of Annona squamosa.
They are potent chemopreventive agent, as they deplete ATP level by inhibition of
complex 1 of mitochondria and inhibition of NADH oxidase of tumor cell plasma
membrane (Alali et al. 1992). Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Annona squamosa
reduce the number of tumor, tumor burden, tumor volume, and tumor incidence in
7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene-induced hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis
(Suresh et al. 2010). Antitumor activity of extract containing Annonaceous
acetogenins, showed potent antitumor activity against human tumor cell lines
especially MCF-7 at IC50 of 0.25 μg/mL and Hep G2 at IC50 0.36 μg/mL. It also
inhibited the growth of H22 tumor cells in mice at a rate of 69.55% by oral
administration (Chen et al. 2012a).
Squamocin, an acetogenin isolated from Annona squamosa, inhibits growth of
human leukemia cell line HL-60. Its IC50 value is 0.17 μg/mL. It does not affect
bcl-2, bax, and p21WAF1 in cells, but it inactivates MAPK, which results in
apoptosis (Ning et al. 2012).
Ethanolic herbal extracts of Annona squamosa increase the life span of mice
with Dalton lymphoma ascites (DLA) tumor cells. Annoglacin-B is the active
ingredient in Annona squamosa (Ganesan and Muthuchelian 2011). Annonaceous
acetogenins suppress tumor growth in a dose-dependent manner in HepS and S180
(Chen et al. 2012b). Six Annonaceous acetogenins (ACGs) were isolated from seed
extracts of Annona squamosa. These include annosquacins A–D, annosquatin A,
and annosquatin B. All the six show potent antitumor activity against five human
tumor cell lines but annosquatin A is more sensitive to MCF-7 and annosquatin B is
more sensitive to A549 cell lines (Chen et al. 2012c).
Eleven compounds were isolated from 95% ethanolic extract of Annona squa-
mosa. Among these compounds annosquamocin C, 15,16-epoxy-17-hydroxy-ent-
kau-ran-19-oic acid, 16,17-dihydroxy-ent-kau-ran-19-oic acid,
ent-kaur-16-en-19- oic acid, and annosquamosin B showed inhibitory activity
against 95D lung cancer cells at IC50 of 7.78 μmol/L. They also suppressed the
growth of A2780 ovarian cancer cells (Sun et al. 2012). Annona squamosa bark
extract yields an acetogenins known as squamotacin. This acetogenin shows cyto-
toxicity against human prostate tumor cell line PC-3 (Hopp et al. 1996).
Aphanamixis polystachya
Aphanamixis polystachya belongs to the family Meliaceae (Table 2). It is com-

monly known as rohituka (World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2006). Its bark is
used for medicinal purposes (Arguello et al. 1998).
Rohitukine (Flavopiridol), a compound isolated from the bark of Aphanamixis
polystachya, has apoptotic effects in xenografts of human hematopoietic tumors
HL-60, SUDHL-4, and Nalm/6 when administered intravenously (Arguello et al.
1998). Extract of the plant bark protects the mice bone marrow cells from
chromosomal aberrations and mutations caused by gamma radiations, which may
result in decreased rate of tumor and cancer genesis (Jagetia and Venkatesha 2006).
A triterpene acid known as Amooranin, which is isolated from Aphanamixis
polystachya, results in inhibition of proliferation of breast and cervical cancers by
arresting cell cycle at the stage of G2/M and inducing apoptosis (Govind 2011a).
Flavopiridol inhibits tumor necrosis factor-induced nuclear factor KB activation.
It also inhibits the activation of activator protein-1, which is induced by carcinogens.
It causes the inhibition of TNF-induced activation of MAPK, including p38MAPK
and p44/42MAPK. It also suppresses activation of Akt, which is a cell survival
kinase. Flavopiridol inhibits tumorigenesis mediators, adhesion molecule-1, c-Myc,
and c-Fos. Hence it is known to cause apoptosis in cancerous cells (Takada et al.
2008).
Ethanolic extracts of Aphanamixis polystachya when tested in Swiss albino mice
transplanted with Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) increased the effect of radiation
therapy and thus help in treating cancer (Jagetia and Venkatesha 2005). Bark extracts
of Aphanamixis polystachya cause reduced cancer growth and apoptosis of cancer
cells (Dhanamani et al. 2011).
Aronia melanocarpa L. (Pers.)
Aronia melanocarpa belongs to renowned flower family of plants, the Rosacea

(Table 2). It is commonly known as chokeberry. Its berries, leaves, and juice are
used for medicinal purposes (Missouri Botanical Garden n.d.).
Aronia melanocarpa shows potent anticancer effects. Administration of poly-
phenol-rich extract of Aronia melanocarpa inhibits the growth of breast cancer cells
in vivo and in vitro (Kedzierska et al. 2009). Anthocyanins isolated from Aronia
melanocarpa inhibit the growth of breast cancer cells and human HT-29 colon can-
cer cell lines (Valcheva-Kuzmanova and Belcheva 2006). Extract of Aronia melano-
carpa at the concentration of 50 μg/mL for 5 min at 37° has invasive effect on breast
cancer cell lines and patients with benign breast cancer cells in vitro. This effect is
due to presence of different thiols in the extract of Aronia melanocarpa (Olas et al.
2010).
Acetone extract of Aronia melanocarpa shows inhibitory effects on L1210 leu-

kemia cells at a concentration of 50 μg/mL. It inhibits topoisomerase I, which leads
to apoptosis of leukemia cells (Sueiro et al. 2006). Extract of Aronia melanocarpa
berries significantly reduces the oxidative stress of platelets in breast cancer cell
lines in vitro, which results in reduced tumor growth and tumor volume (Kedzierska
et al. 2010, 2012). Extract of Aronia melanocarpa is rich in anthocyanins. These
anthocyanins induce apoptosis in glioblastoma cell line U373, when treated for a
period of 48 h at an IC50 value of 200 μg/mL. Apoptosis of cancer cells is associ-
ated with downregulation of MMP-2, -14, -16, and -17. These results show that
chokeberry has potent anticancer effects (Thani et al. 2012).
Aronia melanocarpa juice when administered in lymphoblastic leukemia jurkat
cell lines inhibits cell proliferation, associated with cell cycle arrest and induction
of apoptosis. The results are associated with upregulated expression of tumor-
suppressor p73 and active caspase-3, and downregulated expression of cyclin B1
and epigenetic integrator UHRF1. It also increases the release of reactive oxygen
species and cytochrome c in cytoplasm. Juice of Aronia melanocarpa is efficient in
treating human lymphoblastic leukemia HSB-2, Molt-4, and CCRF-CEM cell lines.
Chemotherapeutic activity of Aronia melanocarpa is due to its selective targeting
on lymphoblast-derived tumor cells (Sharif et al. 2012). Semipurified anthocyanin-
rich extract of Aronia melanocarpa fruit when administered in human HT-29 colon
carcinoma cell lines at a concentration of 50 μg/mL results in 60% growth inhibition
of cells. This inhibition is associated with G1/G0- and G2/M-phase cell cycle arrest
(Malik et al. 2003).
Bacopa monnieri L. (Pennell)
Bacopa monnieri is a common Ayurvedic plant which belongs to Scrophulariacea

family (Table 2) of plants (Kumar et al. 1998). It is known as Brahmi in common
language. Its whole plant is used as a medicine for various purposes (Warrier et al.
1993).
Bacopa monnieri is shown to have potent antitumor and anticancer activities
(Warrier et al. 1993). Whole-plant ethanolic extract of Bacopa monnieri when tested
in sarcoma-180 culture cells showed inhibition of cell growth with the increase in
concentration of extract. The results proved that Bacopa monnieri shows anticancer
effects in a dose-dependent manner (Elangovan et al. 1995). Ethanolic extract of
whole plant of Bacopa monnieri shows cytotoxicity for Dalton’s lymphoma cells at
a concentration of 150 μg/mL. Oral administration of this extract reduces the risk of
solid tumor formation (Kumar et al. 1998). Ethanolic extract of Bacopa monnieri
when administered in mouse S-180 cells results in cytotoxicity in a dose- and time-
dependent manner. The peak cytotoxic effect is shown at 48 h of administration of
550 μg/mL. Apoptosis was associated with decreased glutathione level in treated
cells (Rohini and Devi 2008).
Stigmasterol, a phytosterol which is isolated from Bacopa monnieri, decreases

the tumor volume, packed cell volume, and viable cell count and increases the life
span of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma transplanted in Swiss albino mice. Antitumor
activity of stigmasterol is probably due to activation of protein phosphatase 2A by
ceramide causing apoptosis (Ghosh et al. 2011). Extract of Bacopa monnieri inhibits
tumor cell proliferation and malignant ascites fluid accumulation. Its solvent extract
shows apoptosis in Ehrlich ascites tumor cell lines, associated with DNA
fragmentation, increased expression of Bax, and decreased expression of anti-
apoptotic protein Bcl-2. Possible mechanism of apoptosis is Bax-related caspase-3
activation (Kalyani et al. 2013).
Brassica campestris Linn.
Brassica campestris, commonly known as mustard, belongs to the family

Brassicaceae (Table 2). It is commonly known as mustard (Madhuri and Govind
2008). Its seeds and seed oil are used as medicines (Bilov 2005).
Brassica campestris, also known as Brassica rapa, possesses anticancer activity
against some malignant and benign tumors (Madhuri and Govind 2008). Seed oil of
Brassica campestris contains dithiolthiones and isothiocyanates, which are effective
in treating different types of cancers and tumors (Govind 2011b). Brassinin is a
phytoalexin isolated from Brassica campestris. This compound proves its
chemopreventive activity in preclinical models mediated by inhibition of
indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). Brassinin can suppress the growth of highly
aggressive melanoma tumors and can inhibit autochthonous mammary gland tumor
in MMTV Neu mice (Banerjee et al. 2008).
Isothiocyanates present in Brassica can inhibit cancer cell proliferation (Lim
et al. 2009). Active component known as dithiolthiones, present in mustard plant are
antitumorous (Craig 2006). Cyclobrassinin is a biologically derived product of
Brassinin. It inhibits the preneoplastic mammary lesions in cultures. It can be used
as a chemopreventive agent during initiation and promotion of carcinogenesis
(Mehta et al. 1995). Rapeseed peptide obtained from this plant has anticancer
activity. This peptide causes inhibition in growth of Hela cells by cell cycle arrest
and induction of apoptosis at the concentration of 320 mg/L administered for 4 days
(Xue et al. 2010).
Bee pollen of Brassica campestris is used to increase resistance of body for can-
cer. Steroid fraction of chloroform extract from bee pollen of Brassica campestris
shows potent cytotoxicity against prostate cancer cell line PC-3 by enhancing
caspase-3 activity, decreasing expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, and
leading to apoptosis (Wu and Lou 2007). Brassica campestris seed extract shows
cytotoxicity for cancer cells in vivo and in vitro at a concentration of 30 g (Pezzuto
et al. 2007). 70% Ethanolic extract of Brassica campestris seed is used for treating
cancer due to its antioxidant potential (Ryu et al. 1994). Glucosinolates present in
Brassica campestris are precursors of isothiocyanates. Glucosinolates and their
broken product isothiocyanates are potent anticarcinogen. They inhibit the growth
of human-derived hepatoma cell line (HepG2) at IC50 value of 24.5 μM (Hong and
Kim 2008). Isothiocyanates are cytotoxic for NMBA-induced esophageal
tumorigenesis by inhibition of cytochrome P450 enzymes (Stoner and Morse 1997).
Isothiocyanates reduce tumor size and growth in F344 rats transplanted with
tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone
(NNK)-induced lung cancer (Chung et al. 1996). Isothiocyanates induce apoptosis
in human colon adenocarcinoma LS-174 and Caro-2 cells (Govind and Madhuri
2006). Glucobrassicin isolated from Brassica campestris reduces the effect of
tobacco-specific lung carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone
(Hecht et al. 2004). Isothiocyanates enhance phase I and phase II biotransformation
enzyme activities, and thereby metabolize many chemical carcinogens (Verhoeven
et al. 1997). Male CF-1 mice transplanted with colon tumors are protected from
tumor formation by Brassica campestris seed extracts. Thus Brassica campestris
seeds can be used as a potent chemopreventive agent (Barrett et al. 1998). Alcoholic
extracts of Brassica rapa when administered in mice transplanted with Ehrlich
ascites carcinoma showed reduction in tumor volume and tumor cell count and
increase in survival time and life span. Increase in RBC count and hemoglobin and
decrease in WBC count were significant. Treated mice were shown to have decreased
levels of malondialdehyde dehydrogenase, increased levels of catalase, and reduced
glutathione (Manoj 2010). Brassica campestris is reported to protect from prostate,
lung, breast, and colon cancers (Sarikamis 2009).
Brassica oleracea Linn.
Brassica oleracea is a cruciferous vegetable. It belongs to the renowned family of

Kingdom Plantae, named as Brassicaceae (Brassica oleracea L. n.d.) (Table 2). The
plant usually lives at the sea cliffs and coasts (Brassica oleracea-Wild Cabbage
(Brassicacea) n.d.). Brassica oleracea is a species which contains multiple cultivars
(Gray 1982). The most common edible varieties of this plant are broccoli, Brussels
sprouts, tronchuda cabbage, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, and kohlrabi (Brassica
oleracea n.d.). Leaves of the plant are used for medicinal purposes (Gray 1982).
It shows anticancer properties against many malignant and benign tumors (Madhuri
and Govind 2008). The leaves have antioxidant activity, which is dependent on the
given concentration of leaves in vitro (Vrchovska et al. 2006). Juice obtained from
leaves of cabbage reduces the cell proliferation in human breast cancer cell lines asso-
ciated with reduction in CDK6 expression and increase in level of p27. Decrease in
retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation is also seen. When this juice was given in
higher concentration, cell death occurs (Brandi et al. 2005). Broccoli is involved in
reduced risk of different cancers. Selenium found in broccoli decreases the incidence
of abnormality in rats with chemically induced colon cancers. Selenium from high
selenium broccoli also reduces the formation of mammary tumors in rats which were
treated with 7,12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene (Finley 2003).
Sprouts and leaves of Brassica oleracea contain ascorbigens, dithiolthiones, and

isothiocyanates, which are involved in prevention of bladder, lung, stomach, colon,
rectum, and breast cancer (Govind 2011b). Mechanisms by which Brassica oleracea
is supposed to prevent breast cancer are induction of apoptosis (Ge et al. 1996) and
interference with cell cycle-regulatory proteins (Cover et al. 1998). Glucosinolate
present in Brassica oleracea is a precursor for indole-3-carbinol, indole-3-
acetonitrile, and 3,3’-diindolylmethane. All these indoles are potent anticarcinogens
(Bradfield and Bjeldanes 1987).
Female Swiss mice transplanted with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon
tumor when administered with selenium and cabbage showed a reduction in tumor
growth and size. Reduction in size of adenomas is also seen (Temple and Basu
1987). Broccoli induces phase II detoxifying enzymes including quinone reductase,
NADPH (quinone-acceptor) oxidoreductase, and glutathione-S-transferase leading
to apoptosis of cancerous cells (Zhang et al. 1992). Sulforane, an isothiocyanate
isolated from Brassica oleracea, decreases cell population in human breast cancer
cell lines and reduces the size and number of mammospheres formed during breast
cancer. Sulforane is also efficient in removing breast cancer stem cells in vivo in
mice (Li et al. 2010).
Brassica oleracea shows protective effects from early stages of prostate carcino-
genesis (Giovannucci et al. 2003). Combination of tomato and Brassica oleracea
when administered into Dunning R-3327H prostate adenocarcinoma model showed
reduction in tumor growth to up to 52%. It was associated with reduced tumor pro-
liferation and increased apoptosis of tumor cells (Cannene-Adams et al. 2007).
Brassica vegetables are xenobiotic metabolizing enzyme modulators which do not
let the DNA damage, and prevent prostate cancer (Kristal and Lampe 2002).
Sulforaphane, a compound present in Brassica oleracea, inhibits the prolifera-
tion of prostate cancer cell line PC-3 by induction of apoptosis. The effect it causes
is characterized by appearance of cells with sub-G0/G1 DNA, formation of histone-
associated DNA fragments, and cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase.
Apoptosis is induced due to upregulated Bax, downregulated Bcl2, and activated
caspase-3, -9, and -8 (Singh et al. 2004). High intake of Brassica oleracea is
inversely proportional to the incidence of colorectal cancer and colon cancers in
human beings (Wu et al. 2012).
Hydrolysis products of glucosinolates show anti-cancerous properties for lung,
stomach, colon, and rectal cancer but have low effects on prostatic, endometrial, and
ovarian cancer (Verhoeven et al. 1996). Phenyl isothiocyanates (PEITC) found in
Brassica oleracea, when administered into transgenic mice with adenocarcinoma of
prostate cancer, decreased the incidence of poorly differentiated tumors. Inhibition
of carcinogenesis is associated with induction of autophagy and overexpression of
E-cadherin (Powolny et al. 2011). Brassica oleracea, when consumed in raw form,
showed inverse effects for bladder cancer growth. The mechanism it follows is not
understood, but when it is thought that these effects are due to presence of
isothiocyanates (Tang et al. 2008).
3-Day-old sprouts of Brassica oleracea contain a high amount of glucoraphanin.
Extract of 3-day-old sprouts when administered to rats transplanted with mammary
tumors reduced the incidence, multiplicity, and rate of cancer development (Fahey
et al. 1997).
Camellia sinensis Linn. (Kuntze)
Camellia sinensis belongs to a family of evergreen plant, known as Theaceae

(Khalaf et al. 2008) (Table 2). This plant is used all around the world as most com-
mon beverage known as tea. Leaves, flowers, and leaf stems are used for their
medicinal properties (Top Tropicals n.d.).
Tea drinking may prevent diseases which are caused as a result of oxidative
stress like cancer. Green tea polyphenols inhibit formation and development of
many types of cancers in animal models, including skin, lung, oral cavity, esophagus,
stomach, intestine, colon, liver, pancreas, bladder, mammary gland, and prostate
cancer (Yang and Wang 2010). Catechins present in Camellia sinensis inhibit the
production of reactive oxygen species and thus reduce the risk of cancers (Aucamp
et al. 1997). Green tea extracts contain catechins which are antioxidants and hence
prevent various forms of cancer (Cooper et al. 2005). Camellia sinensis inhibits an
enzyme named topoisomerase II. This inhibition results in chemopreventive activity
of the plant. It is cytotoxic to hepatoma cell line HepG2 (Ramirez-Mares et al.
2004).
Epicatechin isolated from Camellia sinensis reduces poorly differentiated epi-
thelial ovarian cancer cells. Epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCG), another polyphenol
isolated from green tea, suppresses the proliferation of benign and metastatic pros-
tate cancer, and moderately and poorly differentiated epithelial ovarian cancer cells
(Ravindranath et al. 2009). Green tea is a promising agent for chemoprevention of
prostate cancer, but further studies are needed to reveal its chemopreventive effects
(Johnson et al. 2010).
EGCG is the most abundant and most active polyphenol in Camellia sinensis
(Yang and Wang 2011). It suppresses cell invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis of
cancer (Yang and Wang 2010). It shows chemotherapeutic effects in mice
transplanted with Ehrlich ascites carcinoma. It shrinks the tumor by reducing levels
of leukocytosis, malondialdehyde, and C-reactive protein (Ei-Mowafy et al. 2010).
Nude mice subcutaneously injected by heterotopic tumor SGC-7901 cells were
positively affected by administration of EGCG, which inhibits the growth of gastric
cancer by 60.4%. Inhibition of gastric cancer is associated with decrease in level of
vascular endothelial growth factor protein, endothelial cell proliferation, migration,
and tube formation (Zhu et al. 2007). EGCG reduces cell proliferation, induces
apoptosis, and decreases androgen receptor, insulin-like growth factor-1, IGF-1
receptor, phosphor-extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2, cyclo-oxygenase-2,
and inducible nitric oxide synthase in ventral prostate cancer cells (Harper et al.
2007).
PANC-1 pancreatic cancer cells injected into nude Balb/c mice were gavaged
with EGCG after the formation of tumor. Reduced tumor growth and apoptosis
were induced by upregulation of Bim and activation of caspase-3 (Shankar et al.

2013). EGCG inhibits 2D and 3D migration of bronchial cancer cells, so is active to
inhibit invasion and migration of tumor cells (Hazgui et al. 2008). EGCG inhibits
the growth of cancerous cells but do not affect normal cells. It induces cell damage,
DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis in cancer cells. EGCG when
administered in colon carcinoma cell lines inhibits topoisomerase I, which is
essential for cell survival and has a critical role in DNA metabolism and structure.
Inhibition of topoisomerase I may be one of the possible causes of cancer cell
destruction by EGCG (Berger et al. 2001). EGCG affects many intracellular
signaling pathways which are involved in development of prostate carcinoma. Thus
it prevents the risk of prostate cancer (Henning et al. 2011; Zheng et al. 2011).
Intake of green tea reduces the risk for upper gastrointestinal tract cancer, lung
cancer, and hepatocellular carcinogenesis. It inhibits the progression of prostate
premalignant lesions, in phase II clinical trials. It has shown positive effects against
mammary cell carcinogenesis and recurrence of breast cancer (Yuan et al. 2011).
EGCG inhibits melanoma-metastasized cell lines SE-0154, NS-1176, GE-0208,
and LF-0023 (Ravindranath et al. 2009). Catechins found in Camellia sinensis
inhibit pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (Kurbitz et al. 2011). Regular intake of
green tea inhibits carcinogens present in tobacco and thus reduces the risks of lung
cancer in smokers (Liang et al. 2007).
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, also known as Asiatic pennywort (Eng), is a small
tropical herbaceous plant that belongs to the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
(Jayashree et al. 2003) (Table 2). The plant is rich in saponin-containing triterpene
acids; the most worthy of them is Asiatic acid (Singh and Rastogi 1969; Kartnig
and Hoffmann-Bohm 1992; The Wealth of India 1992; Inamdar et al. 1996;
Brinkhaus et al. 2007; Cheng and Koo 2000; Mauri and Pietta 2000; Physician
Desk Reference for Herbal Drugs 2000; Coldren et al. 2003; Yoshida et al. 2005;
Bonfill et al. 2006; Pan et al. 2007; Jia and Lu 2008). Aerial parts of the plant (stem
and leaves) are generally used for medicinal purposes (Physician Desk Reference
for Herbal Drugs 2000).
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban has been used for hundreds of years for treating dif-
ferent types of diseases because of its known pharmacological properties. Chinese
herbalist used to call this plant as the “fountain of youth” as it is known for its
potential to prolong the life span. Since older times, the plant has been used for
wound healing, mental disorders and fatigue, memory improvement (Goh et al.
1995), atherosclerosis, bronchitis, asthma, dysentery, kidney trouble, leucorrhoea,
urethritis (Jaganath and Ng 1999), inflammations, tuberculosis, and various skin
lesions like leprosy, keloid, psoriasis, and lupus (Utami et al. 2011). The plant is
also known to possess fungicidal, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-allergic (Utami
et al. 2011; Kan 1986), anti-ulcer (Cheng and Koo 2000), anti-herpes simplex virus
(Yoosook et al. 2000), anti-hepatoma (Lin et al. 2002), and anticancer properties
(Kan 1986; Utami et al. 2011).
Anticancer properties of this plant are of particular interest to herbalist and
researchers around the world because of increasing rates of cancers and lack of
proper and side effect-free treatment for this group of diseases. Asiatic acid, one of
the main triterpenes in the plant extract, is known to possess anticancer effect
against skin cancer (Park et al. 2005), human breast cancer, gastric cancer, and
uterine cancer cells (Yoshida et al. 2005).
Babu et al. (1995) investigated that the crude methanolic extract (CE) and ace-
tone fraction (AF) of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban hinder the growth of Dalton’s
lymphoma ascites tumor cells (DLA) and Ehrlich ascites tumor cells (EAC).
Acetone fraction (AF) was found to be more effective than crude methanolic extract
(CE) in inhibiting the proliferation of transformed cell lines in a dose-dependent
manner. But both the fractions (AF and CE) reduced the ascites and solid tumors by
affecting DNA synthesis (Babu et al. 1995).
Inhibition of DNA synthesis and cell cycle arrest impairs the capability of cells
to proliferate and survive which results in their death. Hsu et al. (2004) examined
the cell cycle arrest of breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 at S-G2/M
phase by Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. They found that defect in cell cycle causes
the cell cycle arrest and induction of apoptosis (Hsu et al. 2004).
Macrophages are an important defense system of our body and are involved in
defense against invading pathogens through the production of nitric oxide (NO).
According to Puntureea et al. (2004) Centella asiatica (L.) Urban leads to tumor
inhibition through the production of nitric oxide (NO). The water extract of Centella
asiatica (L.) Urban induces the expression of TNF-α gene either in the presence or
absence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) which leads to an increase in the production of
nitric oxide (NO) (Puntureea et al. 2004). Water extract of this plant can prevent the
tumor development through the modulation of TNF-α gene and NO production by
macrophages.
In their research, Bunpo et al. (2004) showed that Centella asiatica (L.) Urban
extract inhibits the formation of azoxymethane (AOM)-induced aberrant crypt foci
(ACF) and intestinal tumorigenesis in male F344 rats. Their results indicated that
Centella asiatica extract inhibits the formation of AOM-induced aberrant crypt foci
(ACF) through the modification of cellular proliferation and induction of apoptosis
in colonic crypts (Bunpo et al. 2004).
Bunpo et al. (2005) found that the crude water extract of Centella asiatica (L.)
Urban reduced the proliferation rate of human colon adenocarcinoma-derived
Caco-2 cells. The crude water extract exhibits antitumor activity and is known to
arrest the cell cycle in S and G2-M phases through the accumulation of cyclin B1
protein. Caco-2 cells face a significant reduction in their proliferation in a
concentration- and time-dependent manner (Bunpo et al. 2005).
Park et al. (2007) proved that Asiatic acid inhibits 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol
13-acetate (TPA)-induced skin tumorigenesis. 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol
13-acetate (TPA) induces the production of nitric oxide (NO), and increases the
expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) (Park
et al. 2007). Nosho et al. (2005) and Yagihashi et al. (2000) showed that the
overexpression of NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is correlated
with colorectal cancers (Yagihashi et al. 2000; Nosho et al. 2005). Moreover COX-
2, which is a product of phorbol ester-responsive gene, is known to play a significant
role in tumor development. This protein has been found to be upregulated in human
epithelial cells (Chen et al. 2004; Chang et al. 2005) as well as in a variety of human
cancers. Asiatic acid inhibits tumorigenesis by blocking NO-COX-2 pathway and
may also hinder the expression of iNOS and COX-2 independently (Park et al.
2005). These inhibitions collectively suppress tumor development process mediated
by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA).
Crocus sativus Linn.
Crocus sativus belongs to the family Iridaceae (Table 2). It is commonly known as

saffron. It has been used for medicinal purposes since centuries. Its leaves, stigma,
petals, stem, etc. are used as medicines (Srivastava et al. 2010).
Crocus sativus when studied in animal models demonstrated its antitumor and
cancer-preventive activities (Abdullaev 2002). Saffron is a dried, dark red stigma of
Crocus sativus. It possesses potent anticancer and antitumor properties (Abdullaev
2002). It retards tumorigenesis in large number of in vivo animal models (Salomi
et al. 1990). Extract of saffron when administered topically results in inhibition of
DMBA-induced skin carcinogenesis at a concentration of 100 mg/kg of body weight
(Salomi et al. 1990). Oral administration of saffron extract inhibits
methylcoanthracene-induced soft-tissue sarcoma in mice (Salomi et al. 1991).
Saffron extract is shown to increase the life span of mice transplanted with cisplatin-
induced carcinogenesis. This effect is associated with prevention of decrease in
body weight, hemoglobin levels, and leukocyte count (Nair et al. 1991a).
Oral administration of saffron extract at a concentration of 200 mg/kg of body
weight inhibits the growth of S-180, Ehrlich ascites carcinoma, and Dalton’s
lymphoma ascites by 111%, 83.5%, and 112.5%, respectively, in mice, and results
in increase of life span of tumor-bearing mice (Nair et al. 1991b). Crocin, crocetin,
picrocrocin, and safranal are cytotoxic compounds isolated from ethanolic extract
of Crocus sativus dried stigmas. These isolates show cell growth inhibition in HeLa
cells at LD50 of 2.3 mg/mL. Crocin is the most promising saffron compound to be
chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic (Escribano et al. 1996). Crocus sativus
extract is found to be cytotoxic to P38B, S-180, EAC, and DLA tumor cell lines
in vitro (Nair et al. 1991b).
Saffron exhibits cytotoxicity to hepatocellular carcinoma cell HepG2 and human
cervix carcinoma HeLa cell lines at IC50 value of 800 and 950 μg/mL after 48 h of
treatment, respectively. This cytotoxicity is independent of generation of reactive
oxygen species (Tavakkol-Ashfari et al. 2008). Crocin, when administered into
tumor-transplanted rats, showed increase in life span of rats and decrease in rate of
tumor growth. Crocin has potent side effects on animal adenocarcinoma cell lines
HT-29 (Garc-Olmo et al. 1999). Crocin, when injected into different colorectal
cancer cell lines, showed that proliferation of cells was restricted most efficiently in
HCT-116 cells at a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL. It also reduces the proliferation of
SW-480 cells and HT-29 cells. Mechanism which Crocin follows has to be
investigated (Aung et al. 2007).
Active compounds of saffron prevent cancer in human malignant cell lines and
animal models by inhibiting cell growth. They also reduce the growth of tumor cells
in vivo (Abdullaev n.d.). Crocus sativus styles show cytotoxicity to breast cancer cell
line MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 when incubated for 48 h (Chryssanthi et al. 2007).
Saffron extract at a concentration of 200–2000 μg/mL decreases the viability of cells of
MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Possible cause
of decrease in cell viability is apoptosis which is associated with upregulated expres-
sion of Bax protein (Mousavi et al. 2009). Crocus sativus extract is cytotoxic for a
broad range of murine tumors, sarcomas, and human leukemia cell lines in a dose-
dependent manner. Cytotoxicity is due to inhibition in synthesis of nucleic acids and
topoisomerase II which is necessary for DNA synthesis of cells (Nair et al. 2009).
Saffron administration in animal bearing Dalton’s lymphoma shows increase in
life span to up to 37% and reduction in risk of formation of solid tumor by 95%
(Bakshi et al. 2009). Crocus sativus extract, when injected in lung cancer cell lines
L929, shows significant decrease in cell viability at a concentration of 1500 μg/mL
for 24 h and 565 μg/mL for 48 h (Samarghandian et al. 2010). Crocus sativus is a
potent antioxidant. This antioxidant effect of saffron can be used positively for the
treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma cell in mice. In HepG2 cells it inhibits nuclear
factor kappa B activation, and increases the cleavage of caspase-3, DNA damage,
and cell cycle arrest, which leads to apoptosis of cancer cells (Amin et al. 2011).
Carotenoids in saffron are chemopreventive in nature. They are cytotoxic to
HeLa cells, and they are nontoxic, nonmutagenic, non-anti-mutagenic, and non-co-
mutagenic (Figueroa-Hernandez et al. 2005). Petal and stigma extract of Crocus
sativus show antitumor activity at IC50 of 10.8 and 5.3 mg/mL, respectively
(Hosseinzadeh et al. 2013). Saffron ingestion inhibits formation of skin papillomas
in animals and reduces the size of preformed papillomas. Saffron also inhibits
DMBA-induced skin carcinogenesis in mice (Das et al. 2010). Saffron induces
apoptosis in carcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells A549 at IC50 of
650 μg/mL for 48 h in a dose-dependent manner (Samarghandian et al. 2011).
Crocin decreases human tongue squamous cell carcinoma cell line Tca8113 cell
viability and cell growth, and induces apoptosis (Pandey 2011).
Curcuma longa Linn.
Curcuma longa L., commonly known as turmeric (Eng), is a perennial herb that
belongs to the family Zingiberaceae (Roth et al. 1997; Araújo and Leon 2001;
Beneficial Ayurvedic Herbs 2010) (health mango) (ginger family) (Beneficial
Ayurvedic Herbs 2010; Aggarwal et al. 2003) (Table 2). In Pakistan it is known by
the name Haldi and its rhizome and tubers are used against cancer (Anonymous
2012a). The major component present in Curcuma longa L. which gives it a
characteristic yellow color differentiable from other plants is curcumin. Curcumin

by nature is a polyphenol and is scientifically known as diferuloyl-methane
(Anonymous 2012b; Huang et al. 1998). Curcumin is further divided into curcumin
I, curcumin II, and curcumin III; curcumin I (diferuloyl-methane) is considered to
be most abundantly present in Curcuma longa L. (Rubya et al. 1995).
Medicinal properties of Curcuma longa L. have been known since olden times.
These properties have been attributed to Curcuma longa L. specifically because of
the presence of curcumin, a hydrophobic compound (Oetari et al. 1996) that is
extracted from the rhizome of the plant (Singh and Khar 2006).
Curcumin acts as a strong antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-nematocidal (Araújo
and Leon 2001), antiviral, antifungal (Nita 2003), and anti-inflammatory agent by
reducing the levels of histamine in our body and increasing the production of
cortisone by adrenal glands (Anonymous 2012c). It also possesses strong
angioinhibitory effects (inhibition of proliferation of blood vessels) because of its
ability to downregulate proangiogenic genes (genes that promote angiogenesis)
such as “VEGF” and “angiopoietin” and reduce the migration and incursion of
endothelial cells (Singh and Khar 2006).
Anti-cancerous properties of curcumin have also been highlighted by many
researchers. Curcumin works in many different ways to inhibit tumor formation and
cancer progression. Several mechanisms of inhibition of tumor and cancer
development have been proposed after extensive research on animal models
especially rats and mouse. A thorough review of the literature brings into limelight
many of the possible mechanisms due to which Curcuma longa L. is thought
effective against cancer.
Suppression of tumor cells, downregulation of enzymes, growth factors, cell sur-
face adhesion molecules, and transcription factors (Aggarwal et al. 2003) are just
the few of the many possible ways by which tumor progression is hampered by
Curcuma longa L.
Kuttan et al. (1985) evaluated the anticancer activity of rhizomes of Curcuma
longa L. (turmeric) by using Dalton’s lymphoma cells in ascites form. They found
that curcumin—the active constituent in turmeric extract—was cytotoxic to
lymphocytes and Dalton’s lymphoma cells in vitro (Kuttan et al. 1985).
Experimentally curcumin was also found to inhibit the development of animal
tumors and it is currently being developed as an anticancer agent by National Cancer
Institute (NCI) (Kelloff 1996).
In another research conducted on 62 patients, Kuttan et al. (1985) applied an
ethanol extract of Curcuma longa L. and an ointment of curcumin on the skin of the
patients with external cancerous lesions. Both of the applied substances were found
to reduce lesion size (in 10% of cases), itching (in almost all patients), and pain (in
10% of patients) (Kuttan et al. 1987).
12-O-tetradecanoylphor-bol-13-acetate (TPA) is a compound the application of
which stimulates the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Copeland 1983;
Cerutti 1985); according to Copeland (1983), and Cerutti (1985) ROS play an
important role in the formation of tumors. The tumor formation mediated by TPA
can be inhibited by curcumin as proposed by Huang et al. (1998). Curcumin
application on skin inhibits epidermal DNA synthesis, TPA-induced epidermal

ornithine decarboxylase activity, B[a] P-mediated formation of B[a] P-DNA
adducts, and promotion of skin tumors in mice (Cerutti 1985; Huang et al. 1992).
Research of Azuinea and Bhidea (1992) has revealed that turmeric inhibits
benzo[a]pyrene-(BP)-induced forestomach neoplasia in a time- and dose-dependent
manner. Curcumin inhibits B[a] P-induced forestomach tumorigenesis, ENNG-
induced duodenal tumorigenesis, and AOM-induced colon tumorigenesis (Huang
et al. 1994).
Inhibitory effects of curcumin on human colon cancer cells have been reported
by many of the researchers. Curcumin inhibits the proliferation of HT-29 and HCT-
15 human colon cancer cell lines as suggested by Hanif et al. (Hanif et al. 1997).
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) plays an important role in tumor development (Singh
et al. 1996). The activity of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is decreased in the colon
tumors by curcumin which leads to the inhibition of colon carcinogenesis (Reddy
et al. 1993; Rao et al. 1995a, b; Boolbol et al. 1996). Kawamori et al. (1999)
suggested that administration of curcumin before, during, or after colon
carcinogenesis retards the growth of neoplastic colon lesions by inducing apoptosis
in them (Kawamori et al. 1999).
It is thought that curcumin inhibits the activation of carcinogens by modulating
phase I and phase II metabolic enzymes (Huang et al. 1992; Azuinea and Bhidea
1992; Mukundan et al. 1993); because of this activity, DNA adducts and tumor
formation are prevented (Singh and Khar 2006). It exerts strong inhibitory effects
on the proliferation of cancer cells (Huang et al. 1992) and hampers the synthesis of
DNA in cancer cell lines (Nagabhushan et al. 1996; Huang et al. 1997a).
Surendra et al. (1997) tested the inhibitory effects of curcumin (turmeric) and
genistein (soya bean) on the proliferation of estrogen-positive human breast MCF-7
cells induced either by 17-β-estradiol or by a mixture of pesticides (chlordane,
DDT, and endosulfan). They founded that both of the compounds inhibited the
proliferation of estrogen-positive human breast MCF-7 cells while curcumin was
more effective in its inhibitory activity than genistein. Possibly both of them block
the binding sites of estrogen receptor or meddle with the process that is induced
after the binding of estrogenic pesticides to the receptors. This research clearly
indicates that the extensive proliferation of estrogen-positive cells induced by
pesticides or other carcinogenic compounds like 17-β-estradiol can be controlled by
anti-cancerous compounds like curcumin and genistein (Surendra et al. 1997).
Busquets et al. (2001) discovered that administration of curcumin to rats bearing
the highly cachectic Yoshida AH-130 ascites hepatoma inhibits the tumor growth
(Busquets et al. 2001). Menon et al. (1995) found that oral administration of
curcumin decreases the number of lung tumor nodules and increases the life span.
It was also discovered that proliferation of androgen-dependent and androgen-
independent prostate cancer cells is inhibited by curcumin. Apoptosis-suppressor
proteins are also modulated by curcumin which results in apoptosis (Menon et al.
1995).
Singh and Khar (2006) found that curcumin has a potential to induce apoptosis
(Villegas et al. 2008) in otherwise apoptosis- and radiation-resistant cell lines.
NFkB is a gene that induces proliferation of cells and suppresses apoptosis.

Curcumin works to downregulate NFkB and thereby induces apoptosis and inhibits
proliferation of cancer cells. It also inhibits IKB kinase which ultimately hinders the
phosphorylation process critical for the provision of energy and activation and
deactivation of many different proteins in the cell. Curcumin is an effective
chemopreventive compound that suppresses colonic aberrant crypt focus formation
in the cancers of skin, stomach, and colon (Singh and Khar 2006). Curcumin works
best when it is present in its demethylated form because methylation puts an end to
its antioxidant and antitumor activities.
Curcumin arrests the cell cycle and induces apoptosis (Samaha et al. 1997) in
cancer cells both in vivo and in vitro as researched by Shankar and Srivastava
(2007a, b). Bax and Bak are the members of Bcl-2 (pro-apoptotic) family. According
to Shankar and Srivastava (2007a, b) curcumin-based cancer treatment induces the
expression of Bax and Bak proteins, which in turn causes the release of apoptogenic
molecules (molecules that induce apoptosis) from mitochondria to cytosol. Once
released in the cytosol, Smac/DIABLO and cytochrome c (apoptogenic molecules)
cause the activation of caspases which ultimately leads to apoptosis of cancer cells
(Shankar and Srivastava 2007a).
Bcl xL is an anti-apoptotic gene that hinders the apoptosis of cancerous cells.
Any mechanism that inhibits Bcl xL is considered effective in the inhibition of
cancer progression. Curcumin is known to downregulate Bcl xL gene by increasing
the expression of c-myc protein because c-myc suppresses Bcl-xL gene (Duyao
et al. 1990; Merino et al. 1995; Susin et al. 1999; Sun et al. 1999). Shankar and
Srivastava (2007a, b) found much similar results in another research conducted on
prostate cancer LNCaP cells. They concluded from this research that curcumin
downregulates Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL proteins, upregulates Bax and Bak, and inhibits
PI3-K–Akt pathway in prostate cancer LNCaP cells (Shankar and Srivastava
2007b).
In addition to curcumin, another compound, ar-turmerone, isolated from
Curcuma longa L. has shown anti-cancerous properties. Effects of ar-turmerone on
DNA of human leukemia cell lines (Molt 4B, HL-60) and stomach cancer (KATO
III) cells were studied by Aratanechemuge et al. (2002). They found that ar-turmerone
causes fragmentation of DNA very effectively in human leukemia cell lines as
compared to stomach cancer cells. As DNA fragmentation is a characteristic sign of
apoptosis it was proposed that ar-turmerone inhibits cellular proliferation by induc-
ing apoptosis in them (Aratanechemuge et al. 2002).
All in all, studies by different scientists have shown that curcumin inhibits skin
(Conney et al. 1991; Lu et al. 1994; Limtrakul et al. 1997; Huang et al. 1997b),
forestomach (Huang et al. 1994; Piper et al. 1998), liver (Aggarwal et al. 2003;
Chuang et al. 2000), and mammary carcinogensis (Singletary et al. 1996; Chan
et al. 1998; Inano et al. 1999); B- and T-cell leukemia (Aggarwal et al. 2003; Kuo
et al. 1996; Abe et al. 1999; Han et al. 1999; Piwocka et al. 1999); epidermoid
carcinoma (Korutla and Kumar 1994); breast carcinoma (Aggarwal et al. 2003;
Mehta et al. 1997; Simon et al. 1998; Ramachandran and You 1999); multiple
myeloma (Bharti et al. 2003); and cervical, pancreatic, prostrate, and gastric cancers
(Aggarwal et al. 2003).
Echinacea purpurea L. (Moench)
Echinacea purpurea is a herbaceous plant which belongs to the daisy family of

plants known as Asteraceae (O’Hara et al. 1998) (Table 2). The habitats of plants are
usually open woods and cultivated beds (Zimmerman n.d.). It is commonly known
as purple coneflower (O’Hara et al. 1998), Missouri snakeroot, and broad-leaf cone
flower (Miller n.d.). Root of the plant is used for medicinal purposes (Hu and Kitts
2000).
Echinacea is one of the most widely used medicinal plants in the world. Patients
with malignant tumors take Echinacea as medicine but the proper route which it
follows in curing cancer is not known (Chicca et al. 2007). The root extracts of the
plant have in vitro cytotoxic effects on human pancreatic cancer and colon cancer
cell lines (Chicca et al. 2007). Root extracts of Echinacea purpurea increase the
number of white blood cells circulating in blood (Bauer et al. 1988) and hence this
results in increased phagocytosis (Roesler et al. 1991). It stimulates the cytokine
production and activates the alternate complement pathway (Luettig et al. 1989).
Echinacea purpurea also increases the production of certain cytokines which
include interferon, tumor necrosis factor (Murray 1995), interleukin-1, and
interleukin-6 (Braunig et al. 1992). Due to all these effects on the body’s immune
system Echinacea is considered as an anticancer and antineoplastic agent (Lersch
et al. 1992).
Echinacea preparation causes decrease in effects caused by human lung and kid-
ney cancer cells (Rogala et al. 2008). 50% aqueous ethanolic extract of Echinacea
purpurea flowers and cichoric acid (a compound present in Echinacea purpurea),
when administered in colon cancer cell line, resulted in apoptosis, but the exact
mechanism it follows is not known (Tsai et al. 2012). Glycerol extracts of roots of
Echinacea purpurea show cytotoxic activity to camptothecin-induced cancer
(Miller 2012).
Elephantopus scaber Linn.
Elephantopus scaber is a perennial plant from renowned sunflower family, the

Asteraceae (Table 2), formerly known as Compositae family (Ho et al. 2011).
Natural habitat of plant is subtropical or tropical moist forests (Poli et al. 1992). The
plant is commonly known as Prickly-leaved elephant’s foot (Panda 2004). Whole-
plant extracts are used for medicinal purposes (Poli et al. 1992).
The ethanolic extract of Elephantopus scaber plant shows cytotoxicity against
human breast cancer cell lines MCF-7. IC50 value of Elephantopus scaber is 15 μg/
mL. It upregulates the expression of tumor-suppressor gene p53 and hence induces
p53-dependent apoptosis (Ho et al. 2011). Deoxyelephantopin, a natural compound
found in E. scaber inhibits nasopharyngeal cancer cell line proliferation. It induces
apoptosis by dysfunction mitochondria. It also arrests cell cycle in S and G2 phases.
Due to all these evidences, Elephantopus scaber can be used as a chemotherapeutic
agent for nasopharyngeal cancer (Su et al. 2011).
Chloroform extract of Elephantopus scaber contains two medicinally active
compounds, which are deoxyelephantopin (DET) and isodeoxyelephantopin. DET
is a potent chemotherapeutic agent. These compounds cause a dose-dependent
response and reduce the viability of L-929 tumor cells in 72-h culture at IC50 of
2.7 μg/mL. DET causes maximum apoptosis at the amount of 3 μg/mL. It also
shows in vivo antitumor activity against DLA tumor cells (Geetha et al. 2012).
Deoxyelephantopin shows cytotoxic effects against mammary adenocarcinoma. It
inhibits cell proliferation, arrests cell cycle at G2 phase, and induces apoptosis.
Several mechanisms which it follows show that the compound also has
chemopreventive activity for breast cancer cells (Huang et al. 2010).
DET which is a Sesquiterpene lactone, induces reactive oxygen species which
results in formation of centrosomal ubiquitinated proteins which leads to the
restriction of cancer cell growth in mammary adenocarcinoma cells transplanted in
mice (Lee and Shyur 2012). Scabertopin, isoscabertopin, deoxyelephantopin, and
isodeoxyelephantopin are four sesquiterpenes isolated from Elephantopus scaber.
Scabertopin, deoxyelephantopin, and isodeoxyelephantopin show antitumor activity
in a dose-dependent manner. Hela cells when exposed to deoxyelephantopin change
morphologically and lead towards apoptosis (Xu et al. 2006).
Nigella sativa Linn.
Nigella sativa belongs to family of flowering plants known as Ranunculaceae

(Table 2). It is commonly known as black cumin or black seeds (Ali and Blunden
2003). Its seeds and seed oil are used for medicinal purposes.
Seed extract of Nigella sativa is cytotoxic to P815 cell lines and vero cell lines.
Administration of seed extract in vivo in DBA2/P815 mouse model showed that it
inhibits the solid tumor formation and development (Mbarek et al. 2007). Active
ingredient of Nigella sativa showed 50% cytotoxicity against Ehrlich ascites
carcinoma cells, Dalton’s lymphoma ascites, and sarcoma 180 cells at IC50 of
1.5 μg, 3 μg, and 1.5 μg, respectively (Salomi et al. 1992). Effects of extract of
Nigella sativa in hepatoma HepG2 cells induced in mice showed that after 24 h of
exposure to Nigella sativa extract, apoptosis gets initiated in HepG2 cells (Thabrew
et al. 2005). Methanolic extract of Nigella sativa shows cytotoxicity against HeLa
cells at IC50 of 2.28 μg/mL, its hexane extracts showed cytotoxicity at IC50 of
2.20 μg/mL, and its chloroform extracts showed similar results at IC50 of 0.41 ng/
mL (Shafi et al. 2009).
Thymoquinone and α-hederin are two of the most active ingredients in Nigella
sativa. These two are potent chemotherapeutic agents as they show cytotoxicity for
lung carcinoma cell line (A549), larynx epidermoid carcinoma (Hep-2), colon
adenocarcinoma (HT-29), and pancreas carcinoma (MIA PaCa-2) cells in vitro
(Rooney and Ryan 2005). Thymoquinone (TQ) also showed apoptosis of prostate
cancer cells, when exposed for 24–48 h at a concentration of 25–150 μmol/mL. It is
shown to inhibit the growth of androgen receptor-independent prostate cancer cells
(C4-2B) and PC-3 cells. After 1 h of delivery of TQ the cells showed increased level
of reactive oxygen species and decreased glutathione levels. Cell death is supposed
to occur due to these two mechanisms (Koka et al. 2010).
Aqueous extracts of Nigella sativa enhances the cytotoxic activity of natural
killer cells against YAC-1 tumor cells, which proves the antitumor effects of Nigella
sativa (Majdalawieh et al. 2010). Nigella sativa shows cytotoxicity for mammary
carcinoma cells and breast cancer cells. It also reduces the carcinogenicity of certain
carcinogens which shows its chemopreventive effects (Abd El-Aziz et al. 2005).
Nigella sativa shows chemoprevention for ferric nitrilotriacetate-induced renal
oxidative stress and renal carcinogenesis in Wistar rats. It increases renal lipid
peroxidation, xanthane oxidase, and hydrogen peroxide (Khan and Sultana 2005).
Nigella sativa oil shows antitumor activity for fibrosarcoma cell line HT1080
in vitro. Apoptosis of cells is associated with tissue-type plasminogen activator,
urokinase-type plasminogen activator, and plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1
(Awad 2005).
Thymoquinone and thymohydroquinone show cytotoxic activity against L929
cancer cell lines and tumor cell lines in vitro in a dose-dependent manner (Ivankovic
et al. 2006). TQ is cytotoxic to cervical squamous carcinoma cells SiHa at IC50 of
10.7 and 9.3 μg/mL. TQ is less toxic to normal cells and specifically kills cancerous
cells. It results in increased level of p53, and downregulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2
protein without any change in the level of Bax protein (Ng et al. 2011). Topical
application of Nigella sativa extract results in inhibition of formation and
proliferation of skin carcinogenesis in mice. Administration of Nigella sativa
intraperitoneally resulted in restriction of tumor growth to 33.3% (Find me a Cure
n.d.). Nigella sativa can be used as a natural and potent chemopreventive and
chemotherapeutic agent.
Petiveria alliacea
Elephantopus scaber is a common perennial shrub which belongs to the family

Phytolaccaceae (Find me a Cure n.d.) (Table 2). It is commonly known as guinea-
hen weed and Anamu (Mendes n.d). Roots are used for treating cancer (Soladoye
et al. 2010).
Elephantopus scaber has a promising anticancer activity (Lowe et al. 2012). It is
found to cure different types of cancers including neuroblastoma, primary bladder
carcinoma, mammary carcinoma, sarcoma, and melanoma. Its anticancer properties

are due to dibenzyl trisulfide (DTS), a lipophilic compound present in it (Jamaica
n.d.). DTS is a signal transduction molecule (Williams et al. 2007). It downregulates
the cytokines produced from Th1 pathway and upregulates the cytokines of Th2
pathway; by this mechanism it exhibits cytotoxic activity against cancer cells
(Williams et al. 2007). Fractions of root of plant can induce apoptosis in
mitochondrium-dependent pathway and downregulate HSP70 expression in vitro.
This activity can result in its antitumoral properties (Cifuentes et al. 2009). The
mechanism which it follows for cytotoxicity is not well understood, but it is
hypothesized that Petiveria alliacea induces G2 cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in
mitochondrium-independent pathway (Uruena et al. 2008).
Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl
Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl (Phaleria papuana Warb var. Wichnannii (Val)
Back) commonly known as mahkota dewa or made in Indonesia (Faried et al. 2007)
belongs to the family Thymelaeaceae (Faried et al. 2007; Backer and van den Brink
1965; Anonymous n.d.-c; Ali et al. 2012; Katrin and Selvie 2011) (Table 2). The
plant is notably known as the “Crown of God” (Backer and van den Brink 1965; Ali
et al. 2012).
Leaves, fruit, and bark of mahkota dewa contained alkaloids, terpenoids, flavo-
noids, polyphenols, saponins, resins, lignin, and benzophenones (Hutapea n.d.;
Gotama et al. 1999; Harmanto 2001; Winarto and Dewa 2003). All of these
compounds are known anti-cancerous agents (Yoshida et al. 2000; Tsuda et al.
2004).
Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl has been in use for a long time to treat dia-
betes mellitus, high blood pressure and other blood diseases, hypertension, dysen-
tery, allergies, liver disease, lung disease, heart disease, impotency, kidney disorders,
hemorrhoid, stroke, migraine, acne, diuretic conditions, and rheumatism (Aditama
2001; Harmanto 2003, 2005; Ao et al. 2008; Kurnia et al. 2008; Diantini et al. 2012).
According to Harmanto (2003) the seeds of this plant are toxic and hence used for
treating skin diseases while its fruit is used for flu treatment (Harmanto 2003) and
stems are effective against bone cancer (Yekti 2010).
Phaleria macrocarpa has verified medicinal effects against tumor and cancer
(Fariza et al. 2012). Harmanto (2005) elucidates that the plant has antihistamine,
antioxidant, and anti-cancerous properties (Harmanto 2005) whereas according
to Tjandrawinata et al. (2011) an extract of Phaleria macrocarpa possesses anti-
inflammatory, antineoplastic, and anti-angiogenic activities (Tjandrawinata et al.
2011).
Researchers have not lagged behind in the investigation of chemical constituents
of Phaleria macrocarpa having valuable anti-cancerous potential. A literature
review on this plant shows that it can act as a potent source of anticancer drug.
For the sake of bearing minimal side effects and to increase their effectiveness,
researchers have combined chemotherapeutic drugs with the active constituents of
plant extracts. One such approach was carried out by Miki et al. (2001) in their
study on C57 black mice transplanted with lung cancer cells (LL-2). They studied
the in vitro effects of an anticancer drug (cisplatin) alone and in combination with
gallic acid (GA) on the aforementioned cancer cells. Their findings indicated the
increase in the effectiveness of cisplatin when combined with gallic acid as observed
from elevated rate of apoptosis in tumor cells (Miki et al. 2001).
The reduction in the weight, size, and volumes of tumors induced after transplan-
tation was analyzed by Rahmawati et al. (2006). Rahmawati and associates admin-
istered 70% ethanol extract of mahkota dewa fruit pulp [Phaleria macrocarpa
(Scheff.) Boerl.] orally to C3H mouse after tumor transplantation. Rahmawati et al.
(2006) concluded from their research that the extract was not able to inhibit tumor
formation after transplantation but it significantly increased the rate of apoptosis in
them (Rahmawati et al. 2006). Apoptosis alone is worthy for the death of cancerous
cells as there are certain plant products that specifically induce apoptosis in
cancerous cells but not in normal cells (Chiao et al. 1995; Hirano et al. 1995).
Faried et al. (2007) investigated the anti-cancerous potential of gallic acid (GA);
gallic acid (GA-3, 4, 5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) is an antioxidant naturally present
in the fruits of Phaleria macrocarpa and has been known to induce apoptosis in
leukemia, lung cancer, and colon adenocarcinoma cell lines (Inoue et al. 1994;
Kawada et al. 2001; Salucci et al. 2002; Sohi et al. 2003). GA is also known to
prevent the development of process of carcinogenesis (Taraphdar et al. 2001). Faried
et al. (2007) reported that gallic acid (GA) inhibits the process of carcinogenesis by
activating multiple pathways and acts on cancer cells in a time- and dose-dependent
manner. They investigated that a synergy between the extrinsic and intrinsic
(mitochondrial) pathways is required to make the esophageal cancer cells (TE-2)
susceptible to gallic acid. The extrinsic pathway downregulates Akt/mTOR survival
pathway and creates an imbalance in the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family (Bax and Bcl-
2), ultimately which are responsible for the induction of apoptosis via the activation
of caspase-cascade and pro-apoptosis protein (Bax). The intrinsic pathway involves
mitochondria and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the influx of Ca+2
ions which causes the activation of calmodulin (Inoue et al. 1994). GA also cleaves
PARP which executes cancer cell death (Faried et al. 2007). The events involved in
intrinsic pathway also lead to apoptosis just like extrinsic pathway. A combination
of extrinsic and intrinsic pathways activated by gallic acid (GA) caused death of
esophageal cancer cells (TE-2) in a time- and dose-dependent manner.
Winarno and Katrin (2009) isolated a benzophenone glucoside compound named
as 6,4’-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone-2-O-β-d-glucopyranoside from the
ethyl acetate extract of the bark of Phaleria macrocarpa. The inhibitory activity of
this compound was tested against leukemia cell line (L1210) and was found to
inhibit the growth of these cells at 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 5.1 μg/mL
(Winarno and Katrin 2009). Thus 6,4’-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone-2-O-β-
d-glucopyranoside has a potential to treat leukemic patients.
Tandrasasmita et al. (2010) reported a much similar mechanism of inhibition of

proliferation of the cancerous cells as elucidated by Faried et al. (2007). However,
Tandrasasmita et al. (2010) discovered the inhibitory effects of phalerin instead of
gallic acid. They studied the inhibitory effects of an extract of Phaleria macrocarpa
(Scheff.) Boerl on breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231). Detailed analysis of this
extract of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl revealed that it contains phalerin (4,
5-dihydroxy, 4’-methoxybenzophenone-3-O-β-d-glucoside)—an important
chemical constituent of Phaleria macrocarpa. DLBS1425 works against
MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells via the downregulation of phosphoinositide-3
(PI3)-kinase/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway (PI3-K/AKT signaling
pathway) and by the induction of apoptosis (Tandrasasmita et al. 2010). PI3-K/AKT
signaling pathway is required by the cell for its proliferation and survival. This
pathway also protects the cells from apoptosis (Izhou et al. 2001; Shaw and Cantley
2006; Wee et al. 2008; Jia et al. 2009). But if overexpressed AKT causes the
activation of PI3-K/AKT signaling pathway in many cells as seen in breast, ovarian,
pancreatic, and thyroid cancers (Nicholson and Anderson 2002; Fujiwara et al.
2006; Engelman 2009; Liu et al. 2009). This is responsible for the massive
proliferation and survival of these cancerous cells in addition to assisting them in
evading apoptosis. Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) is a tumor-suppressor
protein and has been found to be mutated in a number of breast cancer cases (Cantley
and Neel 1999; Hennessy et al. 2005; Carnero et al. 2008). If activated, PTEN leads
to the inactivation of PI3-K/AKT signaling pathway and vice versa (Cantley and
Neel 1999; Hennessy et al. 2005; Uddin et al. 2004; Barber and Welch 2006;
Daikoku and Dey 2008; Cain and Ridley 2009; Kang et al. 2010). DLBS1425
downregulates PI3-K transcript levels and hence reduces phosphorylation of AKT
through the upregulation of PTEN. AKT is also known to phosphorylate Bad, which
is a pro-apoptotic member of Bcl2 family and mediates cell death by forming a
heterodimer with anti-apoptotic protein-Bcl-xL (Nicholson and Anderson 2002;
Kim 2005). Due to the reduction of AKT phosphorylation, pro-apoptotic genes
(BAX, BAD, and PUMA) are activated and anti-apoptotic gene (Bcl-xL) is
suppressed. Apoptosis is induced as a result of both of these events and consequently
breast cancer cell death occurs via the activation of caspase-9, PARP cleavage, and
DNA fragmentation (Tandrasasmita et al. 2010). DLBS1425 not only acts against
breast cancer cell lines but has also been found effective against certain types of
other cancer cell lines such as HepG2 liver cancer cells, PC3 prostate cancer cells,
HCT116 colon cancer cells, and AGS gastric cancer cells in a dose-dependent
manner (Tandrasasmita et al. 2010).
In continuation with their previous research, Tjandrawinata et al. (2010) discov-
ered a compound DLBS1425 from the fruit extract of Phaleria macrocarpa with
known potential to be used as an anti-cancerous agent. Breast cancer cell line
(MCF-7) employed in research was found to be vulnerable to DLBS1425 as
indicated by reduction in the growth and proliferation rate. DLBS1425 adopts
eicosanoid pathway to hinder the proliferation of MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. The
extract regulates the expression of Bcl and Bax genes at mRNA level in addition to
the activation of caspase 9 and DNA fragmentation. All of these events lead to
apoptosis. Bcl and Bax genes are the members of Bcl-2 (pro-apoptotic) family and
work as antagonists. While Bcl downregulates apoptosis, Bax is known to induce it.
DLBS1425 maintains equilibrium between the expressions of these two genes and
hence prevents the progression of breast cancer. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) plays
a significant role in tumor development and its expression is related to the tumor
growth; hence it is a biological marker of breast cancer. High expression of COX-2
is present in highly invasive breast cancer cells with estrogen-independent
characteristics (such as MDA-MB-231 cells), while less invasive breast cancer cells
and estrogen-dependent characteristics (such as MCF-7 cells) did not express COX-
2. Prostaglandins and thromboxanes are the end products of COX-2 which mediate
the steps in cancer cell progression (Tjandrawinata et al. 2011). DLBS1425
downregulates the expression of this protein (Tjandrawinata et al. 2010) along with
the suppression of HER-2/neu and cytoplasmic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) through
the downregulation of NFkB. Thence, fruit extract-DLBS1425 of Phaleria
macrocarpa has strong antiproliferative potential against breast cancer.
Aripin et al. (2011) isolated two compounds (DLBS1425E2.2 and DLBS1425F1)
from the fruits of Phaleria macrocarpa and investigated their anti-cancerous activity
against breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231). Both the fractions exert
antiproliferative activity against MDA-MB-231 but DLBS1425E2.2 was found to
be more potent as it also induced apoptosis. These compounds can be used against
anal intraepithelial neoplasia, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, and leukemia
(Aripin et al. 2011).
Hendra et al. (2011) studied the cytotoxic activity of methanol extract of peri-
carp, mesocarp, and seeds of Phaleria macrocarpa (Boerl.) Scheff on Chang, HeLa,
HT-29, and MCF-7 cancer cell lines. The methanol extract of pericarp, mesocarp,
and seeds was found to be cytotoxic against two of the four cell lines used (MCF-7
and HeLa). But the HT-29 cell line was only vulnerable to cytotoxicity by seed
extract (Hendra et al. 2011).
Fevicordin A is a bioactive compound present in seeds of Phaleria macrocarpa
(Boerl.) Scheff. and was successfully isolated by Kurnia and his colleagues (Kurnia
et al. 2008). Diantini et al. (2012) investigated the cytotoxicity of fevicordin A on
leukemia (P 338), cervical cancer (HeLa and CasKi), and esophageal cancer (TE-2
and TE-8) cell lines. Fevicordin A strongly inhibited the proliferation of leukemia
cells (P 388) and cervical cancer cells (HeLa) but was found to have weak
antiproliferative activity against cervical cancer (CasKi) and esophageal cancer
cells (TE-8). From this study, it can be concluded that fevicordin A is a successful
candidate for cervical cancer and leukemia (Diantini et al. 2012).
Tabernaemontana divaricata
Tabernaemontana divaricata belongs to the family Apocynaceae (Table 2). It is

commonly known as crape jasmine. The root, leaves, and bulb are used as medicines;
all of these have a bitter taste and sharp smell (ITIS Report n.d.).
Ethyl acetate extract of Tabernaemontana divaricata is effective against 502713
colon cancer cell line whereas chloroform extract of Tabernaemontana divaricata
shows cytotoxicity against colon carcinoma cells HCT-15, HT-29, and 502713
in vitro. It is observed that chloroform extract of plant inhibits the unwinding of
DNA and inhibition of topoisomerases I and II (Thind et al. 2008). Hydroalcoholic
extract of Tabernaemontana divaricata shows anticancer activities against HeLa
cell lines at IC50 more than 100 μg/mL (Dantu et al. 2012).
Ethanolic extract of leaves of Tabernaemontana divaricata shows cytotoxicity
against tumor cells and can be further analyzed as a candidate for chemoprevention
(Khan and Islam 2012). Indole alkaloids obtained from ethanolic extracts of
Tabernaemontana divaricata show inhibition of Sarcoma-180 cell lines in vitro at a
concentration of 10 μg/kg/day. It also shows selective cytotoxicity against Chinese
hamster V79 cells (Bharat et al. 2011).
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight and Arn.
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight and Arn is a large deciduous tree (Verma
and Vinayak 2009) which belongs to the family Combretaceae (Pettit et al. 1996;
Pasquini et al. 2002) (Table 2). The plant is a source of tannins, triterpenoid sapo-
nins (arjunic acid, arjunolic acid, arjungenin, arjunglycosides), flavonoids (arju-
none, arjunolone, luteolin), gallic acid, ellagic acid, oligomeric proanthocyanidins
(OPCs), phytosterols, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and copper (Verma and Vinayak
2009; Pasquini et al. 2002; Kapoor 1990; Bone 1996).
Traditionally the plant was used for the treatment of certain ailments like anemia,
aphrodisiac, asthma, biliousness, blood diseases, cardiac failure, diuresis, dysentery,
excessive perspiration, fractures, heart diseases, helminthes, hypertension,
intoxications, leukoderma, tumors, ulcers, and wounds (Verma and Vinayak 2009;
Oudhia n.d.).
According to Hartwell (1982) and Jain et al. (1992) several species of Terminalia
arjuna have been used for the treatment of cancer (Hartwell 1982; Jain et al. 1992)
while several anti-cancerous constituents have been documented from the leaves,
stem, and bark (Pettit et al. 1996). Bark extract of Terminalia arjuna has been found
to have antimutagenic (Kaur et al. 1997), antibacterial (Samy et al. 1998), and
anticancer (Kandil and Nassar 1998) properties.
Research has been conducted on chemical compounds from Terminalia arjuna
for their potential to treat cancer and associated diseases. Three important
compounds worth mentioning are the gallic acid (GA), ethyl gallate, and flavone
luteolin isolated from the bark, stem, and leaves of Terminalia arjuna. Among them,
luteolin is known to exhibit antitumor (Asaka et al. 1992; Middleton et al. 1987) and
antimutagenic activities (Hertog et al. 1992; Huang et al. 1983). Furthermore,
luteolin is reported to inhibit a number of ascites (NK/LY) (Molnar et al. 1981),
solid tumors (renal A-549, HCT15, gastric HGC-27, ovary SK-OV-3, melanoma
SK-MEL-2, and XF-498) (Matsukawa et al. 1993; Ryu et al. 1994), and leukemia
(CEM-C1, CEM-C7, and P388) (Post and Varma 1992; Chen et al. 1992) cell lines.
Mice treated with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetae (TPA) were subjected to
hydrolysable tannins, ellagic acid, and gallic acid (GA) from Terminalia arjuna. It
was found that tannins were most efficient at inhibiting the tumor formation in TPA-
treated mice than ellagic acid and gallic acid (GA) (Hu et al. 1992).
Acetone and methanol extracts from the bark of Terminalia arjuna were tested
by Nagpal and his colleagues (2000) against human normal fibroblasts (WI-38),
osteosarcoma (U2OS), and glioblastoma (U251) cells in vitro. These extracts
worked in a similar fashion to casuarinin as reported by Kuo et al. (2005a, b) in their
study. Tumor-suppressor protein, p53, was found to be activated in osteosarcoma
(U2OS) cells but not in human normal fibroblasts (WI-38) and glioblastoma (U251)
cells as the former has wild-type and latter has mutated p53. As a result, p53 is
responsible for the activation of p21/WAFI protein which arrests the cell cycle.
Glioblastoma (U251) cells were found to have moderate levels of p53 although they
have mutated gene for this protein. This shows that the activation of p21/WAFI is
required for the cancer cell growth inhibition by either p53-dependent or
-independent pathways (Nagpal et al. 2000). Hence the acetone and methanol
extracts inhibit the proliferation of human normal fibroblasts (WI-38), osteosarcoma
(U2OS), and glioblastoma (U251) cells in vitro in a dose-dependent manner.
Sivalokanathan et al. (2005) studied the effects of ethanolic extract of
Terminalia arjuna on the levels of carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes in
N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In their research
conducted on Wistar albino rats with HCC, Sivalokanathan and his colleagues
found that the levels of glycolytic enzymes (hexokinase, phosphoglucoisomerase,
and aldolase) in the liver and plasma were elevated. But the levels of glyconeo-
genic enzyme (glucose-6-phosphatase) were found to be reduced in liver and
plasma of cancerous rats. Administration of Terminalia arjuna ethanolic extract to
these rats for 28 days significantly modulated the enzyme levels and led to cancer
growth inhibition (Sivalokanathan et al. 2005).
The anti-cancerous effects of casuarinin on human non-small cell lung cancer
(A549) (Kuo et al. 2005b) and on human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) cells
(Kuo et al. 2005c) were reported by Kuo et al. (2005a, b). Casuarinin is a hydrolyzable
tannin which is isolated from the bark of Terminalia arjuna L. Casuarinin exerts its
antiproliferative activity on A549 and MCF-7 cells by two mechanisms: by induction
of apoptosis and by blockage of cell cycle at G0/G1 phase. Apoptosis is induced due
to the augmentation of two Fas ligand (FasL), namely membrane-bound Fas ligand
(mFasL) and soluble Fas ligand (sFasL), and of Fas/APO-1. An error in the cell
cycle leads to the activation of p53 which stimulates the transcription of a protein
called p21. This protein binds to G1/S-Cdk (cyclin-dependent kinase) and S-Cdk
and inhibits their activities that prevent the cell cycle progression (Alberts et al.
2002). Casuarinin blocks the cell cycle in G0/G1 phase via the p53-dependent
induction of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor-p21/WAF1 (Kuo et al. 2005b, c). This
shows that blockages in cell cycle progression change the fate of proliferating
cancerous cells.
A year later, in 2006, Sivalokanathan and colleagues conducted another research
on human hepatoma cell line (HepG2), to investigate its propensity to an ethanolic
extract of Terminalia arjuna (Sivalokanathan et al. 2006). Like many of the
researches conducted in the earlier years, this one also indicated that apoptosis is the
mechanism responsible for induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells. The mechanism of
apoptosis induction is no more different from ones reported by Nagpal et al. (2000),
Kuo et al. (2005a, b). The genome guardian p53 also commonly known as tumor-
suppressor gene controls the cell cycle, DNA repair, and apoptosis (Bharat et al.
2011; Hartwell 1982; Sivalokanathan et al. 2006; Levine et al. 1993) and is found to
be mutated in 50% of human cancers (Pettit et al. 1996). HepG2 cells treated with
Terminalia arjuna extract regulated the expression of p53 protein which resulted in
accumulation of p53, DNA fragmentation, and proteolytic cleavage of procaspase-3
protein. Proteolytic cleavage of procaspase-3 cascade activates it to caspase-3 which
transduces and executes apoptotic signal (Salvesen and Dixit 1997). When treated
with Terminalia arjuna extract, HepG2 cells also face a significant reduction in
GSH levels. GSH is considered to be a main antioxidant system of the cells and in
the cells where its concentration drops reactive oxygen species (ROS) start to
accumulate (Miyajima et al. 1997). The ultimate result is the death of cells through
the induction of apoptosis because of depleted stores of GSH (Sivalokanathan et al.
2006; Fernandes and Cotter 1994; Beaver and Waring 1995).
Saxena et al. (2007) isolated arjunoglucoside I, arjunic acid, arjunetin, and arjun-
genin from the bark of Terminalia arjuna and evaluated them for their cytotoxic
activity against four cancer cell lines. Among four of them, arjunic acid was found
to be considerably active against ovarian (PA 1), human oral (KB), and liver
(HepG-2 and WRL-68) cancer cell lines (Saxena et al. 2007). Arjunic acid hence
has a potential to be used against cancer cells.
Human malignant tumors (HCT-15 and AGS) when cultured with tannic acid expe-
rience a significant suppression in their growth. According to Kamei et al. (2009), tan-
nic acid totally blocks S phase of the cell cycle (Kamei et al. 2009). The cells replicate
their DNA during S phase; hence blockage of S phase not only creates a hindrance in
DNA replication but also leads to impairment in completion of cell cycle.
Classical apoptotic pathway is not the solitary one that can incline the cancerous
cells to death as proved by Chowdhury et al. (2009). A cervical cancer cell line
(HeLa) was subjected to the leaf extract of Terminalia arjuna along with an extract
obtained from Azadirachta indica. Terminalia arjuna extract was found to induce
death in a dose-dependent manner in 95% of the cells exposed to it. However, the
cells evaded the normal apoptotic pathway as DNA fragmentation was not observed
(Chowdhury et al. 2009). Cell death that occurs without DNA fragmentation is
apparently considered to be necrosis and this type of death requires a protein phos-
phorylation-linked signal (Akhand et al. 1998).
Moulisha and associates (2010) isolated a pentacyclic triterpenoid named as

ursolic acid from the methanolic extract of Terminalia arjuna. Ursolic acid is an
anti-cancerous and anti-leishmanial compound but the mechanism by which it
exerts its anti-cancerous properties is not understood yet. Moulisha et al. (2010)
opted the cancer cell line K562 and proposed that the compound may work in the
similar manner as that of vincristine, vinblastine (anti-cancerous compounds
obtained from Vinca roseus), and calcitonin (Moulisha et al. 2010). Vincristine and
vinblastine block the metaphase of the cell cycle while calcitonin hinders the
cellular proliferation of K562 cell line (Erba et al. 1996).
Thespesia populnea L. sol ex Correa.
Thespesia populnea belongs to mallow family of plants known as Malvaceae

(Table 2). It is commonly known as Portia tree. Its bark is used for medicinal pur-
poses (Friday and Okano 2006).
Sequesterpenoids isolated from Thespesia populnea can be used as a potent cyto-
toxic agent for many types of cancer cell lines. Most active sequesterpenoid of
Thespesia populnea are mansonone and gossypol. These are shown to induce
apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines, HeLa cell lines, HT-29, and KB
carcinoma cell lines in vitro (Boonsri et al. 2008). Methanol extract of Thespesia
populnea inhibits the growth of solid tumor in vivo in mice. Inhibition of tumor cell
growth is associated with decreased level of glutathione, serum gamma glutamyl
transpeptidase, and nitric oxide. This can be used as a natural chemopreventive
agent (Mika and Guruvayoorappan 2013). Ethanolic extract of bark of Thespesia
populnea shows activity against DMBA-induced hamster buccal pouch
carcinogenesis in Syrian golden hamsters. Oral administration of this extract at a
dose of 300 mg/kg of body weight for 14 weeks prevents tumor incidence, tumor
volume, and tumor burden. Further studies are needed to isolate specific active
ingredient against cancer from the bark of Thespesia populnea (Dhanarasu et al.
2010).
Thuja occidentalis Linn.
Thuja occidentalis, a plant commonly known as red or white cedar, belongs to

famous cypress family, the Cupressaceae (Sunila et al. 2011) (Table 2). The plant as
a whole is used as medicinal herb for centuries and is now shown to have potent
chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects (Johnston n.d.).
Administration of ethanolic extracts of leaves of Thuja occidentalis decreases
the viability of A549 lung carcinoma cells, after 24 h of exposure. It inhibits cell
proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Inhibition of growth of cells is associated
with upregulation of Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2 (Mukherjee et al. 2012).
Silver nanoparticles biosynthesized by ethanolic extract of Thuja occidentalis show

cytotoxicity for A375 carcinoma cell lines. Cytotoxicity of cells is due to arrest of
cell cycle at G2/M phase (Das et al. 2013). Crude extracts of Thuja occidentalis
contain an active compound, thujone, which is used as homeopathic medicine. It
induces apoptosis and is cytotoxic to A375 carcinoma cell lines in vitro. Decrease
in cell viability, increase in DNA fragmentation, increase in ROS generation, release
of cytochrome c, and activation of caspase-3 are the major events which lead to
thujone-induced apoptosis in A375 cells (Biswas et al. 2011).
Administration of Thuja occidentalis and its polysaccharides in B16F-10 meta-
static melanoma cells transplanted in mice results in increase in activity of natural
killer cells, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, and antibody-dependent
complement-mediated cytotoxicity. A decrease in level of cytokines IL-1beta, Il-6,
GM-CSF, and tumor necrosis factor alpha is seen in these mice. Moreover increase
in levels of antitumor cytokine IL-2 is observed (Sunila et al. 2011). Ethanolic
extract of Thuja occidentalis shows reduction in tumor weight, tumor volume, and
glutathione levels in DMBA-induced breast cancer cells (Ojeswi et al. 2010).
Extract of Thuja occidentalis inhibits lung metastasis induced by B16F-10 mela-
noma cells in C57BL/6 mice. Reduction in tumor nodule formation by 74% is
observed after the administration of extract. This extract decreases the level of
elevated lung collagen hydroxyproline and uronic acid. Treated mice showed
increased life span (Sunila and Kuttan 2006). Administration of thujone in C57BL/6
mice transplanted with lung metastatic B16F-10 melanoma cells resulted in
inhibition of tumor nodule formation and increase in survival rate of animals
associated with reduction in tumor cell proliferation, adhesion and invasion, and
regulation in expression of MMPs, VEGF, ERK-1, ERK-2, TIMPs, nm23, and pro-
inflammatory cytokines (Siveen and Kuttan 2011).
References
Abd El-Aziz MA, Hassan HA, Mohamed MH, Meki AMA, Abdel-Ghaffar SKH, Hussein MR
(2005) The biochemical and morphological alterations following administration of melatonin,
retinoic acid and Nigella sativa in mammary carcinoma: an animal model. Int J Exp Pathol
86(6):383–396
Abdullaev FI (2002) Cancer chemopreventive and tumoricidal properties of Saffron (Crocus sati-
vus). Exp Biol Med 227(1):20–25
Abdullaev FI (n.d.) Antitumor effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.): overview and perspectives.
International symposium on saffron biology and biotechnology. ISHS Acta Horticulture
Abe Y, Hashimoto S, Horie T (1999) Curcumin inhibition of inflammatory cytokine production by
human peripheral blood monocytes and alveolar macrophages. Pharmacol Res 39(01):41–47
Aditama TY (2001) Kanker. Med J Kedokteran 02:1–5
Aggarwal BB, Kumar A, Bharti AA (2003) Anticancer potential of curcumin, preclinical and clini-
cal studies. Anticancer Res 23:363–398
Agroforestry Tree Database (2008) Annona squamosa. International Centre for research in
Agroforestry. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.
asp?SpID=214.
Ahmad SS (2007) Medicinal wild plants from Lahore-Islamabad Motorway (M-2). Pak J Bot
39(02):355–375
Ahmad SS, Mahmood F, Dogar Z, Khan ZI, Ahmad K, Sher M, Mustafa I, Valeem EE (2009)
Prioritization of medicinal plants of Margala Hills National Park, Islamabad on the basis of
available information. Pak J Bot 41(05):2105–2114
Akev N, Turkay G, Can A, Gurel A, Yildiz F, Yardibi H, Ekiz EE, Uzun H (2007a) Effect of Aloe
vera leaf pulp extract on Ehrlich ascites tumor in mice. Eur J Canc Prevent 16(2):151–157
Akev N, Turkay G, Can A, Gurel A, Yildiz F, Yardibi H, Ekiz EE, Uzun H (2007b) Tumor pre-
ventive effect of Aloe vera leaf pulp lectin (Aloctin I) on Ehrlich acscites tumours in mice.
Phytother Res 21(11):1070–1075
Akhand AA, Kato M, Suzuki H, Miyata T, Nakashima I (1998) Level of HgCl2-mediated phos-
phorylation of intracellular proteins determines death of thymic T-lymphocytes with or without
DNA fragmentation. J Cell Biochem 71:243–253
Akinyele BO, Odiyi AC (2007) Comparative study of the vegetative morphology and the existing
taxonomic status of Aloe vera L. J Plant Sci 2(5):558–563
Alali FQ, Liu XX, McLaughlin JL (1992) Annonaceous acetogenins: recent progress. J Nat Prod
62(3):504–540
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002) Molecular biology of the cell,
4th edn. Garland Science, New York, pp 2558–2559
Ali BH, Blunden G (2003) Pharmacological and toxicological properties of Nigella sativa.
Ali RB, Atangwho IJ, Kuar N, Mohamed EAH, Mohamed AJ, Asmawi MZ, Mahmud R (2012)
Hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic study of Phaleria macrocarpa fruits pericarp. J Med
Plant Res 6(10):1982–1990
Amagase HSE, Milner JA (1996) Dietary components modify the ability of garlic to suppress
7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthacene-induced mammary DNA adducts. J Nutr 126:817–824
American Cancer Society (n.d.) A biotechnology company dedicated to cancer treatment. Am
Cancer Soc. www.cancervax.com/info/index.htm
Amin A, Hamza AA, Bajbouj K, Ashraf SS, Daoud S (2011) Saffron: a potential candidate for a
novel anticancer drug against hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 54(3):857–867
Andrade EHA, Zoghbi MDCB, Maia JGS, Fabricius H, Marx F (2001) Chemical characterization
of the fruit of Annona squamosa L. occurring in Amzaon. J Food Compos Anal 14(2):227–232
Anonymous (2012) Anti-tumor effects of the Agrimonia pilosa ledeb. on liver cancer Smmc-7721
cells in vitro. Cancer Res Cent. 2012; http://www.rescancer.com/stomach-cancer/34400.html
Anonymous (2012a) Herb Information. Holistic Online.Com. http://www.holistic-online.com/
herbal-med/_herbs/h27.htm. Accessed 15 Oct 2012
Anonymous (2012b) What is curcumin, or turmeric? Cancer active. http://www.canceractive.com/
cancer-active-page-link.aspx?n=1571. Accessed 14 Oct 2012
Anonymous (2012c) Turmeric—benefits and side effects. The Herbal resource. http://www.herbal-
supplement-resource.com/turmeric-benefits.html. Accessed 15 Oct 2012
Anonymous (n.d.-a) Agrimonia pilosa herb benefit for flu and viral infections. http://www.acetyll-
carnitine.info/agrimoniapilosa.html. Accessed 09 Oct 2012
Anonymous (n.d.-b) Agrimonia pilosa - Ledeb. Plants for a Future. Weblog [Online]. http://www.
pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Agrimonia+pilosa. Accessed 09 Oct 2012
Anonymous (n.d.-c) Tropical Plant Catalog. Top tropicals. http://toptropicals.com/catalog/uid/
phaleria_macrocarpa.htm. Accessed 11 Oct 2012
Ao C, Li A, Elzaawely AA, Xuan TD, Tawata S (2008) Evaluation of antioxidant and antibacterial
activities of Ficus microcarpa L. fil. extract. Food Control 19:940–948
Aratanechemuge Y, Komiya T, Moteki M, Katsuzaki H, Imai K, Hibasami H (2002) Selective
induction of apoptosis by ar-turmerone isolated from turmeric (Curcuma longa L) in two human
leukemia cell lines, but not in human stomach cancer cell line. Int J Mol Med 9(5):481–484
Araújo CAC, Leon LL (2001) Biological Activities of Curcuma longa L. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz
96(05):723–728
Arguello F, Alexander M, Sterry JA, Tudor G, Smith EM, Kalavar NT, Greene JF Jr, Koss W,
Morgan CD, Stinson SF, Siford TJ, Alvord WG, Klabansky RL, Sausville EA (1998)
Flavopiridol induces apoptosis of normal lymphoid cells, causes immunosuppression and has
potent antitumor activity in vivo against human leukemia and lymphoma xenografts. Blood
91(7):2482–2490
Ariga T, Seki T (2006) Antithrombotic and anticancer effects of garlic-derived sulfur compounds:
a review. Biofactors 26:93–103
Aripin A, Aritin PF, Tjandrawinata RR (2011) Isolated compounds from Phaleria Macrocarpa as
anti-cancer agents. Publication No: US 2011/0257112 A1
Arshad M, Ahmad M (2004) Ethnobotanical study of Galliyat for botanical demography and bio-
ecological diversification. Department of Botany, University of Arid Agriculture Rawalpindi,
Pakistan
Asaka Y, Ohsaki A, Kubota T, Matsukawa Y, Satomi Y, Nishino H (1992) 5, 7, 3’, 4’-Tetrahydroxy-
3-methoxyflavone, a potent antitumor promoter isolated from Gnaphalium indicum. Kyoto-
furitsu Ika Daigaku Zasshi 101:353–359
Aucamp J, Gaspar A, Hara Y, Apostolides Z (1997) Inhibition of xanthine oxidase by Catechins
from tea (Camellia sinensis). Anticancer Res 17(6):4381–4385
Aung HH, Wang CZ, Ni M, Fishbein A, Mehendale SR, Xie JT, Shoyama AY, Yuan CS (2007)
Crocin from Crocus sativus possesses significant anti-proliferation effects on human colorectal
cancer cells. Exp Oncol 29(3):175–180
Awad EM (2005) In vitro decreases of the fibrinolytic potential of cultured human fibrosarcoma
cell line, HT1080, by Nigella sativa oil. Phytomedicine 12(1–2):100–107
Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S (2008) Medicinal uses and pharmacological actions of five commonly
used indian medicinal plants: a mini-review. Iranian J Pharmacol Ther 07(01):107–114
Aziz A, Rahman M, Mondal AK, Muslim T, Rahman A, Quader A (2005) 3-Acetoxy-6-
benzoyloxyapagamide from Achyranthes aspersa. Pharm J 04:1820
Azuinea MA, Bhidea SV (1992) Chemopreventive effect of turmeric against stomach and skin
tumors induced by chemical carcinogens in swiss mice. Nutr Cancer 17(01):77–83
Babu TD, Kuttan G, Padikkala J (1995) Cytotoxic and anti-tumour properties of certain taxa of
umbelliferae with special reference to Centella Asiatica (L.) Urban. J Ethnopharmacol 48:53–57
Backer C, van den Brink R (1965) Flora of Java (Spermatophytes only), vol 02. Groningen,
Noordhoff, The Netherlands
Bagavan A, Rahuman AA, Kamaraj C, Geetha K (2008) Larvicidal activity of saponin from
Achyranthes aspera against Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera:Culicidae).
Parasitol Res 103:223–229
Bakshi HA, Sam S, Feroz A, Ravesh J, Shah GA, Sharma M (2009) Crocin from kashmiri saffron
(Crocus sativus) induces in vitro and in vivo xenograft growth inhibition of Dalton’s lymphoma
(DLA) in mice. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 10:887–890
Banerjee T, Duhadaway JB, Gaspari P, Sutanto-Ward E, Munn DH, Mellor AL, Malachowski WP,
Prendergast GC, Muller AJ (2008) A key in vivo antitumor mechanism of action of natural prod-
uct based brassinins in inhibition of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase. Oncogene 27:2851–2857
Barber MA, Welch HC (2006) PI3K and RAC signalling in leukocyte and cancer cell migration.
Bull Cancer 93:44–52
Barrett JE, Klopfenstein CF, Leipold HW (1998) Protective effects of cruciferous seed meals and
hulls against colon cancer in mice. Cancer Lett 127(1):83–88
Bauer V, Jurcic K, Puhlmann J, Wagner V (1988) Immunologic invivo and invitro examination of
Echinacea extracts. Arzeim Forsch 38:276–281
Beaver JP, Waring P (1995) A decrease in intracellular glutathione concentration precedes the
onset of apoptosis in murine thymocytes. Eur J Cell Biol 68:47–54
Beneficial Ayurvedic Herbs (2010) Health Mango; http://www.healthmango.com/herbal/benefi-
cial-ayurvedic-herbs/. Accessed 15 Oct 2012
Berger SJ, Gupta S, Belfi CA, Gosky DM, Mukhtar H (2001) Greentea constituent (--)-epigallo-
catechin-3-gallate inhibits topoisomerase I activity in human colon carcinoma cells. Biochem
Biophys Res Commun 288(1):101–105
Bergès R, Siess MH, Arnault I, Auger J, Kahane R, Pinnert MF, Vernevaut MF, Bon AM (2004)
Comparison of the chemopreventive efficacies of garlic powders with different alliin contents
against aflatoxin B1, carcinogenicity in rats. Carcinogenesis 25(10):1953–1959
Bhakuni DS, Dhar ML, Dhar MM, Dhawan BN, Mehrotra BB (1969) Screening of Indian plants
for biological activity: Part-II. Indian J Exp Biol 7:250–262
Bharat S, Ram AS, Govind KV (2011) Antimicrobial, antineoplastic and cytotoxic activities of
indole alkaloids from Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. Curr Pharm Anal 7(2):125–132
Bharti AC, Donato N, Singh S, Aggarwal BB (2003) Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) down-regulates
the constitutive activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and IkappaBalpha kinase in human mul-
tiple myeloma cells, leading to suppression of proliferation and induction of apoptosis. Blood
101(03):1053–1062
Bhom KH, Liersch R (1992) Achyranthes. Hagers Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis
V. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 54–59
Bianchini F, Vainio H (2001) Allium vegetables and organosulphur compounds: do they help pre-
vent cancer. Environ Health Perspect 109(9):893–902
Bilov M (2005) Image of Brassica campestris. Santiago, Metropolitania
Bilyk A, Sapers GM (1985) Distribution of quercetin and kaempferol in lettuce, kale, chive, garlic,
leek, horseradish, red radish and red cabbage tissues. J Agric Food Chem 33:226–228
Biswas R, Mandal SK, Dutta S, Bhattacharyya SS, Boujedaini N, Khuda-Bukhsh AR (2011)
Thujone-rich fraction of Thuja occidentalis demonstrates major anticancer potentials: evi-
dences from in vitro studies on A375 cells. Evid Based Complem Alternat Med
Block E (2010) Garlic and other Alliums. Royal Soc Chem, p 1
Bone K (1996) Clinical applications of ayurvedic and Chinese herbs. Phytotherapy Press, Warwick,
Queensland, pp 131–133
Bonfill M, Mangas S, Cusidó RM, Osuna L, Piñol MT, Palazón J (2006) Identification of triter-
penoid compounds of Centella asiatica by thin-layer chromatography and mass spectrometry.
Biomed Chromatogr 20:151–153
Boolbol SK, Dannenberg AJ, Chadburn A, Martucci C, Guo X, Ramonettti JT, Abreu-Goris M,
Newmark HL, Lipkin ML, DeCosse JJ, Bertagnolli MM (1996) Cyclooxygenase-2 overexpres-
sion and tumor formation are blocked by sulindac in a murine model of familial adenomatous
polyposis. Cancer Res 56:2556–2560
Boonsri S, Karalai C, Ponglimanont C, Chantrapromma S, Kanjana-Opas A (2008) Cytotoxic and
antibacterial sesquiterpenes from Thespesia populnea. J Nat Prod 71(7):1173–1177
Borthakur SK, Goswami N (1995) Herbal remedies from Dimoria of Kamrup district of Assam in
northeastern India. Fitoterapia 66:333–340
Bottone FG, Baek SJ, Nixon JB, Eling TE (2002) Diallyl disulfide (DADS) induces the antitumori-
genic NSAID-activated gene (NAG-1) by a p53-dependent mechanism in human colorectal
HCT 116 cells. J Nutr 132:773–778
Boudreau MD, Beland FA (2006) An evaluation of the biological and toxicological properties of
Aloe Barbadensis (Miller), Aloe vera. J Environ Sci Health C 24:103–154
Bradfield CA, Bjeldanes LF (1987) High performance liquid chromatography analysis of anticar-
cinogenic indoles in Brassica oleracea. J Agric Food Chem 35(1):46–49
Brandi G, Schiavano GF, Zaffaroni N, De Marco C, Paiardini M, Cervasi B, Magnani M (2005)
Mechanism of action of and antiproliferative properties of Brassica oleracea juice in Human
breast cancer cell lines. Am Soc Nutr Sci 135(6):1503–1509
Brassica oleracea (n.d.) Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/
topic/77916/Brassica-oleracea
Brassica oleracea L. (n.d.) PFAF. http://www.pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?latinname=Brassica+olera
cea.
Brassica oleracea-Wild Cabbage (Brassicacea) (n.d.) First nature. http://www.first-nature.com/

flowers/brassica_oleracea.php
Braunig B, Dorn M, Limburg E, Knick E (1992) Enhancement of resistance in common cold by
Echinacea purpurea. Z Phytother 13:7–13
Brinkhaus B, Lindner M, Schuppan D, Hahn EG (2007) Chemical, pharmacological and clinical
profile of the East Asian medicinal plant Centella asiatica. Phytomedicine 07:427–448
Bunpo P, Kataoka K, Arimochi H, Nakayama H, Kuwahara T, Bando Y, Izumi K, Vinitketkumnuen
U, Ohnishi Y (2004) Inhibitory effects of Centella asiatica on azoxymethane-induced aberrant
crypt focus formation and carcinogenesis in the intestines of F344 rats. Food Chem Toxicol
42:1987–1997
Bunpo P, Kataoka K, Arimochi H, Nakayama H, Kuwahara T, Ohnishi Y, Vinitketkumnuen U
(2005) Centella asiatica extract induces cell cycle arrest In Caco-2 human colon cancer cells.
Chiang Mai Med Bull 44(01):21–28
Busquets S, Carbo N, Almendro V, Quiles MT, Lopez-Soriano FJ, Argiles JM (2001) Curcumin, a
natural product present in turmeric, decreases tumor growth but does not behave as an antica-
chectic compound in a rat model. Cancer Lett 167(01):33–38
Cain RJ, Ridley AJ (2009) Phosphoinositide 3-kinases in cell migration. Biol Cell 101:13–29
Cannene-Adams K, Lindshield BL, Wang S, Jeffery EH, Clinton SK, Erdman JW Jr (2007)
Combinations of tomato and broccoli enhance antitumor activity in dunning R3327-H prostate
adenocarcinomas. Cancer Res 67:836
Cantley LC, Neel BG (1999) New insights into tumor suppression: PTEN suppresses tumor
formation by restraining the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/AKT pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci
96:4240–4245
Carnero A, Blanco-Aparicio C, Renner O, Link W, Leal JF (2008) The PTEN/PI3K/AKT signal-
ling pathway in cancer, therapeutic implications. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 08:187–198
Cerutti PA (1985) Prooxidant states and tumor promotion. Science 227:375–381
Chakrabortya A, Brantnera A, Mukainakab T, Nobukunib Y, Kuchideb M, Konoshimac T, Tokudab
H, Nishinob H (2002) Cancer chemopreventive activity of Achyranthes aspera leaves on
Epstein–Barr virus activation and two-stage mouse skin carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett 177:1–5
Chan MM, Huang HI, Fenton MR, Fong D (1998) In vivo inhibition of nitric oxide synthase gene
expression by curcumin, a cancer preventive natural product with anti-inflammatory properties.
Biochem Pharmacol 55(12):1955–1962
Chang MS, Chen BC, Yu MT, Sheu JR, Chen TF, Lin CH (2005) Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate
upregulates cyclooxygenase-2 expression in human pulmonary epithelial cells via Ras, Raf-1,
ERK, and NF-kappaB, but not p38 MAPK. Pathways Cell Signal 17:299–310
Chase MW, Reveal JL, Fay MF (2009) A subfamilial classification for the expanded asparaga-
lean families Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae and Xanthorrhoeceae. Botan J Linnean Soc
161(2):132–136
Chen J, Huang S, Li F, Fang S, Chen Y (1992) Chemical constituents in Inula salsoloides (Turcz).
Ostenf Zhiwu Xuebao 34:62–65
Chen GW, Chung JG, Hsieh CL, Lin JG (1998) Effects of the garlic components diallyl sulfide and
diallyl disulfide on arylamine N-acetyltransferase activity in human colon tumour cells. Food
Chem Toxicol 36:761–770
Chen BC, Yu CC, Lei HC, Chang MS, Hsu MJ, Huang CL, Chen MC, Sheu JR, Chen TF, Chen
TL, Inoue H, Lin CH (2004) Bradykinin B2 receptor mediates NF-kappa B activation and
cyclooxygenase-2 expression via the Ras/Raf-1/ERK pathway in human airway epithelial
cells. J Immunol 173:5219–5228
Chen SH, Lin KY, Chang CC, Fang CL, Lin CP (2007) Aloe-emodin induced apoptosis in human
gastric carcinoma cells. Food Chem Toxicol 45(11):2296–2303
Chen Y, Chen JW, Wang Y, Xu SS, Li X (2012a) Six cytotoxic Annonaceous acetogenins from
Annona squamosa seeds. Food Chem 135(3):960–966
Chen Y, Xu SS, Chen JW, Wang Y, Xu HQ, Fan NB, Li X (2012b) Antitumor activity of Annona
squamosa seeds extract containing Annonaceous acetogenin compounds. J Ethnopharmacol
142(2):462–466
Chen Y, Chen JW, Xu SS, Wang Y, Li X, Cai BC, Fan NB (2012c) Antitumor activity of
Annonaceous acetogenins in HepS and S180 xenografts bearing mice. Bioorg Med Chem Lett
22(8):2717–2719
Cheng CL, Koo MWL (2000) Effects of Centella asiatica on ethanol induced gastric mucosal
lesions in rats. Life Sci 67:2647–2653
Chiao C, Carothers AM, Grunberger D, Solomon G, Preston GA, Barrett JC (1995) Apoptosis and
altered redox state induced by caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) in transformed rat fibroblast
cells. Cancer Res 55:3576–3583
Chicca A, Adinolfi B, Martinotti E, Fogli S, Breschi MC, Pellati F, Benvenuti S, Nieri P
(2007) Cytotoxic effects of Echinacea root hexanic extracts on human cancer cells lines.
J Ethnopharmacol 110(1):148–153
Chowdhury MK, Ahsan N, Akhand AA (2009) Leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica and Terminalia
arjuna induce death of HeLa cells without DNA degradation. Dhaka Univ J Pharm Sci
08(01):75–79
Chryssanthi DG, Lamari FN, Iatrou G, Pylara A, Karamanos NK, Cordopatis P (2007) Inhibition
of breast cancer cell proliferation by style constituents of different Crocus species. Anticancer
Res 27(1A):357–362
Chuang SE, Cheng AL, Lin JK, Kuo ML (2000) Inhibition by curcumin of diethylnitrosamin-
einduced hepatic hyperplasia, inflammation, cellular gene products and cell-cycle-related
proteins in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 38(11):991–995
Chung FL, Kelloff G, Steele V, Pittman B, Zang E, Jiao D, Rigotty J, Choi CI, Rivenson A (1996)
Chemopreventive efficacy of arylalkyl isothiocyanates and N-Acetylcysteine for lung tumori-
genesis in Fischer rats. J Canc Res 56:772
Chung JG, Lu HF, Yeh CC, Cheng KC, Lin SS, Lee JH (2004) Inhibition of N-acetyltransferase
activity and gene expression in human colon cancer cell lines by diallyl sulfide. Food Chem
Toxicol 42:195–202
Cifuentes MC, Castaneda DM, Uruena CP, Fiorentino S (2009) A fraction from Petiveria alliacea
induces apoptosis via mitochondria dependent pathway and regulates HSP70 expression. Univ
Sci 14(2):125–134
Coldren CD, Hashim P, Ali JM, Oh SK, Sinskey AJ, Rha C (2003) Gene expression changes in the
human fibroblast induced by Centella asiatica triterpenoids. Planta Med 69:725–732
Conney AH, Lysz T, Ferraro T, Abidi TF, Manchand PS, Laskin JD, Huang MT (1991) Inhibitory
effect of curcumin and some related dietary compounds on tumor promotion and arachidonic
acid metabolism in mouse skin. Adv Enzyme Regul 31:385–396
Cooper R, Morre DJ, Morre DM (2005) Medicinal benefits of Green Tea: Part II. Review of anti-
cancer properties. J Altern Complement Med 11(4):639–652
Copeland ES (1983) National Institutes of Health Workshop Report. Free radicals in promotion
â€″ a chemical pathology study section workshop. Cancer Res 43:5631–5637
Corsi MM, Bertelli AA, Gaja G, Fulgenzi A, Ferrero ME (1998) The therapeutic potential of Aloe
vera in tumor bearing rats. Int J Tissue React 20(4):115–118
Cover CM, Hsieh SJ, Tran SH, Hallen G, Kim GS, Bjeldanes LF, Firestone GL (1998) Indole-
3-carbinol inhibits the expression of cyclin dependent kinase-6 and induces a G1 cell cycle
arrest of human breast cancer cells independent of estrogen receptor signaling. J Biol Chem
273:3838–3847
Craig, W.J. (2006) Phytochemicals: guardians of our health website
Crazy Jamaica (n.d.). Guinea henweed (Petiveria alliacea) (Anamu) This Jamaican herb is said to
be a powerful cure for cancer. Zooming in on Jamaica. http://crazyjamaica.com/?page_id=331
Daikoku T, Dey SK (2008) Two faces of PTEN. Nat Med 14:192–193
Dantu AS, Shankarguru P, Ramya DD, Vedha HBN (2012) Evaluation of in vitro anticancer activity
of hydro-alcoholic extract of Tabernaemontana divaricata. Asia J Pharma Clin Res 5(4):59–61
Das I, Das S, Saha T (2010) Saffron suppresses oxidative stress in DMBA-induced skin carcinoma:
a histopathological study. Acta Histochem 112(4):317–327
Das S, Das J, Samadder A, Bhattacharyya SS, Das D, Khuda-Bukhsh AR (2013) Biosynthesized
silver nanoparticles by ethanolic extracts of Phytolacca decandra, Gelsemium sempervirens,
Hydrastis canadensis and Thuja occidentalis induce differential cytotoxicity through G2/M
arrest in A375 cells. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 101:325–336
Dhanamani M, Devi SL, Kannan S (2011) Ethnomedicinal plants for cancer therapy: a review.
J Drug Med 3(1):1–10
Dhanarasu S, Al-hazimi AM, Sethuraman P, Selvam M (2010) Chemopreventive and anti lipid per-
oxidative potential of Thespesia populnea (L.) on experimental buccal pouch carcinogenesis.
Ibnosina J Med Biomed Sci 2(6):269–277
Diantini A, Subarnas A, Levita JS, Abdulah R, Achmad TH, Faried A, Faried LS, Julaeha E, Kurnia
D, Wardhani SR, Koyama H (2012) Cytotoxicity of Fevicordin-A from Phaleria Macrocarpa
(Scheff.) Boerl on P 388, Hela, Caski, Te-2, Te-8 and Prepuce’s Fibroblast Cells. E3. J Med
Res 01:001–005
Druesne N, Pagniez A, Mayeur C, Thomas M, Cherbuy C, Duee PH, Martel P, Chaumontet C
(2004a) Diallyl disulfide (DADS) increases histone acetylation and p21waf1/cip1 expression
in human colon tumor cell lines. Carcinogenesis 25:1227–1236
Druesne N, Pagniez A, Mayeur C, Thomas M, Cherbuy C, Duée PH, Martel P, Chaumontet C
(2004b) Repetitive treatments of colon HT-29 cells with diallyl disulfide induce a prolonged
hyperacetylation of histone H3 K14. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1030:612–621
Durak I, Biri H, Erguder IB, Devrim E, Senocak C, Avci A (2007) Effects of garlic and black grape
extracts on the activity of adenosine deaminase from cancerous and non cancerous human
urinary bladder tissues. Med Chem Res 16(6):259–265
Duyao MP, Kessler DJ, Spicer DB, Sonenshein GE (1990) Binding of NF-KB-like factors to regu-
latory sequences of the c-myc gene. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 166:211–220
Ei-Mowafy AM, Al-Gayyar MM, Salem HA, ME EI-M, Darweish MM (2010) Novel chemo-
therapeutic and renal protective effects for the green tea (EGCG): a role of oxidative stress and
inflammatory cytokine signaling. Int J Phytother Phytopharmacol 17(14):1067–1075
Elangovan V, Govindasamy S, Ramamoorthy N, Balasubramanian K (1995) Invitro studies on
anticancer activity of Bacopa monnieri. Fitoterapia 66(3):211–215
Engelman JA (2009) Targeting PI3K signalling in cancer: opportunities, challenges and limita-
tions. Nat Rev Cancer 09:550–562
Erba E, Sen S, Negri M (1996) Synchronization of cancer cell lines with methotrexate in vitro.
Methods Cell Sci 18:149–163
Escribano J, Alonso G, Coca-Prados M, Fernandez J (1996) Crocin, saffranal and picrocrocin
from saffron (Crocus sativus L.) inhibit the growth of human cancer cells in vitro. Cancer Lett
100(1–2):23–30
Fahey JW, Zhang Y, Talalay P (1997) Broccoli sprouts: an exceptionally rich source of inducers of
enzymes that protect against chemical carcinogens. PNAS 94(19):10367–10372
Faried A, Kurnia D, Faried LS, Usman N, Miyazaki T, Kato H, Kuwano H (2007) Anticancer
effects of gallic acid isolated from Indonesian herbal medicine, Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.)
Boerl, on human cancer cell lines. Int J Oncol 30(03):605–613
Fariza IN, Fadzureena J, Zunoliza A, Chuah AL, Pin KY, Adawiah I (2012) Anti-inflammatory
activity of the major compound from the methanol extract of phaleria macrocarpa leaves.
J Appl Sci 12(11):1195–1198
Feng XU, Zhang S, Shao R, Zhen Y (2005) Anticancer activity of sodium caffeate and its mecha-
nism. Acta Pharmacol Sin 26(10):1248–1252
Fenig E, Nordenberg J, Beery E, Sulkes J, Wasserman L (2004) Combined effect effect of aloe-
emodin and chemotherapeutic agents on the proliferation of an adherent variant cell line of
merkel cell carcinoma. Oncol Rep 11(1):213–217
Fernandes RS, Cotter TG (1994) Apoptosis or necrosis: intracellular levels of glutathione influence
mode of cell death. Biochem Pharmacol 48:675–681
Figueroa-Hernandez JL, Gonzalez GS, Ascecio VJ, Figueroa-Espitia JL, Saavedra GF (2005)
Plant products with anticancer properties employed in the treatment of bowel cancer: literature
review 1985–2004. Proc West Pharmacol Soc 48:77–83
Find me a Cure (n.d.) Petiveria alliacea. Alternative Medicine. http://findmeacure.com/2012/06/30/
petiveria-alliacea/
Finley JW (2003) Reduction of cancer risk by consumption of Selenium enriched plants: enrich-
ment of broccoli with Selenium increases the anticarcinogenic properties of Broccoli. J Med
Food 6(1):19–26
Friday JB, Okano D (2006) Thespesia populnea (milo). Species profile for Pacific Island
Agroforestry. http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Thespesia-milo.pdf
Fujiwara Y, Kawada K, Takano D, Tanimura S, Ozaki K, Kohno M (2006) Inhibition of the PI3
kinase/Akt pathway enhances doxorubicin-induced apoptotic cell death in tumor cells in a p53-
dependent manner. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 340:560–566
Ganesan RM, Muthuchelian K (2011) Antitumor potential of an acetogenin isolated from the seed
extracts of Annona squamosa Linn. J Canc Res Exp Oncol 3(8):95–104
Garc-Olmo DC, Riese HH, Escribano J, Onta J, Fernandez JA, Ateinzar M, Garci-Olmo D (1999)
Effects of long term treatment of colon adenocarcinoma with crocin, a carotenoid from saffron
(Crocus sativus L.): an experimental study in the rat. Nutr Cancer 35(2):120–126
Ge X, Yannai S, Rennet G, Gruener N, Fares FA (1996) 3,3’-diindolylmethane induces apoptosis
in human cancer cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 228:153–158
Geetha BS, Nair MS, Latha PG, Remani P (2012) Sesquiterpene lactones isolated from
Elephantopus scaber L. inhibits human lymphocyte proliferation and the growth of tumour cell
lines and induces apoptosis in vitro. J Biomed Biotechnol:1–8
Ghimire SK, McKey D, Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y (2005) Conservation of Himalayan medicinal
plants: harvesting patterns and ecology of two threatened species Nardostachys grandiflora and
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora. Biol Conserv 124:463–475
Ghosh T, Maity TP, Singh J (2011) Evaluation of anti tumor activity of stigmasterol a constituent
isolated from Bacopa monnieri Linn aerial parts against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in mice.
Orient Pharm Exp Med 11:41–49
Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Liu Y, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (2003) A prospective study of crucifer-
ous vegetables and prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12(12):1403
Girach RD, Khan ASA (1992) Ethnomedicinal uses of Achyranthes aspera leaves in Orissa (India).
Int J Pharm 30:113–115
Goh SH, Chuah MJSL, Soepadmo E (1995) Malaysian medicinal plants for the treatment of car-
diovascular diseases. Pelanduk Publication Sdn, Bhd, Petaling Jaya
Gotama IBI, Sugiarto S, Nurhadi M, Widiyastuti Y, Wahyono S, Prapti IJ (1999) Inventory of
Indonesian medicinal plants. Research units and development, vol 05. Ministry of Health,
Jakarta, pp 147–148
Govind P (2011a) Some important anticancer herbs: a review. Int Res J Pharm 2(7):45–52
Govind P (2011b) Antioxidant vegetables act against cancer and other diseases. Int J Pharm Stud
Res 2(1):32–38
Govind P, Madhuri S (2006) Medicinal plants: better remedy for neoplasm. Indian Drugs
43:869–874
Goyal BR, Goyal RK, Mehta AA (2007) Phyto-pharmcology of Achyranthes aspera: a review.
Pharmacogn Rev 01:143–150
Gray AR (1982) Taxonomy and evolution of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica). Econ Bot
36(4):397–410
Gribel NV, Pashinki VG (1986) Antimetastatic properties of Aloe juice. Vopr Onkologii
32(12):38–40
Gurib-Fakim A (2006) Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol
Aspects Med 27:1–93
Guyonnet D, Belloir C, Suschetet M, Siess MH, Le Bon AM (2000) Liver subcellular fractions
for rats treated by organosulphur compounds from Allium modulate mutagen activation. Mutat
Res 466(1):17–26
Hamayun M (2007) Traditional uses of some medicinal plants of swat valley, Pakistan. Ind J Trad
Know 06(04):636–641
Hamayun M, Khan MA, Chudhary MF, Ahmad H (2006a) Studies on traditional knowledge
of medicinal herbs of Swat Kohistan, District Swat, Pakistan. J Herbs Spices Med Plants
12(04):11–28
Hamayun M, Khan SA, Sohn EY, Lee IJ (2006b) Folk medicinal knowledge and conservation
status of some economically valued medicinal plants of District Swat, Pakistan. J Ecol Appl
11(02):101–113
Han SS, Chung ST, Robertson DA, Ranjan D, Bondada S (1999) Curcumin causes the growth
arrest and apoptosis of B cell lymphoma by downregulation of egr-1, c-myc, bcl-XL, NF-kappa
B, and p53. Clin Immunol 93(02):152–161
Hanif R, Qiao L, Shiff SJ, Rigas B (1997) Curcumin, a natural plant phenolic food additive, inhib-
its cell proliferation and induces cell cycle changes in colon adenocarcinoma cell lines by a
prostaglandin-independent pathways. J Lab Clin Med 130:576–584
Harmanto N (2001) Mahkota Dewa Obat Pusaka Para Dewa, Cetakan Kedua, Agromedia Pustaka,
Jakarta 01
Harmanto N (2003) Conquering disease in Unison with Mahkota Dewa, Phaleria macrocarpa, 1st
edn. PT Mahkotadewa Jakarta, Indonesia, p 14
Harmanto N (2005) Mahkota Dewa Obat Pusaka Para Dewa. In: A medicine the legacy of the
Gods, 6th edn. Agro Media Pustaka, Jakarta
Harper CE, Patel BB, Wang J, Eltoum IA, Lamartiniere CA (2007) Epigallocatechin-3-gallate sup-
presses early stage, but not late stage prostate cancer in TRAMP mice: mechanism of action.
Prostate 67(14):1576–1589
Hartwell JL (1982) Plants used against cancer. Quarterman Publications Inc., Lawrence, MA
Hazgui S, Bonnomet A, Nawrocki-Raby B, Milliot M, Terryn C, Cutrona J, Polette M, Birembaut
P, Zahm JM (2008) Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) inhibits the migratory behavior of
tumor bronchial epithelial cells. Respir Res 9:33
Hecht SS, Carmella SG, Kenney PMJ, Low SH, Arakawa K, Yu MC (2004) Effects of cruci-
ferous vegetable consumption on urinary metabolites of tobacco specific lung carcinogen
4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-Pyridyl)-1-Butanone in Singapore Chinese. Cancer Epidemiol
Biomarkers Prev 13:997
Hendra R, Ahmadd S, Oskoueian E, Sukari A, Antioxidant SMY (2011) Antiinflammatory and
cytotoxicity of phaleria macrocarpa (Boerl.) Scheff Fruit. BMC ComplemAltern Med 11(110)
Hennessy BT, Smith DL, Ram PT, Lu Y, Mills GB (2005) Exploiting the PI3K/AKT pathway for
cancer drug discovery. Nat Rev Drug Discov 04:988–1004
Henning SM, Wang P, Heber D (2011) Chemopreventive effects of tea in prostate cancer: green tea
versus black tea. Mol Nutr Food Res 55(6):905–920
Hertog MGL, Hollman CH, Katan MB (1992) Content of potentially anticarcinogenic flavanoids
of 28 vegetables and 9 fruits commonly consumed in the Netherlands. J Agric Food Chem
40:2379–2383
Hirano T, Abe K, Gotoh M, Oka K (1995) Citrus flavone tangeretin inhibits leukaemic HL-60 cell
growth partially through induction of apoptosis with less cytotoxicity on normal lymphocytes.
Br J Cancer 72:1380–1388
Ho WY, Yeap SK, Ho CL, Raha AR, Suraini AA, Alitheen NB (2011) Elephantopus scaber induces
cytotoxicity in MCF-7 Human breast cancer cells via p53-induced apoptosis. J Med Plant Res
5(24):5741–5749
Hong E, Kim GH (2008) Anticancer and antimicrobial acivities of β-Phenylethyl Isothiocyanate in
Brassica rapa L. Food Sci Tech Res 14(4):377
Hopp DC, Zeng L, Gu Z, Mclaughlin JL (1996) Squamotacin: an Annonaceous acetogenin with
cytotoxic selectivity for the human prostate tumor cell line (PC-3). J Nat Prod 59(2):97–99
Hosono T, Fukao T, Ogihara J, Ito Y, Shiba H, Seki T, Ariga T (2005) Diallyl trisulphide suppresses
the proliferation and induces apoptosis of human colon cancer cells through oxidative modifi-
cation of β-tubulin. J Biol Chem 280:41487–41493
Hosseinzadeh H, Behravan J, Mohammad R, Ajgan KH (2013) Antitumor and cytotoxic evaluation
of Crocus sativus L. stigma and petal extracts using brine shrimp and potato disc assays. Sci
Info Database
Hsu YL, Kuo P, Lin LT, Lin CC (2004) Asiatic acid, a Triterpene, induces apoptosis and cell cycle
arrest through activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and p38 mitogen-activated
protein kinase pathways in human breast cancer cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 313(01):333–344
Hu C, Kitts DD (2000) Studies on the antioxidant activity of Echinacea root extract. J Agric Food
Chem 48(5):1466–1472
Hu G, Percehellet EM, Klish DS, Johnson JM, Perchellet JP (1992) Hydrolyzable tannins: potent
inhibitors of hydroperoxide production and tumor promotion in mouse skin treated with
12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in vivo. Int J Cancer 51(3):425–432
Huang MT, Wood AW, Newmark HL, Sayer JM, Yagi H, Jerina DM, Conney AH (1983) Inhibition
of mutagenicity of Bay region diol epoxides of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by phenolic
plant flavonoids. Carcinogenesis 04:1631–1638
Huang MT, Wang ZY, Georgiadis CA, Laskin JD, Conney AH (1992) Inhibitory effects of curcumin
on tumor initiation by benzo[a]pyrene and 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. Carcinogenesis
13:2183–2186
Huang MT, Lou YR, Ma W, Newmark HL, Reuhl KR, Conney AH (1994) Inhibitory effects of
dietary curcumin on forestomach, duodenal, and colon carcinogenesis in mice. Cancer Res
54(22):5841–5847
Huang MT, Ma W, Yen P, Xie J, Han J, Frenkel K, Grunberger D, Conney AH (1997a) Inhibitory
effects of topical application of low doses of curcumin on 12-Otetradecanoylphorbol- 13-ace-
tate-induced tumor promotion and oxidized DNA bases in mouse epidermis. Carcinogenesis
18:83–88
Huang M, Newmark HL, Frenkel K (1997b) Inhibitory effects of curcumin on tumorigenesis in
mice. J Cell Biochem Suppl 27:26–34
Huang M, Smart RC, Wong CQ (1998) Inhibitory effect of curcumin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic
acid, and ferulic acid on tumor promotion in mouse skin by 12- O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-
acetate. Cancer Res 48:5941–5946
Huang CC, Lo CP, Chiu CY, Shyur LF (2010) Deoxyelephantopin, a novel multifunctional agent,
suppresses mammary tumor growth and lung metastasis and doubles survival time in mice. Br
J Pharmacol 159(4):856–871
Hutapea JR (n.d.) Inventaris Tanaman Obat Indonesia, Jilid V, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Kesehatan—Departemen Kesehatan Republik Indonesia, Jakarta 1999; 03
Iciek M, Kwiecień I, Włodek L (2009) Biological properties of garlic and garlic derived organo-
sulphur compounds. Environ Mol Mutagen 50(3):247–265
Inamdar PK, Yeole RD, Ghogare AB, de Souza NJ (1996) Determination of biologically active
constituents in Centella asiatica. J Chromatogr A 742:127–130
Inano H, Onoda M, Inafuku N, Kubota M, Kamada Y, Osawa T, Kobayashi H, Wakabayashi K
(1999) Chemoprevention by curcumin during the promotion stage of tumorigenesis of mam-
mary gland in rats irradiated with gamma-rays. Carcinogenesis 20(06):1011–1018
Inoue M, Suzuki R, Koide T, Sakaguchi N, Ogihara Y, Yabu Y (1994) Antioxidant, gallic acid,
induces apoptosis in HL-60RG cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 204:898–904
ITIS Report (n.d.). Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.). And Schult. 2013; http://www.itis.gov/
servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=505424
Ivankovic S, Stojkovic R, Jukic M, Milos M, Milos M, Jurin M (2006) The antitumor activity of
thymoquinone and thymohydroquinone in vitro and in vivo. Exp Oncol 28(3):220–224
Izhou X, Jiang G, Zhao A, Bondeva T, Hirszel P, Balla T (2001) Inhibition of Na,K-ATPase acti-
vates PI3 kinase and inhibits apoptosis in LLC-PK1 cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun
285:46–51
Jackson BG (2000) Mechanism based target identification and drug discovery in cancer research.
Science 287:1969
Jaganath IB, Ng LT (1999) Herbs: the green pharmacy of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Vinpress Sdn.
Bhd
Jagetia GC, Venkatesha VAK (2005) Enhancement of radiation effect by Aphanamixis polystachya
in mice transplanted with Ehrlich ascites carcinoma. Boil Pharma Bullet 28(1):69–77
Jagetia JC, Venkatesha VA (2006) Treatment of mice with stem bark extract of Aphanamixis polys-
tachya reduces radiation induced chromosome damage. Int J Rad Boil 82(3):197–209
Jain SK (1991) Dictionary of Indian folk medicine and ethnobotany, vol 609. Deep Publications,
New Delhi, p 610
Jain V, Poonia A, Agarwal RP, Panwar RB, Kochar DK, Misra SN (1992) Effect of Terminalia
arjuna in patients of angina pectoris. Ind Med Gaz 36:56–59
Jayashree G, Muraleedhara GP, Sudarslal S, Jacob VB (2003) Anti-oxidant activity of Centella
asiatica on lymphoma-bearing mice. Fitoterapia 74:431–434
Jia GT, Lu XY (2008) Enrichment and purification of madecassoside and asiaticoside from
Centella asiatica extracts with macroporous resins. J Chromatogr A 1193:136–141
Jia S, Roberts TM, Zhao JJ (2009) Should individual PI3 kinase isoforms be targeted in cancer?
Curr Opin Cell Biol 21:199–208
Johnson JJ, Bailey HH, Mukhtar H (2010) Green tea polyphenols for prostate cancer chemopre-
vention: a translational perspective. Int J Phytother Phytopharmacol 17(1):3–13
Johnston WF (n.d.) Northern White Cedar. Thuja occidentalis L. http://www.na.fs.fed.us/Spfo/
pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/thuja/occidentalis.htm
Joy B, Remani P (2008) Antitumor constituents from Annona squamosa fruit pericarp. Med Chem
Res 2(7):345–355
Jung M, Park M (2007) Acetylcholinesterase inhibition by flavonoids from Agrimonia pilosa.
Molecules 12:2130–2139
Kalyani MI, Lingaraju SM, Salimath BP (2013) A pro-apoptotic 15-kDa protein from Bacopa
monnieri activated caspase-3 and downregulates Bcl-2 gene expression in mouse mammary
carcinoma cells. J Nat Med 67(1):123–136
Kamboj VP (2000) Herbal medicine. Curr Sci 78(01):35–39
Kamei H, Koide T, Hashimoto Y, Kojima T, Hasegawa M (2009) Tumor cell growth suppression
by tannic acid. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 14(02):135–138
Kan WS (1986) Pharmaceutical botany. National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, p 416
Kandil FE, Nassar ML (1998) A tannin anti-cancer promoter from Terminalia arjuna.
Kang MH, Kim JS, Seo JE, Oh SC, Yoo YA (2010) BMP2 accelerates the motility and invasiveness
of gastric cancer cells via activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway.
Exp Cell Res 316:24–37
Kapoor LD (1990) Handbook of ayurvedic medicinal plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
pp 319–320
Kartnig T, Hoffmann-Bohm K (1992) Centella. In: Hager’s Handbuchder Pharmazeutischen
Praxis. Band 4. Springer Verlag, Berlin
Katrin E, Selvie WH (2011) Chromatogram profiles and cytotoxic activity of irradiated Mahkota
Dewa (Phaleria Macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl) Leaves. Atom Indonesia 37(1):17–23
Kaur S, Grover IS, Knmar S (1997) Antimutagenic potential of ellagic acid isolated from
Terminalia arjuna. Indian J Exp Biol 35:478–482
Kawada M, Ohno Y, Ri Y, Ikoma T, Yuugetu H, Asai T, Watanabe M, Yasuda N, Akao S, Takemura
G, Minatoguchi S, Gotoh K, Fujiwara H, Fukuda K (2001) Anti-tumor effect of gallic acid on
LL-2 lung cancer cells transplanted in mice. Anticancer Drugs 12:847–852
Kawamori T, Lubet R, Steele VE, Kelloff GJ, Kaskey RB, Rao CV, Reddy BS (1999)
Chemopreventive effect of curcumin, a naturally occurring anti-inflammatory agent, during the
promotion/progression stages of colon cancer. Cancer Res 59:597–601
Kedzierska M, Olas B, Wachowicz B, Stochmal A, Oleszek W, Jeziorski A, Piekarski J, Glowacki

R (2009) An extract from berries of Aronia melanocarpa modulates the generation of superox-
ide anion radicals in blood platelets from breast cancer patients. Planta Med 75(13):1405–1409
Kedzierska M, Olas B, Wachoxwicz B, Stochmal A, Oleszek W, Jeziorski A, Piekarski J (2010)
The nitrative and oxidative stress in blood platelets isolated from breast cancer patients: the
protectory action of Aronia melanocarpa extract. Platelets 21(7):541–548
Kedzierska M, Olas B, Wachowicz B, Glowacki R, Bald E, Czernek U, Szydlowska-Pazera K,
Potemski P, Piekarski J, Jeziorski A (2012) Effects of commercial extract of Aronia on oxida-
tive stress in blood platelets isolated from breast cancer patients after the surgery and various
phases of chemotherapy. Fitoterapia 83(2):310–317
Kelloff GJ (1996) J Cell. Biochem:72–85
Khalaf NA, Shakya AK, Al-Othman A, El-Agbar Z, Farah H (2008) Antioxidant activity of some
common plants. Turk J Biol 32:51–55
Khan MAA, Islam MT (2012) Analgesic and cytotoxic activity of Acorus calamus L., Kigelia
pinnata L., Mangifera indica L. and Tabernaemontana divaricata. J Pharm Bioallied Sci
4(2):149–154
Khan N, Sultana S (2005) Inhibition of two stage renal carcinogenesis, oxidative damage and
hyperproliferative response by Nigella sativa. Eur J Cancer Prev 14(2):159–168
Khanina MG, Khanina MA, Rodin AP (2010) Element structure of Agrimonia pilosa LEDEB. Chem
Plant Raw Mater 02:99–104
Kim R (2005) Recent advances in understanding the cell death pathways activated by anticancer
therapy. Cancer 103:1551–1560
Knowles LM, Milner JA (2003) Diallyl disulfide induces ERK phosphorylation and alters gene
expression profiles in human colon tumor cells. J Nutr 133:2901–2906
Koka PS, Mondal D, Schultz M, Abdel-Mageed AB, Agrawal KC (2010) Studies on molecular
mechanisms of growth inhibitory effects of thymoquinone against prostate cancer cells: role of
reactive oxygen species. Exp Biol Med 235(6):751–760
Korutla L, Kumar R (1994) Inhibitory effect of curcumin on epidermal growth factor receptor
kinaseactivity in A431 cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1224(03):597–600
Koshiura R, Miyamoto K, Ikeya Y, Taguchi H (1985) Antitumor activity of methanol extract from
roots of Agrimonia pilosa LEDEB. Japan J Pharmacol 38:9–16
Kristal AR, Lampe JW (2002) Brassica vegetables and prostate cancer risk: a review of the epide-
miological evidence. Nutr Cancer 42(1):1–9
Kumar EP, Elshurufa AA, Elango K, Subburaju T, Suresh B (1998) Cytotoxic and anti-tumor prop-
erties of ethanolic extract of Bacopa monnieri (L) Penn. Anc Sci Life 17(3):228–234
Kuo ML, Huang TS, Lin JK (1996) Curcumin, an antioxidant and anti-tumor promoter, induces
apoptosis in human leukemia cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1317(02):95–100
Kuo PL, Hsu YL, Lin TC, Lin LT, Chang JK, Lin CC (2005a) Casuarinin from the bark of termi-
nalia arjuna induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7
Cells. Planta Med Biochem Mol Biol 71(03):237–243
Kuo PL, Hsu YL, Lin CC (2005b) The chemopreventive effects of natural products against human
cancer cells. Int J App Sci Eng:203–214
Kuo PL, Hsu YL, Lin TC, Chang JK, Lin CC (2005c) Induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in
human non-small cell lung cancer A549 cells by casuarinin from the bark of Terminalia arjuna
Linn. Anticancer Drugs 16(04):409–415
Kurbitz C, Heise D, Redmer T, Goumas F, Arlt A, Lemke J, Rimbach G, Kalthoff H, Trauzold
A (2011) Epicatechin gallate and catechin gallate are superior to epigallocatechin gallate in
growth suppression and anti-inflammatory activities in pancreatic tumor cells. Cancer Sci
102(4):728–734
Kurnia D, Akiyama K, Hayashi H (2008) 29-norcucurbitacin derivatives isolated from the
Indonesian medicinal plant, Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem
72(02):618–620
Kuttan R, Bhanumathy P, Nirmala K, George MC (1985) Potential anticancer activity of turmeric

(Curcuma longa). Cancer Lett 29(02):197–202
Kuttan R, Sudheeran PC, Tumori JCD (1987) Turmeric and curcumin as topical agents in cancer
therapy. UK Pubmed Central 73(01):29–31
Le Bon AM, Roy C, Dupont C, Suschetet M (1997) Invivo antigenotoxic effects of dietary allyl
sulphides in rats. Cancer Lett 114(1-2):131–134
Lee WL, Shyur LF (2012) Deoxyelephantopin impedes mammary adenocarcinoma cell motility
by inhibiting calpain-mediated adhesion dynamics and inducing reactive oxygen species and
aggresome formation. Free Radic Biol Med 52(8):1423–1436
Lee KH, Kim JH, Lim DS, Kim CH (2010) Antileukaemic and antimutagenic effects of Di(2-
ethylhexyl)phthalate isolated from Aloe vera Linne. J Pharm Pharmacol 52(5):593–598
Lersch C, Seuner M, Bauer A, Siemens M, Hart R, Drescher M (1992) Non specific immuno-
stimulation with low doses of cyclophosphamide (LDCY) thymostimulin, and Echinacea pur-
pureae extracts (echinacin) in patients with far advanced colorectal preliminary results. Cancer
Invest 10:343–348
Levine ES, Friedman HS, Griffith OW, Colvin OM, Raynor JH, Lieberman M (1993) Cardiac cell
toxicity induced by 4-hydroperoxycyclophosphamide is modulated by glutathione. Cardiovasc
Res 27:1248–1253
Li Y, Zhang T, Korkaya H, Liu S, Lee HF, Newman B, Yu Y, Clouthier SG, Schwartz SJ, Wicha
MS, Sun D (2010) Sulfophorane, a dietary component of broccoli/ broccoli sprouts, inhibits
breast cancer stem cells. Clin Cancer Res 16:2580
Li W, Tian H, Li L, Li S, Yue W, Chen Z, Qi L, Hu W, Zhu Y, Hao B, Gao C, Si L, Gao F (2012)
Diallyl trisulphide induces apoptosis and inhibits proliferation of A549 cells in vitro and
in vivo. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin 44(7):577–583
Liang W, Binns CW, Jian L, Lee AH (2007) Does the consumption of green tea reduce the risk of
lung cancer among smokers? ECAM 4(1):17–22
Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun X, Tang K (2004) Micropropagation of endangered Chinese aloe.
Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 76(1):83–86
Liaw CC, Yang YL, Chen M, Chang FR, Chen SL, Wu SH, Wu YC (2008) Mono-tetrahydrofuran
Annonaceous acetogenins from Annona squamosa as cytotoxic agents and calcium ion chela-
tors. J Nat Prod 71(5):764–771
Lim S, Lee J, Kim JK (2009) Analysis of isothiocyanates in newly generated vegetables,
Baemuchae (Brassicoraphanus) as affected by growth. Int J Food Sci Tech 44(7):1401–1407
Limtrakul P, Lipigorngoson S, Namwong O, Apisariyakul A, Dunn FW (1997) Inhibitory effect of
dietary curcumin on skin carcinogenesis in mice. Cancer Lett 116(02):197–203
Lin LT, Liu LT, Chiang LC, Lin CC (2002) In vitro antihepatoma activity of fifteen natural medi-
cines from Canada. Phytother Res 16:440–444
Lin JG, Chen GW, Li TM, Chouh ST, Tan TW, Chung JG (2005) Aloe-emodin induces apopto-
sis in T24 human bladder cancer cells through the p53 dependent apoptotic pathway. J Urol
175(1):343–347
Lina W, Smadar A, Einat B, Jardena N, Eyal F (2002) Effect of Aloe emodin on the proliferation
of a new merkel carcinoma cell line. Am J Dermatopath 24(1):17–22
Liu P, Cheng H, Roberts TM, Zhao JJ (2009) Targeting the phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathway in
cancer. Nat Rev Drug Discov 08:627–644
Lowe HIC, Watson CT, Badal S, Ateh EN, Toyang NJ, Bryant J (2012) Anti-angiogenic properties
of the Jamaican ball moss, (Tillandsia recurvata L.). Int Res J Biol Sci 1(4):73–76
Lu YP, Chang RL, Lou YR, Huang MT, Newmark HL, Reuhl KR, Conney AH (1994) Effect of
curcumin on 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate- and ultraviolet B light-induced expression
of c-Jun and c-Fos in JB6 cells and in mouse epidermis. Carcinogenesis 15(10):2363–2370
Luettig B, Steinmuller C, Gifford G, Wagner-Mathes M (1989) Nacrophage activation by the
polysaccharide arabinogalactan isolated from plant cell cultures of Echinace purpurea. J Natl
Cancer Inst 81:669–675
Madhuri S, Govind P (2008) Some dietary agricultural plants with anticancer
Madhuri S, Pandey G (2008) Some dietary agricultural plants with anticancer properties. Plant
Arch 8(1):13–16
Majdalawieh AF, Hmaidan R, Carr RI (2010) Nigella sativa modulates spleenocyte proliferation,
Th1/Th2 cytokine profile, macrophage function and NK anti-tumor activity. J Ethnopharmacol
131(2):268–275
Malik M, Zhao C, Schoene N, Guisti MM, Moyer MP, Magnuson BA (2003) Anthocyanin rich
extract from Aronia melanocarpa E. induces a cell cycle block in colon cancer but not normal
colonic cells. Nutr Cancer 46(2):186–196
Manoj VR (2010) Evaluation of the antitumor activity of the ethanol extract of Brassica rapa on
ehrlich ascites carcinoma in mice. Rajiv Gandhi Uni Health Sci, Karnataka
Matsukawa Y, Marui N, Sakai T, Satomi Y, Yoshida M, Matsumoto K, Nishino K, Aoike A (1993)
Genistein arrests cell cycle progression at G-2-M. Cancer Res 53:1328–1331
Matsuura N, Miyamae Y, Yamane K, Nagao Y, Hamada Y, Kawaguchi N, Katsuki T, Hirata K,
Sumi SI, Ishikawa H (2006) Aged garlic extract inhibits angiogenesis and proliferation of
colorectal carcinoma cells. J Nutr 136:S842–S846
Mauri P, Pietta P (2000) Electrospray characterization of selected medicinal plant extracts. J Pharm
Biomed Anal 23:61–68
Mbarek LA, Mouse HA, Elabbadi N, Bensalah M, Gamouh A, Aboufatima R, Benharref A, Chait
A, Kamal M, Dalal A, Zyad A (2007) Anti-tumor properties of black seed (Nigella sativa L.)
extracts. Braz J Med Biol Res 40(6):839–847
Mehta RG, Liu J, Constantinou A, Thomas CF, Hawthorne M, You M, Gerhuser C, Pezzuto JM,
Moon RC, Moriarty RM (1995) Cancer chemopreventive activity of brassinin, a phytoalexin
from cabbage. Carcinogenesis 16(2):399–404
Mehta K, Pantazis P, McQueen T, Aggarwal BB (1997) Antiproliferative effect of curcumin (difer-
uloylmethane) against human breast tumor cell lines. Anticancer Drugs 08(05):470–481
Mendes J. Cote ce Cote La. Trinidad and Tobago dictionary. Arima, trindiad. p. 95
Menon LG, Kuttan R, Kuttan G (1995) Inhibition of lung metastasis in mice induced by B16F10
melanoma cells by polyphenolic compounds. Cancer Lett 95(1–2):221–225
Merino R, Grillot DA, Simonian PL, Kumar SM, Fanslow WC, Bondada S, Nunez G (1995)
Modulation of anti-IgM-induced B cell apoptosis by Bcl-xL and CD40 in WEHI-231 cells.
Dissociation from cell cycle arrest and dependence on the avidity of the antibody –IgM recep-
tor interaction. J Immunol 155:3830–3838
Middleton E Jr, Fujiki H, Savliwala M, Drzewiecki G (1987) Tumor-promoter-induced basophil
histamine release: Effect of selected flavonoids. Biochem Pharmacol 36:2048–2052
Mika D, Guruvayoorappan C (2013) Experimental study on antitumor and anti inflammatory
effect of Thespesia populnea phytochemical extract in mice models. Immunopharmacol
Immunotoxicol 35(1):157–163
Miki K, Yasushi O, Yunmo R, Tetsuro I, Hideyuki Y, Toshihiro A, Motohiro W, Norio Y, Seigou A,
Genzou T, Shinya M, Kohshi G, Hisayoshi F, Kazunori (2001) Anti-tumor effect of gallic acid
on LL-2 lung cancer cells transplanted in mice. Anticancer Drugs 12(10):847–852
Miller SC (2012) Can herbs be useful in cancer therapy? A review of studies on the influence of
Echinacea on cells of the immune system and on tumor amelioration. Biomed Res 23 SI:9–16
Miller RA (n.d.): Echinacea 2000: technical crop report. Richters herbs. Series 2. pp.2–5
Milner JA (2001) A historical perspective on garlic and cancer. Am Soc Nutr Sci 131(3):1027–1031
Milner JA (2010) Garlic and cancer prevention. In: Milner JA, Romagnolo DF (eds) Nutrition and
health: bioactive compounds and cancer. Springer, New York, Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London,
pp 567–588
Misra TN, Singh RS, Pandey HS, Prasad C (1991) An aliphatic dihydroxyketone from Achyranthes
aspera. Phytochemistry 30:2076–2078
Missouri Botanical Garden (n.d.) Aronia melanocarpa. http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/
gardens-gardening/your-garden/plant-finder/plant-details/kc/j420/aronia-melanocarpa.aspx
Miyajima A, Nakashima J, Yoshioka K, Tachibana M, Tazaki H, Murai M (1997) Role of reac-

tive oxygen species in cis-dichlorodiammineplatinum- induced cytotoxicity on bladder cancer
cells. Br J Cancer 76:206–210
Miyamoto K, Kishi N, Koshiura R (1987) Antitumor effect of agrimoniin, a tannin of Agrimonia
pilosa Ledeb., on transplantable rodent tumors. Jap J Pharmacol 43(2):187–195
Miyamoto K, Kishi N, Murayama T, Furukawa T, Koshiura R (1988) Induction of cytotoxicity
of peritoneal exudates cells by agrimoniin, a novel immunomodulatory tannin of Agrimonia
pilosa Ledeb. Cancer Immunol Immunother 27:59–62
Modem S, DiCarlo SE, Reddy TR (2012) Fresh garlic extract induces growth and arrest and mor-
phological differentiation of MCF7 breast cancer cells. Genes Cancer 3(2):177–186
Molnar J, Beladi I, Domonkos K, Foldeak S, Boda K, Veckenstedt A (1981) Antitumor activity of
flavonoids on NK/LY ascites tumor cells. Neoplasma 28:11–18
Moulisha B, Kumar GA, Kanti HP (2010) Antileishmanial and anticancer activities of pentacyclic
triterpenoid isolated from the leaves of Terminalia arjuna Combretacea. Trop J Pharm Res
9(2):135–140
Moura MD, Torres AR, Oliveira RAG, Diniz MFFM, Barbosa-Filho JM (2001) Natural products
inhibitors of models of mammary neoplasia. Publicado Brit J Phytother 05(03):124–145
Mousavi SH, Tavakkol-Afshari J, Brook A, Jafari-Anarkooli I (2009) Role of caspases and Bax
protein in saffron-induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells. Food Chem Toxicol 47(8):1909–1913
Mukherjee A, Sikdar S, Bishayee K, Paul A, Ghosh S, Boujedaini N, Khuda-Bukhsh AR (2012)
Ethanolic extract of Thuja occidentalis blocks proliferation of A549 cells and induces apoptosis
in vitro. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Xue Bao 10(12):1451–1459
Mukundan MA, Chacko MC, Annapurna VV, Krishnaswamy K (1993) Effect of turmeric and
curcumin in BP-DNA adducts. Carcinogenesis 14:493–496
Murray M (1995) The healing power of the herbs, 2nd edn. Prima Publishing, Rocklin, CA
Nagabhushan M, Rangnekar VN, Ranjan D (1996) Curcumin is cytotoxic to cancer cells. Proc Am
Assoc Cancer Res 37(409)
Nagpal A, Meena LS, Kaur S, Grover IS, Wadhwa R, Kaul SC (2000) Growth suppression of
human transformed cells by treatment with bark extracts from a medicinal plant, Terminalia
arjuna. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 36:544–547
Nair SC, Salomi MJ, Pannikar B, Pannikar KR (1991a) Modulatory effects of the extracts of saffron
and Nigela sativa against cisplatinum induced toxicity in mice. J Ethnopharmacol 31:75–83
Nair SC, Pannikar B, Pannikar KR (1991b) Antitumor activity of saffron (Crocus sativus). Cancer
Lett 57(2):109–114
Nair SC, Kurumboor SK, Hasegawa JH (2009) Saffron chemoprevention in biology and medicine:
a review. Cancer Biother Radiopharmaceut 10(4):257–264
Neogy N, Rathore RS, Shreshth AD, Bannerji BK (1969) Studies on the anti-inflammatory and
anti-arthritic activity of achyranthine. Indian J Pharm 01(47)
Ng WK, Yazan LS, Ismail M (2011) Thymoquinone from Nigella sativa was more potent than cis-
plastin in eliminating SiHa cells via apoptosis with down-regulation of Bcl-2 protein. Toxicol
In Vitro 25(7):1392–1398
Nicholson KM, Anderson NG (2002) The protein kinase B/ Akt signalling pathway in human
malignancy. Cell Signal 14:381–395
Ning ZN, Feng ZX, Fen XB, Chao LZ, Can FG, Qil JW, Hui XH, Jun WS, Zhou YR, Yi WX (2012)
Squamocin induces apoptosis in leukemia cell line HL-60. Chin J Cancer
Nita CW (2003) Safety and anti-inflammatory activity of curcumin: a component of tumeric
(Curcuma Longa). J Altern Complem Med 9(01):161–168
Nosho K, Yoshida M, Yamamoto H, Taniguchi H, Adachi Y, Mikami M, Hinoda Y, Imai K (2005)
Association of Ets-related transcriptional factor E1AF expression with overexpression of
matrix metalloproteinases, COX-2 and iNOS in the early stage of colorectal carcinogenesis.
Carcinogenesis 26:892–899
O’Hara M, Kiefer D, Farell K, Kemper K (1998) A review of 12 commonly used Medicinal herbs.
Arch Fam Med 7:523–536
Oetari S, Sudibyo JN, Commandeur R, Samhoedi NP, Vermeulen NP (1996) Effects of curcumin
on cytochrome P450 and glutathione S-transferase activities in rat liver. Biochem Pharmacol
51:39–45
Ojeswi BK, Khoobchandani M, Hazra DK, Srivastava MM (2010) Protective effect of Thuja occi-
dentalis against DMBA induced breast cancer with reference to oxidative stress. Hum Exp
Toxicol 29(5):369–375
Olas B, Kedzierska M, Wachowicz B, Stochmal A, Oleszek W, Jeziorski A, Piekarski J, Glowacki
R (2010) Effect of Aronia on thiol leaves in plasma of breast cancer patients. Cent Eur J Biol
5(1):38–46
Oudhia P (n.d.) Arjun or Koha [Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) W. & A.]. Society for Parthenium
Management. (SOPAM). http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/terminalia.
html. Accessed 25 Oct 2012
Pan J, Kai GQ, Yuan CX, Jin RS (2007) Seperation and determination of the structural isomers of
madecassoside by HPLC using beta-cyclodextrin as mobile phase additive. Chromatographia
66(1-2):121–123
Panda H. Elephantopus scaber. Handbook on medicinal herbs with uses. Asia Specific Bussiness
Press, Delhi 2004; pp.491-493.
Pandey G (2011) Antioxidant vegetables act against cancer and other diseases. Int J Pharm Stu
Res 2(1):32–38
Park BC, Bosire KO, Lee ES, Lee YS, Kim JA (2005) Asiatic acid induces apoptosis in SK-MEL-2
human melanoma cells. Cancer Lett 218(01):81–90
Park BC, Paek SH, Lee YS, Kim SJ, Lee ES, Choi HG, Yong CS, Kim JA (2007) Inhibitory effects
of asiatic acid on 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate-
induced tumor promotion in mice. Biol Pharm Bull 30(01):176–179
Pasquini R, Scassellati-Sforzolini G, Villarini M, Moretti M, Marcarelli M, Fatigoni C, Kaur S,
Kumar S, Grover IS (2002) In vitro protective effects of Terminalia arjuna bark extract against
the 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide genotoxicity. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 21:33–44
Pettit GR, Hoard MS, Doubek DL, Schmidt JM, Pettit RK, Tackett LP, Chapuis JC (1996)
Antineoplastic agents 338. The cancer cell growth inhibitory. Constituents of Terminalia
Arjuna (Combretaceae). J Ethnopharmacol 53:57–63
Pezzuto JM, Moon RC, CKH C, Chang CJ (2007) New approach for evaluating anti breast cancer
activity of traditional Chinese medicine. Altern Treatment Cancer 3:325
Physician Desk Reference for Herbal Drugs (2000) Medical Economics Company Montvale, New
Jersy, pp 359–361
Piper JT, Singhal SS, Salameh MS, Torman RT, Awasthi YC, Awasthi S (1998) Mechanisms of
anticarcinogenic properties of curcumin: the effect of curcumin on glutathione linked detoxifi-
cation enzymes in rat liver. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 30(04):445–456
Piwocka K, Zablocki K, Wieckowski MR, Skierski J, Feiga I, Szopa J, Drela N, Wojtczak L,
Sikora E (1999) A novel apoptosis-like pathway, independent of mitochondria and caspases,
induced by curcumin in human lymphoblastoid T (Jurkat) cells. Exp Cell Res 249(02):299–307
Poli A, Nicolau M, Simoes CMO, Nicolau RMR, Zanin M (1992) Preliminary pharmacologic eval-
uation of crude whole extract of Elephantopus scaber. Part I: in vivo studies. J Ethnopharmacol
37(1):71–76
Post JFM, Varma RS (1992) Growth inhibitory effects of bioflavonoids and related compounds on
human leukemic CEM-C1 and CEM-C7 cells. Cancer Lett 67:207–213
Powolny AA, Bommareddy A, Hahm ER, Normolle DP, Beumer JH, Nelson JB, Singh SV (2011)
Chemopreventative potential of the cruciferous vegetable constituent phenethyl isothiocyanate
in mouse model of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 103(7):571–584
Pradhasaradhi BVV, Madhurima R, Mubarak AA, Leela KA, Ashok K (2004) Antitumor activity
of Annona squamosa seed extracts is through the generation of free radicals and induction of
apoptosis. Indian J Biochem Biophys 41(4):167–172
Pradhasaradhi BVV, Madhurima R, Mubarak AA, Leela KA, Ashok K (2005) Differential cyto-
toxic effects of Annona squamosa seed extracts on human tumor cell lines: role of reactive
oxygen species and glutathione. J Biosci 30(2):237–244
Prakash AO (1996) Potentialities of some indigenous plants for anti-fertility activity. Int J Crude
Drug Res 24(1):19–24
Puntureea K, Wildb CP, Vinitketkumneuna U (2004) Thai medicinal plants modulate nitric oxide
and tumor necrosis factor-α in J774.2 mouse macrophages. J Ethnopharmacol 95:183–189
Qureshi R, Waheed A, Arshad M, Umbreen T (2009) Medico-ethnobotanical inventory of tehsil
Chakwal, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 41(2):529–538
Rahmawati E, Dewoto HR, Wuyung PE (2006) Anticancer activity study of ethanol extract of
mahkota dewa fruit pulp (phaleria macrocarpa (scheff.) boerl.) in c3h mouse mammary tumor
induced by transplantation. Med J Indonesia 15(4):217–222
Ramachandran C, You W (1999) Differential sensitivity of human mammary epithelial and breast
carcinoma cell lines to curcumin. Breast Cancer Res Treat 54(03):269–278
Ramirez-Mares MV, Chandra S, De Mejia EG (2004) In vitro chemopreventive activity of Camellia
sinensis, Ilex paraguariensis and Ardisia compressa tea extracts and selected polyphenols. Mut
Res/Fundamental Mol Mech Mutagen 554(1–2):53–65
Rao AR, Sadhana AS, Goel HC (1990) Inhibition of skin tumors in DMBA-induced complete car-
cinogenesis system in mice by garlic (Allium sativum). Indian J Exp Biol 28:405–408
Rao CV, Rivenson A, Simi B, Zang E, Kelloff G, Steele V, Reddy BS (1995a) Chemoprevention
of colon carcinogenesis by sulindac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent. Cancer Res
55:1464–1472
Rao CV, Rivenson A, Simi B, Reddy BS (1995b) Chemoprevention of colon carcinogenesis by
dietary curcumin, a naturally occurring plant phenolic compound. Cancer Res 55:259–266
Ravindranath MH, Ramasamay V, Moon S, Ruiz C, Muthugounder S (2009) Differential growth
suppression of human melanoma cells by tea (Camellia sinensis) epicatechins (ECG, EGC and
EGCG). ECAM 6(4):523–530
Reddy BS, Rao CV, Rivenson A, Kelloff G (1993) Inhibitory effect of aspirin on azoxymethane-
induced colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats. Carcinogenesis (Lond.) 14:1493–1497
Reynolds T, Dweck AC (1999) Aloe vera leaf gel: a review update. J Ethnopharmacol 68:3–37
Roesler J, Steinmuller C, Kiderlen A, Emmendorfer A, Wagner H, Lohmann-Mathes M (1991)
Application of purified polysaccharides fromcell cultures of the plant Echinacea purpurea to
test subjects mediated activation of the phagocyte system. Int J Immunopharmacol 13:931–941
Rogala E, Skopinska-Rozewska E, Wasiutinski A, Siwicki AK, Pastewka K (2008) Echinacea pur-
purea diminishes neovascular reaction induced in mice skin by human cancer cells and stimu-
late non-specific cellular immunity in humans. Cent Eur J Immunol 33(3):127–130
Rohini G, Devi CSS (2008) Bacopa monnieri extract induces in murine sarcoma cells (S-180).
Rooney S, Ryan MF (2005) Effects of alpha-hederin and thymoquinone constituents of Nigella
sativa, on human cancer cell lines. Int J Cancer Res Treatment 25(3B):2199–2204
Rosangkima G, Prasad SB (2004) Antitumour activity of some plants from Meghalaya and
Mizoram against murine ascites Dolton’s lymphoma. Indian J Exp Biol 42:981–988
Roth GN, Chandra A, Nair MG (1997) Novel bioactivities of Curcuma longa constituents. J Nat
Prod 61(04):542–545
Rubya AJ, Kuttana G, Babub KD, Rajasekharanb KN, Kutta R (1995) Anti-tumour and antioxidant
activity of natural curcuminoids. Cancer Lett 94:79–83
Ryu SY, Choi SU, Lee CO, Lee SH, Ahn JW, Zee OP (1994) Antitumor activity of some phenolic
components in plants. Arch Pharm Res 17:42–44
Sadhana AS, Rao AR, Kucheria K, Bijani V (1988) Inhibitory action of garlic oil on the initiation
of benzo(a)pyrene-induced skin carcinogenesis in mice. Cancer Lett 40:193–197
Salomi MJ, Nair SC, Panikkar PR (1990) Inhibitory effects of Nigella sativa and saffron (Crocus
sativus) on chemical carcinogenesis in mice and its non mutagenic activity. Proc Ker Sci Congr
3:125–126
Salomi MJ, Nair SC, Panikkar KR (1991) Inhibitory effects of Nigella sativa and saffron (Crocus
sativus) on chemical carcinogenesis in mice. Nutr Cancer 16(1):67–72
Salomi NJ, Nair SC, Jayawardhanan KK, Varghese CD, Panikkar KR (1992) Antitumor principles
from Nigella sativa seeds. Cancer Lett 63(1):41–46
Salucci M, Stivala LA, Maiani G, Bugianesi R, Vannini V (2002) Flavoids uptake and their effect
on cell cycle of human colon adenocarcinoma cells (Caco2). Br J Cancer 86:1645–1651
Salvesen GS, Dixit VM (1997) Caspases: Intracellular signaling by proteolysis. Cell 91:443–446
Samaha HS, Hamid R, El-Bayoumy K, Rao CV, Reddy BS (1997) The role of apoptosis in the
modulation of colon carcinogenesis by dietary fat and by the organoselenium compound
1,4-phenylenebis(methylene)selenocyanate. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 06:699–704
Samarghandian S, Boskabady MH, Dovoodi S (2010) Use of in vitro assays to assess the potential
anti-proliferative and cytotoxic effects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in human lung cancer cell
line. Cancer Biother Radiopharmaceut 6(24):309–314
Samarghandian S, Afshai JT, Davoodi S (2011) Suppression of pulmonary tumor promo-
tion and induction of apoptosis by Crocus sativus L. extraction. Appl Biochem Biotechnol
164(2):238–247
Samy PR, Ignacimuthu S, Sen A (1998) Screening of 34 Indian medicinal plants for antibacterial
properties. J Ethnopharmacol 62:173–182
Sarikamis G (2009) Glucosinolates in crucifers and their potential effects against cancer: review.
Can J Plant Sci 89(5):953–959
Saumya D, Priya B, Kumar DM, Sanjita D. (n.d.) Plants as rich source of antimalig-
nant agents. Pharma tutor. Pharmacy infopedia. http://www.pharmatutor.org/articles/
plants-used-as-source-of-antimalignant-agent
Saxena M, Faridi U, Mishra R, Gupta MM, Darokar MP, Srivastava SK, Singh D, Luqman S,
Khanuja SPS (2007) Cytotoxic agents from Terminalia arjuna. Planta Med 73:1486–1490
Schaffer EM, Liu JZ, Green J, Dangler CA, Milner JA (1996) Garlic and associated allyl sulfur
components inhibit N-methyl-N-nitrosourea induced rat mammary carcinogenesis. Cancer
Lett 102:199–204
Seki T, Hosono T, Hosono-Fukao T, Inada K, Tanaka R, Oqihara J, Ariqa T (2008) Anticancer
effects of diallyl trisulphide derived from garlic. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 17(1):249–252
Sengupta A, Das S (2003) Tomato and garlic can modulate azoxymethane-induced colon carcino-
genesis in rats. Eur J Cancer Prev 12:195–200
Sengupta A, Ghosh S, Das S (2004) Modulatory influence of garlic and tomato on cyclooxy-
genase-2 activity, cell proliferation and apoptosis during azoxymethane induced colon car-
cinogenesis in rat. Cancer Lett 208:127–136
Shafi G, Munshi A, Hasan TN, Alshatwi AA, Jyothy A, Lei DK (2009) Induction of apoptosis in
HeLa cells by chloroform fraction of seed extracts of Nigella sativa. Cancer Cell Int 9:29
Shankar S, Srivastava RK (2007a) Bax and Bak genes are essential for maximum apoptotic
response by curcumin, a polyphenolic compound and cancer chemopreventive agent derived
from turmeric, Curcuma longa. Carcinogenesis 28(06):1277–1286
Shankar S, Srivastava RK (2007b) Involvement of Bcl-2 family members, phosphatidylinositol
3#-kinase/AKT and mitochondrial p53 in curcumin (diferulolylmethane)- induced apoptosis in
prostate cancer. Int J Oncol 30(4):905–918
Shankar S, Marsh L, Srivastava RK (2013) EGCG inhibits growth of human pancreatic tumors
orthotopically implanted in Balb C nude mice through modulation of FKHRL1/FOXO3a and
neuropilin. Mol Cell Biochem 372(1-2):83–94
Shanker KS, Kanjilal S, Rao BVSK, Kishore KH, Prasad RBN (2007) Isolation and antimicro-
bial evaluation of isomeric hydroxy ketones in leaf cuticular waxes of Annona squamosa.
Phytochem Anal 18(1):7–12
Sharif T, Alhosin M, Auger C, Minker C, Kim JH, Etienne-Selloum N, Bories P, Gronemeyer
H, Lobstein A, Bronner C, Fuhrmann G, Schini-Kerth VB (2012) Aronia melanocarpa juice
induces a redox sensitive p73 related caspase-3 dependent apoptosis in human leukemia cells.
Plos One 7(3):e32526
Shaw RJ, Cantley LC (2006) Ras.PI(3)K and mTOR signaling controls tumour cell growth. Nature
441:424–430
Sheen LY, Wu CC, Lii CK, Tsai SJ (2001) Effect of diallyl sulphide and diallyl disulphide, the
active principle of garlic, on aflatoxin B(1)-induced DNA damage in primary rat hepatocytes.
Toxicol Lett 122(1):45–52
Shinwari ZK, Gilani SS (2003) Sustainable harvest of medicinal plants at Bulashbar Nullah,
Astore, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 84:289–298
Shinwari MI, Khan MA (2000) Folk use of medicinal herbs of Margalla hills National Park,
Islamabad. J Ethnopharmacol 69:45–56
Shirin H, Pinto JT, Kawabata Y, Soh JW, Delohery T, Moss SF, Murty V, Rivlin RS, Holt PR,
Weinstein IB (2001) Antiproliferative effects of S-allylmercaptocysteine on colon cancer cells
when tested alone or in combination with sulindac sulfide. Cancer Res 61:725–731
Simon A, Allais DP, Duroux JL, Basly JP, Durand-Fontanier S, Delage C (1998) Inhibitory effect
of curcuminoids on MCF-7 cell proliferation and structure-activity relationships. Cancer Lett
129(01):111–116
Singh V (1995) Traditional remedies to treat asthma in the North West and Trans-Himalayan
region in J. & K. state. Fitoterapia 66:507–509
Singh S, Khar A (2006) Biological effects of curcumin and its role in cancer chemoprevention and
therapy. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 06(03):259–270
Singh B, Rastogi RP (1969) A reinvestigation of triterpenes of Centella asiatica. Phytochemistry
08:917
Singh AK, Sidhu GS, Deepa T, Maheshwari RK (1996) Curcumin inhibits the proliferation and
cell cycle progression of human umbilical vein endothelial cell. Cancer Lett 107:109–115
Singh RP, Dhanalakshmi S, Rao AR (2000) Chemomdoulatory action of Aloe vera on the profiles
of enzymes associated with carcinogen metabolism and antioxidant status regulation in mice.
Phytomedicine 7(3):209–219
Singh AV, Xiao D, Lew KL, Dhir R, Singh SV (2004) Sulphorane induces caspase-mediated
apoptosis in cultured PC-3human prostate cancer cells and retards growth of PC-3 xenografts
in vivo. Carcinogenesis 25(1):83–90
Singletary K, MacDonald C, Wallig M, Fisher C (1996) Inhibition of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthra-
cene (DMBA)-induced mammary tumorigenesis and DMBA-DNA adduct formation by cur-
cumin. Cancer Lett 103(02):137–141
Sivalokanathan S, Ilayaraja M, Balasubramanian MP (2005) Efficacy of Terminalia arjuna
(Roxb.) on N-Nitrosodiethylamine induced hepatocellular carcinoma in rats. Indian J Exp Biol
43(03):264–267
Sivalokanathan S, Vijayababu MR, Balasubramanian MP (2006) Effects of Terminalia arjuna
bark extract on apoptosis of human hepatoma cell line HepG2. World J Gastroenterol
12(07):1018–1024
Siveen KS, Kuttan G (2011) Thujone inhibits lung metastasis induced B16F-10. Melanoma cells
in C57BL/6 mice. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 89(10):691–703
Sohi KK, Mittal N, Hundal MK, Khanduja KL (2003) Gallic acid, an antioxidant, exhibits anti
apoptotic potential in normal human lymphocytes: a Bcl-2 independent mechanism. J Nutr Sci
Vitaminol 49:221–227
Soladoye MO, Amasu NA, Raji-Esan SO, Chukwuma EC, Taiwo AA (2010) Ethnobotanical sur-
vey of anti-cancer plants in Ogun state, Nigeria. Ann Biol Res 1(4):261–273
Song K, Milner JA (2001) The influence of heating on the anticancer properties of garlic. Am Soc
Nutr Sci 131(3):1054S–1057S
Srivastava R, Ahmed H, Dixit RK, Dharamveer SSA (2010) Crocus sativus L.: a comprehensive
review. Pharmacogn Rev 4(8):200–208
Steenkamp V, Stewart MJ (2007) Medicinal applications and toxicological activities of Aloe prod-
ucts. Pharm Biol 45:411–420
Stoner GD, Morse MA (1997) Isothiocyanates and plant polyphenols as inhibitors of lung and
esophageal cancer. Cancer Lett 114(1–2):113–119
Su CC, Chen GW, Tan TW, Lin JG, Chung JG (2006) Crude extract of garlic induced caspase-3
gene expression leading to apoptosis in human colon cancer cells. In Vivo 20:85–90
Su M, Chung HY, Li Y (2011) Deoxyelephantopin from Elephantopus scaber L. induces cell cycle
arrest and apoptosis in the human nasopharyngeal cancer CNE cells. Biochem Biophys Res
Commun 411(2):342–347
Subbarayan PR, Sarkar M, Rao SN, Philip S, Kumar P, Altman N, Reis I, Ahmed M, Ardalan B,
Lokeshwar BL (2012) Achyranthes aspera (Apamarg) leaf extract inhibits human pancreatic
tumor growth in athymic mice by apoptosis. J Ethnopharmacol 142:523–530
Subbarayana PR, Sarkarb M, Impellizzeric S, Raymoc F, Lokeshward BL, Kumare P, Agarwala
RP, Ardalana B (2010) Anti-proliferative and anti-cancer properties of Achyranthes aspera:
Specific inhibitory activity against pancreatic cancer cells. J Ethnopharmacol 131:78–82
Sueiro L, Yousef GG, Seigler D, De Mejia EG, Grace MH, Lila MA (2006) Chemopreventive
potential of flavonoid extracts from plantation-bred and wild Aronia melanocarpa (Black
chokeberry) fruits. J Food Sci 71(8):C480–C488
Sugi M (1977) Cancer therapy by Chinese crude drugs. In: Kondo K (ed) Cancer therapy in China
today, pp 95–96
Sun XM, MacFarlane M, Zhuang J, Wolf BB, Green DR, Cohen GM (1999) Distinct caspase
cascades are initiated in receptor-mediated and chemical-induced apoptosis. J Biol Chem
274:5053–5060
Sun L, Zhu H, Gan L, Mo J, Feng F, Zhou C (2012) Constituents from the bark of Annona squa-
mosa and their antitumor activity. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 37(14):2100–2104
Sundaram SG, Milner JA (1996) Diallyl disulfide inhibits the proliferation of human tumor cells in
culture. Biochim Biophys Acta 1315:15–20
Sunila ES, Kuttan G (2006) A preliminary study on antimetastatic activity of Thuja occidentalis L.
in mice model. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 28(2):269–280
Sunila ES, Hamsa TP, Kuttan G (2011) Effect of Thuja occidentalis and its polysaccharide on cell-
mediated immune responses and cytokine levels of metastatic tumor bearing animals. Pharm
Biol 49(10):1065–1073
Surendra P, Salamone VE, Goldin B (1997) Curcumin and genistein, plant natural products, show
synergistic inhibitory effects on the growth of human breast cancer Mcf-7 cells induced by
estrogenic pesticides. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 233(03):692–696
Suresh K, Manoharan S, Panjamurthy K, Senthil N (2007) Modifying effects of Annona squamosa
glycoconjugates levels in 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)Anthracene induced hamster buccal pouch car-
cinogenesis. J Med Sci 7(1):100–105
Suresh K, Manoharan S, Vijayaanand MA, Sugunadevi G (2010) Modifying effects of Annona
squamosa linn. On glycoconjugates levels in 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)Anthracene (DMBA)
induced hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis. J App Sci Res (6, 8):973–979
Susin SA, Lorenzo HK, Zamzami N, Marzo I, Snow BE, Brothers GM, Mangion J, Jacotot E,
Costantini P, Loeffler M, Larochette N, Goodlett DR, Aebersold R (1999) Mitochondrial
release of caspase-2 and -9 during the apoptotic process. J Exp Med 189:381–394
Tabolacci C, Lentini A, Mattioli P, Provenzano B, Oliverio S, Carlomosti F, Beninati S (2010)
Antitumor properties of aloe-emodin and induction of transglutaminase 2 activity in B16-F10
melanoma cells. Life Sci 87:316–324
Tahiliani P, Kar A (2000) Achyranthes aspera elevates thyroid hormone level and decreases hepatic
lipid peroxidation in male rats. J Ethnopharmacol 71:527–532
Taira J, Nanbu H, Ueda K (2009) Nitric oxide-scavenging compounds in Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb
on LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages. Food Chem 115:1221–1227
Takada Y, Sethi G, Sung B, Aggarwal BB (2008) Flavopiridol suppresses tumor necrosis factor
induced activation of activator protein-1, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, p38 Mitogen activated pro-
tein kinase (MAPK), p44/p42 MAPK, and Akt, inhibits expression of antiapoptotic gene prod-
ucts, and enhances apoptosis through cytochrome c release and caspase activation in human
myeloid cells. Mol Pharmacol 73(5):1549–1577
Tanaka S, Haruma K, Yoshihara M, Kajiyama G, Kira K, Amagase H, Chayama K (2006) Aged

garlic extract has potential suppressive effect on colorectal adenomas in human. J Nutr
136:821S–826S
Tandrasasmita OM, Lee JS, Baek SH, Tjandrawinata RR (2010) Induction of cellular apoptosis in
human breast cancer by DLBS1425, a Phaleria macrocarpa compound extract, via downregula-
tion of PI3-kinase/AKT pathway. Cancer Biol Ther 10(08):814–823
Tang W, Eisenbrand G (1992) Achyranthes bidentata BI. In: Chinese drugs of plant origin.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 13–17
Tang L, Zirpoli GR, Guru K, Moysich KB, Zhang Y, Ambrosone CB, McCann SE (2008)
Consumption of raw cruciferous vegetables is inversely associated with bladder cancer risk.
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17:938
Taraphdar AK, Roy M, Bhattacharya RK (2001) Natural products as inducers of apoptosis:
Implication for cancer therapy and prevention. Curr Sci 80:1387–1396
Tavakkol-Ashfari J, Brook A, Mousavi SH (2008) Study of cytotoxic and apoptogenic properties
of saffron extract in human cancer cell lines. Food Chem Toxicol 46(11):3443–3447
Temple NJ, Basu TK (1987) Selenium and cabbage and colon carcinogenesis in mice. J Natl
Cancer Inst 79(5):1131–1134
Thabrew MI, Mitry RR, Morsy MA, Hughes RD (2005) Cytotoxic effects of a decoction of Nigella
sativa, Hemidesmus indicus and Smilax glabra on human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Life Sci
77(12):1319–1330
Thani ANA, Sallis B, Nuttall R, Schubert FR, Ahsan M, Davies D, Purewal S, Cooper A, Rooprai
HK (2012) Induction of apoptosis and reduction of MMP gene expression in U373cell line by
polyphenolics in Aronia melanocarpa and by curcumin. Oncol Rep 28(4):1435–1442
The Wealth of India (1992): A dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial products-raw
materials series, vol. 3. Publications and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi. Rev Ser.,
pp 428–430.
Thind TS, Agrawal SK, Saxena AK, Arora S (2008) Studies on cytotoxic, hydroxyl radical scav-
enging and topoisomerase inhibitory activities of extracts of Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.)
R.Br. ex Rome. and Schult. Food Chem Toxicol 46(8):2922–2927
Thomson M, Ali M (2003) Garlic [Allium sativum]: a review of its potential use as an anticancer
agent. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 3(1):67–81
Tjandrawinata RR, Aritin PF, Tandrasasmita OM, Rahmi D, Aripin A (2010) DLBS1425, a
Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. extract confers anti proliferative and proapoptosis effects
via eicosanoid pathway. J Exp Ther Oncol 08(03):187–201
Tjandrawinata RR, Aripin A, Aritin PF, Rahmi D (2011) Extract of Phaleria macrocarpa as an
anti-neoplastic, anti-inflammatory and antiangiogenic agent. United States. Patent Application
Publication
Tomasin R, Gomes-Marcondes MCC (2011) Oral administration of Aloe vera and honey reduces
walker tumor growth by decreasing cell proliferation and increasing apoptosis in tumor tissues.
Top Tropicals (n.d.) Camellia sinensis. Available online http://toptropicals.com/downloads/tea.pdf
Tsai YL, Chiu CC, Chen JY, Chan KC, Lin SD (2012) Cytotoxic effects of Echinacea purpurea
flower extracts and cichoric acid on human colon cancer cells through induction of apoptosis.
Tsuda H, Ohshima Y, Nomoto H, Fujita K, Matsuda E, Iigo M, Takasuka N, Moore MA (2004)
Cancer prevention by natural compounds. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 19:245–263
Uddin S, Hussain A, Al-Husein K, Platianias LC, Bhatia KG (2004) Inhibition of phosphati-
dylinositol 3'-kinase induces preferentially killing of PTEN-null T leukemias through AKT
pathway. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 320:932–938
Uruena C, Cifuentes C, Castaneda D, Arango A, Kaur P, Asea A, Fiorentino S (2008) Petiveria
alliacea extracts uses multiple mechanisms to inhibit growth of human and mouse tumoral
cells. BMC Complement Altern Med 8(60)
Utami CV, Hatane SE, Gorjian M (2011) The application of three herbs; Chrysanthemum indicum,
Centella asiatica, and Andrographis paniculata to reduce bacteria in cow milk. Int J Comp Inter
Manag 19(02):38–43
Valcheva-Kuzmanova SV, Belcheva A (2006) Current knowledge of Aronia melanocarpa as a
medicinal plant. Folia Med (Plovdiv) 48(2):11–17
Verhoeven DT, Goldbohm RA, Van Poppel G, Verhagen H, Van Den Brandt PA (1996)
Epidemiological studies on Brassica vegetables and cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers
Prev 5:733
Verhoeven DTH, Verhagen H, Goldbohm RA (1997) Ven den Brandt PA, Van Poppel G. A review
of mechanism underlying anticarcinogenicity by Brassica vegetables. Chem Biol Interact
103(2):79–129
Verma N, Vinayak M (2009) Effect of terminalia Arjuna on antioxidant defense system in cancer.
Mol Biol Rep 36:159–164
Vetrichelvan T, Jegadeesan M (2003) Effect of alcohol extract of Achyranthes aspersa Linn. on
acute and sub-acute inflammation. Phytother Res 17(1):77–79
Villegas I, Sanchez-Fidalgo S, de la Lastra CA (2008) New mechanisms and therapeutic potential
of curcumin for colorectal cancer. Mol Nutr Food Res 52:1040–1061
Vrchovska V, Sousa C, Valentao P, Ferreres F, Pereira JA, Seabra RM, Andrade PB (2006)
Antioxidative properties of tronchuda cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. costata DC) external
leaves against DPPH, superoxide radical, hydroxyl radical and hypochlorous acid. Food Chem
98(3):416–425
Wang B, Jin Z (2011) Agrimoniin induced SGC7901 cell apoptosis associated mitochondrial trans-
membrane potential and intracellular calcium concentration. J Med Plant Res 5(15):3513–3519
Wang JP, Hsu MF, Teng CM (1984) Antihemostatic effect of Hsien-Ho-T0sao (Agrimonia pilosa).
Am J Chin Med 12:116–123
Wang JP, Hsu MF, Teng CM (1985) Antiplatelet effect of Hsien-Ho-T0sao (Agrimonia pilosa). Am
J Chin Med 13:109–118
Warrier PK, Nambiar VPK, Kutty RC (1993) Indian medicinal plants, vol 1. Orient Longman Ltd.,
Madras, p 209
Wee S, Wiederschain D, Maira SM, Loo A, Miller C, deBeaumont R et al (2008) PTEN-deficient
cancers depend on PIK3CB. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105:13057–13062
Williams LAD, Rosner H, Levy HG, Barton EN (2007) A critical review of the therapeutic poten-
tial of dibenzyl trisulphide isolated from Petiveria alliacea L (Guinea henweed, Anamu). West
Indian Med J 56(1):17–21
Wilson CL, Solar JM, Ghaouth AEL, Wisnicwski MC (1997) Rapid evaluation of plant extracts
and essential oils for antifungal activity against Botrytis Cincrea. Plant Dis 81(z):204–210
Winarno H, Katrin E (2009) Benzophenone glucoside isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of
the bark of Mahkota dewa [Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.] and its inhibitory activity on
Leukemia L1210 cell line. Indo J Chem 09(01):142–145
Winarto WP, Mahkota Dewa (2003), Budi Daya & Pemanfaatan Obat, Cetakan Kelima, Penebar
Swadaya. Jakarta; 03.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (2006) In: IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species
Wu YD, Lou YJ (2007) A steroid fraction of chloroform extract from bee pollen of Brassica camp-
estris induces apoptosis in human prostate cancer PC-3 cells. Phytother Res 21(11):1087–1091
Wu X, Kassie F, Mersch-Sundermann V (2005) Induction of apoptosis in tumor cells by naturally
occurring sulfur-containing compounds. Mutat Res 589:81–102
Wu QJ, Yang Y, Vogtmann A, Wang J, Han LH, Li LH, Xiang YB (2012) Cruciferous vegetables
intake and the risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Ann Oncol
http://annonc.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/12/03/annonc.mds601.abstract
Xu G, Liang Q, Gong Z, Yu W, He S, Xi L (2006) Antitumor activities of the four sesquiterpene
lactones from Elephantopus scaber L. Exp Oncol 28(2):106–109
Xue Z, Liu Z, Wu M, Zhuang S, Yu W (2010) Effect of rapeseed peptide on DNA damage and
apoptosis in HeLa cells. Exo Toxicol Pathol 62(5):519–523
Yagihashi N, Kasajima H, Sugai S, Matsumoto K, Ebina Y, Morita T, Murakami T, Yagihashi
S (2000) Increased in situ expression of nitric oxide synthase in human colorectal cancer.
Virchows Arch 436:109–114
Yang CS, Wang X (2010) Green tea and cancer prevention. Nutr Cancer 62(7):931–937
Yang CS, Wang H (2011) Mechanistic issues concerning cancer prevention by tea Catechins. Mol
Nutr Food Res 55(6):819–831
Yekti Y (2010) Phaleria Macrocarp. Free traditional medicinal tips; http://tmedical.blogspot.
com/2012/04/phaleria-macrocarpa.html. Accessed 21 Oct 2012
Yoosook C, Bunyapraphatsara N, Boonyakiat Y, Kantasuk C (2000) Anti-herpes simplex virus
activities of crude water extracts of Thai medicinal plants. Phytomedicine 06:411–419
Yoshida T, Hatano T, Ito H (2000) Chemistry and function of vegetable polyphenols with high
molecular weights. Biofactors 13:121–125
Yoshida M, Fuchigami M, Nagao T, Okabe H, Matsunaga K, Takata J, Karube Y, Tsuchihashi R,
Kinjo J, Mihashi K, Fujioka T (2005) Antiproliferative constituents from Umbelliferae plants
VII. Active terpenes and rosmarinic acid from Centella asiatica. Biol Pharm Bull 28(1):173–175
Yuan JM, Sun C, Butler LM (2011) Tea and cancer prevention: epidemiological studies. Off J Ital
Pharmacol Soc 64(2):123–135
Zhang Y, Talalay P, Cho CG, Posner GH (1992) A major inducer of anticarcinogenic protective
enzymes from broccoli: isolation and elucidation of structure. PNAS 89(6):2399–2403
Zheng J, Yang B, Huang T, Yang J, Li D (2011) Green tea and Black tea consumption and prostate
cancer risk: an exploratory meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutr Cancer 63(5):663–672
Zhu BH, Zhan WH, Li ZR, Wang Z, He YL, Peng JS, Cai SR, Ma JP, Zhang CH (2007)
(-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibits growth of gastric cancer by reducing VEGF production
and angiogenesis. World J Gastroenterol 13(8):1162–1169
Zhu L, Tan J, Wang B, He R, Liu Y, Zheng C (2009) Antioxidant activities of aqueous extract from
Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb and its fractions. Chem Biodivers 06:1716–1726
Zimmerman B (n.d.) Echinacea. Open line garden show. Articles 2007; http://www.brucezimmer-
man.com/ARTICLES/ECHINACEA.htm
Herbals in Iğdır (Turkey), Nakhchivan
(Azerbaijan), and Tabriz (Iran)
Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Ernaz Altundağ, S. Jamshid Ibadullayeva,

Behnaz Aslanipour, and Tuba Mert Gönenç
Introduction
The families, communities, nations, and future generations will have to depend on
biodiversity as an essential resource in their daily life (Cocks 2006). Bio and human
diversities represent the link between biocultural diversity. The role played by
humans in the conservation of biodiversity is great, since the latter represents a
source of raw material in which the processes of evolution depend. The lesser the
diversity, the greater the chances for living beings to get destroyed due to loss of
resilience to environmental changes. Therefore it is important that we maintain our
biodiversity, as it provides living beings with different ways of understanding and
interacting with each other on our planet and ultimately offers different possibilities
for the future of humans (Milton 1996; Cocks 2006; Bedelov et al. 2014).
The biodiversity is perceived and appreciated by different cultures and people in
different ways. This is because of their distinct heritage and experience (Posey 1999).
M. Ozturk (*)
Vice President of the Islamic World Academy of Sciences, Amann, Jordan
Department of Botany, Centre for Environmental Studies, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
V. Altay
Faculty of Science and Arts, Department of Biology, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University,
Hatay, Turkey
E. Altundağ
Faculty of Science and Arts, Department of Biology, Düzce University, Düzce, Turkey
S. Jamshid Ibadullayeva
Botany Institute of the Azerbaijan NAS, Ethnobotany, Bakü, Azerbaijan
B. Aslanipour
Centre for Science and Technology, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
T. M. Gönenç
Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacognosy, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_6
198 M. Ozturk et al.
The intricate connection between biodiversity conservation and cultural diversity is

revolving around the topic if cultural diversity can sustain a wide variety of use prac-
tices together with conservation of natural resources (Posey 1999; McNeely 2000). We
know well that, all through the past centuries, owing to their several beneficial features,
the plants have played an important role in the daily life of humans, providing food and
medicines, together with plant fibers for clothes, wood for building, etc. (Han and Bulut
2015). Plants are an integral part of all living organisms of the planet Earth and MAPS
are distributed worldwide (Singh et al. 2012).
The use of natural products with therapeutic properties is as ancient as human
civilization, and, for a long time, mineral, plant, and animal products have remained
as the main source of drugs (De Pasquale 1984; Rates 1991). The MAPS used for
various illnesses are placed first in order of importance as natural resources.
Treatment with traditional folk medicine is still highly accepted, particularly by
those lacking an access to the modern healthcare. Inevitably the so-called traditional
folk medicine mostly originates from plants, and around 80% of the world popula-
tion use plants to treat health problems (WHO 1993; Han and Bulut 2015). The
MAPS are an important source of modern drugs. Nearly 25% of the drugs pre-
scribed worldwide come from plants (Rates 1991). While estimates vary between
35.000 and 70.000 plant species, these probably have been used for medicaments
(Farnsworth and Soejarto 1991; Akerele 1992; Leman 2006). This level of usage
suggests from 10 to 25% of the present day 310.129 plant species, thought to occur
in the world, could have medicinal active constituents (Chapman 2009; Mamedov
and Craker 2012). Identifying medicinal plants and their beneficial medicinal quali-
ties, however, requires active investigations (Mamedov and Craker 2012). Fabricant
and Farnsworth (2001) have identified 123 plant-derived drugs currently prescribed
in the industrial world. The vast majority of these drugs, many of which are used
daily in allopathic practices, were mostly discovered by studying the plants used in
the traditional medicines of a number of countries (Farnsworth 1992).
One of the most powerful means for addressing the issue of change and variability
of medicinal plant uses and heritage is cross-cultural and cross-border ethnobotany.
Further studies in Caucasus and nearby regions and beyond need to be addressed with
the trajectory proposed here. This will provide an opportunity to establish if disparate
sociocultural, economic, and political situations have induced some differences in the
local plant use in communities, basically sharing a historical legacy in the same envi-
ronment (Sõukand and Pieroni 2016). Ethnobotanical investigations have mainly con-
sidered the recording of traditional ecological knowledge in a specific place (De
Almeida et al. 2012; Quiroga et al. 2012; Mattalia et al. 2013; Kidane et al. 2014;
Zlatković et al. 2014; Menendez-Baceta et al. 2015). But many of the studies have
compared the species traditionally used in different regions or countries (Madaleno
2010; Bradacs et al. 2011; Ellena et al. 2012; Ghorbani et al. 2012; Sõukand et al.
2013). Cross-cultural ethnobotanical investigations usually focus on how different cul-
tures select and use plants, some trying to analyze how traditional ecological knowl-
edge changes over space and time and which variables explain such patterns (Leporatti
and Ivancheva 2003; Hadjichambis et al. 2008; Leporatti and Ghedira 2009; Łuczaj
2010; Pieroni et al. 2011; Menendez-Baceta et al. 2015).
Herbals in Iğdır (Turkey), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan), and Tabriz (Iran) 199
Study Areas
Iğdır is located in Turkey, in the Eastern Anatolia Region around Erzurum–Kars.

The area is 3.539 km2 (Ozturk et al. 2016). Aras River serves as the border between
Turkey and Armenia; it makes up the northern and northeastern borders of this prov-
ince. Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan) is located in the east, and on the south is the Turkey–
Iran border of the province (Fig. 1). It is the only province in Turkey which has
borders with three countries. Continental climate prevails here but is totally differ-
ent from the surrounding areas. It has typical microclimatic features, because the
temperatures are higher and rainfall is less, thus consisting a “regional climate area”
in the Eastern Anatolia Region. During the year, there is a short, but significant
winter season (December to February) and a relatively long summer (May to
September). In winter the temperatures do fall from −25 to −30 °C. The maximum
temperature in July and August is around 35–40 °C. The highest rainfall is recorded
in spring, while winter is notable as the least rainy season (Ozturk et al. 2016).
Nakhchivan is a part of the Azerbaijan Republic, located in the southwestern part
of the Lesser Caucasus mountains, with a total border length of 398 km. The region
covers 5363 km2 and borders Armenia (221 km) to the east and north, Iran (179 km)
Fig. 1 Map showing the study areas

to the south and west, and Turkey (15 km) to the northwest (Fig. 1). The climate is
extreme continental type, with hot summers and severe winters. Average annual
temperature is 10–14 °C, but areas above 2300–2400 m altitude show a mean annual
air temperature below 4 °C. The maximum air temperature in the lower part of the
state is 18 °C in January and 41–43 °C in July to August; the relative humidity var-
ies, being 74–76% in December to February, but 39–40% in July to August, in the
city proper. In the middle mountain zone, the values change between 69–78% and
52–55% in December to February and July to August, respectively. This situation is
similar to the foothills of the Lesser Caucasus. The main bulk of precipitation falls
in spring (March to May) and the minimum in July to August. In the lowlands
annual rainfall is 210–310 mm; in the mid-mountainous area, it varies between 365
and 550 mm. In the alpine zone, it is 660 mm. Nakhchivan is regarded as a separate
climatic and a physical-geographical region of Azerbaijan (Mirzeyev 1972;
Seyidova and Hüseyin 2012).
Tabriz (38°05′, 46°17′) is the largest city in northwest Iran, with a population
exceeding 1.5 million inhabitants and an area of 45.481 km2 (Taghipour and
Mosaferi 2009). The city is regarded as the capital of East Azerbaijan placed in
northwest of Iran (Fig. 1). Tabriz experiences warm summers and cold winters and
has an average annual temperature of 12.2 °C, with an annual precipitation of
311.1 mm, which falls mostly in winter and spring and accounts for almost half of
annual potential evapotranspiration in this semiarid region (Amiri et al. 2009).
Data Analysis
This data published by Altundağ (2009), Altundag and Ozturk (2011), and Ozturk
et al. (2012) in Iğdır, Turkey; by Mir-Babayev and Waigh (1997), Hasanova et al.
(2000), Mehtiyeva and Zeynalova (2008), and Novruzova et al. (2015) in
Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan; and by Ghazanfar (2011) as well as Joudi and Bibalani
(2010) in Tabriz, Iran, has been evaluated in this chapter in the light of latest find-
ings, together with other ethnobotanical investigations undertaken in the neighbor-
ing areas. The MAPS whose status or name has changed, or has become synonyms,
or has been included under new combinations have been corrected following the
“List of Turkish Vascular Plants” Güner et al. (2012). For each of the MAPS, the
scientific name, vernacular name, preparations, part used, and its use have been
recorded at length in the Appendix 1. The information recorded has been symbol-
ized from the three states in order to follow the appendix easily as follows:
Local names: AZ Nakhchivan-Azerbaijan, IR Tabriz-Iran, TR Iğdır-Turkey
Part used: AP aerial parts, BD buds, BLE basal leaves, BR barks, BU bulb, CA
capitulum, COS corn silk, FL flowers, FR fruit, GU gum, HE herb, IF inflores-
cences, LA latex, LE leaves, PET petiole, RH rhizome, RO root, SE seed, SH shoots,
SP spores; ST stem, WP whole plants
Preparations: BO boiled, CH chewing, CR crushed, DAP direct application, DE
decoction, DI distillate, FE fresh, GA gargle, IH inhalation, IN infusion, IT internal,
OI oil, PA pasture, PI pickled, PO poultice, PU pounded, PW powdered, SM smoke,

VA vaporization
In addition to this, in the areas studied by us, MAPS have been grouped on the
basis of diseases as given below. This has allowed us to make a comparison if the
MAPS used in these areas have same or similar uses:
• Digestive system: Stomach disorders; stomachache; appetizing/orexigenic;
abdominal pain/colic; anthelmintic; carminative/antiflatulence; ulcer; enteralgia;
digestive; intestinal disorders; emetic; abdominal ailments; dysentery; gastroin-
testinal disorders; cholagogue/bile secretion enhancer; gastritis; gallbladder dis-
orders/bile diseases; enteritis/intestinal inflammation; indigestion; stomach
tonic; stomach cancer; stomach cramps; stomach bleeding; nausea; gallstones;
gastrointestinal tract inflammations; inflammation of the stomach; gastrointesti-
nal bloating; disinfection of intestine
• Dermal system: Vulnerary; wounds/swollen wounds/inflamed wounds; myco-
dermatitis/dermatitis; hair care; abscess; antiseptic; scabies; sunstroke; itching;
eczema; erythema on skin; balding; skin diseases; burn; skin cancer; anti-
verrucous/warts; skin care/wrinkles and skin irritations; acne; leprosy; hives;
skin infection; improves the skin’s ability to protect against ultraviolet rays
• Respiratory system: Colds; cough/antitussive; asthma; bronchitis; pulmonic dis-
orders/lung diseases; expectorant; catarrh; flu/influenza; tuberculosis; respira-
tory system; whooping cough; pectoral; pleuritic; emollient; chest pain; shortness
of breath; smoothing chest; sterilization of chest; lung infection; inflammation of
trachea; bronchi infection
• Cardiovascular system: Hypertension; astringent; cardiotonic; anemia; hyper-
cholesterolemia/high cholesterol/cholesterol; cardialgia; embolism/atheroscle-
rosis; malaria; cardiac/cardiovascular system; tachycardia; exudative;
hemafacient; blood purifier; lowering blood pressure; tension; increasing blood
flow; heart attack; palpitations
• Urogenital system: Diuretic; hemorrhoid; kidney stones; constipation; nephral-
gia; diarrhea; laxative; kidney diseases; urinary tract antiseptic; urinary system
disorders; enuresis/urinary retention; nephritis/kidney inflammations; cystitis/
bladder inflammation; Addison disease; anal fissure; kidney infection; urinary
infection; bladder discomfort; strengthens the kidneys; gonorrhea; prostate can-
cer; prostate inflammation; inflammation of the urinary tract system
• Gynecological system: Gynecological diseases; emmenagogue; galactagogue/to
increase milk in women; women’s sterility/infertility; menstrual disorders; abor-
tive; menstrual pain; uterine diseases; birth control; useful for pregnancy; vaginal
discharge
• Ear, nose and throat: Sore throat; throat diseases; sinusitis; angina; tonsillitis;
laryngitis; otitis; pharynx diseases; vertigo; swelling of throat; throat cancer; ear
pain; inflammations of the pharynx; nasal inflammations
• Neurological and psychological: Headache; sedative; analgesic; epilepsy; neu-
ralgia/nerve pain; insomnia; nervous diseases; somniferous; Parkinson; antispas-
modic; antidepressants; migraine; strengthening nerves; sciatica pain; relaxation;
stimulate; melancholy diseases; hypnotic; anti-stress; brain hemorrhage; menin-

gitis; strengthen the body and spirit; dizziness; hysteria; paralysis.
• Mouth and teeth ailment: Toothache; stomatitis; mouth diseases; mouth wounds;
gingivitis; gum diseases; prevent dental decay; halitosis
• Skeletal–muscular system: Rheumatism; edema; backache; calcification (knee);
rachitism/rickets; arthritis; arthralgia/joint pain; myalgia/muscle pain; buckling
of legs; gout
• Other ailments: Diabetes; anti-inflammatory; antipyretic; tonic; cancer; jaun-
dice; internal medicine; goiter; snake, scorpion and bee bites; antiparasitic; vita-
min and energy supports; internal bleeding; diathesis; scurvy; measles;
pancreatitis; scarlatina; obesity; hepatic/liver diseases; hepatitis; facilitator of the
liver function; spasm of the liver; liver pain; spleen disorders; swollen spleen;
spasm of the spleen; fever; for veterinary purposes; anxiety treatment; pains,
disinfection; hiccups; diaphoretic; antiexcitement; improves immune system;
boosting sexual power; antifungal; antiviral; antiallergy; antioxidant; antibacte-
rial; typhoid; treatment of cholera and eye diseases (against itching in the eyes,
eye diseases, cataract)
Comparative Evaluation on Country Basis
A total of 341 taxa of MAPS naturally distributed in the evaluated areas have been
recorded with uses in traditional medicine. These belong to 65 families and have
been recorded here alphabetically with their botanical name and local name (if
known), part used, ailment treated, and information on the preparations used in
Iğdır (Turkey), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan), and Tabriz (Iran) (Appendix 1).
The families with the highest number of taxa are Asteraceae (63 taxa), Lamiaceae
(39 taxa), Apiaceae (24 taxa), Fabaceae (23 taxa), and Rosaceae (23 taxa). These
five families constitute 50.44% of the MAPS distributed in these States (Fig. 2). On
the basis of parts mainly used, we found the numbers as follows: leaves used (100
taxa), herbs (98 taxa), fruits (57 taxa), and roots (54 taxa) (Fig. 3). The most com-
mon preparations used are decoction (161 taxa), followed by infusion (72 taxa),
fresh (54 taxa), and poultice (40 taxa). Other uses and their taxa number are given
in Fig. 4.
In general, the MAPS determined in these states show the following distribution:
164 taxa in Iğdır, 78 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 159 taxa in Tabriz. An evaluation of
these on the basis of diseases has revealed that a major number of taxa are used for
digestive (119 taxa), followed by respiratory (92 taxa), urogenital (80 taxa), dermal
(59 taxa), cardiovascular (37 taxa), gynecological (31 taxa), skeletal–muscular (30
taxa), neurological and psychological (21 taxa), and ear, nose, and throat systems
disorders (6 taxa), together with mouth and teeth ailment system (4 taxa) and other
ailments (101 taxa) in Iğdır (Turkey); for digestive (130 taxa), followed by
Number of taxa
Total 341
Other families 118
Poaceae 8
Ranunculaceae 9
Amaryllidaceae 10
Polygonaceae 10
Brassicaceae 14
Rosaceae 23
Fabaceae 23
Apiaceae 24
Lamiaceae 39
Asteraceae 63
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Fig. 2 Families in the studied areas with highest number of taxa
Number of taxa
100 98
57 54
45 42
25 16 16 14 11 9 6 6 4 4 3 2 2 1 1 1
Fig. 3 The parts of MAPS used in three states
respiratory (87 taxa), dermal (59 taxa), urogenital (55 taxa), cardiovascular (44
taxa), skeletal–muscular (32 taxa), neurological and psychological (25 taxa), ear,
nose, and throat systems disorders (18 taxa), mouth and teeth ailments (12 taxa),
and gynecological system disorders (1 taxa) as well as other ailments (71 taxa)
in Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan); and for urogenital (102 taxa), followed by respiratory
(83 taxa), neurological and psychological (70 taxa), digestive (68 taxa), cardiovas-
cular (51 taxa), dermal (49 taxa), skeletal–muscular (32 taxa), gynecological
(12 taxa), ear, nose, and throat systems disorders (12 taxa), as well as mouth and
teeth (7 taxa) and other ailments (146 taxa) in Tabriz (Iran). An evaluation on the
basis of treatment of diseases from the three investigated states is presented in
Tables 1–11.
Internal 1
Gargle 1
Inhalation 1
Boiled 1
Crushed 1
Pickled 1
Chewing 2
Pasture 2
Smoke 3
Powdered 5
Distillate 5
Oil 6
Direct application 7
Vaporization 8
Pounded 18
Poultice 40
Fresh 54
Infusion 72
Decoctions 161
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Fig. 4 The number of taxa of the preparations used in three states
Digestive
A total of 119 taxa are used in Iğdır, 130 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 68 taxa in Tabriz
(Table 1). The use on purpose basis can be categorized as stomach disorders, stom-
achache, appetizing, abdominal pain, anthelmintic, carminative, ulcer, digestive,
intestinal disorders, emetic, and dysentery (Table 1). On state basis, most common
disease groups are stomach disorders, appetizing, and stomachache in Iğdır; gastro-
intestinal disorders, anthelmintic, and dysentery in Nakhchivan; and anthelmintic,
carminative, and stomach disorders in Tabriz (Table 1).
When the similar uses of the taxa are evaluated, Achillea millefolium, Artemisia
absinthium, Helichrysum plicatum, Hypericum perforatum, Origanum vulgare ssp.
gracile, Plantago major, Scutellaria orientalis, and Thymus transcaucasicus are
used both in Iğdır and Nakhchivan; Hypericum scabrum, Mentha longifolia,
Polygonum aviculare, Rheum ribes, Tragopogon pratensis, and Ziziphora clinopo-
dioides in Iğdır and Tabriz; whereas in Nakhcivan and Tabriz, Agrimonia eupa-
toria, Malus sylvestris ssp. orientalis, and Matricaria chamomilla are used similarly.
The taxa commonly used in Igdir, Nakhchivan, and Tabriz are Glycyrrhiza gla-
bra, Rosa canina, and Urtica dioica (Appendix 1).
Dermal
In this disease group, 59 taxa are used in each state (Iğdır and Nakhchivan), but only
49 taxa are used in Tabriz (Table 2). Categorization of the medicinal uses shows that
the main use is the treatment of wounds, hair care, and eczema in all three research
Table 1 Number of “MAPS” used in the digestive system disorders

Medicinal use category Iğdır Nakhchivan Tabriz
Stomach disorders 28 2 7
Stomachache 20 8 3
Appetizing/orexigenic 21 10 3
Abdominal pain/colic 9 2 1
Anthelmintic 9 20 8
Carminative/antiflatulence 7 5 8
Ulcer 7 8 2
Enteralgia 5 – –
Digestive 5 7 5
Intestinal disorders 3 2 1
Emetic 2 1 4
Abdominal ailments 2 – –
Dysentery 1 13 5
Gastrointestinal disorders – 24 –
Cholagogue/bile secretion enhancer – 12 1
Gastritis – 10 –
Gallbladder disorders/bile diseases – 2 1
Enteritis/intestinal inflammation – 2 2
Indigestion – 2 1
Stomach tonic – – 4
Stomach cancer – – 2
Stomach cramps – – 2
Treatment of stomach bleeding – – 2
Nausea – – 1
Gallstones – – 1
Gastrointestinal tract inflammations – – 1
Inflammation of the stomach – – 1
Gastrointestinal bloating – – 1
Disinfection of intestine – – 1
Total (number of taxa) 119 130 68
areas (Table 2). However, the most common disease groups are wounds, vulnerary,
and dermatitis in Iğdır; wounds, skin diseases, and eczema in Nakhchivan; and skin
diseases, wounds, and skin care in Tabriz (Table 2). An evaluation of same and/or
similar uses at the taxon level has revealed that Glycyrrhiza glabra, Hypericum
perforatum, Origanum vulgare ssp. gracile, and Plantago major are used in Iğdır
and Nakhchivan; Arctium platylepis, Cichorium intybus, Fumaria asepala, and
Ranunculus arvensis in Iğdır and Tabriz. On the other hand, Matricaria chamo-
milla and Rosa canina are used for the same purpose in Nakhchivan and Tabriz
(Appendix 1).
Table 2 Number of “MAPS” used in the dermal system disorders

Vulnerary 13 1 –
Wounds/swollen wounds/inflamed wounds 15 17 8
Mycodermatitis/dermatitis 6 – –
Hair care 5 1 5
Abscess 6 3 –
Antiseptic 5 – 4
Scabies 2 5 –
Sunstroke 2 – –
Itching 2 – 2
Eczema 1 8 1
Erythema on skin 1 – –
Balding 1 – –
Skin diseases – 14 13
Burn – 8 1
Skin cancer – 1 –
Anti-verrucous/warts – 1 2
Skin care/wrinkles and skin irritations – – 6
Acne – – 2
Leprosy – – 2
Hives – – 1
Skin infection – – 1
Improves the skin’s ability to protect against ultraviolet rays – – 1
Respiratory
Nearly 92 taxa are used in Iğdır, 87 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 83 taxa in Tabriz
(Table 3). The uses as categorized on treatment basis show colds, cough, asthma,
bronchitis, lung diseases, expectorant, and tuberculosis are evaluated in all three
states (Table 3). Most common disease groups are colds, cough, and asthma in Iğdır;
colds, cough, and tuberculosis in Nakhchivan; and cough, asthma, and bronchitis in
Tabriz (Table 3). When the similar uses at the taxon level are evaluated, our findings
show that Artemisia absinthium, Berberis vulgaris, Origanum vulgare ssp. gracile,
and Urtica dioica are used in Iğdır and Nakhchivan; Malva neglecta, Mentha
longifolia, Polygonum aviculare, Stachys lavandulifolia, and Ziziphora clinopodioi-
des are used in Iğdır and Tabriz, whereas Malva sylvestris, Melilotus officinalis,
and Plantago major are the generally used taxa in Nakhchivan and Tabriz. The
taxa commonly used in Igdir, Nakhchivan, and Tabriz are Glycyrrhiza glabra and
Malus sylvestris ssp. orientalis (Appendix 1).
Table 3 Number of “MAPS” used in the respiratory system disorders

Colds 32 14 6
Cough/antitussive 24 13 20
Asthma 15 4 10
Bronchitis 6 11 9
Pulmonic disorders/lung diseases 5 7 2
Expectorant 4 3 4
Catarrh 3 – 6
Flu/influenza 1 – 3
Tuberculosis 1 12 1
Respiratory system 1 11 –
Whooping cough – 6 6
Pectoral – 3 –
Pleuritic – 3 –
Emollient – – 4
Chest pain – – 3
Shortness of breath – – 2
Smoothing chest – – 2
Sterilization of chest – – 2
Lung infection – – 1
Inflammation of trachea – – 1
Bronchi infection – – 1
Cardiovascular
In all 37 taxa are used in Iğdır, 44 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 51 taxa in Tabriz, but
categorizing on the basis of use shows that MAPS are evaluated mainly as astrin-
gent, cardiotonic, anemia, and malaria in all three states (Table 4). Most common
disease groups are hypertension, astringent, and cardiotonic in Iğdır; anemia, car-
diovascular diseases, and malaria in Nakhchivan; and as an astringent, blood puri-
fier and in cardiovascular diseases in Tabriz (Table 4). The same and/or similar uses
at the taxon level in the three states reveal that Thymus transcaucasicus is used in
Iğdır and Nakhchivan; Capsella bursa-pastoris, Crataegus azarolus var. azarolus,
Medicago sativa, Polygonum aviculare, Rosa canina, and Urtica dioica in Iğdır
and Tabriz (Appendix 1).
Table 4 Number of “MAPS” used in the cardiovascular system disorders

Hypertension 10 – 1
Astringent 10 2 18
Cardiotonic 5 1 3
Anemia 4 10 2
Hypercholesterolemia/high cholesterol/cholesterol 3 – 2
Cardialgia 2 4 –
Embolism/atherosclerosis 2 – 2
Malaria 1 8 1
Cardiac/cardiovascular system diseases – 9 6
Tachycardia – 2 –
Exudative – 4 –
Hemafacient – 4 –
Blood purifier – – 8
Lowering blood pressure – – 4
Tension – – 1
Increasing blood flow – – 1
Heart attack – – 1
Palpitations – – 1
Urogenital
The number of taxa used in Iğdır is 80 taxa, in Nakhchivan 55, and in Tabriz 102
(Table 5). Their use for medicinal purposes can be categorized as diuretic, kidney
stones, constipation, diarrhea, and kidney diseases as recorded from three research
areas (Table 5). A statewise evaluation shows that most common disease groups are
diuretics, hemorrhoid, and kidney stones in Iğdır; diuretics, diarrhea, and kidney
diseases in Nakhchivan; and diuretics, diarrhea, and laxative in Tabriz (Table 5). On
the basis of same and/or similar uses at the taxon level, we find Achillea millefolium,
Glycyrrhiza glabra, Hypericum perforatum, and Peganum harmala are used in
Iğdır and Nakhchivan; Chenopodium album, Hypericum scabrum, Malva neglecta,
Melilotus officinalis, Rheum ribes, and Urtica dioica in Iğdır and Tabriz; and
Equisetum arvense, Malus sylvestris ssp. orientalis, and Rubia tinctorium in
Nakhchivan and Tabriz. The taxon commonly used in Igdir, Nakhchivan, and
Tabriz is Rosa canina (Appendix 1).
Gynecological
Nearly 31 taxa are used in Iğdır, 1 taxon in Nakhchivan, and 12 taxa in Tabriz in this
disease group (Table 6). On area basis, most common disease groups are gyneco-
logical diseases, emmenagogue, and women’s sterility in Iğdır, whereas in Tabriz
Table 5 Number of “MAPS” used in the urogenital system disorders

Diuretic 20 14 24
Hemorrhoid 16 – 8
Kidney stones 12 1 2
Constipation 9 2 10
Nephralgia 8 2 –
Diarrhea 7 14 15
Laxative 5 – 15
Kidney diseases 2 8 4
Urinary tract antiseptic 1 – 1
Urinary system disorders – 3 4
Enuresis/urinary retention – 3 1
Nephritis/kidney inflammations – 2 5
Cystitis/bladder inflammation – 2 1
Addison disease – 1 –
Anal fissure – 1 –
Kidney infection – 1 –
Urinary infection – 1 –
Bladder discomfort – – 5
Strengthens the kidneys – – 3
Gonorrhea – – 1
Prostate cancer – – 1
Prostate inflammation – – 1
Inflammation of the urinary tract system – – 1
Table 6 Number of “MAPS” used in the gynecological system disorders

Gynecological diseases 8 – –
Emmenagogue 7 – –
Galactagogue/to increase milk in women 5 – 4
Women’s sterility/infertility 6 – –
Menstrual disorders 2 – 2
Abortive 2 – –
Menstrual pain 1 – –
Uterine diseases – 1 1
Venereal diseases – – 2
Birth control – – 1
Useful for pregnancy – – 1
Vaginal discharge – – 1
Table 7 Number of “MAPS” used in the ear, nose, and throat system disorders
Sore throat 4 – 2
Throat diseases 1 – –
Sinusitis 1 – –
Angina – 11 1
Tonsillitis – 4 –
Laryngitis – 1 –
Otitis – 1 –
Pharynx diseases – 1 –
Vertigo – – 3
Swelling of the throat – – 2
Throat cancer – – 1
Ear pain – – 1
Inflammations of the pharynx – – 1
Nasal inflammations – – 1
these are galactagogue, menstrual disorders, and venereal diseases (Table 6). As far
as the same and/or similar uses at the taxon level are concerned, Achillea millefo-
lium, Chenopodium album, and Hypericum scabrum are used in Iğdır and Tabriz
for the same treatments (Appendix 1).
Ear, Nose, and Throat
6 taxa are used in Iğdır, 18 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 12 taxa in Tabriz in their treat-
ments (Table 7). On area basis, most common disease groups are sore throat in Iğdır,
angina and tonsillitis in Nakhchivan, and vertigo, sore throat, and swelling of the
throat in Tabriz (Table 7). In this disease group, no common taxon with the same or
similar use at the taxon level has been recorded (Appendix 1).
Neurological and Psychological System
In this disease group, 21 taxa are used in Iğdır, 25 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 70 taxa
in Tabriz (Table 8). Their use for medicinal purposes can be categorized as head-
ache, sedative, analgesic, and epilepsy for all three research areas (Table 8). The
most common disease groups are headache, sedative, and analgesic in Iğdır; neural-
gia and epilepsy in Nakhchivan; and sedative, insomnia, and nervous diseases in
Tabriz (Table 8). The same and/or similar uses at the taxon level on area basis are
Artemisia absinthium and Origanum vulgare ssp. gracile in Iğdır and Nakhchivan;
Table 8 Number of “MAPS” used in the neurological and psychological system disorders
Headache 8 2 5
Sedative 7 3 12
Analgesic 5 3 3
Epilepsy 1 4 2
Neuralgia/nerve pain – 6 3
Insomnia – 3 6
Nervous diseases – 1 6
Somniferous – 1 –
Parkinson – 1 –
Antispasmodic – 1 2
Antidepressants – – 4
Migraine – – 4
Strengthening nerves – – 3
Sciatica pain – – 3
Relaxation – – 3
Stimulate – – 2
Melancholy diseases – – 2
Hypnotic – – 2
Anti-stress – – 2
Brain hemorrhage – – 1
Meningitis – – 1
Strengthen the body and spirit – – 1
Dizziness – – 1
Hysteria – – 1
Paralysis – – 1
Table 9 Number of “MAPS” used in mouth and teeth disorders

Toothache 3 1 2
Stomatitis 1 7 –
Mouth diseases – 1 1
Mouth wounds – 1 –
Gingivitis – 2 1
Gum diseases – – 1
Prevent dental decay – – 1
Halitosis – – 1
Table 10 Number of “MAPS” used in the skeletal–muscular system disorders

Rheumatism 18 24 9
Edema 6 1 1
Backache 5 – 1
Calcification (knee) 1 – –
Rachitism/rickets – 3 1
Arthritis – 1 5
Arthralgia/joint pain – 1 5
Myalgia/muscle pain – 1 4
Buckling of legs – 1 –
Gout – – 6
Glycyrrhiza glabra, Hypericum scabrum, Melilotus officinalis, and Mentha longifo-

lia in Iğdır and Tabriz; and in Nakhcivan and Tabriz, Achillea millefolium is used
similarly (Appendix 1).
Mouth and Teeth Ailments
A total of 4 taxa are used in Iğdır, 12 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 7 taxa in Tabriz
(Table 9). Their categorization is as follows; toothache is seen in all three areas
(Table 9). On regional basis, the most common disease group is toothache in Iğdır
and Tabriz and stomatitis in Nakhchivan (Table 9). The same and/or similar use at
the taxon level is Origanum vulgare ssp. gracile which is used similarly in Iğdır
and Nakhchivan (Appendix 1).
Skeletal–Muscular System
30 taxa are used in Iğdır, 32 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 32 taxa in Tabriz for the treat-
ment of this disease (Table 10). They can be categorized as rheumatism and edema
as seen in all three areas (Table 10), but on regional basis, most common disease
groups are rheumatism, edema, and backache in Iğdır, rheumatism and rachitism in
Nakhchivan, and rheumatism and gout in Tabriz (Table 10). The same and/or similar
uses at the taxon level on regional basis are Peganum harmala in Iğdır and
Nakhchivan; Melilotus officinalis and Ranunculus arvensis in Iğdır and Tabriz
(Appendix 1).
Table 11 Number of “MAPS” used in the other ailments

Diabetes 22 9 2
Anti-inflammatory 21 2 3
Antipyretic 19 2 5
Tonic 9 5 7
Cancer 8 1 2
Jaundice 6 6 9
Internal medicine 5 – –
Goiter 5 – –
Snake, scorpion and bee bites 4 1 2
Antiparasitic 1 – 4
Eye diseases 1 1 2
Vitamin and energy supports – 10 8
Internal bleeding – 6 –
Diathesis – 5 –
Scurvy – 4 3
Measles – 2 1
Pancreatitis – 1 –
Scarlatina – 1 –
Obesity – 1 –
Hepatic disorders/liver diseases – 11 10
Hepatitis – 3 2
Facilitator of the liver function – – 1
Spasm of the liver – – 1
Liver pain – – 1
Spleen disorders – – 3
Swollen spleen – – 2
Spasm of the spleen – – 1
Fever – – 22
For veterinary purposes – – 17
Anxiety treatment – – 11
Pains – – 9
Disinfection – – 2
Hiccups – – 3
Diaphoretic – – 2
Antiexcitement – – 2
Improves immune system – – 1
Boosting sexual power – – 1
Antifungal – – 1
Antiviral – – 1
Antiallergy – – 1
Antioxidant – – 1
(continued)
Table 11 (continued)
Antibacterial – – 1
Typhoid – – 1
Treatment of cholera – – 1
Others Ailments
In this disease group, 101 taxa are used in Iğdır, 71 taxa in Nakhchivan, and 146
taxa in Tabriz; these can be categorized as diabetes, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic,
tonic, cancer, jaundice, snake, scorpion and bee bites, and eye diseases as seen in all
three areas (Table 11). For other ailments a comparison of the MAPS used shows
that for diabetes (22 taxa), anti-inflammatory (21 taxa) and antipyretic (19 taxa) are
used in Iğdır; in the case of hepatic diseases (11 taxa), vitamin and energy supports
(10 taxa), and diabetes (9 taxa) in Nakhchivan and for treatment of fevers (22 taxa),
for veterinary purposes (17 taxa), and anxiety treatment (11 taxa) in Tabriz
(Table 11). The information on fever, use for veterinary purposes and anxiety treat-
ment is available only for Tabriz, not for other two states (Table 11). Same and/or
similar uses at the taxon level evaluation on regional basis have revealed the use as
follows: Berberis vulgaris (for diabetes), Malus sylvestris ssp. orientalis (for diabe-
tes), and Urtica dioica (for diabetes) in Iğdır and Nakhchivan and Rosa canina
(for a lack of vitamin) in Nakhchivan and Tabriz (Appendix 1).
If the data presented above is taken into consideration, similarity ratios can be
calculated, using Jaccard similarity index, with disease groups (Table 13), and
medicinal flora (Table 12) in three studied areas. This index allows the percentage
of similarity to be calculated in each area. The formula to calculate this index is as
follows:
Index of Jaccard = 100 × C/(A + B − C)
where A is the number of species of the sample A, B is the number of species of
the sample, and C is the number of species common to A and B (González-Tejero
et al. 2008).
Tables 12 and 13 show the highest degree of similarity between Iğdır and
Tabriz. This degree of similarity appears surprising, on the basis of floristic dif-
ferences, but the fact that Iğdır, Nakhchivan, and Tabriz have borders with each
other and have similar cultures with same language in itself explains this similar-
ity. The population in these areas belongs mainly to Azeri ethnicity. However,
small similarity ratio differences based on disease groups are because of the folk
physicians who have frequently practiced in these areas. These areas have had to
travel long geographical distance in cold and cold winters and transportation dif-
ficulties have added to that.
Table 12 Jaccard similarity index for the medicinal flora in three areas
Iğdır Nakhchivan Tabriz
Iğdır – 7.55 12.54
Nakhchivan 7.55 – 6.28
Tabriz 12.54 6.28 –
Table 13 Jaccard similarity index related to disease groups in the study areas
Iğdır-Nakhchivan Iğdır-Tabriz Nakhchivan-Tabriz
Digestive system 4.62 5.06 3.13
Dermal system 3.51 3.85 1.89
Respiratory system 3.47 4.17 3.03
Cardiovascular system 1.25 7.32 0.00
Urogenital system 3.85 4.00 2.61
Gynecological system 0.00 7.50 0.00
Ear, nose and throat system 0.00 0.00 0.00
Neurological and psychological system 4.55 4.60 1.06
Mouth and teeth ailment system 6.67 0.00 0.00
Skeletal–muscular system 1.64 3.33 0.00
Other ailments 1.78 0.00 0.46
Conclusions
MAPS represent the oldest and most widespread form of medication as per the evi-
dence published on diverse lines in this connection. The plant and animal sources
have served as a source for many medicines until the last century. In spite of an
increase in the use of industrial based synthetic drugs, natural organic healing
sources have persisted as the “treatment of choice” for a large number of health
problems, particularly in the poor populations all over the globe (Halberstein 2005).
Tremendous data is being pooled up, processed, and compiled through double-blind
clinical trials, biochemical assays of plant taxa, analyses of interviews from the
informants and anecdotal reports, and the observations of traditional herbalists plus
their diagnostic and herbal preparation procedures in different cultures. All this data
published till now has produced a great pile of information related to different cul-
tures and is expected to serve as cross-cultural evidence for future comparative
investigations on a larger scale (Hylands and Stuart 1981; Etkin 1988; Halberstein
1997a, b, 2005).
Historically the herbalists from varying cultures have paid much attention to
their target plants, their habitats and microenvironments, geographical locations,
edaphic conditions, climatic features, biotic impacts, and pollution impacts. For col-
lection, processing, storing, and preservation of the botanical products particular
methods are characteristically used (Halberstein 1997a, b, 2005; Halberstein and
Saunders 1978; Wong 1976; Whistler 1985). The origin of ethnobotanical knowl-
edge lies in the complex interaction between humans and their natural resources
(Sõukand and Kalle 2010). The cultural factors generally include local classification
systems, mediated through language (Maffi 2005; Ellen 2009; Saslis-Lagoudakis
et al. 2014), human cognition and cultural history (Leonti and Casu 2013), beliefs
and religion (Pieroni and Quave 2005; Pieroni et al. 2011; Rexhepi et al. 2013), or
social networks and access to information (Bandiera and Rasul 2006; van den
Broeck and Dercon 2011; Labeyrie et al. 2014).
A connection between linguistic areas and peculiar ethnofloras suggests that lin-
guistic differences have limited and are limiting the knowledge diffusion (Maffi
2005). However, languages are a part and parcel of cultural knowledge, beliefs, and
practices developed by human societies (Maffi 2005). As a matter of fact, linguistic
areas generally correspond with coherent cultural groups, and differences in accent
or lexicon likely reflect the existence of different sociolinguistic communities
(Menendez-Baceta et al. 2015). In view of this, each sociolinguistic community has
a strong sense of identity based on belonging to the local community, which is
shaped by kinship, neighborhood, geographical distance, or local history and con-
stitutes a strong basis for the affinities and identity of their members. As such,
absence of exchange between linguistic groups is not necessarily due to language
but due to preferences for exchanging with individuals belonging to the same cul-
tural group (Menendez-Baceta et al. 2015). The second pathway through which cul-
ture can shape the distribution of knowledge on MAPS is related to the knowledge
communities built around social links: knowledge on MAPS is mainly transmitted
among closely related people belonging to the same social networks as the complic-
ity required for trying a new remedy is high (Menendez-Baceta et al. 2015). This
social link has started gaining much importance at present due to snatching of prop-
erty rights from the indigenous communities through biopiracy.
The data published reveals the fact that folk medicinal “MAPS” are mainly shaped
by two major types of remedies: one being those common in broad areas and the other
those only important for closely related communities. An availability of suitable and
sustainable ecological conditions and other environmental factors together with phar-
macological factors like chemical composition of the plants is self-explanatory why
there are widely used plant remedies. The cultural side like language, social networks,
and the curative meaning given to plants does influence the regular diffusion of tradi-
tional knowledge and explains why some species are only used in particular regions
despite their availability throughout the territory. These cultural factors make a remedy
available and are determinant in its medicinal effectiveness (Menendez-Baceta et al.
2015). Indeed, folk medicine is a complex cultural domain, with a high cultural and
symbolic component, and this fact seems to become especially sensitive to the cultural
boundaries (Menendez-Baceta et al. 2015).
At the end, another highlighted factor is the effectiveness of medicinal remedies,
at least partially, on its cultural meaning (Moerman and Jonas 2002). We come
across many symbolic remedies in the folk medicine, where this meaning response
seems to be essential. The cultural meaning at the same time does play an important
role in many so-called empirical remedies where the effectiveness apparently relies
only on the chemical composition, since the psychological context of its consump-
tion is essential for its effectiveness (Menendez-Baceta et al. 2015).
Appendix 1: MAPS Distributed in the Study Areas (*Cultivated)
Treatment
Parts
Family–Taxa Local name(s) Preparations used Iğdir (TR) Nakhchivan (AZ) Tabriz (IR)
Lycopodiophyta
Lycopodiaceae
1 Lycоpоdium SP Diathesis, abscess
clаvаtum L.
Pteridophyta
Dryopteridaceae
2 Dryоptеris filiх-mаs AZ: Ayıdöşəyi RO Anthelmintic,
(L.) Schоtt antirheumatic, myalgia,
vulnerary, ulcer
Equisetaceae
3 Еquisеtum аrvеnsе AZ: Qatırquyruğu; DE HE, Urinary system disorder, Diuretic
L. IR: Dom-e-asb ST pulmonic disorder,
(per.) dysentery, antirheumatic,
tuberculosis, stomatitis,
diarrhea
Pinophytina
Cupressaceae
Herbals in Iğdır (Turkey), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan), and Tabriz (Iran)
4 Junipеrus cоmmunis AZ: Ardıc FR Antirheumatic,

L. neuralgia, antitussive,
gallbladder disorders,
diuretic, digestive
Pinaceae
5 Pinus sylvеstris L. AZ: Adi şam BD, Rаchitism, skin
LE disorders, scabies,
angina, antitussive,
217
diuretic
(continued)
218
Treatment
Parts
Magnoliophytina
Acoraceae
6 Аcоrus cаlаmus L. RO Appetizing, digestive,
carminative, cholagogue
Adoxaceae
7 Sаmbucus nigrа L. FR, Cold, cardialgia, angina,
IF respiratory system
disorders, avitaminosis,
malaria, diabetes,
measles, kidney
diseases, edema, diuretic
8 Viburnum lantana L. TR: Germeşo DE FR Diabetes, diarrhea
9 Viburnum оpulus L. BR, Tuberculosis, tonsillitis,
FR angina, whooping
cough, gastrointestinal
disorders, measles, skin
disorders
Amaranthaceae
10 Beta corolliflora TR: Kızılca, Sırk DE RO Antihemorrhoidal
Zosimovic ex Buttler
11 Chenopodium album TR: Unluca; IR: DE, PO, VA AP, Diuretic, women’s sterility Strong laxatives,
L. Salmak, salmeh FL, constipation, fever,
tareh (per.) salman LE menstruation
tareh (tur.)
12 Chenopodium murale TR: Salmanca DE, VA HE Women’s sterility
L.
13 Salsola rigida Pall. IR: Alafe shoor DE AP Removing intestinal
worms (all the animals)
M. Ozturk et al.
Amaryllidaceae
14 Allium akaka TR: Dana soğanı; FE, PO BU Analgesic Anxiety treatment
S.G. Gmelin IR: Dagh soghani
(tur.) Piaz-e-Kouhi
(per.)
15 Allium IR: Tare-kuhi FE WP Disinfection,
ampeloprasum L. antiparasitic, anti-
asthma, lowering blood
pressure, atherosclerosis
16 Allium armenum TR: Silim soğanı FE LE Orexigenic
Boiss. & Kotschy
17 Allium atroviolaceum TR: Silim soğanı FE LE Orexigenic
Boiss.
18 Allium cepa L.* IR: Soghan (tur.) PO BU Anxiety treatment
Piaz (per.)
19 Allium hooshidaryae IR: Mandala FE AP Bronchitis, amoebic
Mashayekhi, Zarre & dysentery, whooping
R.M. Fritsch cough, shortness of
breath, blood pressure,
blood purifier, vertigo,
strengthening the
nerves, arthritis
20 Allium longisepalum IR: Sire kuhi FE WP Atherosclerosis,

Bertol. diarrhea, intestinal,
influenza, bronchitis,
diseases of amoebic
dysentery, whooping
cough, shortness of
breath, blood pressure,
blood purifier, vertigo,
strengthening the
219
nerves, arthritis
(continued)
Treatment
220
Parts
21 Allium sativum L.* IR: Sarmsakh PO BU Anxiety treatment
(tur.) Sir (per.)
22 Allium TR: İt soğanı DE, FE BU, Orexigenic, hypertension,
scorodoprassum L. SE anthelmintic, diuretic,
ssp. rotundum (L.) antiseptic, goiter
Stearn
23 Allium sp. IR: Sir-e-vahshi PO BU Anxiety treatment
(per.)
Anacardiaceae
24 Rhus cоriаriа L. FR, Malaria, stomachache,
LE diarrhea, dysentery,
diаbеtes, appetizing
Apiaceae
25 Anethum graveolens IR: Shood (tur.) DE SE, Anxiety treatment
L.* Shevid (per.) SH
26 Anthriscus nemorosa TR: Gımıgımı DE FR Carminative
(Bieb.) Spreng.
27 Anthriscus sylvestris TR: Gımıgımı DE FR Carminative
(L.) Hoffm.
28 Cаrum cаrvi L. AZ: Zire FR Gastrointestinal
disorders, respiratory
system disorders, kidney
disorders, stomachache,
digestive, appetizing
29 Chaerophyllum IR: Aghjeh bash DE SH Anxiety treatment
aureum L. (tur.) Jafari-ferangi
khaldar (per.)
M. Ozturk et al.
30 Chaerophyllum IR: Jafari-farangi DE, FE WP Powerful antioxidant
macrospermum
(Wild. ex Spreng.)
Fisch. & C.A.Mey.
ex Hohen.
31 Coriandrum sativum IR: Gashnish (tur.) DE SE, Anxiety treatment
L. Gheshniz (per.) SH
32 Echinophora IR: Tulukh-oti, DE SH Anxiety treatment
platyloba DC. Tiyakh-oti (tur.)
Khosharizeh (per.)
33 Eryngium sp. IR: Zol, Boghnagh DE LE Anxiety treatment
(per.)
34 Falcaria vulgaris IR: Ghaz ayaghi, DE SH Blood purification,
Bernh. Ghaz yaghi (per. vascular diseases and
and tur.) prevent dental decay
35 Ferula caspica Bieb. TR: Gırmızı bolu DE HE Stomachache, gynecologic
diseases, diabetes
36 Ferula rigidula TR: Çaşır PO HE Diabetes, hypercholesterolemia
Fisch. ex DC.
37 Fоеniculum vulgаrе AZ: Razyana FR, Cold, respiratory system
Mill. HE disorders,
gastrointestinal
disorders, stomachache,
cholagogue
38 Grammosciadium IR: Sourulu (tur.) DE SH Birth control, sedative,
platycarpum Boiss. Shevide kouhi arthritis and asthma
& Hausskn. (per.)
39 Heracleum IR: Golpar-e-barfi DE AP Gastrointestinal
lasiopetalum Boiss. bloating, to increase
milk in women,
antiseptic
221
(continued)
222
Treatment
Parts
40 Heracleum persicum IR: Baldirgan DE FR, Jaundice
Desf. (tur.) Golpar (per. LE
and tur.)
41 Heracleum TR: Baldırgan DE, FE ST Galactagogue, stomachache,
trachyloma Fisch. & cancer
C.A. Mey.
42 Lаsеr trilоbum (L.) FR, Malaria, analgesic,
Bоrkh. LE, tonic, antipyretic
RO
43 Oliveria decumbens IR: La’le DE AP Diarrhea (all animals)
Vent. koohestan
44 Petroselinum crispum IR: Jafari (per. and DE SH Jaundice
(Miller) A.W. Hill* tur.)
45 Peucedanum TR: Çaşır PI HE Diabetes, hypercholesterolemia
longifolium Waldst.
& Kit.
46 Prangos ferulacea IR: Jashir DE AP, For treatment of uterus For veterinary purposes
(L.) Lindl. LA (ruminants)
47 Torilis leptophylla IR: Mastunak-e- DE FL, Jaundice
(L.) Rchb. f. nazok barg (per.) SH
48 Zosima absinthifolia TR: Bolu DE LE Diabetes
(Vent.) Link
Apocynaceae
49 Nerium oleander L. IR: Kharzahre SM LE Oestrus ovis larvae
(sheep)
Aristolochiaceae
50 Aristolochia IR: Ziravand DE AP Cleaning the wounds
M. Ozturk et al.
clematitis L. (all animals)

Asparagaceae
51 Аspаrаgus оfficinаlis RO Antirheumatic, diаbеtes,
L. pulmonic disorders,
whooping cough,
nephralgia, urinary
disorders, hepatic
disorders, epilepsy,
diuretic
52 Ornithogalum IR: Gol agha (tur.) DE, FE LE Skin care, cataract,
kurdicum Bornm. Shir morgh (per.) improves immune
system
Asteraceae
53 Achillea arabica TR: Ormaderen DE, PO CA, Diuretic, asthma, cardiotonic,
Kotschy HE stomachic, carminative,
orexigenic, tonic, colds,
nephralgia, gynecologic
diseases, women’ sterility,
emmenagogue, jaundice,
abscess, vulnerary, astringent,
edema, erythema on skin
54 Achillea millefolium TR: DE, PO CA, Diuretic, carminative, Gastritis, ulcer, diarrhea, Nerve diseases,
L. Civanperçemi; FL, menstrual disorders, stomachic, internal bleeding, venereal diseases (in
AZ: Boymaderen; HE, urinary antiseptic, antitussive, analgesic women)

IR: Boimadaran LE, tonic, abdominal pain, colds,
(tur.), Boomadaran SH vulnerary, astringent
(per.)
55 Achillea TR: DE, IN CA, Diuretic, abdominal pain,
santolinoides Lag. Civanperçemi; IR: FL, stomachic, emmenagogues,
subsp. wilhelmsii Boimadaran (tur.), HE, women’s sterility,
(K.Koch) Greuter Boomadaran (per.) LE, antihemorrhoidal
SH
223
(continued)
224
Treatment
Parts
56 Achillea tenuifolia TR: Çoban kirpiği IN LE Hypercholesterolemia,
Lam. diabetes, asthma, bronchitis,
cough
57 Anthemis cotula L. TR: Hozan çiçeği DE, IN CA, Jaundice, dysentery, intestinal To avoid bee bites (for
HE, disorders, cough, stomachache, beekeepers)
LE hair care
58 Arctium platylepis TR: Devetabanı; DE, PO, PU BLE, Edema, inflamed wounds, Skin diseases
(Boiss. & Bal.) Sosn. IR: Baba adam FL, calcification (knee), back ache,
ex Grossh. (per.) RO, snakebites
SH
59 Artemisia absinthium TR: Yavşan, Pire DE HE, Stomachic, sedative, Anthelmintic, gastritis,
L. otu; AZ: Yovşan IF, anthelmintic, orexigenic, anemia, cholagogue,
LE antipyretic, diuretic, digestive, hepatic disorders,
headache, abdominal pain, gastrointestinal disorder,
asthma, diabetes, tonic neuralgia, antirheumatic,
bronchitis, asthma,
eczema
60 Artemisia austriaca TR: Yavşan DE, IN HE Abdominal pain, orexigenic,
Jacq. digestive
61 Artemisia TR: Yavşan DE FL, Orexigenic, diabetes,
chamaemelifolia Vill. HE antipyretic, diuretic
62 Artemisia herba-alba IR: Dermane DE AP Removing intestinal
Asso worms (all animals)
63 Bellis perennis L.* IR: Mina-e- FL Skin diseases
chamani (per.)
M. Ozturk et al.
64 Bidеns tripаrtitа L. AZ: Yatıqqangal BLE, Rаchitism, diathesis,
HE jaundice, skin disorders,
arthritis, hepatic
diseases, digestive,
appetizing
65 Calendula officinalis IR: Gol-e- DE FL Skin diseases
L.* hamisheh bahar
(per.)
66 Centaurea glastifolia TR: Kötangoparan DE, PU CA, Orexigenic, astringent
L. LE
67 Centaurea iberica TR: Çakırdikeni PU LE Vulnerary
Trev. ex Spreng
68 Centaurea saligna TR: Hol PU LE Astringent
(K.Koch) Wagenitz
69 Chondrilla juncea L. TR: Ağ sakız CH LA Stomach disorders
70 Cichorium intybus L. TR: Cızdankuş; DE, PW RO, Dermatitis, vulnerary, balding Dysentery, anemia, Skin diseases
IR: Kasni (per.) WP jaundice, cholagogue,
hepatic disorders, kidney
disorders, diabetes,
antirheumatic, malaria,
cold
71 Cirsium arvense (L.) TR: Çakırdikeni; DE, FE FL, Orexigenic, tonic, Skin diseases
Scop. IR: Kangar-e- RO, antihemorrhoidal, cough,

vahshi (per.) ST bronchitis
72 Cirsium sp. IR: Kangar-e- FE FL, Skin diseases,
vahshi (per.) RO, disinfectant, tonic,
ST antipyretic, digestive
73 Cnicus benedictus L. IR: Khar DE FL, Wrinkles, headache,
moghaddas (per.) SH palpitations, jaundice,
diarrhea, appetizer, liver
and spleen problems
225
(continued)
Treatment
226
Parts
74 Cota tinctoria (L.) TR: Papatya DE, IN CA Stomachache, cough, intestinal
J.Gay ex Guss var. disorders, hair care
pallida (DC.) U.
Özbek & Vural
75 Cota tinctoria (L.) TR: Sarı papatya IN, GA CA Jaundice, stomachic,
J.Gay ex Guss. var. anthelmintic, antipyretic, colds,
tinctoria sore throat
76 Cyanus TR: Perpatyan, PO LE Mycodermatitis
cheiranthifolius Perpatikanı
(Willd.) Sojak var.
cheiranthifolius
77 Cyanus depressus TR: Göybaş; IR: DE FL, Cardiotonic, asthma, Skin diseases
(M.Bieb.) Sojak Gol-e- gandom HE, expectorant, orexigenic
(per.) SH
78 Echinops cephalotes IR: Shekar tighal DE, IN WP Cough, anti-fever
DC. (per.)
79 Gundelia tournefortii IR: Kangar-e- LE, Stomachache,
L. khoraki (per.) ST anti-catarrh
80 Helichrysum TR: Yayla çiçeği IN HE Diuretic, nephralgia, kidney
arenarium (L.) stones
Moench subsp.
rubicundum
(C. Koch) Davis &
Kupicha
81 Helichrysum pallasii TR: Altunbaş otu IN HE Diuretic, cough, kidney stones,
(Sprengel) Ledeb. nephralgia
M. Ozturk et al.
82 Helichrysum TR: Yayla çiçeği; DE, IN CA, Kidney stones, nephralgia, Intestinal disorders,
plicatum DC. AZ: Solmazçiçeyi HE diabetes, cough, diarrhea, anthelmintic,
diuretic, stomachic hemafacient, skin
disorders
83 Inulа hеlеnium L. AZ: Andız RO Gastrointestinal
disorder, bronchitis,
cold, antitussive,
anthelmintic
84 Jurinella moschus TR: Gazangulpu DE HE Diabetes, diarrhea
(Habl.) Bobrov
subsp. pinnatisecta
(Boiss.) Danin &
Davis
85 Mаtricаriа AZ: Mollabaşı; IN CA, Colic, carminative, Sedative, astringent,
chаmоmillа L. IR: Baboone-e- FL diarrhea, inflamed strengthening the
almani, Baboone- wounds, swollen stomach, hair care
e-mamooli (per.) wounds, antirheumatic,
bronchitis, asthma,
eczema, gastritis,
enteritis
86 Onopordum IR: Khar-e- DE FL, Skin care, stomach
acanthium L. panbeh, Khar-e- SH diseases, liver, fevers,
pirzan (per.) paralysis, leprosy,
backache
87 Picnomon acarna IR: Zard khar FE AP Appetizer, disinfection
(L.) Cass. of intestine and stomach
(goat)
88 Reichardia TR: Gara sakgız IT LA Stomach disorders
dichotoma (Vahl)
Freyn
(continued)
227
Treatment
228
Parts
89 Rhaponticum repens IR: Talkheh (per.) DE FL, Nerve diseases,
(L.) Hidalgo SH venereal diseases (in
women)
90 Scorzonera cana TR: Yemlik FE LE Orexigenic, galactagogue
(C.A. Meyer) Griseb.
var. jacquiniana
(W. Koch)
Chamberlain
91 Scorzonera laciniata TR: Yemlik FE LE Orexigenic, galactagogue
L. subsp. laciniata
92 Scorzonera suberosa TR: Yemlik FE HE, Orexigenic, galactagogue
K.Koch subsp. RO
suberosa
93 Senecio vernalis TR: Acı papatya DE HE Anti-inflammatory
Waldst. & Kit.
94 Senecio vulgaris L. IR: Pir-giah (per.) DE WP Regulate the menstrual
cycle in women
95 Silybum marianum IR: Khar Maryam DE FL Anti-allergy, anticancer,
(L.) Gaertn. (per.) antidepressants,
antifungal, anti-edema,
anti-inflammation,
antiviral, laxative,
diaphoretic
96 Tanacetum aureum TR: Çeren DE CA Pulmonic disorders, colds,
(Lam.) Greuter var. kidney stones, antipyretic
aureum
M. Ozturk et al.
97 Tanacetum balsamita IR: Shasparan PO LE Strengthen the stomach,
L. (tur.) Shah sparam, carminative, antiseptic,
Shah sparghan mouth and digestive
(per.) system, relieve pain, for
halitosis, headache,
nervous, cough,
inflammation of the
urinary tract system
98 Tanacetum IR: Baboone-e- PO FL, Stomach tonic,
parthenium (L.) gavi, Mokhleseh LE appetizer
Sch.-Bip. (per.)
99 Tanacetum TR: Çeren DE, IN CA, Pulmonic disorders, colds,
polycephalum Sch. HE antipyretic, anti-inflammatory,
Bip. subsp. scabies
argyrophyllum
(K.Koch) Podlech
100 Tanacetum TR: Sendel IN HE Emmenagogue,
punctatum (Desr.) anti-inflammatory
Grierson
101 Tаnаcеtum vulgаrе CA, Gastrointestinal
L. LE disorder, diarrhea,
exudative, headache,
arthralgia, jaundice,
hepatic disorders,
scabies, skin disorders,
anthelmintic
102 Taraxacum TR: Zeze IN, PO LE Antirheumatic, wounds,
androssovii stomach disorders, internal
Schischkin medicine, kidney stones,
anti-inflammatory
(continued)
229
230
Treatment
Parts
fedtschenkoi stomach disorders, internal
Hand.-Mazz. medicine, kidney stones,
anti-inflammatory
macrolepium stomach disorders, kidney
Schischkin stones, anti-inflammatory
105 Taraxacum IR: Khabar chin DE Stomach tonic, bile
montanum (tur.), Gol-e- secretion enhancer,
(C.A. Mey.) DC. ghased-e-kouhi acne, snakebite, itching,
(per.) liver and kidney
diseases
106 Tаrахаcum оfficinаlе AZ: Zencirotu HE, Constipation, eczema,
Wigg. RO skin disorders, burns,
hepatic disorders, kidney
disorders, malaria,
anemia, antirheumatic,
insomnia
107 Tragopogon TR: At yemliği FE HE Stomachache
coloratus C. A.
Meyer
108 Tragopogon dubius TR: Yemlik FE HE Stomachache
Scop.
109 Tragopogon IR: Yemlik (tur.) FE LE Treatment of stomach
graminifolius DC Sheng (per.) bleeding, rheumatism
110 Tragopogon TR: At yemliği; FE AP, Stomachache Eliminate warts,
pratensis L. IR: Sheng, yelmih HE stomach bleeding,
(tur.) rheumatism
M. Ozturk et al.
111 Tragopogon TR: At yemliği FE HE Stomachache
reticulatus Boiss. &
Huet
112 Tripleurospermum TR: Kır papatyası DE, IN CA Hair care, colds, cough,
monticolum (Boiss. antipyretic, stomachache
& Huet) Bornm.
113 Tripleurospermum TR: Papatya DE, IN CA Hair care, colds, cough,
parviflorum (Willd.) antipyretic, stomachache
Pobed.
114 Tussilаgо fаrfаrа L. AZ: Devedabanı CA, Gastrointestinal
LE disorder, respiratory
system disorders,
nephritis, tuberculosis,
inflamed wounds, skin
disorders
115 Xanthium spinosum IR: Zardineh-e- DE FL, Colds and rheumatism,
L. khar dar (per.) FR, skin problems, itching,
SH malaria, fever, nasal
inflammation
Berberidaceae
116 Berberis crataegina TR: Zirinç DE FR Colds, diabetes
DC.
117 Berberis vulgaris L. TR: Zirinç; AZ: DE BR, Colds, diabetes Rаchitism, anemia,
Zirinc FR, malaria, antirheumatic,
LE, jaundice, diabetes,
RO gastrointestinal disorder,
angina, antitussive, eye
diseases, cholagogue,
internal bleeding
(continued)
231
232
Treatment
Parts
Betulaceae
118 Bеtulа pеndulа Rоth AZ: Tozağacı BD, Diuretic, cholagogue,
IF, avitaminosis, eczema,
LE antirheumatic, scabies,
anthelmintic,
stomachache
Boraginaceae
119 Anchusa azurea TR: Sığırdili DE BLE, Vulnerary, women’s sterility
Miller HE,
RO
120 Anchusa sp. IR: Ghavzaban-e- DE FL Blood purifier, sedative,
badal (per.) diuretic, strengthens the
kidneys, cold, cough,
bronchitis
121 Caccinia IR: Gavzaban asa DE LE Sedative, diuretic,
macranthera (Banks (per.) strengthens the kidneys,
& Sol.) Brand cold, cough, bronchitis,
antidepressants
122 Echium strigosum IR: PO FL Abscess (all animals)
Sw. Gav
zabane - kharakdar
123 Echium vulgare L. RO Astringent, anticolic
124 Nonea macrosperma TR: Sormuk PO RO Inflamed wounds
Boiss. & Heldr.
125 Nonea persica Boiss. IR: Cheshm PO FL, Emollient, sedative and
gorbeyi-e-irani LE cardiotonic
(per.)
M. Ozturk et al.
126 Onosma sp. IR: Zangooleyi DE RO Laxative, stimulate,
(per.) rheumatic, heart disease
Brassicaceae
127 Аrmоrаciа rusticаnа RO Scurvy, antirheumatic,
(Lam.) P. Gaertn otitis, angina,
expectorant, appetizing,
digestive
128 Bunias orientalis L. TR: Galatürpenk FE ST Orexigenic
129 Capsella bursa- TR: Çobançantası; IN, PO, PU HE, Kidney stones, antitussive, Anti-inflammation,
pastoris (L.) Medik. IR: Kise keshish SH diuretic, astringent wounds, epilepsy,
(per.) astringent
130 Cardamine uliginosa TR: Tere DE, PU HE Orexigenic, cardialgia,
M.Bieb. gynecological diseases
131 Descurainia sophia IR: Shuvaran (tur.) BO, DE SE, Wounds, diarrhea, fever,
(L.) Webb. ex Prantl Khakshir-e-irani SH inflammation of the
(per.) kidneys and useful for
pregnancy
132 Diplotaxis tenuifolia TR: Türpenk DE ST Anti-inflammatory, orexigenic
(L.) DC.
133 Lepidium draba L. IR: Ozmak (per.) FR Astringent
134 Lepidium sativum L. TR: Tere; IR: DE FR, Goiter Liver and spleen
Shahi (tur. and LE, diseases, asthma, cough,
per.) SE hemorrhoids, lack of

vitamin C
135 Nasturtium officinale IR: Boolagh oti FE WP Antipyretic,
R. Br. (tur.) alaf-e- anthelmintic, diabetes,
cheshmeh, expectorant
tartizak-e-abi
(per.)
(continued)
233
Treatment
234
Parts
136 Raphanus IR: Torob-e-vahshi PO LE Lack of vitamin C,
raphanistrum L. (per.) kidney inflammation,
kidney stones, chronic
rheumatism, gout,
asthma, jaundice
137 Raphanus sativus L.* IR: Torobche DE, PO FR, Cough, anti-diarrhea,
noghli (per.) LE, digestive, fever, for hair
RO growth
138 Rapistrum rugosum TR: Türpek FE HE Orexigenic
(L.) All.
139 Sisymbrium irio L. IR: Khakshir-e- DE SE Diuretic, antipyretic,
talkh (per.) kidney inflammation,
for measles treatment,
hives
140 Sobolewskia clavata TR: Yel otu PO HE Antirheumatic
(Boiss.) Fenzl
Cannabaceae
141 Humulus lupulus L. IF Antispasmodic,
analgesic, sedative,
somniferous, appetizing,
anti-inflammatory,
diuretic, anthelmintic
Capparaceae
142 Capparis sicula TR: Yılan yemişi PO FR Antirheumatic
Veill. subsp.
herbacea (Willd.)
Inocencio
M. Ozturk et al.
143 Capparis spinosa L. IR: Dagh garpouzi DE BR, Sedative, the removal
(tur.) Kabar, FL, and disposal of asthma
Kavar, RO attacks, cough
alaf-e-mar(per.)
Caprifoliaceae
144 Cephalaria procera TR: Ganteper DE CA Colds, cough, pulmonic
Fisch. & Ave-Lall. disorders, cardiotonic
Caryophyllaceae
145 Hеrniаriа glаbrа L. HE Kidney disorders,
urinary system
disorders, enuresis,
nephritis, antirheumatic
146 Silene compacta TR: Horoz pipiği PU LE Vulnerary
Fisch. ex Hornem.
147 Silene latifolia Poir. TR: Garagile DE HE Eczema
subsp. eriocalycinae
(Boiss.) Greuter &
Burdet
148 Vaccaria hispanica IR: Sabunak (per.) PO WP Carminative, stomach
(Mill.) Rauschert and intestine diseases,
stimulate, increasing
blood flow and cardiac
activity
Convolvulaceae
149 Convolvulus arvensis TR: Dolaşkan; IR: DE, PO LE, Stomachic Laxatives, vascular
L. Pichak, pichak-e- RO diseases, for liver
sahrayi (per.) infection
150 Convolvulus TR: Dolaşkan PO LE Stomachic
scammonia L.
151 Cressa cretica L. CR, DE LE Diuretic, wounds
235
(continued)
Treatment
236
Parts
Cornaceae
152 Cоrnus mаs L. FR, Diarrhea,
LE gastrointestinal
disorders, diаbеtes,
malaria, dysentery,
digestive, tonic
Cucurbitaceae
153 Bryоniа аlbа L. RO Antirheumatic,
cardiotonic
154 Citrullus colocynthis IR: Hendevaneye DE FR, Wound healing and
(L.) Schrad. abujah LE disinfection (dog and
donkey)
Elaeagnaceae
155 Elaeagnus TR: İğde; IR: Ideh DE, FE, IN BR, Diarrhea, constipation, Flu, bronchi infection,
angustifolia L. (tur.) Senjed (per.) FL, sunstroke fever, strengthening the
FR, stomach, liver diseases
LE,
SE
156 Elaeagnus FR Avitaminosis, wounds,
rhаmnоidеs (L.) stomatitis, respiratory
A.Nelson system disorders,
tuberculosis, cancer,
ulcer, burns
Ericaceae
157 Vаccinium myrtillus FR, Enuresis, antirheumatic,
L. LE gastritis, tonsillitis,
stomatitis, arthralgia,
diarrhea, dysentery,
M. Ozturk et al.
anthelmintic,
gastrointestinal disorders
158 Vаccinium vitis- FR, Hepatic disorders,
idаеа L. LE gastritis, scurvy,
antirheumatic, enuresis,
anthelmintic, diarrhea
Euphorbiaceae
159 Euphorbia IR: Farfion, DE RO, Laxative, emetic, nerve
heteradena Jaub. & Shir-sag (per.) SH pain and arthritis
Spach.
160 Euphorbia TR: Sütlüyen DAP LA Constipation, inflamed
macroclada Boiss. wounds, scorpion and bee bites
161 Euphorbia TR: Sütlübiyan DAP LA Constipation, inflamed
marschalliana Boiss. wounds, scorpion and bee bites
subsp. armena
(Prokh.) Oudejans
162 Euphorbia TR: Sütlüyen DAP LA Constipation, inflamed
seguieriana Necker wounds, scorpion and bee bites
subsp. seguieriana
163 Ricinus communis L. IR: Karchak OI FR Treatment of bloat and
rumen indigestion
(ruminants)
Fabaceae
164 Alhagi maurorum IR: Goy tikan DE FL, Laxative, anti-fever in
Medik. subsp. (tur.) Khar shotor, RO contagious disease

graecorum (Boiss.) Toranjabin (per.)
Awmack & Lock
165 Alhagi maurorum TR: Devedişi DE HE Tonic
Medik. subsp.
maurorum
166 Astragalus aureus IR: Geven CH, DE GU, Stomachache, sore throat,
Willd. RO jaundice
237
(continued)
238
Treatment
Parts
167 Astragalus sp. IR: Gavan (per. FE, IN, SM AP, Analgesic, anti-
and tur.) FR flatulence; for
veterinary purposes
(Oestrus ovis larvae
(sheep))
168 Gаlеgа оfficinаlis L. HE Cardiovascular system,
diabetes
169 Glycyrrhiza glabra TR: Meyan; AZ: DAP, DE LE, Cough, bronchitis, stomachic, Ulcer, inflamed wounds, Sedative, cough,
L. Biyan; IR: Shirin RO asthma, nephralgia, diuretic, Addisоn disease, bronchitis, inflammation
bayan, mak (per.) epilepsy, cancer, kidney stones, antitussive, tuberculosis, of trachea, ulcer, to
sunstroke bronchitis, eczema relieve pain
170 Lathyrus cicera L. TR: Gürül PU HE Edema
171 Lathyrus TR: Gülçiçeği DE, PO HE, Goiter, antirheumatic
rotundifolius Willd. LE
subsp. miniatus
(Bieb. Ex Stev.)
Davis
172 Lotus corniculatus L. TR: Gazalboynuzu DE HE Sedative, antihemorrhoidal,
var. corniculatus abdominal pain, diuretic,
stomachache, nephralgia
173 Medicago sativa L. TR: Karayonca; DE, FE, PU HE, Wounds, astringent Vascular diseases,
IR: Yonja (tur.) LE, vitamin for infant
Yonjeh. (per.) SH nutrition, for rickets
174 Melilotus officinalis TR: Kokulu FE, IN FL, Anemia, sedative, constipation, Respiratory system Emollient, insomnia,
(L.) Desr. yonca; AZ: HE, antirheumatic disorders, expectorant, diuretic, nerve pain,
Heşenbül; IR: Sari LE pectoral, cold, swollen migraines, rheumatic
yonja (tur.) wounds, inflamed
Yonjeh-e-zard, wounds
M. Ozturk et al.
Aklilolmalek
(per.)
175 Onobrychis TR: Körülgen DE HE Diuretic
stenostachya Freyn
subsp. sosnowskyi
(Grossh.) Hedge
176 Onobrychis TR: Gorunga DE HE Diuretic
transcaucasica
Grossh.
177 Phaseolus vulgaris IR: Loobia (tur. DE SE Kidney stones,
L. and per.) emollient, cardiotonic,
diuretic, cholesterol,
lowering blood
pressure, constipation
178 Securigera orientalis TR: Yonca FE LE Nephralgia
(Mill.) Lassen subsp.
orientalis
179 Sophora TR: Acıbiyan; IR: DE, DI LE, Scabies Laxative, hemorrhoids,
alopecuroides L. Aji bayan (tur.) RO ulcers, fever, vascular
talkh bayan (per.) diseases, brain
hemorrhage
180 Trifolium ambiguum TR: Alma otu DE, FE HE Galactagogue,
Bieb. antihemorrhoidal, tonic,
intestinal disorders
181 Trifolium pratense L. IR: Ouch-yarpakh DE, FE FL Laxatives, astringent,

(tur.) Shabdar-e- sterilization of chest,
ghermez, anti-asthma, stomach
Shabdar-e- cancer
chamanzari (per.)
182 Trifolium repens L. IR: Ouch-yarpakh DE, FE FL Diarrhea, astringent,
(tur.) Shabdar-e- cough, chest
sefid, shabdar-e- sterilization, asthma,
khazandeh (per.) stomach and throat
239
cancer
(continued)
Treatment
240
Parts
183 Trigonella foenum- IR: Shanbalileh DI SH Tonic, diuretic, swollen
graceum L. (tur. and per.) spleen, liver, pain,
bladder discomfort,
hemorrhoids
184 Trigonella sp. IR: Shanbalileh DI SH Tonic, diuretic, swollen
(tur. and per.) spleen, liver, pain,
bladder discomfort,
hemorrhoids
185 Vicia cracca L. TR: Gürül FE SE Stomachache, headache
subsp. cracca
186 Vicia sativa L. IR: Mash (tur.) FE, IN SE Bladder inflammation,
Mashak, tonic, cough, skin
Gav-daneh, diseases
karsaneh (per.)
Fagaceae
187 Fаgus оriеntаlis BR, Respiratory system
Lipsky FR disorder, pulmonic
disorder, tuberculosis,
skin disorder
188 Quеrcus rоbur L. AZ: Meşe BR, Stomatitis, gingivitis,
FR tonsillitis, intestinal
diseases, stomachache,
burn, skin disorder
Gentianaceae
189 Cеntаurium AZ: Qızılçetir HE Cholagogue, hepatic
erythraea Raffn diseases, gastritis,
indigestion, wounds,
plеuritic, pulmonic
M. Ozturk et al.
disorders, anthelmintic,
diuretic
Geraniaceae
190 Erodium cicutarium IR: Nok laklaki-e- DE, PO SE Astringent,
(L.) L’Her. harz (per.) galactagogue, wash on
animal bites, skin
infection, diuretic, lack
of vitamin K
191 Geranium tuberosum IR: Shamdani-e- OI SH Treatment of cholera,
L. vahshi, soozan-e- wrinkles and skin
choupan-e-ghodeh irritations,
dar (per.) antidepressants
Grossulariaceae
192 Ribеs nigrum L. AZ: Qarağat FR, Avitaminosis, gastritis,
LE cold, anemia,
antirheumatism, kidney
system disorders, skin
disorders, cardiovascular
system disorders
Hypericaceae
193 Hypericum TR: Çay otu DE HE Kidney stones, stomach
montbretii Spach disorders, ulcer,
antihemorrhoidal
194 Hypericum TR: Çay otu; AZ: DE HE Stomachache, ulcer, antiseptic, Gastrointestinal
perforatum L. Dazı vulnerary, sedative, kidney disorders, hepatitis,
disorders, antihemorrhoidal stomatitis, angina,
tonsillitis, cardialgia,
antirheumatic,
tuberculosis, internal
bleeding, swollen
wounds, inflamed
wounds, abscess,
241
wounds, burns,
anthelmintic, diuretic
(continued)
242
Treatment
Parts
195 Hypericum scabrum TR: Çay otu, Mide DE, IN FL, Constipation, Energy providers,
L. otu; IR: Gol-e- HE, antihemorrhoidal, kidney digestive, sedative,
raee-e-deyhimi, SH disorders, stomach disorders, urinary tract antiseptic,
Alaf-e-chai-e- ulcer, jaundice, menstrual anti-catarrh, diuretic,
deyhimi (per.) disorders, analgesic, sedative astringent,
strengthening the
nerves, uterine diseases
Iridaceae
196 Iris x gеrmаnicа L. RH Tuberculosis,
gastrointestinal
system disorders, kidney
and urinary infection,
plеuritic, hepatic disease
197 Iris reticulata IR: Norous-gouli IN Diuretic, lung infection,
M. Bieb. (tur.) Zanbagh-e- anthelmintic, laxative
moshabbak (per.)
Ixioliriaceae
198 Ixiolirion tataricum IR: Khiarak (per.) DE BU Blood purification,
(Pall.) Schult. & diarrhea, gout disease
Schult.f.
Juglandaceae
199 Juglans regia L. IR: Girdakan (tur.) DE FR, Astringent
Gerdoo (per.) LE
Lamiaceae
200 Ajuga chamaepitys TR: Mayasılotu DE HE Tonic, antipyretic,
(L.) Schreb. subsp. emmenagogue,
chia (Schreb.) antihemorrhoidal diuretic,
M. Ozturk et al.
Arcang. vulnerary
201 Dracocephalum IR: Badrashbi PO SE, Painkiller, for
moldavica L. (per.) SH relaxation, insomnia
202 Lаmium аlbum L. FL Internal bleeding, wound
healing, gastrointestinal
disorder, insomnia,
neuralgia, cystitis
203 Lavandula vera DC.* IR: Ostokhoddus DE, OI FL, Headaches, asthma,
(tur. and per.) LE arthritis, gout, stomach
tonic, insomnia,
sedative, anti-stress, and
antidepressants
204 Leonurus TR: Öküzguyruğu IN, PO HE, Cardiotonic, inflamed wounds
glaucescens Bunge RO
205 Lеоnurus AZ: Şirguyruğu HE Sedative, neuralgia,
quinquеlоbаtus Gilib. cardiac diseases
206 Marrubium TR: Dağ çayı IN HE Colds, antipyretic
astracanicum Jacq.
subsp. astracanicum
207 Marrubium TR: Dağ çayı IN HE Colds, antipyretic
parviflorum Fisch. &
Mey. subsp. oligodon
(Boiss.) Seybold
208 Mentha longifolia TR: Yarpuz; IR: DE, FE, IN, HE, Colds, flu, cough, catarrh, Expectorant, whooping
(L.) L. Yarpuz (tur.) PO, PW LE, abdominal pain, menstrual cough, carminative,
Pouneh (per.) SH pain, stomachic, bronchitis, jaundice, gum diseases,
headache, pulmonic disorders, relieve epilepsy, urinary
diarrhea, asthma, retention
antihemorrhoidal
209 Mentha x piperita L. IR: Naana (tur. DE, FE, PO SH Painkiller, energy
and per.) Naana providers, stomachache,
felfeli (per.) diarrhea, fever, colds,
243
carminative, jaundice
(continued)
Treatment
244
Parts
210 Nepeta haussknechtii IR: Pooneh DE SH Stomachache,
Bornm. say-e-eraghi (per.) relaxation, anti-fever
211 Ocimum basilicum L. IR: Reyhan, IN SE, Boost digestion,
Reyhan banafsh SH diuretic, headaches,
(tur. and per.) nervous, dizziness,
Tokhme sharbati nausea, cough, angina,
(per.) whooping cough,
increases milk
212 Origanum vulgare L. TR: Eşek kekiği; DE, IN HE Vulnerary, stomachache, Stomatitis, toothache,
subsp. gracile AZ: Qaraqınıq hypertension, headache, abscess, skin disorders,
(K. Koch) Ietsw. asthma, toothache antirheumatic,
carminative,
stomachache, epilepsy,
paralysis, antitussive,
appetizing
213 Phlomis armeniaca TR: Çöl çayı IN HE Antipyretic, colds, asthma,
Willd. bronchitis
214 Rosmarinus IR: Rozmari (tur. OI FL, Strengthening hair and
officinalis L.* and per.) LE prevent hair loss
Aklil-e-kouhi
(per.)
215 Salvia hydrangea TR: Koç otu; IR: DE, IN FL, Colds, diabetes, stomach Strengthen the body and
DC. ex Bentham Maryam goli (tur. HE, disorders, antipyretic, spirit, wounds, skin
and per.) Maryam SH emmenagogue irritations, swelling of
goli-e-tamashayi throat
(per.)
216 Salvia nemorosa L. TR: Çöl çayı DE, IN, PU HE Astringent, colds, catarrh
217 Salvia palaestina IR: Maryam - goli PA FL, Appetizer (ruminant)
M. Ozturk et al.
Benth. phelestini LE
218 Salvia verticillata L. TR: Karabaş otu IN HE Laxative, colds
subsp. amasiaca
(Freyn. & Bornm.)
Bornm.
219 Salvia verticillata L. TR: Karabaş otu DE HE Catarrh, colds, laxative
subsp. verticillata
220 Satureja hortensis L. IR: Marzeh (tur. DE, IN SE, Muscle pain,
and per.) SH rheumatism
221 Satureja sahendica IR: Dagh marzasi IN SH Cough and expectorant,
Bornm. (tur.) Marzeh-e- carminative,
sahandi (per.) antiparasitic, stomach
cramps
222 Scutellaria orientalis TR: Sancı otu IN HE, Abdominal pain, nephralgia, Cardiovascular diseases,
L. RO carminative neuralgia, headache,
insomnia, whooping
cough, epilepsy,
antirheumatic,
bronchitis, pulmonic
disorders, anthelmintic,
dysentery, tonic
223 Stachys annua (L.) TR: Dağ çayı DE HE Colds, antipyretic
L. subsp. annua var.
lycaonica
Bhattacharjee
224 Stachys iberica Bieb. TR: Dağ çayı DE HE Colds, antipyretic
subsp. georgica
Rech. f.
225 Stachys iberica Bieb. TR: Dağ çayı DE HE Colds, antipyretic,
subsp. stenostachya stomachache
(Boiss.) Rech. f.
(continued)
245
Treatment
246
Parts
226 Stachys inflata IR: Sonbole-e- DE LE Nervous disorders and
Benth. badkonaki, hysteria, antispasmodic,
sonbole-e- sedative, fever,
arghavani (per.) insomnia, stomach,
anthelmintic,
antiexcitement,
migraine, anxiety,
melancholy diseases,
sciatica pain, hiccups,
chest pain, emetic
227 Stachys TR: Dağ çayı; IR: DE, IN HE, Antipyretic, cough Stomach, anthelmintic,
lavandulifolia Vahl. Tooklije (tur.) LE, antiexcitement,
chai-e-alafi, SH migraine, anxiety,
chai-e-kouhi, melancholy diseases,
sonbole-e-ziba sciatica pain, hiccups,
(per.) chest pain, emetic
228 Teucrium polium L. TR: Daşkekiği DE, FE HE Stomach, diarrhea,
antihemorrhoidal, internal
medicine, diabetes, analgesic,
anti-inflammatory, edema,
stomachache, digestive,
tuberculosis, abdominal pain
229 Thymus fallax Fisch. TR: Kekik DE, IN HE Backache, hypertension,
& C.A.Mey. anti-inflammatory, cancer,
enteralgia, anthelmintic,
diabetes, colds, abdominal
ailments
M. Ozturk et al.
230 Thymus kotschyanus TR: Kekik DE, IN HE Backache, hypertension,
Boiss. & Hohen. anti-inflammatory, cancer,
subsp. kotschyanus enteralgia, anthelmintic,
diabetes, colds, abdominal
ailments
231 Thymus migricus TR: Kekik IN HE Backache, hypertension,
Klokov & enteralgia, anti-inflammatory,
Des.-Shost. cancer, anthelmintic
232 Thymus praecox TR: Kekik IN HE Hypertension, enteralgia,
Opiz. subsp. anti-inflammatory, cancer,
grossheimii anthelmintic, colds
(Ronniger) Jalas
233 Thymus pubescens IR: Avishan-e- IN SH Cough, bronchitis, joint
Boiss. & Kotschy ex kork alood (per.) pain, muscle pain
Celak.
234 Thymus sp. IR: Kahlik oti IN SH Disinfection,
(tur.) Avishan antiparasitic,
(per.) strengthness the
kidneys, cough,
bronchitis, joint pain,
muscle pain
235 Thymus TR: Kekik IN HE Backache, hypertension, Whooping cough,
transcaucasicus enteralgia, anti-inflammatory, bronchitis, dysentery,
Ronniger cancer, anthelmintic angina, antitussive, cold,

carminative,
stomachache,
tachycardia
236 Ziziphora TR: Reyhan; IR: IN HE, Stomachache, carminative, Fever, smoothing chest,
clinopodioides Lam. Kakoti kouhi, LE orexigenic, colds carminative, cough
Naana kouhi (per)
(continued)
247
Treatment
248
Parts
237 Ziziphora taurica TR: Merze IN HE Carminative, orexigenic,
M.Bieb. subsp. stomachache, hypertension
taurica
238 Ziziphora tenuior L. IR: Kakoti (per.) IN LE Fever, smoothing chest,
carminative
Lythraceae
239 Punicа grаnаtum L. AZ: Nar BR, Gastrointestinal
FR disorders, wound,
anthelmintic, cardialgia,
gingivitis, kidney
disease, diabetes,
antipyretic, scurvy, cold,
antitussive,
antirheumatic, tonic
Malvaceae
240 Alcea striata (DC.) TR: Gül çiçek DE, IN FL, Anti-inflammatory, anemia,
Alef. subsp. LE cough
rufescens (Boiss.)
Cullen
241 Аlthаеа оfficinаlis L. AZ: Balgamotu RO Respiratory system
disorders, ulcer,
diarrhea, gastritis,
stomachache,
anthelmintic, cystitis,
angina
242 Althea sp. IR: Khatmi (tur. DE FL, Cough, skin diseases,
and per.) RO fever, diuretic,
analgesic, antibacterial,
M. Ozturk et al.
anti-inflammatory,
antiseptic, anthelmintic
243 Malva neglecta TR: Ebemkömeci; DE, PO, PU, FL, Asthma, abdominal pain, ulcer, Cough, diuretic
Wallr. IR: Aman-komanji PW FR, colds, stomachic, digestive,
(tur.) Panirak-e- HE, sore throat, constipation,
mamouli (per.) LE, emmenagogue, anti-
RO inflammatory, abscess,
vulnerary, gynecologic
diseases, women’s sterility,
edema, analgesic, abortive
244 Mаlvа sylvеstris L. AZ: Emekömeci; DE FL, Respiratory system Anti-infection, cough
IR: Aman-komanji LE disorders,
(tur.) Panirak gastrointestinal disorder,
(per.) angina, antitussive, cold
Moraceae
245 Mоrus аlbа L. AZ: Tut FR, Cardiovascular system
LE, disorders, anemia,
RO scarlatina, ulcer,
antirheumatic,
anthelmintic, cold,
epilepsy, scabies
Nitrariaceae
246 Peganum harmala L. TR: Üzerlik; AZ: DE, SM HE, Antirheumatic, Sedative, neuralgia, Disinfectant, snakebite
Üzerrik; IR: RO, antihemorrhoidal Parkinson, cold, malaria, (all the animals)
Uzarik (tur.) SE antirheumatic, scabies,
Espand, Esfand diuretic, exudative,

(per.) stomach disorders
Oleaceae
247 Fraxinus excelsior IR: Goush-dili DE BR, Antipyretic,
L.* (tur.) Zaban LE expectorant, astringent,
gonjeshk (per.) diuretic, laxative,
diarrhea, rheumatism,
gout
249
(continued)
Treatment
250
Parts
Papaveraceae
248 Chеlidоnium mаjus AZ: Ziyilotu, HE Anti-verrucous, wounds,
L. Dəmrovotu ulcer, skin cancer,
cholagogue, jaundice
249 Fumaria asepala TR: Şetere; IR: DE, PW HE, Headache, itching, antiseptic Sore throat, diuretic,
Boiss. Shah tareh-e- SH diaphoretic, stomach
bikasbarg (per.) tonic, blood purifier,
appetizer, leprosy, skin
diseases
250 Fumаriа оfficinаlis AZ: Şahtere HE Avitaminosis,
L. gastrointestinal
disorders, carminative,
anemia, jaundice,
astringent, appetizing
251 Fumaria schleicheri TR: Şetere PW HE Headache, itching, antiseptic
Soy-Will. subsp.
microcarpa
(Hausskn.) Liden
252 Papaver lacerum TR: Haşhaş FE BD Goiter
Popov
253 Papaver orientale L. TR: Haşhaş IN LE Asthma
254 Papaver rhoeas L. IR: Ghincha (tur.) DE FR Emollient, cough,
Shaghayegh (per.) bronchitis, catarrh, lung
diseases, asthma, ear
pain, dysentery
255 Roemeria hybrida IR: Gol-e-arousak- IN Relaxation
(L.) DC. e-banafsh (per.)
M. Ozturk et al.
Plantaginaceae
256 Plantago atrata TR: Dartul otu FE LE Astringent, inflamed wounds,
Hoppe vulnerary
257 Plantago lanceolata TR: Sinir otu; IR: DE, FE, VA LE, Abscess, antiparasitic, Anti-catarrh, urinary
L. Garni-yarikh (tur.) WP vulnerary, astringent, tract diseases, kidney
Barhang-e- anti-inflammatory, gynecologic diseases, constipation,
sarneyzeyi, Kardi diseases, stomachic, ulcer bladder discomfort
(per.)
258 Plantago major L. TR: Bağa yaprağı; DE HE, Abscess, vulnerary, anti- Ulcer, gastrointestinal Anti-catarrh, urinary
AZ: Bağayarpağı; LE, inflammatory, stomachic, ulcer disorders, antitussive, tract, kidney diseases,
IR: Bozousha WP wounds, whooping bladder discomfort
(tur.), Barhang-e- cough, burns
kabir (per.)
259 Plantago media L. TR: Kılıçotu; IR: DE, FE LE, Astringent, anti-inflammatory Anti-catarrh, urinary
Garni-yarikh (tur.) WP tract and kidney
Barhang-e-moattar diseases, constipation,
(per.) bladder discomfort
260 Veronica ceratocarpa IR: Sizab-e- FE FL Anti-scurvy, diuretic,
C.A.Mey. moshabbak, wound, constipation
Sizab-e-miveh
shakhi (per.)
261 Veronica orientalis TR: Gözmuncuğu IN HE Kidney stones, pulmonic
Mill. çiçeği disorders

Poaceae
262 Alopecurus IR: Dom roubahi IN Sedative
myosuroides Huds. moushi (per.)
263 Avena sativa L.* IR: Youlaf (tur. DE SE Heart disease, laxative,
and per.) anticancer
264 Bromus japonicus IR: Jarou OI Accelerate hair growth
Thunb. alafi-e-japoni and stop hair loss
(per.)
251
(continued)
252
Treatment
Parts
265 Cynodon dactylon IR: Chayer (tur. DI WP Vascular diseases
(L.) Pers. and per.)
266 Hordeum IR: Arpa (tur.) DE Indigestion, fever, loss
spontaneum K. Koch. Jo-e-vahshi (per.) of milk production,
astringent, headaches,
flatulent, swelling of
throat, sore throat,
constipation
267 Lolium perenne L. IR: Chacham-e- IN SE Hypnotic, joint pain
chand saleh (per.)
268 Phragmites australis IR: Ghamish (tur.) IN RH Spasms of the liver and
(Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. Ney (per.) spleen, toothache, chest
pains
269 Zea mays L.* IR: Makka (tur.) OI COS Tonic, eczema and high
Zorrat (per.) blood cholesterol
Polygonaceae
270 Polygonum aviculare TR: Kuşdili; IR: DE, IN, PO HE, Cough, antirheumatic, anemia, Astringent, tonic,
L. Alaf-e-haft band LE, stomach disorders wounds, diarrhea,
(per.) ST dysentery, intestinal
inflammation, vaginal
discharge, asthma
271 Polygonum bistorta TR: Çimen eveliği IN HE Sore throat, expectorant
L. subsp. bistorta
272 Polygonum cognatum TR: Kuş eppeği DE, IN HE Abscess, emetic, cough,
Meissn. antirheumatic, anemia,
stomach disorders
M. Ozturk et al.
273 Rheum ribes L. TR: Işgın; IR: DE, FE, PU PET, Ulcer, diarrhea, anthelmintic, Jaundice, typhoid,
Rivas RO, expectorant, antihemorrhoidal, diarrhea, bile diseases
SH digestive, stomachic, diabetes,
tonic, emetic, constipation,
hypertension
274 Rhеum rupеstrе Litv. RO Appetizer, skin
disorders, cholagogue
275 Rumех cоnfеrtus AZ: Eveliyi FR, Gastrointestinal
Willd. LE, disorders, indigestion,
RO inflammation of
intestine, diarrhea,
dysentery, avitaminosis,
pulmonic disorders,
mouth wounds, gastritis,
anal fissure, cholagogue
276 Rumex crispus L. TR: Evelik DE, PU FR, Cough, colds, asthma,
LE anti-inflammatory,
antihemorrhoidal, gynecologic
diseases, antirheumatic, goiter
277 Rumex patientia L. TR: At eveliği; IR: DE, IN LE, Internal medicine Urinary tract diseases,
Avalik (tur.) SH gingivitis, skin care,
Torshak-e- acne, colic, hepatitis,
shafadahandeh, chronic constipation
Torshak-e-
bimarkhiz (per.)
278 Rumex scutatus L. TR: Taş turşusu FE, IN LE, Diuretic, antipyretic,
RO orexigenic
279 Rumex tuberosus L. TR: Köme turşusu FE, IN LE, Diuretic, antipyretic,
subsp. horizontalis RO orexigenic
(Koch) Reich. f.
(continued)
253
Treatment
254
Parts
Portulacaceae
280 Portulaca oleracea IR: Parpane (tur.) IN WP Diuretics, anti-scurvy,
L. Khorfeh (tur. and fever, blood purifier,
per.) pain, gastrointestinal
tract inflammations,
cough, and insomnia
Primulaceae
281 Primula auriculata TR: Mustafa IN HE Stomachic
Lam. çiçeği
Ranunculaceae
282 Adonis aestivalis L. IR: Jin-lalasi (tur.) DE, FE SH Hair growth, boosting
Chesh khorous-e- sexual power, old
tabestaneh (per.) wounds, joint pain
283 Caltha palustris L. TR: Lulpar PO PET Internal medicine
284 Clematis orientalis TR: Pamukotu PU HE Antirheumatic, abscess,
L. mycodermatitis
285 Nigеllа sаtivа L. SE Pancreatitis, hepatitis,
gastritis, anthelmintic,
exudative, diuretic,
eczema, antitussive
286 Pulsatilla violacea TR: Dağ lalesi IN, VA LE Respiratory system disorders,
Rupr. subsp. armena headache, sinusitis, tonic,
(Boiss.) Lufenov diuretic, expectorant
287 Ranunculus arvensis TR: Yara otu; IR: DE, PU HE, Swollen wounds, antirheumatic Skin illness,
L. Alaleh (per.) RO, rheumatism, gout,
WP neuralgia, influenza,
and meningitis
M. Ozturk et al.
288 Ranunculus TR: Yara otu DE, PU HE, Swollen wounds, antirheumatic
caucasicus Bieb. RO
subsp. subleiocarpus
(Som. & Lev.) Davis
289 Ranunculus TR: Yara otu DE, PU HE, Swollen wounds, antirheumatic
oreophilus M.Bieb. RO
290 Thalictrum minus L. TR: Kahraman DE, PO, VA HE Asthma, cardialgia, headache
var. microphyllum kaytaran
Boiss.
Resedaceae
291 Reseda lutea L. IR: Afsani (per.) DE RO Painkiller, tonic
Rhamnaceae
292 Paliurus spina-christi IR: Konar PA FR, Treatment of intestinal
P. Mill. LE infections (sheep and
goat)
293 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. FR, Pulmonic disorders,
LE, antitussive, tonic
RO
Rosaceae
294 Аgrimоniа еupаtоriа IR: Ghafes (per.) DE FL, Hepatic disorders, Astringent, diuretic,
L. HE antirheumatic, diarrhea, dysentery,
gastrointestinal disorder, hemorrhoids, heart
mouth and pharynx attack, gallstones

diseases, buckling of
legs, skin disorders
295 Amygdalus lycioides IR: Badam FE SE Sedative, analgesic
Spach
296 Аrmеnicа vulgаris AZ: Erik FR, Pectoral, expectorant,
Lаm. SE digestive, anthelmintic,
cardiovascular system
disorder
255
(continued)
256
Treatment
Parts
297 Cerasus microcarpa IR: Mahlab DE LE Disinfection of wounds
(C.A. Mey.) Boiss. (all animals)
298 Cotoneaster TR: Dağ DE BR Jaundice, cough
integerrimus L. muşmulası
299 Crataegus azarolus TR: Gurmut; IR: DE, FE BR, Embolism, laxative, diabetes Cardiotonic, digestive,
L. var. azarolus Agh-yemishan FL, fever, nervous disorders,
(tur.) Zalzalak FR vertigo
(per.)
300 Crataegus meyeri TR: Gurmut DE FR, Embolism, laxative, diabetes
Pojark. RO
301 Crаtаеgus pеntаgynа AZ: Yemişan FL, Tachycardia
Wаldst. еt. Kit. ex FR
Willd.
302 Cydоniа оblоngа AZ: Heyva FR, Gastrointestinal
Mill.* LE, disorder, asthma,
SE chronic bronchitis,
tuberculosis, anemia,
diathesis, cholagogue,
diuretic, cardialgia
303 Filipеndulа ulmаriа FL, Cold, diarrhea,
(L.) Mахim. HE, dysentery, skin
RO disorders, anthelmintic,
diuretic, internal
bleeding
304 Geum urbanum L. IR: Alaf-e- DE RO Astringent, diarrhea,
mobarak (per.) inflammation of the
pharynx, disinfectants,
strengthening the nerve,
M. Ozturk et al.
muscle pain, fever

305 Malus sylvestris (L.) TR: Alma; AZ: DE, FE FR, Colds, diabetes Diarrhea, anemia, Constipation, laxatives,
Mill. subsp. Alma; IR: Alma SE antirheumatic, antipyretic,
orientalis (tur.) Sib, dysentery, diabetes, anthelmintic, hypnotic,
(Uglitzkich) Browicz Sib-e-jangali (per.) cardiac diseases, obesity, diuretic, kidney
var. orientalis bronchitis inflammation, cold
306 Potentilla reptans L. IR: Panjeh-barg IN WP Astringent, fever,
(per.) diarrhea, jaundice,
hemorrhoids, treatment
of pain of the liver,
lungs, and joints and
sciatica
307 Rosa canina L. TR: İtburnu; AZ: DE, IN FR, Antihemorrhoidal, cough, Avitaminosis, scurvy, Anti-scurvy, astringent,
İt itburnu; IR: LE, stomachic, constipation, diathesis, hepatitis, lack of vitamin C,
Gildik, It-bourni RO malaria, diabetes, tonic, kidney and bladder diarrhea, antispasmodic,
(tur.) Nastaran, bronchitis diuretic, colds, disorders, anthelmintic, wounds
sag-gol (per.) asthma, kidney stones gastrointestinal disorder, and burns
burn
308 Rosa damascena IR: Ghizil-goul PO FL Laxative, constipation
Mill. (tur.) Gol-e- (in children)
mohammadi (per.)
309 Rosa hemisphaerica TR: Yemişen DE FR Cough
J. Herrm.
310 Rosa pulverulenta TR: Gıllıca DE FR Colds, cough
M.Bieb.
311 Rosa spinosissima L. TR: Koyungözü DE FR, Colds, stomachache,
RO cardiotonic, antihemorrhoidal,
antiseptic
(continued)
257
258
Treatment
Parts
312 Rubus cаеsius L. FR, Diarrhea, dysentery,
LE, anemia, avitaminosis,
RO gastrointestinal
disorders, cardiac
diseases, diabetes,
tuberculosis, angina,
burn, eczema, cold
313 Rubus idаеus L. FR, Bronchitis, cold, emetic,
LE appetizing, diurеtic,
hemafacient
314 Sanguisorba minor IR: Tout-e-roubahi IN LE, Astringent,
L. (per.) RO anti-hemorrhoids
315 Sаnguisоrbа RO Enteritis, stomachic,
оfficinаlis L. diarrhea, anthelmintic,
dysentery, burn,
stomatitis, tuberculosis
316 Sоrbus aucuparia L. AZ: Quşarmudu FR Gastrointestinal
disorder, dysentery,
diabetes, avitaminosis,
diuretic, exudative,
hemafacient
Rubiaceae
317 Galium aparine L. IR: Shir-panir DE SH Diuretic, gout, hepatitis,
(per.) prostate inflammation
318 Galium humifusum TR: Koşacı; IR: DI, IN HE, Gynecologic diseases Anti-tension
M.Bieb. Bitirakh (tur.) SH
Shir-panir (per.)
319 Galium tricornutum TR: Koşacı IN HE Gynecologic diseases
M. Ozturk et al.
Dandy
320 Rubia tinctorum L. IR: Biakh-bashi DE, IN RO Kidney stone, Diuretic, astringent
(tur.) Ronas (per.) cholagogue, nephralgia
Salicaceae
321 Salix aegyptiaca L. IR: Bid-e-meshk PO BR, Fever, laxative
(per.) FL,
LE
322 Salix alba L. IR: Bid-e-sefid PO BR, Fever, laxative
(per.) LE
Santalaceae
323 Viscum album L. IR: Darvash LE, Sedative (ruminants),
ST wound healing (dog and
donkey)
Scrophulariaceae
324 Verbascum TR: Sığır guyruğu DAP BLE Mycodermatitis
agrimoniifolium
(K. Koch) Hub.-Mor.
subsp.
agrimoniifolium
325 Vеrbаscum AZ: Keçiqulağı, Whooping cough,
dеnsiflоrum Bеrtоl. Sığırquyruğu eczema, bronchitis,
asthma, gastrointestinal
disorder, plеuritic,
pectoral,
anti-inflammatory
326 Verbascum TR: Sığır guyruğu DAP LE Mycodermatitis
oreophilum K.Koch
subsp. joannis
(Bordz.) Hub.-Mor.
327 Verbascum TR: Sığır guyruğu DAP LE Mycodermatitis
speciosum Schrader
259
(continued)
Treatment
260
Parts
328 Verbascum sp. IR: Gol-e-mahoor, IN FL, Anti-stress, anemia,
Khargooshak LE stomach cramps, skin
(per.) care, vitamin supports,
migraine, warts,
insomnia
Solanaceae
329 Capsicum frutescens IR: Bibar (tur.) FE FR Toothache,
L.* Felfel (per.) hemorrhoids,
gonorrhea, liver
problems, painkiller
330 Datura stramonium TR: Deli patpat DE, VA HE, Toothache, antipyretic,
L. LE, antirheumatic, sedative
SE
331 Hyoscyamus niger L. TR: Patpat; IR: DE, IH, VA LE, Toothache, against itching in Whooping cough,
Dali-bat bat (tur.) SE the eyes, stomatitis tuberculosis, and
Bazrol-banj, bronchitis
Bang-daneh (per.)
332 Lycium ruthenicum IR: Gorg-tigh, DE FR Diabetes, eye diseases,
Murray div-e-khar-majary hypertension, skin
(per.) diseases, relieve
hiccups, emetic,
diarrhea
333 Lycopersicon IR: Bamador, FE FR, Colds, prostate cancer,
esculentum Mill.* Ghirmizi SH improves the skin’s
bademjan (tur.) ability to protect against
Gojeh-farangi ultraviolet rays
(per.)
M. Ozturk et al.
Thymelaeceae
334 Daphne oleoides TR: Mundarça DE BR Abortion
Schreb.
Ulmaceae
335 Ulmus minor Mill. TR: Karaağaç DE, PU BR, Anti-inflammatory, wounds,
RO cough, asthma
Urticaceae
336 Urtica dioica L. TR: Isırgan otu; DE, FE, PO HE, Cancer, antirheumatic, Internal bleeding, Diuretic, astringent,
AZ: Gicitkan; IR: LE, diabetes, stomachic, cough, avitaminosis, antitussive, antiparasitic,
Dalama (tur.) WP colds, throat diseases, anthelmintic, diabetes, anthelmintic, kidney
Gazaneh (tur. and analgesic, edema, sedative, hair care inflammations
per.) laxative, anti-inflammatory,
emmenagogue, asthma,
hypertension, hair care
Vitaceae
337 Vitis sylvеstris AZ: Üzüm FR, Tuberculosis, bronchitis,
C.C. Gmеl. LE laryngitis, angina,
cardiac diseases,
diathesis, constipation,
nerve system, hepatic
disorders, hemafacient
338 Vitis vinifera L.* IR: Uzum (tur.) FE FR, Constipation,
Angour, Tak, Mo LE, inflammation of the

(per.) SE stomach, intestinal
inflammation,
whooping cough, spleen
and liver diseases,
anemia
Xanthorrhoeaceae
339 Aloe vera (L.) Burm. IR: Sir zard DE LE Lenient (all animals)
f.
261
(continued)
262
Treatment
Parts
Zygophyllaceae
340 Tribulus terrestris L. IR: Chagher FE FR Diuretic, facilitator of
Tikani (tur.) the liver function, blood
Khar-Khasak purification
(per.)
341 Zygophyllum fabago TR: İt üzerliği DE, VA HE Infertility, antirheumatic
L.
M. Ozturk et al.
References
Akerele O (1992) Importance of medicinal plants: WHO’s programme. In: Baba S, Akerele O,
Kawaguchi Y (eds) Natural resources and human health. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V,
Amsterdam, pp 63–72
Altundağ E (2009) Iğdır İli’nin (Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi) doğal bitkilerinin halk tarafından
kullanımı. Ph D. thesis. Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
Altundag E, Ozturk M (2011) Ethnomedicinal studies on the plant resources of east Anatolia,
Turkey. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 19:756–777
Amiri R, Weng Q, Alimohammadi A, Alavipanah SK (2009) Spatial-temporal dynamics of land
surface temperature in relation to fractional vegetation cover and land use/cover in the Tabriz
urban area, Iran. Remote Sens Environ 113(12):2606–2617
Bandiera O, Rasul I (2006) Social networks and technology adoption in northern Mozambique.
Econ J 116(514):869–902
Bedelov H, Aliyev A, Zeynalov I (2014) Xınalıqda Yetişen Derman Bitkileri. Gothe University,
Frankfurt
Bradacs G, Heilmann J, Weckerle CS (2011) Medicinal plant use in Vanuatu: a comparative ethno-
botanical study of three islands. J Ethnopharmacol 137(1):434–448
Chapman AD (2009) Numbers of living species in Australia and the World. Heritage, 2nd
(September), p 84
Cocks M (2006) Biocultural diversity: moving beyond the realm of “indigenous” and “local” peo-
ple. Hum Ecol 34(2):185–200
De Almeida CDFCBR, Ramos MA, Silva RRV, De Melo JG, Medeiros MFT, Arajo TADS et al
(2012) Intracultural variation in the knowledge of medicinal plants in an urban-rural com-
munity in the Atlantic Forest from northeastern Brazil. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med
2012:1. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/679373
De Pasquale A (1984) Pharmacognosy: the oldest modern science. J Ethnopharmacol 11:1–16
van den Broeck K, Dercon S (2011) Information flows and social externalities in a Tanzanian
banana growing village. J Dev Stud 47(2):231–252
Ellen RF (2009) Classification. In: Barnard A, Spencer J (eds) The Routledge encyclopedia of
social and cultural anthropology. Routledge, London and New York, pp 129–133
Ellena R, Quave CL, Pieroni A (2012) Comparative medical ethnobotany of the senegalese com-
munity living in Turin (northwestern Italy) and in Adeane (southern Senegal). Evid Based
Complement Alternat Med 2012(4):1. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/604363
Etkin N (1988) Ethnopharmacology: biobehavioral approaches in the anthropological study of
indigenous medicines. Ann Rev Anthrop 17:23–42
Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR (2001) The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug
discovery. Environ Health Perspect 109(Suppl. 1):69–75
Farnsworth NR (1992) Preclinical assessment of medicinal plants. In: Akerele O, Kawaguchi
Y, Baba S (eds) Natural resources and human health. Elsevier Science Publishers, B.V.,
Amsterdam, pp 87–91
Farnsworth NR, Soejarto DD (1991) Global importance of medicinal plants. In: Akerele OV,
Heywood V, Synge H (eds) Conservation of medicinal plants. Cambridge University Press,
New York, pp 25–51
Ghazanfar S (2011) Medicinal and aromatic plants Arabia and Iran. In: Ethnopharmacology.
Encyclopedia of Life Supports Systems (EOLSS), New York
Ghorbani A, Langenberger G, Sauerborn J (2012) A comparison of the wild food plant use knowl-
edge of ethnic minorities in Naban River watershed National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, SW
China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 8:17
González-Tejero MR, Casares-Porcel M, Sánchez-Rojas CP, Ramiro-Gutiérrez JM, Molero-Mesa
J et al (2008) Medicinal plants in the Mediterranean area: synthesis of the results of the project
Rubia. J Ethnopharmacol 116(2):341–357
Güner A, Aslan S, Ekim T, Vural M, Babaç MT (2012) Türkiye Bitkileri Listesi (Damarlı Bitkiler).
Nezahat Gökyiğit Botanik Bahçesi ve Flora Araştırmaları Derneği Yayını, Istanbul
Hadjichambis AC, Paraskeva-Hadjichambi D, Della A, Elena Giusti M, De Pasquale C et al (2008)
Wild and semi-domesticated food plant consumption in seven circum-Mediterranean areas. Int
J Food Sci Nutr 59(5):383–414
Halberstein RA (1997a) Traditional botanical remedies on a small Caribbean island: middle
(grand) Caicos, West Indies. J Altern Complement Med 3:227–239
Halberstein RA (1997b) Health and disease in the Caribbean: an historical perspective. J Carib
Stud 12:1–5
Halberstein RA (2005) Medicinal plants: historical and cross-cultural usage patterns. Ann
Epidemiol 15(9):686–699
Halberstein RA, Saunders AB (1978) Traditional medical practices and medicinal plant usage on
a Bahamian Island. Cult Med Psychiatry 2(2):177–203
Han MI, Bulut G (2015) The folk-medicinal plants of Kadişehri (Yozgat-Turkey). Acta Soc Bot
Pol 84(2):237–248
Hasanova G, Ozturk M, Akçiçek E (2000) Azerbaijan’da geleneksel tedavide kullanılan bitkiler.
In: XIII. Bitkisel İlaç Hammaddeleri Toplantısı, pp 221–229, Marmara University, Istanbul,
Turkey
Hylands P, Stuart M (1981) The medicinal uses of plants. In: Stuart M (ed) The encyclopedia of
herbs and herbalism. Crescent Books, New York, pp 47–65
Joudi L, Bibalani GH (2010) Exploration of medicinal species of Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and
Asteraceae families in Ilkhji region, eastern Azerbaijan Province (northwestern Iran). J Med
Plants 4(11):1081–1084
Kidane B, Van Der Maesen LJG, Van Andel T, Asfaw Z (2014) Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants
used by the Maale and Ari ethnic communities in southern Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol
153(1):274–282
Labeyrie V, Rono B, Leclerc C (2014) How social organization shapes crop diversity: an eco-
logical anthropology approach among Tharaka farmers of Mount Kenya. Agric Hum Values
31(1):97–107
Leman DJ (2006) Sustainable wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plants: development
of an international standard. In: Bogers RJ, Craker LE, Lange D (eds) Medicinal and aro-
matic plants: agricultural, commercial, ecological, legal. Pharmacol Soc Aspects Springer,
Heidelberg, pp 97–107
Leonti M, Casu L (2013) Traditional medicines and globalization: current and future perspectives
in ethnopharmacology. Front Pharmacol 25:4–92
Leporatti M, Ghedira K (2009) Comparative analysis of medicinal plants used in traditional medi-
cine in Italy and Tunisia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 5:31
Leporatti ML, Ivancheva S (2003) Preliminary comparative analysis of medicinal plants used in
the traditional medicine of Bulgaria and Italy. J Ethnopharmacol 87(2–3):123–142
Łuczaj Ł (2010) Changes in the utilization of wild green vegetables in Poland since the 19th cen-
tury: a comparison of four ethnobotanical surveys. J Ethnopharmacol 128(2):395–404
Madaleno IM (2010) Local use of front and backyard medicinal species – a comparative study in
six Latin American cities. WIT Trans Ecol Environ 129:637–646
Maffi L (2005) Linguistic, cultural and biological diversity. Annu Rev Anthropol 29:599–617
Mamedov NA, Craker LE (2012) Man and medicinal plants: a short review. In: Ghaemghami
L, et al. Proc. IS on Medicinal and aromatic plants, IMAPS 2010 and “History of Mayan
Ethnopharmacology”, IMAPS 2011, Acta Hort. 964, ISHS 2012
Mattalia G, Quave CL, Pieroni A (2013) Traditional uses of wild food and medicinal plants among
Brigasc, Kyé, and Provençal communities on the western Italian alps. Genet Resour Crop Evol
60(2):587–603
McNeely JA (2000) Cultural factors in conserving biodiversity. In: Wilkes Y, Tillman A, Salas
H, Grinter M, Shaoting T (eds) Links between cultures and biodiversity, Proceedings of the
Cultures and Biodiversity Congress. Yunnan Science and Technology Press, China, Kunming,
pp 128–142
Mehtiyeva N, Zeynalova S (2008) Medicinal and aromatic plants of Azerbaijan. In:
Ethnopharmacology. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), New York
Menendez-Baceta G, Aceituno-Mata L, Reyes-García V, Tardío J, Salpeteur M, Pardo-De-
Santayana M (2015) The importance of cultural factors in the distribution of medicinal plant
knowledge: a case study in four Basque regions. J Ethnopharmacol 161:116–127
Milton K (1996) Environmentalism and cultural theory. Exploring the role of anthropology in
environmental discourse. Routledge, London and New York https://books.google.com.tr/books
Mir-Babayev NF, Waigh RD (1997) Plants of the republic of Azerbaijan with potential medicinal
applications. Pharm Biol 31(1):47–54
Mirzeyev PS (1972) Nakhchivan MSSR-in Agroiglim Sedzhijjesi. Azerneshr, Baku
Moerman DE, Jonas WB (2002) Deconstructing the placebo effect and finding the meaning
response. Ann Intern Med 136:471–476
Novruzova LA, Maharramov SH, Ibadullayeva SJ (2015) Management of gastroenterostomy ill-
ness with herbs in veterinary practice in Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic (Azerbaijan). Int
J Vet Sci 4(4):224–226
Ozturk M, Altundağ E, Gücel S (2012) Medicinal and aromatic plants (Turkey). In:
Ethnopharmacology. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), New York
Ozturk M, Altay V, Altundağ E, Gücel S (2016) Halophytic plant diversity of unique habitats in
Turkey: salt mine caves of Çankırı and Iğdır. In: Khan MA et al (eds) Halophytes for food
security in dry lands. Academic press is an imprint of Elsevier, Cambridge, MA
Pieroni A, Quave CL (2005) Traditional pharmacopoeias and medicines among Albanians and
Italians in southern Italy: a comparison. J Ethnopharmacol 101(1–3):258–270
Pieroni A, Giusti ME, Quave CL (2011) Cross-cultural ethnobiology in the western Balkans: medi-
cal ethnobotany and ethnozoology among Albanians and Serbs in the Pešter plateau, Sandžak,
south-western Serbia. Hum Ecol 39(3):333–349
Posey DA (1999) Cultural and spiritual values of biodiversity. A complementary contribution to
the global biodiversity assessment. In: Posey da (ed) cultural and spiritual values of biodiver-
sity. UNEP and Intermediate Technology Publications, London, pp 1–19
Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW (2012) Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta. J Ethnobiol
Ethnomed 8:29
Rates SMK (1991) Plants as source of new drugs. Toxicon 39(5):603–613
Rexhepi B, Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Rushidi-Rexhepi J, Quave CL, Pieroni A (2013) Traditional
medicinal plant knowledge among Albanians, Macedonians and Gorani in the Sharr Mountains
(republic of Macedonia). Genet Resour Crop Evol 60(7):2055–2080
Saslis-Lagoudakis CH, Hawkins JA, Greenhill SJ, Pendry CA, Watson MF et al (2014) The evolu-
tion of traditional knowledge: environment shapes medicinal plant use in Nepal. Proc R Soc B
Biol Sci 281(1780):20132768
Seyidova H, Hüseyin E (2012) Macrofungi of Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan) Autonomous Republic.
Turk J Bot 36(6):761–768
Singh RJ, Lebeda A, Tucker AO (2012) Medicinal plants-nature’s pharmacy. In: Singh R (ed)
Genetic resources, chromosome engineering and crop improvement: medicinal plants. CRC
Press, LLC, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, pp 13–51
Sõukand R, Kalle R (2010) Herbal landscape: the perception of landscape as a source of medicinal
plants. Trames J Humanit Soc Sci 14(3):207–226
Sõukand R, Pieroni A (2016) The importance of a border: medical, veterinary, and wild food
ethnobotany of the Hutsuls living on the Romanian and Ukrainian sides of Bukovina.
J Ethnopharmacol 185:17–40
Sõukand R, Quave CL, Pieroni A, Pardo-de-Santayana M, Tardío J, Kalle R et al (2013) Plants used
for making recreational tea in Europe: a review based on specific research sites. J Ethnobiol
Ethnomed 9:58. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-58
Taghipour H, Mosaferi M (2009) Characterization of medical waste from hospitals in Tabriz, Iran.
Sci Total Environ 407(5):1527–1535
Whistler WA (1985) Traditional and herbal medicine in the Cook Islands. J Ethnopharmacol
13:239–280
WHO (1993) Guidelines on the conservation of medicinal plants. World Health Organization
(WHO), Gland
Wong W (1976) Some folk medicinal plants from Trinidad. Econ Bot 30(2):103–142
Zlatković BK, Bogosavljević SS, Radivojević AR, Pavlović MA (2014) Traditional use of the
native medicinal plant resource of Mt. Rtanj (eastern Serbia): ethnobotanical evaluation and
comparison. J Ethnopharmacol 151(1):704–713
The Utilization and Conservation of Plants
of Medicinal Value by Local Traditional
Medicinal Practitioners and the Associated
Indigenous Knowledge in Dawuro Zone
of Ethiopia: Northeast Africa—An
Ethnobotanical Approach
Moin Ahmad Khan, Mathewos Agize, Abraham Shonga, and Asfaw Tora
Introduction
Background of the Study
Ethnobotany is the study of how people of a particular culture and religion make use
of indigenous plants. Martin (1995) had defined ethnobotany as “local people’s
interaction with the natural environment: how they classify, manage and use plants
available around them.” From the beginning of humanity, indigenous people have
developed their own locality-specific knowledge on plant use, management, and
conservation (Cotton 1996). This complex knowledge, systems of beliefs, and
practices generally termed as indigenous or traditional knowledge develop and
change with time and space, with change of resources and culture.
Indigenous knowledge has developed because of human interaction with their
environment. In this view, ethnobotanical studies are useful in documenting,
analyzing, and communicating knowledge and interaction between biodiversity and
human society, and how diversity in nature is used and influenced by human
activities (Martin 1995; Cotton 1996; Balick and Cox 1996).
Since ancient times, plants have been indispensable sources of both preventive
and curative traditional medicine preparations for human beings and livestock.
According to Farnsworth and Soejarto (1991) 70–80% of the world’s population
uses plants to solve basic medical problems. Furthermore, approximately 99% of
veterinary care in developing countries is based on the use of plant extracts
(Letchamo and Craker 1996). It was estimated that 25,000–75,000 species of higher
plants have been used in traditional medicine worldwide (Farnsworth 1985).
M. A. Khan (*) · M. Agize · A. Shonga · A. Tora

Department of Biology, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_7
268 M. A. Khan et al.
Ethiopia is a country with various types of climatic, topographic, soil features

and different altitudes. This makes the country to have a rich and diverse source of
flora and fauna. With the direct and intimate relationships as well as indispensable
dependency of human beings upon plants for their livelihood, plants provide mul-
tiple and diverse uses for indigenous societies (Amenu 2007). Various plants and
plant products have been closely associated with many social cultures, customs, and
mythological rituals such as personal decoration (e.g., cosmetics and tattooing) and
entertainment (e.g., musical instruments), arts and crafts, and even magic-religious
beliefs (Jain 1986). Plants have significant medicinal value both in developing and
developed countries. Over 75% of the world’s rural people rely on traditional herbal
medicine. About half of the world’s medicinal compounds are still extracted from
plants (Frankel et al. 1995). Moreover, since modern drugs are too expensive par-
ticularly in rural areas, over 95% of the Ethiopian population is not satisfied with the
services and benefits of modern medicine. Due to this reason, medicinal plants play
a significant role in the health care of local people.
It is reported that nearly 80% of the population in Ethiopia use plant-based tradi-
tional medicine as their primary healthcare system (Abebe 2001a, b) and this wide
use could be mainly attributed to the fact that it makes use of locally available plant
resources (Abebe and Ayehu 1993). The majority of medicinal plants, with
exceptions, are harvested from wild habitats, which are currently under great threat
(WCMC 1992). There are reports indicating that many potentially useful plants are
disappearing throughout the world, and Ethiopia is not exceptional. This is attributed
to conversion and destruction of habitats, overexploitation, and use of destructive
harvesting techniques (IUCN 1993; Yineger 2005; Giday 2007).
The study of Ethiopian medicinal plants has not been realized as fully as that of
India or other traditional communities elsewhere. Some organized ethnobotanical
studies in the recent past in different parts of Ethiopia have been carried out by
Getahun (1976), Jansen (1981), Taddese (1986), Abebe (1986), Taddese and
Demissew (1992), Abebe and Ayehu (1993), Abbink (1995), Giday (1999), Tamene
(2000), Hunde (2001), Asfaw (2001), Fullas (2001), Birhanu (2002), Balemie et al.
(2004), Lulekal (2005), Gebre (2005), Amenu (2007), Giday (2007), and
Teklehaymanot and Giday (2007). However, considering the country’s varied flora
and sociocultural diversity, these studies are not enough and have covered only a
few areas of the country. Since the plant-based medicinal healing systems vary
across cultures in different parts of the country, more studies are required on this
aspect. Like most other parts of the country, there is no such ethnomedicinal research
and documentation carried out in Dawuro zone, in Southern Ethiopia. This study
therefore is aimed at documentation of indigenous knowledge on use and
conservation of medicinal plants by the people of Dawuro and assessment of the
existing threats to medicinal plants.
The Utilization and Conservation of Plants of Medicinal Value by Local Traditional… 269
Statement of the Problem
There is a wide gap in our knowledge about ethnobotanical data and information
from various parts of Ethiopia although we have rich and diverse ethnolinguistic
groups throughout the country. Complete data collection, identification, and
documentation of ethnobotanical works have not yet been made in the study area.
Biodiversity loss due to natural and anthropogenic factors, distribution and
undermining of indigenous knowledge, and traditional practices and cultures by the
younger generation are becoming evident due to limited integration of traditional
practices with modern science in the study area. Traditional home gardening in the
conservation and management of medically important plant species by indigenous
people of the study area is recognized through such practices but varying from area
to area. However, some important medicinal plants have been planted like live fence
and observed as fragments in and around the farmlands. What is more is that most
of the natural vegetation and forests of the study area are almost lost by human
impact and hence monoculture practices are becoming common phenomena.
Objectives
General Objective
The general objective of the study is to assess and record medicinal plants and asso-
ciated indigenous knowledge of the people in Dawuro zone, Southern Ethiopia.
Specific Objectives
The specific objectives are:

• To gather, record, and document indigenous knowledge of the people on medici-
nal plants
• To collect, identify, and document traditional medicinal plants used in the study
area for the treatment of human and livestock health problems
• To determine the most popular medicinal plants used in the study area
• To analyze factors, if any, contributing to depletion or conservation of medicinal
plants and/or associated knowledge in the study area
• To provide recommendations that would contribute to the development of strate-
gies for conservation and sustainable management of medicinal plants in the
study area
• To contribute to the ongoing efforts towards building the ethnobotanical database
of Ethiopia in order to facilitate further actions in the management and utilization
of medicinal plants
Review of Literature
Ethnobotany
The term “ethnobotany” was coined by J. W. Hershberger in 1895 to indicate plants
used by the Aboriginals: from “ethno,” study of people, and “botany,” study of
plants. Ethnobotany is considered as a branch of ethnobiology. It deals with the
study and evaluation of plant-human relations in all phases and the effect of plant
environment on human society (Sharma and Kumar 2011). It is the scientific study
of the relationships that exists between people and plants. Since the beginning of
civilization, people have used plants as medicine. Perhaps since Stone Age, plants
are believed to have healing powers on man. Ancient Vedas dating back between
3500 B.C. and 800 B.C. reveal many references on medicinal plants (Venkataswamy
et al. 2010).
The field approach of study of ethnobotany plays a vital role because of the direct
contact that can be established with the authentic information on the uses of plants
both wild and cultivated. The wild plants in Indian folklore have been and are used
to meet the various needs of the tribal and poor people. These plants are used for
purposes of food, fodder, medicine, drugs, clothing, agricultural implements,
hunting, narcotics, poison, gums, dyes, insecticides, etc. (Pareek and Trivedi 2011).
Medicinal Plants
Ethiopia is characterized by a wide range of ecological, edaphic, and climatic con-

ditions that account for the wide diversity of its biological resources in terms of both
flora and fauna (Jansen 1981). It is well known that traditional medicines are widely
used especially in the low-income rural parts of the country. It is reported that nearly
80% of the population in the country use plant-based traditional medicines as their
healthcare system. The wide utilization of plant-based traditional health care is
mainly attributed to the fact that it makes use of locally available plant resources.
The majority of medicinal plants, with few exceptions, are harvested from wild
habitats, which are currently under great threat.
Medicinal plants play a vital role in providing health care to human beings since
the dawn of civilization. It is evident that the Indian people have tremendous passion
for medicinal plants and they use them for a wide range of health-related applications.
The demand for medicinal plants is increasing in both developing and developed
countries and the bulk of their material trade is still from wild harvested plants
(Pareek and Trivedi 2011).
The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that 80% of the popula-
tions of developing countries still rely on traditional medicines, mostly plant drugs,
for their primary healthcare needs. Demand for medicinal plant is increasingly felt,
in both developing and developed countries due to growing needs of natural products
being nontoxic and bereft of side effects, apart from availability at affordable prices.
The medicinal plant sector has traditionally occupied a pivotal position in the socio-
cultural, spiritual, and medicinal areas of rural and tribal families (WHO 2002).
Indigenous Knowledge
Many aboriginal cultures have retained traditional knowledge concerning the

medicinal utility of the native flora. Tribal communities living in biodiversity-rich
areas possess a wealth of knowledge on the local utilization and conservation of
food and medicinal plants. Today there is a realization to preserve the enormous
wisdom, traditional knowledge, and also cultures associated with them. Not only
the flora and fauna have been protected but also the knowledge database often
treasured in the memories of traditional healers. The knowledge of medicinal plants
has been accumulated in the course of many centuries based on different medicinal
systems (Venkataswamy et al. 2010).
Folk medicines, mainly based on plants, enjoy a respectable position today, espe-
cially in the developing countries, where modern health service is limited. Safe,
effective, and inexpensive indigenous remedies are gaining popularity among the
people of both urban and rural areas (Pareek and Trivedi 2011). WHO (2003)
defined traditional medicine as health practices, approaches, knowledge, and beliefs
incorporating plant-, animal-, and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies,
manual techniques, and exercises applied to treat, diagnose, and prevent illnesses or
maintain well-being.
tilization, Conservation, Management, and Threats

U
to Traditional Medicinal Plants
People are dependent upon their surrounding environment for all of their needs.
They use many wild species of plants for food, medicine, clothing and shelter, fuel,
fiber, income generation, and fulfilling of cultural and spiritual needs throughout the
world (Asfaw 2001). Ethiopia’s traditional medicine as elsewhere in Africa is facing
the problems of continuity and sustainability (Kelbessa et al. 1992). The primary
cause of this problem is loss of taxa of medicinal plants, loss of habitats of medicinal
plants, and loss of indigenous knowledge. Some studies have shown that most of the
medicinal plants utilized by Ethiopian people are harvested from wild habitats
(Giday 1999; Asfaw 1999). And hence, this aggravates the rate of loss of taxa with
related indigenous knowledge and loss widely occurring in medicinal plant species.
Manmade and natural causes are the two main sources of treats to medicinal
plants. Rapid increase in population, need for fuel, urbanization, timber production,
overharvesting, destructive harvesting, invasive species commercialization,
degradation, agriculture expansion, and habitat distraction are human-caused threats

to medicinal plants. Likewise, natural causes include recurrent drought, bushfire,
diseases, and pest outbreaks (Kelbessa et al. 1992). As elsewhere, in Ethiopia, the
problem is also manifested in Dawuro zone due to the above-mentioned factors. As
is seen around the world, as human populations grow, there is a great impact of
human activities on vegetation as well as on the quality of human life.
Conservation is defined as the sustainable use of biological resources. The con-
cept of sustainability is now seen as the guiding principle for economic and social
development, particularly with reference to biological resources. According to
Asfaw (2001), medicinal plants are considered to be at conservation risk due to
overuse and destructive harvesting (roots and bark collection). In a broad sense,
conservation is achieved through in situ and ex situ means. In situ conservation is
conservation of species in their natural habitat. Some traditional plants have to be
conserved in situ due to difficulty for domestication and management (Asfaw 2001).
Moreover, some plants fail to produce the desired amount and quantity of the active
principles under cultivation out of their natural habitats. Medicinal plants can also
be conserved by ensuring and encouraging their growth in special places, as they
have been traditionally (Asfaw 2001). This can be possible in places of worship
(churches, Mosques, graveyards, etc.), sacred groves, farm margins, river banks,
road sides, live fences of gardens, and fields. According to Asfaw (2001), medicinal
plants can be conserved using appropriate conservational methods in gene banks
and botanical gardens. As the earth’s population continues to grow, more resources
are in demand. Thus, it is understood that an increase in population is demanding
more resources, but with careful management of our natural resources a sustainable
balance can be achieved. According to Cunningham (1993), sustainable management
of traditional medicinal plant resources is important, not only because of their value
as a potential source of new drugs, but also due to reliance on traditional medicine
for health.
The diversity of plants in Ethiopia is on the process of erosion due to anthropo-
genic pressure like habitat destruction and deforestation by commercial timber pro-
duction and for agriculture which harbor useful medicinal plants over the past
several decades (Demisse 2001). Conservation of medicinal plant resource is a criti-
cal ecological, cultural, and economic issue (Vanon and Bich 2001). In order to
achieve this, Ethiopia has policies and strategies that support the development and
utilization of plant resources in a sustainable manner. The policies are reflected
under various sectors including environmental protection, development of the natu-
ral resources, and diversification of the domestic and export commodities.
The country also has developed policy and a guideline for intellectual property
rights protection of traditional medicine (Bekelle 2007). The policies are in line
with the convention on biological diversity (CBD) which was adopted at the earth
summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992, and entered into force on December
1993. CBD provides the legal framework for biodiversity conservation. Moreover,
documenting the indigenous knowledge through ethnobotanical studies is important

for the conservation and utilization of biological resources particularly traditional
medicinal plants (Sirvastava 2000). These plants play an important role in the
biodiversity of the region and have great conservation value for global biodiversity.
Meanwhile, the planning for natural resource development should continue by
establishing close dialogue and communication with indigenous peoples using
ethnobotanical approaches. This will also ensure local people participation in future
management, and avoid the adverse impact on the local people and the environment
that might be caused otherwise (Pei 1991). According to Cunningham (1993), there
are some conservation measures that have been undertaken around the world aimed
at protecting threatened medicinal plant species from further destruction including
in situ and ex situ conservation.
During the last few years, the habitats of medicinal plants all across the world
have been under pressure due to urbanization and exploitation of raw materials by
pharmaceutical companies. In order to develop strategies for the conservation of
medicinal plants, it is necessary to collect traditional knowledge of the plants, their
distributions, and any traditional conservation practices.
Study Area
Geographical Location
The research area, Dawuro zone, is located at 6.59°–7.34° N of latitude and 36.68°–
37.52° E of longitude and at an altitudinal range between 550 and 2820 m above sea
level in Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR). It is one of
the 14 zones in the region and bounded with Hadiya zone in the North, Kembata &
Tembaro zone in the Northeast, Wolayta zone in the East, Gamo Gofa zone in the
South, and Konta special woreda in the West within SNNPR and Jimma Zone in
Oromia Region. It is also found in between Omo river from North to South and
Gojeb river from Northwest to North. Tarcha is the main town about 507 km
Southwest of Addis Ababa across Shashemene and Wolayta, 282 km away from
Awassa, town of SNNPR, and 140 km from Jimma. It has an area of 466,082 ha. It
has a population of about 586,005 people according to the projected CSA final
report of 2005 E.C. Out of the five woredas of the zone, the study area covers four
Woredas, Essera, Tocha, Loma, and Gena Bosa (except Mareka woreda which is
bounded by the four woredas, at the center of zone) and one administrative town—
Tarcha (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Location of the study area in Dawuro zone and the sampling sites
Location, Agro Ecology, Soil, Climate, and Vegetation
Based on the 18 recently classified agroecological zones, the area consists of subhu-
mid types of agroecological zones containing deciduous woodland with elevation
550–2820 m having Boswellia papyrifera, Combretum molle, Terminalia brownii,
Acacia senegal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lannea fruticosa, and others along the Omo
and Gojeb river valleys (Agize et al. 2013). The vegetation varies from semidesert
types in lowland areas to broad-leaved evergreen forest types in the highlands. Some
of the dominant woody species in the lowlands of the study area include Terminalia
brownii, Piliostigma thonningii, Syzygium guineense var. guineense, and Acacia
spp. In highlands and at midaltitude, bamboo tree and eucalyptus tree are the domi-
nant tree species; in addition, Ensete ventricosum, source of the staple food in the
area, provides vegetation cover and green scenery.
The area has rugged topography and the terrain of the land is sloppy in nature.
The mountains and high plateaus have cool temperature moderated by the altitude
and abundant rainfall. In contrast, the lowlands near the Omo and Gojeb rivers are
dry and hot. The majority of the population is engaged in subsistence agricultural
activities combining both crop production and livestock rearing (mixed farming). In
general the population in Dawuro zone shares a cultural identity of what is referred
to in Ethiopia as “Enset Culture Complex,” which is commonly characterized by
high population density sustained by high yields of enset from small plot of land.
The major economic activity of the people in the project area is mixed agricul-
ture (rearing of animals and growing crops). These woredas have ragged topogra-
phy comprising lowlands, middle, and highland agroecologies. The project areas
are naturally gifted lands with diverse topography, diverse climate, and varied ecol-
ogy. Hence, it is provided with a wide range of flora and fauna diversity in wildlife
and botanical resources. The Chebera-Churchura national park, which includes the
Essera and Tocha woredas, is a natural habitat for many wild animals in the area.
The study area in the Dega receives rainfall almost throughout the year, for
9 months, and heavy rain comes between June and September. The mean annual
rainfall is 1705.4 mm at Gasa Chere Station while in Tarcha Station the annual mean
is 1424.9 mm. The maximum and minimum mean annual temperatures are (22.3 °C
and 12.4 °C) and (29.3 °C and 16.8 °C) in Gasa Chere and Tarcha Stations,
respectively (Agize et al. 2013).
People in the study area are the Dawuro people and have unique cultural prac-
tices and social structure. The word “Dawuro” means impregnable, powerful, and
heroic people. Dawuro belongs to the family of the Omotic peoples in the Southern
Ethiopia. The language, which is locally called “Dawuro thuwa or Dawuro qaalaa,”
uses a Latin script and it is classified as a dialect of the central Omotic languages
along with Gofa, Gamo, Wolayta, Konta, and others (Anon 2005a, Agize et al.
2013).
Land Use and Management System
The study area is endowed with varied agro-climate. The soil is fertile which has
great potential for agriculture. The rugged topography particularly causes difficulties
in road, irrigation, and other infrastructure development. The steep slope mountain
sides are not suitable for tilling and are vulnerable to soil erosion. The mountain
areas are more suitable for livestock rearing. Cattle are indispensable for rural
households both as a means of subsistence and source of cash income. In rural areas
the number of cattle owned and enset cultivated by a household usually determine
the wealth status of the household.
In general, the people are dependent on subsistence agriculture for their liveli-
hoods and the majority of the populations are involved in this sector, whereas the
nonagricultural sectors contribute a smaller amount to the livelihoods of the people.
The main food crops grown in the area are enset, maize, taro, sweet potato, sor-
ghum, millet, teff, pulses, and yam. Enset is the staple food in Dawuro, particularly
in mid- and high-altitude areas, while maize is the most important crop in the low-
lands. They have developed traditional medicinal practices cultivating common
medicinal plants and use them effectively before they go to clinics or health
centers.
The domestic animals include cattle, horses, mules, donkeys, sheep, goats, and
poultry. In the highlands, herds remain at the holding or in the village throughout
the year, tied with rope and cut and carry system of feeding. In the midlands, they
have permanent settlement and their herds remain in the vicinity, and are sent to
hillside. In the lowlands, they have permanent place and send their herds tend with
herdsman. Herds in the study area live with farmers in the home but in some tin-
roofed houses they are left alone in other houses with herdsman or others.
Land forms, rivers, gorges, and mountains have cultural importance for the peo-
ple of the study area. People living there have long years of experience of interac-
tion with each other and the natural resources of their surroundings.
Preliminary Survey
Preliminary survey of the study area was conducted in April 2012 specifically from
April 4 to 9, 2012. During this survey, information about the physical features of the
study area was collected.
From five districts, four districts, namely, Essera, Tocha, Gena Bosa, and Loma,
were selected by the help of zonal administrative office and agricultural department
of Dawuro zone. From these, a total of 22 kebeles were selected purposefully for
ethnobotanical data collection based on availability of traditional healers and
different agroclimatic zone (Dega, Woina Dega, and Kola) of the region identified
with the assistance of woreda and local authorities, elders, and knowledgeable
persons to gather diversified information on the management, use, and conservation
of medicinal plants.
Methods of Data Collection
Ethnobotanical data were collected using purposive sampling. This sampling tech-
nique was preferred because the study focuses on specific issues that were gathered
from the most knowledgeable representatives of the society. The full names and
residential addresses of traditional healers residing in the 22 kebeles of the four
districts selected were exhaustively identified and registered with the help of local
administrators, local people, and field assistants.
Individuals who were selected to know and practice at least four/five medicinal
plant species were considered as traditional healers in this study. A total of 91
respondents from the entire study sites who were identified as healers were
interviewed. Semi-structured interviews were then employed and observations
made to collect ethnomedicinal data with the help of local people and field assistants.
Data on human and livestock diseases treated, local names of plants used, degree of
management (wild/cultivated), status, parts used, methods of preparation, routes of
administration, noticeable adverse effects of remedies, indigenous knowledge
transfer, other uses of the ethnomedicinal plant species, existing threats to these
species, and traditional conservation practices were gathered during the interviews
(Table 1). The collected specimens were then pressed, dried, and identified through
the flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea in the National Herbarium of Addis Ababa
University.
Table 1 Traditional healers of the study area
Residence
Serial Name of Marital Educational period in the Socioeconomic
No. informant Woreda Kebele Sex Age status Occupation Religion background area activity
1 Abate Gena Mela Galeda M 35 Married Farmers Catholic 7 Since birth Mixed farming
Gebabaw Bosa
2 Abate Goteto Tocha Boka M 45 Married Farmers Protestant 4 Since birth Mixed farming
3 Abate setegn Tocha Boteri M 65 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Meshesha
4 Abayeneh Tocha Medehanialem M 25 Single Farmers Orthodox 12 Since birth Mixed farming
Abete
5 Abayneh Gena Dilamo M 25 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Beyene Bosa Mareka
6 Abebe Gobena Loma Gesa Chare M 18 Single Farmers Protestant 10 Since birth Mixed farming
7 Abera Woja Tocha Boteri M 77 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
8 Akalu Abay Gena Denba gena M 40 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
9 Alemu Tesema Tocha Aba dahi M 47 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Abbeza
10 Amachie Araro Tocha Gorika M 20 Single Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
11 Arebi Godato Tocha Boka M 48 Married Farmers Protestant 8 Since birth Mixed farming
Kuyilu
12 Asefa Bancha Loma Ala Bacho M 22 Married Farmers Protestant 4 Since birth Mixed farming
Lorato
13 Asefa Habete Gena Mela Galeda M 45 Married Farmers Orthodox 8 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
The Utilization and Conservation of Plants of Medicinal Value by Local Traditional…
14 Asfaw Choka Gena Mela Galeda M 45 Married Farmers Protestant 8 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
(continued)
277
Table 1 (continued)
278
Residence
15 Assefa Essera Sengeti M 35 Married Farmers Protestant 7 Since birth Mixed farming
Mencho
16 Ayele Alanche Loma Ala Bacho M 50 Married Farmers Protestant 8 Since birth Mixed farming
17 Ayele Atenafu Gena Bosa Shoga M 45 Married Farmers Orthodox 5 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
18 Ayele Bedeke Loma Zima Waruma M 55 Married Farmers Catholic 6 Since birth Mixed farming
Barata
19 Azalech Gena Bosa Shoga F 19 Married House wife Protestant 10 Since birth Mixed farming
Mekonnen Bosa
20 Babulo Tocha Gibera M 76 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Shungeto
Atero
21 Bafa Adey Loma Lala ambie M 40 Married Farmers Protestant 3 Since birth Mixed farming
22 Balecha Tona Loma Zima Waruma M 65 Married Farmers Catholic 3 Since birth Mixed farming
Ayu
23 Batisa Zema Gena Mela Galeda m 62 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
24 Bekele Bala Essera Gudemo M 46 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
25 Belayneh Loma Zima Waruma M 60 Married Farmers Catholic 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Babanto
26 Belaynesh Gena Bosa Shoga M 40 Married Farmers Catholic 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Debo Bosa
27 Beyene Gena Chicho Hayu M 32 Married Gov. servant Protestant 12 + 3 Since birth Mixed farming
Gezemu Bosa
28 Beyenech Gena Bosa Shoga F 50 Married House wife Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Nigussie Bosa
M. A. Khan et al.
29 Biramo Tocha Boteri M 45 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Latibelu
30 Buntase Lugo Loma Ala Bacho F 64 Married House wife Protestant 0 For the last Mixed farming
20 years
31 Chaka chanaka Tocha Boteri M 56 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
32 Damene Tocha Lala Genji M 55 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Kocho Machu
33 Demessie Dara Essera Gudemo M 56 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
34 Deneke Tocha Lala Genji M 26 Married Farmers Orthodox 2 Since birth Mixed farming
Masana Chetu
35 Desta Bobicho Tocha Gorika M 28 Married Farmers Protestant 3 Since birth Mixed farming
Botore
36 Desta Degefu Gena Chicho Hayu M 50 Married Farmers Catholic 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
37 Duba Bakari Tocha Gibera M 76 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
38 Dusha Gena Bosa Shoga M 41 Married Farmers Catholic 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Chambure Bosa
39 Engidaw Gena Chicho Hayu M 45 Married Farmers Catholic 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Cheneke Bosa
40 Esayas Beku Loma Ala Bacho M 58 Married Farmers Protestant 4 Since birth Mixed farming
41 Etenech Gena Mela Galeda F 30 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Negash Bosa
42 Filmon Gena Wozo Haylaxa M 25 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Choramo Bosa
43 Ganamo Gena Mela Galeda M 35 Married Farmers Protestant 3 Since birth Mixed farming
Gashaw Bosa
(continued)
279
Table 1 (continued)
280
Residence
44 Getahun Tocha Medehanialem M 29 Married Farmers Orthodox 12 Since birth Mixed farming
Kebede Gerero
45 Girma Fola Loma Ala Bacho M 37 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
46 Goba Barata Essera Sengeti M 35 Married Farmers Cultural 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Christian
47 Hadaro Halabo Tocha Gorika M 50 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
48 Haile Charku Tocha Boteri M 55 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
toga
49 Haile Haringo Essera Ofa Wadi M 70 Married Farmers Cultural 8 Since birth Mixed farming
Christian
50 Herano Sagaro Gena Wozo Haylaxa M 40 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
51 Jorga Aday Loma Lala ambie M 60 Married Farmers Protestant 2 Since birth Mixed farming
52 Kaleb Golu Loma Ala Bacho M 38 Married Farmers Protestant 7 Since birth Mixed farming
Godaro
53 Kampasha Gena Mela Galeda M 60 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Lembu Bosa
54 Kampashe Tocha Gorika M 45 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Karesso
55 Kebede Kema Gena Chicho Hayu M 75 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
56 Kebede Kerchu Tocha Gibera M 55 Married Farmers Cultural 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Ayanu Christian
57 Kedir Goba Tocha Gorika M 65 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Arimo
M. A. Khan et al.
58 Konbara Muka Tocha Gorika M 35 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Amba
59 Malalo Tocha Gorika M 18 Single Farmers Protestant 3 Since birth Mixed farming
Mengesha
60 Mamo Lafebo Essera Neda M 22 Married Farmers Protestant 8 Less than ten Mixed farming
Lekemengo
61 Mamo Maga Tocha Gibera M 40 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
62 Matiwos Gena Chicho Hayu M 27 Married Farmers Catholic Diploma Since birth Mixed farming
Mesele Bosa
63 Mekedese Tocha Lala Genji F 29 Married House wife Protestant 6 Since birth Mixed farming
Karesu
64 Mekuria Cheba Gena Mela Galeda M 68 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
65 Mengistu Gena Wozo Haylaxa M 23 Single Administrator Protestant 10 + 3 Since birth Mixed farming
Mogoro Bosa
66 Merkineh Gena Chicho Hayu M 28 Married Farmers Catholic 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Mesele Bosa
67 Mitiku Ayene Gena Dilamo M 35 Married Farmers Adventist 10 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa Mareka
68 Mulatu Gena Chicho Hayu M 45 Married School Protestant Degree Since birth
Gebeyehu Bosa administrator
69 Nega Tegegn Tocha Medehanialem M 27 Married Administrator Orthodox 12 Since birth Mixed farming
70 Okanto Oshu Loma Gesa Chare M 35 Married Farmers Protestant 5 Since birth Mixed farming
71 Oshu Uro Tocha Boteri M 50 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
72 Shagire Bereda Tocha Gibera M 60 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Bena
(continued)
281
282
Table 1 (continued)
Residence
73 Shamena Essera Ofa Wadi M 87 Married Farmers Cultural 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Shasho Christian
74 Shirko Loma Denba bola M 55 Married Farmers Catholic 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Ashango
75 Simion Loma Denba bola M 55 Married Farmers Catholic 4 Since birth Mixed farming
Debancho
76 Tafese Gena Bosa Shoga M 55 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Chambura Bosa
77 Tamerat Tanga Essera Neda M 58 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Less than ten Mixed farming
78 Taye Keshamo Tocha Gorika M 23 Married Farmers Orthodox 6 Since birth Mixed farming
Adulo
79 Taye Shiferaw Tocha Boka M 52 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
80 Tayebela Gena Chicho Hayu M 28 Married Farmers Catholic 3 Since birth Mixed farming
deneke Bosa
81 Tefera Belate Essera Gudemo M 42 Married Farmers Orthodox 4 Since birth Mixed farming
82 Tesema Otoro Gena Denba gena M 78 Married Farmers Adventist 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Bosa
83 Tesema Tocha Medehanialem M 55 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Since birth Mixed farming
taddesse
awashi
84 Teshome Loma Zima Waruma M 52 Married Farmers Catholic 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Ashenafi
Anjulo
M. A. Khan et al.
85 Ute Anato Loma Tulema Tama M 35 Married Farmers Protestant 4 Since birth Mixed farming
86 Wajebo Tocha Lala Genji M 40 Married Farmers Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Walane
87 Wodaje Minita Essera Sengeti M 37 Married Farmers Orthodox 8 Since birth Mixed farming
88 Woju Salato Tocha Medehanialem M 62 Married Farmers Orthodox 0 Last 20 years Mixed farming
samara
89 Worabo Utha Loma Tulema Tama M 35 Married Farmers Catholic 10 Since birth Mixed farming
90 Yigezu Tona Essera Neda M 92 Married Farmers Adventist 8 Last 10 years Mixed farming
91 Zenebech Tocha Gibera F 35 Married House wife Protestant 0 Since birth Mixed farming
Mandoye
283
Data Analysis
Facilities in MS Excel spreadsheet were utilized to make simple calculations, and

determine proportions. Ethnobotanical data were entered into Excel spreadsheet
and summarized using descriptive statistics. The spreadsheet data filter facility was
employed to determine frequencies of citations so as to identify the most common
ailments in the study area that popularly used medicinal plant species and multipur-
pose plant species, and to determine proportions of different variables like growth
forms, source of collection, degree of scarcity, plant part used, methods of prepara-
tion, and threatening factors.
Medicinal Plants of the Study Area
Diversity of Medicinal Plants in the Study Area
A total of 216 medicinal plant species distributed in 69 families were collected and
identified. Asteraceae is the most frequently used family containing 31 species and
accounts for 44.93%. Fabaceae and Lamiaceae follow it by covering 39.13% and
26.06% families having 27 and 18 species, respectively. The scientific name, fami-
lies, growth form, and other information from the data gathered in the different
sources are summarized in Table 2. Significant numbers of medicinal plants were
documented in this ethnobotanical study when compared to similar studies in other
parts of the country, Ethiopia. The most frequently and easily accessible known
traditional medicinal plants were found in the family Asteraceae. There was a simi-
lar report in Asteraceae to Wonago (Mesfin 2007) and Wolayta (Seta 2013) and to
Loma and Gena Bosa (Agize et al. 2013). It disagrees with a report (Fabaceae) to
Ejaji (Amenu 2007) and Gimbi (Tolasa 2007). It may be due to the fact that collec-
tions and traditional healers interviewed were from highland and midland.
Out of 216 species 169 (78.24%) species were wild, while 36 (16.67%) and
11(5.09%) species were cultivated wild relatives and semi-wild, respectively
(Table 3). Most of the traditional healers of the area collect their medicinal plants
from the wild. Similar studies elsewhere, for example, Ejaji 78.7% (Amenu 2007),
Loma and Gena Bosa area 57.9% (Agize et al. 2013), Konta 74.6% (Hailemariam
2007), Kafficho 74% (Awasa et al. 2007), Wonago 69.1% (Mesfin 2007), and Konso
55.7% (Gebre 2005), showed a similar trend. The significant number of medicinal
plants documented may be due to either the large area covered (four woredas) or the
diversity of indigenous knowledge to use different plants to treat different types of
diseases. In other words, traditional practices and various cultural and seasonal
restrictions of collecting medicinal plants have contributed to the management and
conservation of diversified and rich medicinal plants compared to others.
Table 2 Medicinal plants of the study area
Growth Part Preparation and Route of Treatment
Scientific name Family Local name form Source used Scarcity application administration Disease treated for Voucher no.
Abrus Fabaceae Badaluwa Climber Wild Seed Rare Crushed and Oral Hepatitis/liver Human Dawro149
precatoritus concocted with problem
Maesa lanceolata
and taken
Acalypha Euphorbiaceae Wak’ak’uwa Herb Wild Root Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Hepatitis/liver Animal Dawro171
villicaulis with water and problem; and
taken babesios human
Agarista Ericaceae C’ank’uwa Tree Wild Shoot Rare Crushed/decocted Oral Babesios Animal Dawro251
salicifolia and mixed with
water
Ageratum Asteraceae Shrub Wild Leaf Rare Crushed and Dermal Eye disease Human Dawro173
conyzoides applied through
nose
Ajuga Lamiaceae c’amiashiya Herb Wild Leaf Plenty Powder mixed and Oral Colic pain Human Dawro139
integrifolia var. a cup of it is taken
alba
Albiza Fabaceae C’aattaa Tree Wild Root Less Crushed and taken Oral Snake bite Human Dawro205
schinperiana plenty
Allium sativum Alliaceae Tumuwa Herb Cultivate Leaf, Plenty Eat the parts with Oral Stomachache, Human Dawro26
stem other food malaria, and
others
Alysicarpus Fabaceae Warechiya Climber Wild Root Less Crushed/concocted Oral Snake bite Human Dawro339
ferrugineus plenty with sura and taken
Annona Annonaceae Monok’uwa Tree Wild Stem Rare Decocted and taken Oral Abdominal pain Animal Dawro100
senegalensis as two jugs
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Artemisia Asteraceae Naatiruwa Herb Cultivate All Rare Crushed and Oral Removal of Human Dawro35
absinthium parts mixed/concocted placenta during
with butter and birth/for retained
taken placenta
Artemisia afra Asteraceae Agupiya Herb Cultivated Root Less Crushed and Oral For different Animal Dawro39
plenty concocted with rue ailments
and wormwood
Arundinaria Poaceae Woosha Shrub Semi-wild Leaf Less Crush the leaf after Oral Diarrhea Animal Dawro294
alpina plenty drying and mix
with water and take
orally
Asparagus Asparagaceae Sereetiya Climber Wild Root Plenty Crushed and Oral For blocked Animal Dawro45
flagellaris decocted and mixed urination
with butter and
taken
Astragalu Fabaceae K’eeri- Shrub Wild Stem Less Small pieces of it Dermal Black leg Human Dawro198
membransceus wusiwusiya plenty hanged on the neck
Azadirachta Meliaceae Nimitriya Tree Cultivated Leaf Less Powdered, pressed, Nasal Black leg Animal Dawro291
indica plenty and applied
Basilicum Lamiaceae Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and Dermal Allergic reaction Human Dawro343
polystachyon plenty applied on the skin
Becium Lamiaceae Gendiya Climber Wild Root Less Crushed and mixed Dermal and Tinea capitis Human Dawro220
obovatum plenty with water and oral
taken orally and the
remaining rubbed
on the skin
Bersama Melianthaceae Walasoniya Tree Wild Leaf Rare Flesh part rubbed Dermal Tumor Human Dawro170
abyssinica on it
Biophytum Oxalidaceae Dango/shidho Herb Wild Root Less Crushed/powdered Oral Anaphylactic Human Dawro299
umbraculum plenty and mixed with shock; epilepsy
water a cup of it is
taken
Bothricline sp. Asteraceae Shankishasha Shrub Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed and Oral Pain Human Dawro268
mixed/concocted
with butter and
taken
Brachiaria Poaceae Shaalishattuwa Herb Wild Root Plenty Crushed and taken Oral Stomachache Human Dawro129 and
brizontha orally for children and anaphylactic Dawro346
and chewing the shock; epilepsy
root by adults
Brassica nigra Brassicaceae Sanafic’iya Herb Cultivate Fruit Plenty Crushed and Oral Abdominal pain Animal Dawro62
concocted with and
Piper capense, human
Lepidium sativum,
and yoghurt
Bridelia Euphorbiaceae Zuzia Tree Wild Bark Less Crushed and mixed Oral Colic pain Human Dawro153
scleroneura plenty with water and
taken by mainly the
pregnant women
Brucea Simaraubaceae Shushaliya Tree Wild Bark Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Abdominal ache Human Dawro15
antidysenterica with water and
taken
Brucea Solanaceae Shureshuupiya Tree Wild Root Rare Crushed and taken Oral Parasitic disease Human Dawro107
antidysentrica in children
J.F.Mill
Buddleja Luganiaceae Kanfara Tree Wild Leaf, Rare Dry the part and Oral and nasal Epilepsy; Human Dawro1
polystachya root, crush and take as a malaria;
bark drink, smelling stomachache
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Capsicum Solonaceae Mis’imis’uwa Herb Cultivate Stem Plenty Crushed and taken Oral Lymph adenitis Human Dawro298
frutescens orally
Carex steudneri Cyperaceae – Herb Wild Fruit Rare Decocted and taken Oral Snake bite Human Dawro245
Carica papaya Caricaceae Paapa Shrub Cultivate Root Less Crushed/decocted Oral Malaria Human Dawro286
plenty and taken for 3
days
Catha edulis Celastraceae Jimaa Shrub Cultivated Leaf Plenty Heated/decocted Oral Liver problem Human Dawro283
and wild and taken
Chamaecrista Fabaceae Shosha Shrub Wild Root, Plenty Washed/crushed Dermal and Snake bite Human Dawro332;Dawro
mimosoides entarsa/Bazo leaf, and rubbed on the oral 201
Mata/Deesha and skin; otherwise
halakuwa stem taken orally
Cissampelos Menispermaceae Bula Tura Climber Wild Root Plenty Crushed/decocted Oral Colic pain Human Dawro320
mucronata and taken orally
Cissus sp. Vitaceae Tussa Climber Wild Leaf Rare Rubbed on the Dermal Fire burning Human Dawro273
infected part of the
skin
Citrus Rutaceae Lomiya Tree Cultivate Fruit Plenty The fleshy part Dermal Wound Human Dawro103
aurantifolia applied on the
wound
Clausena Fabaceae Zama Tree Wild Root; Less Crushed and mixed Oral Gall bladder Animal Dawro120
anisata bark plenty with water
Clematis hirsuta Ranunculaceae Soguwa Tura Climber Wild Leaf Plenty Powder and Dermal Snake bite Human Dawro160
pressed/decocted
and rubbed on the
bite part
Clerodendrum Lamiaceae Boye maata Climber Cultivate Root Less Crushed and Oral Anaphylactic Animal Dawro157
cordifolium plenty applied orally shock
Clerodendrum Lamiaceae Alga Shrub Wild Leaf Less Crush 2/3 leaves Dermal and Chill and Animal Dawro77 and 229
myricoides plenty and decoct half of a oral internal pain; and
cup and apply severe human
orally; crushed and abdominal
tied on the infected cramp
part
Clerodendrum Lamiaceae Kareta Mata Tree Wild Leaf Rare Crushed/decocted Oral Evil eye Human Dawro210
myricoides and taken
Cluita Euphorbiaceae Shosha D’aliya Shrub Wild Leaf; Less Crushed/decocted Oral Anaphylactic Animal Dawro166 and
lanceolata root plenty and taken; shock; snake bite and Dawro 233
concocted with human
Entada abyssinica
and taken
Coccinia Cucurbitaceae Usik’iya/ Climber Cultivate Root Less Crushed and mixed Oral Gonorrhea; liver Human Dawro102
abyssinica ushushiya plenty with the bark of problem
korch and water
taken
Combretum Combretaceae Digisuwa Tree Wild Leaf; Less Crush the leaf and Dermal and Black leg Animal Dawro165
collinium root plenty root part and oral
applied both
dermally and orally
Commelina Commelinaceae Gulbatiya Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed, mixed Oral Vomiting in Human Dawro106
africana plenty with water, and children
taken
Commelinia Commelinaceae Dal’isha/ Herb Cultivate Leaf Plenty Chewed the part Dermal Insect bite Human Dawro20
latifolia Gassaa and applied to the
infected skin with
insect for 3 days
Conyza Asteraceae D’oniya Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed, decocted, Oral Diarrhea Human Dawro197
pyrrhopappa plenty a glass of it is taken
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Conyza sp. Asteraceae Shrub Wild Leaf Less Crushed and taken Oral Rheumatism Human Dawro347
plenty
Crassocephalum Asteraceae Botsa Climber Wild Leaf Less Crushed and taken Oral Anthrax Animal Dawro335
macropappum k’odhuwa plenty
Crepis Asteraceae Mas’uwa-sawa Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed/decocted Oral Black leg Animal Dawro193
achyrophoroides plenty and taken
Crepis rueppellii Asteraceae Maas’uwa Herb Wild All Plenty Decoction Dermal Evil eye Human Dawro48
parts
Crepis Asteraceae Shid’a- Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and taken Oral Anthrax/aba Animal Dawro246
xylorrchiza maas’oliya plenty senga
Crotalaria Fabaceae Kishikisho Shrub Wild Root Less Cut the root into Oral Colic pain Human Dawro235
rosenii plenty seven pieces and
then crush/decoct
and mix with milk
and take
Croton Euphorbiaceae Anka Tree Wild Leaf Plenty Crush the leaf and Dermal Wound Human Dawro24
macrostachyus apply on the
infected skin
Cucumis Cucurbitaceae Sukulo d’antha Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and taken Dermal and Snake bite Human Dawro232
ficifolium plenty orally and also oral
rubbed on the skin
Cuscuta reflexa Convilvulaceae Has’emamito Climber Wild Leaf Rare Crushed/decocted Oral Internal Animal Dawro87
parasites/worms
Cyathula Amaranthaceae Gumpula/ Herb Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed and mixed Oral For swelling of Animal Dawro56
cylindrical dorsa- with water and abdomen
k’arc’ocha taken
Cynodon spp Poaceae Sura Runner Wild Shoot Less Place the leaf on Dermal Fire burning Human Dawro341
plenty the injured area
Cynoglossum sp. Boraginaceae Shosha Herb Wild Leaf; Less Crushed and mixed Oral Snake bite; Animal Dawro253 and
Taliya;S’ilkiya root plenty with water, taken anthrax and Dawuro 349
orally, put the root human
on the pocket;
crushed/decocted
and taken
Cyperus Cypraceae Bidaaraa Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and Oral Stomachache Human Dawro38
articulata plenty concocted with rue
and wormwood
Cyperus iria Cyperceae Bidara-mala Herb Wild Root Less Heat the root part Oral Facilitate Human Dawro207
plenty and take digestion
Cyphostemma Vitaceae Shortiya Tura Climber Wild Leaf Less Crushed and taken Dermal and Swelling on the Animal Dawro261 and
niveum plenty orally, tied on the oral neck/lymph and Dawro322
neck adenitis; snake human
bite
Cyphostemmo Vitaceae Banbari- Shrub Wild Root Rare Crushed and taken Oral Trypanosomiasis Animal Dawro348
nivenum Bachuwa
Datura Solanaceae Laflafuwa Herb Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed with water Dermal Ringworm and Animal Dawro18
stramonium and applied to skin skin disease
Dergea sp. Asclepiadaceae Ek’a d’aliya Climber Wild Root Less Washed/crushed/ Oral Abdominal pain Human Dawro203
plenty decocted and taken
Dichondra Convolvulaceae Ec’c’ere haytsa Herb Wild Leaf; Less Crushed and Oral Snake bite Human Dawro223
repens root plenty concocted with
Tragia cinerea and
Sida schimperiana
Dicliptera Acanthaceae Toguwa Herb Cultivated Shoot Less Crush the part and Dermal Eye disease/ Human Dawro32
laxata plenty apply on skin allergic reaction
Dicrocephula Asteraceae Sa’a’-okata Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed/decocted Dermal and Anaphylactic Human Dawro228
integrifolia malaa plenty and applied through nasal shock; epilepsy
nose and rubbed on
the surface of head
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Discopodium Solonaceae C’oyd’a/A’inaa Shrub Wild Leaf Less Crushed and mixed Oral Black leg Animal Dawro194
penninarvum plenty with water
Dombeya Sterculiaceae Boshuwa/ Tree Wild Leaf Less Crushed/decocted Oral Abdominal pain Animal Dawro292
torrida loluwa plenty and taken
Echinops Asteraceae Wora bursa/ Shrub Wild Root Plenty Crushed/decocted Oral For building Animal Dawro211
amplexcaulis kashiya and taken
(zo’uwa
gad’awa)
Echinops Asteraceae Bursa Shrub Wild Root Plenty Smoked Dermal Headache, never Human Dawro9
kebricho reach snake
around the area
of smoking
Ehretia cymosa Boraginaceae Etriwanjiya Tree Wild Leaf Less Crushed and tied Dermal Severe Animal Dawro78
plenty on the infected part abdominal
cramp
Embelia Myrsinaceae K’uank’uula Shrub Wild Fruit Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Tapeworm Human Dawro250
schimperi with water and
taken orally before
breakfast
Ensete Musaceae Utsa Shrub Cultivated Root Plenty The root tied on Dermal Tumor Human Dawro72
ventricosum neck
Entada Fabaceae Gelec’ec’a Shrub Wild Leaf Less Crushed and Dermal Wound Animal Dawro88
abyssinica plenty applied on the and
infected parts human
Erythrina Fabaceae Borttuwa- Tree Cultivated Bark Rare Crushed/decocted Oral Evil eye Animal Dawro155
abysinica Gad’awa and wild and taken and
human
Erythrina brucci Fabaceae Bortuwa- Tree Cultivated Bark Plenty Crushed or Oral Ascaris, Human Dawro3
Geziyawa and wild powdered fresh and stomachache
mixed with water
and taken
Eucalyptus Myrtaceae Botha- Tree Cultivated Leaf Plenty Smoking Nasal Common cold Human Dawro282
globules Barzafiya
Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae Shato-maataa Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and Dermal Ringworm and Human Dawro176
plenty rubbed out to it skin disease
Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae Shato dhaliya Climber Wild Sap Less Cut and then apply Dermal Skin disease Human Dawro324
inidica plenty the sap
Euphorbia Euphorbeaceae Maxuwa- Shrub Wild Shoot Rare Decocted and taken Oral Swelling of Animal Dawro27
tirucalli darawa/ stomach
S’aduwa
Ficus thonningii Moraceae Shaynhiya Tree Wild Bark Less Crushed and Oral Dysentery Human Dawro323
plenty decocted taken
Ficus vasta Moraceae Esaa//etta Tree Wild Bark Rare Crushed, decocted, Oral Stomach Human Dawro154
and mixed/ disorder
concocted with
Rumex nepalensis,
Erythrina brucei,
and Solanum
incanum and taken
Foeniculum Apiaceae Shileria Shrub Wild Leaf Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Chill Human Dawro16
vulgarie with water and
taken
Galinirea Rubiaceae Deesha Shrub Wild Leaf; Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Epilepsy Human Dawro307
coffeoides loomiya root with milk and
applied orally
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Galinsoga Asteraceae Ematiya/ Tree Wild Leaf; Less Crush the root and Oral Hepatitis/liver Human Dawro222
paruifolra bizdiya root plenty leaf together and problem
take orally within 3
days’ interval until
healed
Gallium Rubiaceae Kangad’a Herb Wild Shoot Rare Rubbing on the Dermal Skin disease; Human Dawro259
aparinoides infected part impetigo
Gardenia Rubiaceae Genbbela Tree Wild Leaf Less Crushed/decocted Oral Colic pain Human Dawro296
ternifolia plenty and mixed with
butter
Geranium sp. Geranaceae Badinecho Herb Wild Leaf Less Rubbed on the Dermal Gum infection Human Dawro272
plenty infected part of the
tooth
Gerbera Asteraceae Sa-sheka Herb Wild Leaf Rare Crushed/decocted Oral Severe Human Dawro315
piloselloides and add little water abdominal
when taken orally cramp
once
Girardinca Urticaceae Kona Herb Wild Root Rare Crushed and taken Oral Constipation Human Dawro280
bullosa
Glycine wightii Fabaceae Tooguwa Tura Climber Wild Root Less Crushed/decocted Oral Evil eye Animal Dawro231
var.longicauda plenty and can be and
concocted/mixed human
with milk and taken
Gnidia glauca Thymelaeaceae Migra Shrub Wild Root Less Crush and leave it Oral Hepatitis/liver Human Dawro183
plenty overnight, mix with problem
water, and take
orally
Gnidia Thymelaceae K’uriya Shrub Cultivated Root Less Crushed/decocted Oral Abdominal pain Human Dawro351
stenophylla plenty and taken orally
and then taken with
milk
Grewia bicolour Tiliaceae Gumariya/ Tree Wild Bark Plenty Crunched and Oral Swelling of Human Dawro28
Juss S’awayiya added with water stomach
and taken
Guizotia scabra Asteraceae Tufaa Herb Semi-wild Stem Plenty Crushed/decocted Dermal Skin disease Human Dawro147
and applied on the
skin
Habenstretia Scrophuriaceae Kayis’eriya Shrub Wild Stem Less The small pieces of Dermal Tumor Human Dawro244
angolensis plenty it tied on the neck
Hagnia Rosaceae Soyid’uwa Tree Wild Fruit Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Tapeworm Human Dawro101
abyssinica with water and
taken
Helichrysum Asteraceae Herb Wild Shoot Plenty Crushed and taken Oral Meningitis Human Dawro168
gerberifolium
Helichrysum sp. Asteraceae Samba lolo/ Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and mixed Oral, nasal, Evil eye, Human Dawro242
Yesamba mich plenty with water and dermal pneumonia
taken through eye,
nose, and mouth
and rubbed on the
skin
Hypericum Guttiferaceae Mali Mas’ino Herb Cultivated Leaf Rare Crushed/decocted Dermal Itching and Human Dawro128
peplidifolium and applied on the scabies
skin
Hypericum Guttiferaceae K’irik’uwa Shrub Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed/decocted Oral Anaphylactic Human Dawro156
revolutum and taken shock
Hypoestes Acanthaceae Ginginuwa Herb Wild Root Rare Powdered and Oral Snake bite Human Dawro178
forskaolii malatiyawa applied
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Indigofera Fabaceae Wusiwusiya Shrub Wild Root Plenty Chew the root part Oral Abdominal ache; Animal Dawro54
arrecta anthrax and
human
Indigofera Fabaceae Sheka/K’uriya/ Herb Wild Root Less Crushed/decocted Oral Snake bite; Animal Dawro328 and
spicata Dangarsa plenty and mixed with abdominal pain and dawro98
d’oniya water and taken human
orally
Juniperus Cuperssaceae S’iida Tree Semi-wild Leaf Rare Crushed and Dermal Wound Animal Dawro311
procera applied on the
infected parts
Justicia Acantaceae Mulu muk’uwa Herb Wild Leaf; Rare Crushed, washed, Dermal and Colic pain; Animal Dawro169
ladanoides root rubbed on the skin, oral hepatitis/liver and (175/187/196)
and also taken problem; tumor human
through nose;
powdered, and
liquid-filtered
butter of a spoon
given orally;
crushed, mixed
with butter, and
rubbed on the part
Laggera Asteraceae Sesa/Gelesho Shrub Wild Leaf Rare Crushed and Oral Evil eye Human Dawro59
pterodonta tanbuwa applied orally
Lannea fruticosa Anacardiaceae Dechi- Tree Wild Root Rare Crushed and Dermal Wound; Animal Dawro99
marac’iya rubbed on the abdominal pain/ and
infected part (Karishuwa) human
Lantana tritolia Verbensceae Shanki-shasha Herb Wild Leaf Rare Crushed and Oral Malaria Human Dawro97
decocted and taken
Lantana Verbenaceae Shanki-shasha Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and Nasal Allergic reaction Human Dawro192
viburnoides malaa plenty applied through eye of eye
and nose
Launea Asteraceae Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and mixed Oral Abdominal pain Human Dawro234
mtgbacea plenty with water and
Jeffrcy taken
Lepidium Brassicaceae Sibika Herb Cultivated Fruit Plenty Crushed and Oral Abdominal pain Animal Dawro137
sativum mixed/concocted and intestinal
with butter and problem/ cramp
taken (karshuwa)
Leucas Lamiaceae Kirikisa Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and mixed Oral Diarrhea Human Dawro218
abbyssinica plenty with water and
taken one cup for
adult and half cup
for children
Leucas Lamiaceae Gumpula Herb Semi-wild Root Less Powder and then Oral Anthrax Animal Dawro146
martinicensis plenty the local areki is
taken through
mouth
Lippia adoensis Verbenaceae Kosorotiya Shrub Semi-wild Leaf Less Concoction with Oral Appetizer Human Dawro68
var.koseret plenty milk
Lobelia giberroa Lobeliaceae Ododiya Shrub Wild Leaf Rare Crushed/concocted Oral Trypanosomiasis Animal Dawro125
with tobacco and
eucalyptus and
taken
Lotus sp. Fabaceae Badanecha Climber Wild Leaf; Less Crushed and Dermal Gum infection Human Dawro338
root plenty rubbed on the
surface of gum
Maerua Capparidaceae Sangana Shrub Wild Root Less Crushed and taken Oral and nasal Colic pain Human Dawro209
oblongifolia plenty orally, smoked
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Maesa Myrrecenaceae Gegec’uwa Tree Wild Bark Plenty Crushed or Oral Ascaris, Human Dawro5
lanceolata powdered fresh and stomachache
mixed with water
and taken
Maytenus sega Celastraceae Putawuwa Tree Wild Leaf; Less Crush the root and Oral Evil eye Animal Dawro163
root plenty leaf/decoct and take and
human
Milettia Fabaceae Zagiya Tree Wild Root Less Crushed/decocted Oral Trypanosomiasis Animal Dawro119
ferruginea plenty and applied
Momordica Cucuribitaceae K’eca Climber Wild Root Less Crushed and taken Oral and nasal Rabies Animal Dawro304
foetide plenty orally with water and
human
Moringa Moringaceae Halakuwa Tree Cultivated Leaf Less Heat the leaf and Oral Malaria Human Dawro287
stenopetala plenty then eat until
threatened
Mukia Cucurbitaceae Shosha Mata Climber Wild Leaf Less Crushed and mixed Oral Snake bite Human Dawro336
maderaspatana plenty with water
Musa x Musaceae Muuziya Shrub Cultivated All Less Crushed/decocted Dermal Blood clotting Human Dawro305
peradisacal parts plenty and applied on the
injured part
Nephrolepis Oleandraceae Bisa-gadhawa Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and mixed Oral Snake bite Human Dawro213
undulata plenty with water and
taken
Nicandra Solanaceae Puqaqiya Herb Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed and a cup Oral Hepatitis/liver Human Dawro290
physaloides (laflafuwa of it is taken problem
mala)
Nicotiana Solanaceae Tambuwa Herb Cultivated Leaf Less Crushed/decocted Nasal Leech Animal Dawro92
tabacum plenty and applied and
human
Ocimum Lamiaceae Dunkiya- Shrub Wild Root Less Crushed and Oral Anaphylactic Human Dawro161(326)
americanum bunawa/Sa’a plenty pressed and mixed shock
tusa with the root of
Reichardia
tingitana/decocted
and taken orally;
crushed and mixed
with water and a
cup of it is taken
Ocimum Lamiaceae Dunkiya Herb Cultivated Leaf Rare Crushed, pounded, Oral Stomachache Human Dawro12
basilicum and given
Ocimum Lamiaceae Damakesiya Herb Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed and Dermal and Allergic reaction Human Dawro14
lamifolium mixed/concocted oral
with coffee and
taken
Ocimum Lamraceae Guluuwa/ Shrub Wild Root Less Crushed and mixed Oral Colic pain Human Dawro195
utricifolium Desha-dunkiya plenty with water and
taken orally
Oncocalyx sp. Loranthaceae China Mita Shrub Wild Bark Rare Crushed and mixed Dermal Skin disease Human Dawro185
with butter and
rubbed on the skin
Oxalis latifolia Oxalidaceae mac’igara Climber Wild Leaf Plenty Powder taken Oral Colic pain Human Dawro144
Oxalis radicosa Oxalidaceae Shumachiya Herb Wild Leaf Plenty Heated/crushed and Oral Appetizer Human Dawro217
mixed with water
and taken
Paspalum Poaceae Gors’a-mala Herb Cultivated Leaf Less Rubbed on the Dermal Snake bite Human Dawro74
scrobiculatum plenty infected part
Penisetum Poaceae Gors’aa Herb Wild Leaf Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Snake bite Animal Dawro136
clandestinum with water and
human
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Pentas Rubiaceae Gergeda mitsa/ Shrub Wild Leaf; Rare Crushed/decocted Nasal Breathing Human Dawro227 (256)
lanceolata Dawridama root; and taken; crushed problem/
mala bark and taken orally, Tinnitus/tumor
and the root cut
into three pieces
and tied on neck
Pentas Rubiaceae Dawuri Shrub Wild Leaf Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Broken Animal Dawro138
schimperiana Daamaa/ with water and and
Dalbantsa taken with butter human
Persea Lauraceae Abokatuwa Tree Cultivated Bark Less Crushed/decocted Oral Colic pain Animal Dawro295
americana plenty and taken and
human
Phaulopsis Acanthaceae Umba Herb Wild Root Rare Powdered and Nasal Black leg Animal Dawro177
imbricata mixed with water
and applied
Phoenix reclinta Ariaceae Zamba Tree Wild Leaf Rare Chopped, Dermal Eye disease Human Dawro288
powdered, and
dropped into eye
Phragmanthera Loranthaceae Mitsa shapuwa Climber Wild Bark Rare The plant part tied Dermal Lymph adenitis/ Human Dawro21
machosolen on the neck swelling of
gland
Phyllanthus Euphorbiaceae Dal uwa Herb Wild Root Rare Crushed and mixed Oral and nasal For milk Animal Dawro188
maderaspatensis with water and shortage
applied
Phyllanthus Euphorbiaceae Wusiwisiya Shrub Wild Leaf; Less Crush both parts Oral Hepatitis/liver Human Dawro249
reticulatus mala root plenty and take problem
Phytolacca Phytolacaceae Hanc’ic’iya Shrub Wild Leaf, Plenty Crushed or Oral Stomachache, Human Dawro2
dodecandra root, powdered fresh and malaria
bark mixed with water
and taken
Pilea rivularis Utricaceae Hayitsa matta Herb Semi-wild Leaf Plenty Crushed, pressed, Dermal Ear disease Human Dawro145
and the solid is
applied into ear
Pileatera phylla Uritaceae Herb Wild Leaf Less Crush and smell it Dermal Headache, Human Dawro240
plenty sweating
Piper capense Piperaceae Tunja Shrub Cultivated Fruit Rare Crushed and Oral Chill, Human Dawro6
cococted with rue stomachache,
and Echinops headache
kebericho and
taken
Plantago Plantagonaceae Borada mala Herb Wild Leaf Rare Crushed and Dermal Wound Human Dawro238
lanceolata rubbed on the skin
Plantago Plantagonaceae Borodaa Herb Cultivated Root Rare The root tied on Dermal Human Dawro132
palmata neck
Plectranthus Lamiaceae Mudha Herb Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed and Dermal and Allergic reaction Human Dawro34
caninus decocted oral and wound
Plectranthus Lamiaceae Dissa Herb Wild Leaf; Rare Simply smell the Oral and nasal Allergic reaction Human Dawro309
ornatus root leaf part but the
root parts are
chewed
Plumbago Plumaginaceae Herb Wild Root Less Crushed/decocted Nasal Snake bite Human Dawro190
zeylanica plenty and taken
Polygala Polygonaceae Gic’inda Herb Wild Root Less Powdered and Nasal Headache Human Dawro180
persicarifolia plenty applied
Pteris catoptera Pteridaceae Bisa Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and mixed Oral Abdominal pain Human Dawro148
plenty with water and
taken
Pycnostachys Lamiaceae Olomuwa Shrub Wild Leaf Less Crush the leaf and Dermal Athlete foot Human Dawro306
abyssinica plenty apply on the foot cracking/
maac’uwa
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Pycnostachys Lamiaceae Olomuwa Shrub Wild Leaf Rare The leaf placed on Dermal Eye disease Animal Dawro58
abyssinica the eye and
human
Rhamnus Rhamneceae Geeshuwa Shrub Cultivated Leaf Plenty Crushed, mixed Dermal Itching and Human Dawro122
prinoides with water, and scabies
heated
Rhoicissus Vitaceae Gegeluwa Climber Wild Stem Less Flesh of it tied on Dermal Lymphadenitis Human Dawro159
revoilii plenty the neck
Rhynchosia Fabaceae Galimentsuwa Herb Cultivated Leaf Rare Crushed and Dermal Thorn toxic Human Dawro124
minima and wild rubbed on the
infected part
Rhynchosia Fabaceae Shrub Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed/decocted Oral Allergic reaction Human Dawro152
orthobotrya and mixed with and anaphylactic
little water shock
Richrdia Asteraceae Mas’oliya Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and taken Oral Gonorrhea and Human Dawro255
tingetana plenty orally haemorrhage
(kintarot)
Rumex Polygonaceae C’olieya Herb Cultivated Root Plenty Decocted and half a Oral Ascariasis Human Dawro57
abyssinicus cup of it taken
Rumex Polyganaceae Zans’ala Herb Wild Root Plenty Crushed and tied Dermal Insect bite Human Dawro80
nepalensis on the infected part (Sa’aba) disease
Ruta Rutaceae S’alotiya Shrub Cultivated Fruit, Plenty Chewed orally or Oral Stomachache, Human Dawro8
chalopensis leaf mixed with water chill
Salvia nilotica Lamiaceae Sa’a Okata Herb Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed and mixed Oral Allergic reaction Human Dawro17
with water and
taken
Satureja Lamiaceae Wuta malaa Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and Dermal and Abdominal pain; Animal Dawro118(241)
abyssinica plenty applied orally and oral epilepsy and
dermally by simply human
smelling the leaf
Satureja Lamiaceae Herb Wild Leaf Less Powdered and Oral Snake bite Human Dawro182
punctata plenty pressed and a cup
of it is taken
Satyrium Orchidaceae Ec’ere Hayitsa Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and Oral Anthrax Animal Dawro266
aethiopicum plenty mixed/decocted
with lemon and
taken orally
Scadoxus nutans Maryllidaceae Wara Mana Herb Wild Leaf Rare Crushed and Oral Snake bite Human Dawro95
cococted with
Tragia cinerea and
taken
Schrebera alata Oleaceae K’ara Tree Wild Leaf Less Crushed and mixed Oral Wound Human Dawro212
taken
Sclerocarya Anacardiaceae Woshilachiya/ Tree Wild Stem Less Five pieces of it Dermal Lymphadenitis Human Dawro297
birrea Tunk’aluwa plenty hanged on the neck
Senna peteriana Fabaceae Shosha enxarsa Shrub Wild Leaf Rare Crushed/decocted Oral Snake bite Human Dawro313
and add little water
and take once
Sida rhombifolia Malvaceae Danduretsa Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and Nasal Dandreta Animal Dawro301
plenty applied and
human
Sida Malraceae Kindichuwa Shrub Cultivated Leaf Plenty Crush the leaf and Dermal and Evil eye Human Dawro73
schimperiana take, smelling the oral
leaf
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Solanecio gigas Asteraceae Dook’a Shrub Cultivated Leaf Less Crushed and mixed Oral Abdominal pain Animal Dawro134
taken orally
Solanum Solanaceae Karetsa Herb Wild Shoot Plenty Crushed and Oral Common cold, Human Dawro47
capsicoides buluwa/ and decocted and taken abdominal
Meetetiya flower orally for children cramp
buluwa
Solanum Solanaceae Wora buluwa Shrub Wild Fruit Less Crushed/decocted Oral Snake bite Animal Dawro310
incanum plenty and taken orally and
human
Solanum Solanaceae Buluwa/Wora Shrub Wild Leaf Plenty Crushed, heated, Oral Gastritis, allergic Human Dawro63
incanum L buluwa and mixed with reaction
butter
Solanum sp. Solanaceae Puk’ek’iya Shrub Wild Root Rare Washed/crushed, Oral Hepatitis/liver Human Dawro189
mixed with water, problem
and taken orally
three cups before
breakfast for 3 days
Solanum sp. Solanaceae Shrub Cultivated Leaf Rare Cut into small Dermal Lymphadenitis Human Dawro355
pieces and hung
Sparmannia Tiliaceae K’eri- Herb Wild Leaf Less Apply into nose/ Oral and nasal Snake bite Human Dawro181
ricinocarpa cayshiya/ plenty drink
K’arc’ocha/
Baribacho
Spilanthus Asteraceae Aydamiya Herb Wild Flower Plenty Chewed orally Oral Flatulence, for Human Dawro13
mauritiana fattening
Sporobolus Poaceae Gic’igiliya/ Herb Wild Leaf Rare Powdered and Oral Diarrhea Human Dawro174
pyramidalis Gic’ariya mixed with the leaf
of Conyza
pyrrhopappa a
glass of it is taken
Sporobulus sp. Poaceae Sura mala Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and Dermal Fire Human Dawro331
and plenty applied on the skin inflammation
stem
Stephenia Menispermaceae Bazo Tura/ado Climber Wild Root Rare Crushed, decocted, Oral Stomachache in Human Dawro19
abyssinica Tura and mixed with children
fresh milk and
taken
Syzygium Myrtaceae Ocha Tree Wild Bark Rare Crushed or Oral Ascaris, Human Dawro4 (285)
guineense powdered fresh and stomachache;
mixed with water abdominal pain
decocted and taken
Tagetes minuta Asteraceae Derek’a Herb Wild Leaf; Less Crushed/decocted Oral Chill; sudden Human Dawro206
root plenty and mixed with attack of (334;352)
yoghurt; crushed digestive guts;
and given orally rheumatism
Tamarindus Fabaceae Koriya Tree Wild Fruit Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Diarrhea Human Dawro325
indica with water and
taken
Tephrosia Fabaceae Herb Wild Root Rare Crushed and added Oral Anaphylactic Animal Dawro172
villosa with water and shock and
taken human
Terminalia Combretaceae Ambiya Tree Wild Bark Plenty Crushed and Oral Chill and Human Dawro43
schimperiana decocted and taken stomachache
Thalictrum Ranunculaceae Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and mixed Oral Ascariasis Human Dawro257
rhynchocarpum plenty with milk and
applied
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Tragia cinerea Euphorbiaceae Kinklishuwa Climber Wild Root Less Flesh of it tied on Dermal Lymph adenitis Human Dawro158
plenty the neck
Tragia doryoges Euphorbiaceae Kinklishuwa Herb Wild Leaf; Less Crush the root and Oral Snake bite Human Dawro237
root plenty leaf together
concocted with the
leaf and root of
Croton
macrostachyus,
mix with water, and
take orally
Trichodeswa Boraginaceae Kontsotsuwa/ Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed, mixed Dermal Eye disease Human Dawro116
zeylanicum K’uro aguntsa/ plenty with Phytolacca
Kachanchiliya dodecandra, and
applied
Trifolium Fabaceae Azimiya Herb Cultivated Leaf Plenty Crushed/decocted Dermal Itching Human Dawro130
decorum and applied on the
skin
Trigonella Fabaceae Shuk’uwa Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed/ground Dermal Eye disease Human Dawro289
foenumgraecum plenty and applied into the
eye
Triticum Poceae K’anbara Herb Cultivated Seed Plenty Pound and then Oral Building of body Animal Dawro64
polonicum ground and mixed and
with water and then human
heated
Tropaeolum Tropacolaceae Faranjiya- Climber Cultivated Fruit Rare Crushed and Oral Stomachache Human Dawro10
majus Sibika cococted with
rue/Ruta
chalepensis and
taken orally
Vepris danellii Rutaceae C’awula Tree Wild Fruit Rare Crushed and mixed Oral Stomachache, Human Dawro7
with water and chill
taken
Verbena Verbenaceae Higisha Herb Wild Root Rare Crushed and taken Oral Evil eye Human Dawro350
officinalis D’aliya orally
Vernonia Astraceae Garaa Tree Wild Shoot Rare Crush the root and Oral Malaria for Animal Dawro23
amygdalina (young) concoct with the human and and
root of papaya swelling of human
abdomen for
animals
Vernonia Asteraceae Saguwa Shrub Wild Leaf Less Crushed, dried, and Oral Anthrax Animal Dawro262
karaguensis plenty rubbed on the skin
Vernonia Asteraceae Waramayiya Shrub Wild Root Less Crushed/decocted Oral Dysentery Animal Dawro321
lasiopus plenty and taken orally
Vernonia sp. Asteraceae Yesheshuwa Herb Wild Root Less Powdered and press Oral Hepatitis/liver Human Dawro162
plenty and then mixed/ problem
concocted with the
root of Abrus
precatorius and
milk
Vernonia sp. Asteraceae Kariya Shrub Cultivated Leaf Rare Chewed concocted Oral Anaphylactic Human Dawro358
with Syzygium shock
guineense taken
through mouth
Vernonia Asteraceae Buuzuuwa Shrub Wild Leaf Rare Crushed/concocted Oral Evil eye Human Dawro308
theophrastifolia with tselotiya taken
orally
Vernonia Asteraceae Zamuwa Shrub Semi-wild Leaf Rare Take the tip of the Oral Abdominal pain Human Dawro131
urticifolia leaf and crush/mix
with water and take
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Vicia sp. Fabaceae Kishikishi Shrub Wild Leaf Less Crushed and Dermal Saba bite Human Dawro329
mala plenty applied on the skin
Vigna vexillata Fabaceae Tsoka Climber Wild Leaf Rare Powdered and Oral Black leg Animal Dawro342
taken orally
Zehneria scabra Cucuribitaceae Ecca Climber Wild Root Less Crushed and Oral and nasal Gonorrhea Human Dawro303
plenty applied through
mouth and nose
Zernia pratensis Fabaceae X Herb Wild Leaf Less Crushed and Dermal Snake bite Human Dawro230
plenty rubbed on the
bitten area of the
skin at least three
times within
3 days’ interval
Zingiber Zingiberaceae Yenjeluwa Herb Cultivated Root Plenty Crushed and Oral Swelling of Animal Dawro22
officinale concocted/mixed abdomen for and
with coffee for human; human
human and only trypanosomiasis
with water for for animals
animals
Zornia Fabaceae Korie Herb Wild Root Less Crushed and Nasal Snake bite Human Dawro191
glochidiato plenty concocted/mixed
with Plumbago
zeylanica and taken
through nose
Zornia partensis Fabaceae Shrub Wild Root Less Crushed and taken Oral Abdominal pain Animal Dawro164
plenty orally and
human
Table 3 Source of medicinal plants used

S. No. Item Number % Rank
1 Wild 169 78.24 1st
2 Cultivated 36 16.67 2nd
3 Cultivated wild relatives 11 5.09 3rd
Total 216 100
rowth Forms and Parts of Medicinal Plant Species Used

G
in the Study Area
Traditional healers in the study area predominantly use herbs 91(42.13%), followed
by trees 40 (18.52%), shrubs 58 (26.85%), climbers 26 (12.04%), and creeper 1
(0.46%) (Table 4). People in the study area collect more herbs than trees and shrubs
for medicinal purpose that is similar to the report for the Kafficho people in Kafa
(Awassa et al. 2007) and Loma and Gena Bosa area (Agize et al. 2013) and a coun-
try report (Anon 2005b). This result differed from the report for the people of Bosat,
Welenchiti area, who are said to use more of shrubs than herbs (Debela Hunde et al.
2004). This can be explained by the fact that Bosat is a degraded dryland area where
the shrub elements take prominence over the herbs.
Leaves account for 89 (41.20%), roots 61 (28.24%), leaf and root parts 13
(6.02%), bark 13 (6.02%), and fruit 11 (5.09%), each to treat different types of
diseases in that order. The other parts are used to a lesser percentage [shoot 7
(3.24%); stem 7 (3.24%); all parts 3 (1.39%); seed 2 (0.93%); fruit and leaf 1
(0.46%); leaf, root, and bark 1 (0.46%); leaf and stem 1 (0.46%) sap 1 (0.46%); and
shoot and flower 1 (0.46%)] (Table 5). Traditional healers in the study area collect
more of leaves than other parts of medicinal plants similar to a report of the Kafficho
people in Kafa (Awassa et al. 2007); a report to Bosat, Welenchiti area (Debela
Hunde et al. 2004); Loma and Gena Bosa area (Agize et al. 2013); and Konso
(Gebre 2005) while it disagrees with the report that indicates the use of more of
roots than leaves (Anon 2005b).
People who are using more of shrubs focus on root parts while those using herbs
do focus on leaves of the plant. The most widely used life form of medicinal plants
in the study area is herb followed by shrub due to their ease of availability. This has
contribution to reduce the threat rate to medicinal plants. The use of leaves than
roots, barks, stems, and whole plant minimizes the threat to the destruction of
medicinal plants. This is because if it is harvested in sustainable manner, it gives
opportunity for long life of the plant than others. However, the root part utilization
is significant and threats the plant species in the study area.
Most of the medicinal plants are prepared alone and mixed with water, 190
(87.96%), while 26 (12.04%) are used in mixture (Table 6), prepared in combination
with others. In this kind of indigenous knowledge, the chemicals in the mixture may
dilute the toxicity of some dangerous plants that become suited to be used with oth-
ers in the mixture. Most of the remedies in the study area depend on fresh plant
Table 4 Growth forms/habits of medicinal plants used in the preparation of remedies

S. No. Growth forms Number % Rank
1 Herbs 91 42.13 1st
2 Shrubs 58 26.85 2nd
3 Trees 40 18.52 3rd
4 Climbers 26 12.04 4th
5 Creepers 1 0.46 5th
Total 216 100
Table 5 Parts of medicinal plants used in the preparation of remedies

S. No. Parts Number % Rank
1 Leaves 89 41.2 1st
2 Roots 61 28.24 2nd
3 Leaf and root 13 6.02 3rd
4 Bark 13 6.02 3rd
5 Fruit 11 5.09 4th
6 Shoot 7 3.24 5th
7 Stem 7 3.24 5th
8 All parts 3 1.39 6th
9 Seed 2 0.93 7th
10 Fruit and leaf 1 0.46 8th
11 Leaf, root, and bark 1 0.46 8th
12 Leaf and stem 1 0.46 8th
13 Sap 1 0.46 8th
14 Shoot and flower 1 0.46 8th
Total 216 100
Table 6 Methods of preparation

S. No. Preparation Number % Rank
1 Prepared alone 190 87.96 1st
2 Mixed 26 12.04 2nd
Total 216 100
material preparation; elsewhere, there are similar reports of Bosat area (Debela
Hunde et al. 2004), Fentalle (Balemie et al. 2004), Ejaji area (Amenu 2007), Konta
(Hailemariam 2007), and Loma and Gena Bosa area (Agize et al. 2013). Most of the
time the fresh preparation is more threatened than dry preparation due to use and
through mechanism of plant material that is not conservative. However, local people
argue that fresh materials are effective in treatment as the contents are not lost
before use compared to the dried one similar to Ejaji area (Amenu 2007) and Loma
and Gena Bosa area (Agize et al. 2013).
Most of the medicinal plant prescription is orally administered 135 (62.5%).
About 51 (23.61%) are applied on the skin/surface, 11 (5.09%) are through oral and
Table 7 Mode of administration of traditional medicine

S. No. Application site Number % Rank
1 Oral 135 62.5 1st
2 Skin/surface 51 23.6 2nd
3 Oral and dermal 11 5.09 3rd
4 Nasal 10 4.63 4th
5 Oral and nasal 7 3.24 5th
6 Dermal and nasal 1 0.46% 6th
Total 216 100
dermal, 10 (4.63%) are nasally applied, 7 (3.24%) are through oral and nasal, and
only 1 (0.46%) is administrated through dermal and nasal (Table 7). Most people in
the study area take their preparations in liquid form. This is because it is easier to
take and because of fear to taste some chemicals during chewing or masticating.
However most of their prescription is orally administered, 135 (62.5%), similar to
Fentalle (Balemie et al. 2004) and Chifra (Seifu et al. 2006) and Loma and Gena
Bosa area (Agize et al. 2013).
edicinal Plants and Indigenous Knowledge of Traditional

M
Healers in the Study Area
Though there is a difference in know-how among healers due to the interest of indi-
viduals, age, education status, availability of plants, and occurrence of diseases, the
traditional healers of the study area have accumulated traditional medicinal knowl-
edge for a long period of time (for generations) due to their interaction with plants
of their environment.
The traditional healers in the study area have knowledge of diseases and medici-
nal plants used to treat them (Table 1). Medicinal plants practiced in the area are
more for treatment of human than cattle and other domestic animals. About 71.76%
(155) of the medicinal plants are used to treat humans while 15.28% (33) are used
to treat cattle disease only but about 12.96% (28) used for both human and cattle
(Table 8).
Most traditional healers practice using the same plant species for treating differ-
ent diseases of human and domestic animals. About 10 (4.63%) of them are used to
treat three types, 30 (13.89%) of them are used to treat two types of diseases, and
176 (81.48%) of them are used to treat only one type of either human or animal
diseases (Table 9).
Allium sativum, Artemisia afra, Brachiaria brizantha, Buddleja polystachya,
Clerodendrum myricoides, Justicia ladanoides, Lannea fruticosa, Piper capense,
Syzygium guineense, and Tagetes minuta are popular medicinal plants, each used to
treat three types of diseases of either human, human, or animal. These and other
plants are kept in the house or in the pocket for immediate usage of accidental ill-
ness. For this purpose, they are cultivated or allowed to grow in home gardens.
Table 8 Percentage of medicinal plants to treat human and domestic animals

S. No. To be treated Number % Rank
1 Human 155 71.76 1st
2 Domestic animals 33 15.28 2nd
3 Human and domestic animals 28 12.96 3rd
Total 216 100
Table 9 Percentage of medicinal plants to treat ailments

S. No. Aliments Number % Rank
1 Three types 10 4.63 3rd
2 Two types 30 13.89 2nd
3 One type 176 81.48 1st
Total 216 100
Table 10 The age distribution of respondents

Male Female Total Rank
S. No. Age range number number number %
1 16–25 10 1 11 12.09 5th
2 26–35 17 3 20 21.98 1st
3 36–45 19 _ 19 20.88 2nd
4 46–55 17 1 18 19.78 3rd
5 56–65 13 1 14 15.38 4th
6 66–75 3 _ 3 3.3 7th
7 76–85 4 _ 4 4.4 6th
8 86–95 2 _ 2 2.2 8th
Total (18–92) 85 6 91 100
Healers that exercise traditional medicine (knowledge) are above 15 years of age
and below 95 years’ range (18–91 years) (Table 10). The traditional healers in the
area developed indigenous knowledge to treat different types of diseases using dif-
ferent types of plant species at early ages (26–35 years). This is probably because of
the availability of plants in the study area, encouragement/demand of local people,
stress of diseases, efficacy in some treatment that cannot be healed using modern
medicament, and absence of health centers around them at the time though there are
recently established health posts and upgrading clinics of veterinary that are yet not
well equipped with facilities and infrastructure for transportation unless the dry sea-
son roads. This also indicates that, there is transfer of knowledge at young age as
some interviewees informed that because of modernization and less consideration
of it/indigenous knowledge, they are willing to transfer their knowledge at earlier
time of life. It is one’s knowledge that determines the use of plants as medicinal
value that others might use for treatment (Agize et al. 2013). In most cases, the tradi-
tion of conveying traditional medicinal knowledge to the next generation is at old
ages to keep secret. In this process of transferring at the old age, most of indigenous
Table 11 Educational level of the respondents

S. No. Educational level number number number %
1 0 46 4 50 54.95 1st
2 1–4 14 0 14 15.38 3rd
3 5–8 15 1 16 17.58 2nd
4 9–10 3 1 4 4.4 4th
5 11–12 3 0 3 3.3 6th
6 >12 4 0 4 4.4 4th
Total (18–92) 85 6 91 100
knowledge and practices die out with the old knowledgeable individual because he/
she loses memory and cannot walk to distant places to show/train important medici-
nal plants apart from the less ability of children to understand/memorize things.
About 54.95% (50) of them are not educated while 45.05% (41) are literate
(Table 11). Educational level is considered as a factor to determine the inheritance
of indigenous knowledge and conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants,
because most of the non-educated informants (traditional healers in the study area)
harvest medicinal plants from the wild.
I ndigenous Knowledge Associated to Conservation of Medicinal

Plants
Home Garden Management
Home gardens are rich in species diversity than that of areas away from home due
to hipping and spreading of household wastes that served as manure for their growth.
Women regularly manure home garden plants with house wastes including cow
dung. A similar pattern is reported in Kafa (Asfaw 2004). This traditional practice
is used to conserve a lot of plant species with their associated knowledge.
Farmers deliberately preserve some native tree, shrub, and herb species for a
variety of purposes specially for immediate access such as for remedy (medicinal),
supply of fodder and fuel wood, food, collection of harvested crops, protection of
crops and workers from the sun heat (for shade), improving soil fertility, etc. either
in home garden or in scattered (on-farm tree) agroforestry system. The more the
multiple uses a plant has for local people, the more conservation of that plant
resource through cultivation and protection in and around home gardens and farm
areas.
The indigenous knowledge of using plants to protect other plant species from
disease, pests, and other harming agents has increased conservation value of these
species, e.g., Pycnostachys abyssinica which is planted among Ensete ventricosum
to destroy bacterial wilt spread; another option is to rotate the enset field with other
crops such as taro and barley and also plant bacterial resistant variety of enset like
“Mazya”—local name. Another IK in the community is planting enset and some
other species when moon appears for propagation because they believe that species
planted during moon were not decay. A similar finding is reported in Dawuro by
Dea (1997) and Agize et al. (2013).
The Intercropping of Plants
The presence of on-farm agroforestry and home garden diversity with knowledge
about their use is important for the conservation of plant diversity and environmental
suitability. The intermixing of multipurpose plants in home gardens and in the farm
field benefits the indigenous people. Such activity conserves plants of medicinal
value with indigenous practices. It was observed that men are more knowledgeable
than women regarding the use of trees and shrubs that were collected from the wild
and planted in the home gardens. On the other hand, women are more knowledgeable
than men regarding the usage, cultivation, and management of herbaceous species
(root and tuber, vegetable crops, spices, condiments, and medicinal plants grown in
home garden).
Tree and Shrub Management Practices of Indigenous Knowledge
In the study area home garden and on-farm tree and shrub management agroforestry
practices were remarkable. The respondents informed that the tree species are man-
aged by coppicing from the beginning of December up to the end of April or shortly
before the rainy season. It was noted that coppice sprouts which are equivalent to
straight stem are important consideration in the management of coppicing. The har-
vest from coppicing can be used to produce firewood and charcoal and other tree
products. It was also noted that respondents in the present study site managed tree
species by thinning. Respondents informed that the growth of seedling in the study
areas is by watering. The other tree management practice further mentioned was
pruning, also noted for the protection from splash erosion which would have
destroyed the crop. In general the types of management employed vary from one
agroecological zone to the other. It was mentioned that the cutting of trees in June,
July, and August caused decay. It was preferred to cut trees near the ground at a
height of 5–30 cm mainly to protect the sprouts from splitting by wind and to obtain
more sprouts. It was noted that coppicing avoids the need to replant trees after har-
vesting. Generally, thinning, pruning, controlling lopping, watering, and coppicing
are the most important farmer’s indigenous known home garden and on-farm tree
management practices in each agroecological zones of the study site.
ulture of Diversifying Income Generating and Food Security Plant

C
Species
The present interest of community trend of planting various species on their home
garden and on farmlands is for income generation and understanding the advantages
of improving their livelihood status. On the other hand the culture of the community-
obligating individuals planting various species and managing them on their home
garden and on farm area has important contribution for biodiversity. The individual
who cannot properly mange species diversity at home garden and on farmland is
neglected/deprived from social works. The community stops cooperating with them
on any social activities. As a result the nature of home gardens and farm area diver-
sity in the study site are rich. A similar finding is reported in Kafa ( Asfaw 2004).
Traditional Cultural Ceremony-Celebrating Places
There is indigenous knowledge of the community-preserving plant diversity around

church, local tomb, and spiritual ceremonial places like forests or “kasha” (local
name). After the death of community member, planting selective indigenous tree,
shrub, and herb species on his/her grave/tomb is the common traditional practice.
They believe that the type of species planted refers to dead person’s strength on his/
her lifetime and protecting the grave/tomb from replacement of others. They respect
protected forests and big trees as the older men and cultural leaders. In addition to
this they believe that “God” destroys them and whole community if they cut big
trees (kasha) from culturally protected area. As result of culturally respecting the
local protected areas in the study area, there was sustainability of species diversity
and hence conservation of that type of plant species as well as others growing under
or near the canopy of these plants. There are similar reports for indigenous
knowledge of Loma and Gena Bosa woredas community of Dawuro (Agize et al.
2013).
Ochoa Kasha is another ceremony at which women in the neighborhood and
relatives come together to the home of a newborn child. They wash the mother 3–4
days after child is born. They wash her after letting for an hour in the steam bath of
spices and Syzygium guineense. According to their tradition, for this purpose, the
spices used for the washing should be cultivated around the house, in the home
garden. Therefore, this traditional practice encourages the growth of spices,
medicinal plants, and other multipurpose species.
Selective Harvesting
Medicinal plants in the study area are collected in the morning only and not at mid-
day in order to protect themselves from evil spirits that may be hiding in the plant.
A similar report is from Chifra district (Seifu et al. 2006). They also claim tradi-
tional medicines to be effective only if the plants are collected at certain time of the
day as reported in Der es Salaam and on the main island of Ukerewe, Tanzania
(Gesseler et al. 1995 cited in Seifu et al. 2006). Medicinal plant collection and pro-
vision are also done in holidays (including Sunday, Wednesday, and Friday as God’s
day) as reported in Ejaji area, Chelya woreda in West Shoa (Amenu 2007), and
Gimbi area, in western Wellega (Tolasa 2007). They think that it is effective espe-
cially on Sunday because it is their cultural belief that this is the day on which Christ
became free from temptation challenges and even death and that might help them.
The ritual and spiritual protected areas for celebration probably contain more plant
diversity and have contribution to conservation activities in the area, a report similar
to Ejaji area, Chelya woreda (Amenu 2007), and Gimbi area in western Wellega
(Tolasa 2007). The selective harvesting of spices and herbs and taking of fresh roots
and tubers, vegetable crops, spices, condiments, and medicinal plants to market are
carried out by women rather than men which is one of the conservative practices and
cultures.
The Most Popular Medicinal Plants of the Study Area
The traditional medicinal plants especially in the families Asteraceae, Fabaceae,

and Lamiaceae played the most important role in curing illness of human and
domestic animals for centuries. The most frequently and easily accessible known
traditional medicinal plants are found in the family Asteraceae. The others Allium
sativum, Moringa stenopetala, Millettia ferruginea, Gnidia involucrate, and
Indigofera spicata are popularly used in the area. These and other plants are kept in
the house or in the pocket for immediate usage in case of accidental illness. For this
purpose, they are cultivated or allowed to grow in home gardens which agrees with
research result of some areas of Dawuro (Agize et al. 2013).
Factors for Depletion of Medicinal Plants of the Study Area
There are different threats to medicinal plant availability and indigenous knowledge
in the study area. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants is gradually
disappearing due to secrecy, unwillingness of young generation to gain the
knowledge, influence of modern education, and awareness factors besides other
natural conditions and anthropogenic activities. Medicinal plants are being scarcer
due to different factors such as agricultural expansion, overharvesting, overgrazing,
uncontrolled bushfires, drought, disease and pests, introduction of modernization,
and encouraging the new varieties and cultural shifts are also some of the threatening
factors (Agize et al. 2013).
The death of old people with particular knowledge on cultural requirement and
regarding medicinal uses of some plants that are more knowledgeable than younger
individuals is one of the major threats to both medicinal plants and indigenous
Table 12 Time of the stay respondents in the study area

S. No. Years age number number number %
1 <10 2 _ 2 2.2 2nd
2 10–19 1 _ 1 1.1 3rd
3 20–29 1 – 1 1.1 3rd
4 Since birth 81 6 87 95.6 1st
Total 85 6 91 100
knowledge as there is no documented IK of the use of traditional medicines. The

acquisition and transfer are done verbally as top secret in the presence of only the
healer and his inheritor with strong oath training. A similar study elsewhere in
Kenya (Kokwaro 1979), Manyara, Tanzania (Efrem et al. 2004), Fentalle (Balemie
et al. 2004), Konso (Gebre 2005), Gimbi (Tolasa 2007), and Loma and Gena Bosa
area (Agize et al. 2013) in Ethiopia confirmed such a cultural threat to medicinal
plants and IK on them. They treat their patients by disclosing medicinal plant name
or never show it thinking that the medicine becomes powerless in curing patient if
he/she knows (even if he/she knows that the patient is prohibited to call or show that
plant until he/she gets safe).
The destructive practices in harvesting (collecting the whole plant and using one
or some parts and throwing the rest unused parts) are the major threat to medicinal
plants in specific and to plant diversity (taxa) in general. This may be due to the
reason that most of them, about 54.95%, are none educated (Table 11) and 95.6% of
them lived in remote area for a long time (Table 12). Uprooting and using roots for
treatment result in threat of plant itself than relying on other parts. The heavy or
continued exploitation risks the regeneration of the natural source population
besides overharvesting and the destruction and conversion of their habitats to other
purposes. This is reported as one of the medicinal plant threats (Frankel et al. 1995).
The loss of plants causes the loss of traditional knowledge in turn. All informants
agree that there is decrease in plant resources of medicinal value from nearby
forests. Because of this, they travel long distances, even from one woreda to the
other. The elders who cannot travel such a distance inform the threat in transferring
their knowledge to the younger generation, as the medicinal plants are no longer
available; even they themselves do not serve with/practice their knowledge. As plant
resources decrease, indigenous knowledge and practices die out (Agize et al. 2013).
Conclusion and Recommendations
There are immense medicinal plant resources which are used for treatment of both
human and livestock in the study area for generation. Traditional practices and
various cultural and seasonal restrictions of collecting medicinal plants have
contributed to the management and conservation of diversified and rich medicinal
plants compared to others. Currently, these resources and indigenous knowledge on

medicinal plants are gradually disappearing due to secrecy, unwillingness of young
generation to gain the knowledge, influence of modern education, and awareness
factors besides other natural conditions and anthropogenic activities like agricul-
tural expansion, timber production, overharvesting for construction materials, and
other purposes and overgrazing. The destructive practices in harvesting (collecting
the whole plant and using one or some parts and throwing the rest) are the major
threat to medicinal plants in specific and to plant diversity (taxa) in general. Most of
the medicinal plants that were recorded and effectively used by the community are
harvested from wild. For this purpose, they travel long distances even from one
woreda to the other. Apart from this, all informants agree that there is a decrease in
plant resources of medicinal value from nearby forests. In other words, they are
cultivated or allowed to grow in the home garden if and only if they have multipur-
pose (medicinal, spices, etc.); otherwise they are uprooted by considering as weed.
Therefore, training on conservation and sustainable usage, domesticating, and cul-
tivating endangered multipurpose plants in specific and other plants in general
should be given for traditional healers as well as for community. Distributing impor-
tant information in the form of leaflets, brochures, posters, and other ways like
media accessible in the area. The following are some suggestions and recommenda-
tions for the effective utilization of the medicinal plant species and the associated
indigenous knowledge of the Dawuro people of the study area:
• Initiating pharmacological and biological activity testing of most popularly used
traditional medicinal plants in the area
• Establishing botanical gardens and protected areas with community-based
conservation
• Encouraging the use of home gardens for cultivation of multipurpose plants
• Area closure to allow regeneration of seed and establish community parks in
each kebele for the sake of conservation too
• Assess the indigenous multipurpose trees and shrubs and associated indigenous
knowledge and then later apply ex situ conservation (establish botanical garden,
reforestation, field gene bank, etc.) before their loss
References
Abbink J (1995) Medicinal and ritual plants of Ethiopian southwest. An account of recent research.
Indigenous Knowl Dev Monitor 3:6–8
Abebe D (1986) Traditional medicine in Ethiopia: the attempt bering made to promote it for effec-
tive and better utilization. SINET: Ethiopian J Sci 9 Suppl:61–69
Abebe D (2001a) Biodiversity conservation of medicinal plants: problems and prospects. In:
Proceeding of the national workshop on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of
medicinal plants in Ethiopia, 28 April–01, may 1998. IBCR, Addis Ababa, pp 56–64
Abebe D (2001b) The role of medicinal plants in health care coverage of Ethiopia, the possible
integration. In: Zewdu M, Demise A (eds) Proceeding of the national workshop on biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants in Ethiopia, 28 April–1 May 1999, IBCR,
Addis Ababa, pp 6–21
Abebe D, Ayehu A (1993) Medicinal plants and enigmatic health practice of North Ethiopia.
Berhanina Selam Printing Enterprise, Addis Ababa, p 341
Agize M, Demissew S, Asfaw Z (2013) Ethno botany of medicinal plants in Loma and Gena bosa
districts (Woredas) of Dawuro zone, southern Ethiopia. Top Class J Herbal Med 2(9):194–212
Amenu E (2007) Use and management of medicinal plants by indigenous people of Ejaji Area,
Chelya Woreda, West Shoa, Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical approach. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa
University, p 102
Anon (2005a) The Gospel of Luke in Dawuro. The Bible Society of Ethiopia (BSE), Addis Abeba,
Ethiopia, p 123
Anon (2005b) National biodiversity strategy and action plan. Institute of Biodiversity Conservation
(IBC), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p 103
Asfaw Z (1999) Report on ethno botanical study nations of nationalities and people in Gambella
and Benishangul Gumuz regional states. Progress Report to Research and Publication Office,
Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa
Asfaw Z (2001) The role of home garden in production and conservation of medicinal plants. In:
Zewdu M, Demissie A (eds) Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants in Ethiopia.
Proceeding of the national workshop on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of
medicinal plants in Ethiopia, 28 April–01, May 1998. IBCR, Addis Ababa, pp 76–91
Asfaw Z (2004) The Enset based home gardens of Ethiopia. In: Eyzaguirre PB, Linares OF (eds)
Home gardens and agro biodiversity. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, pp 123–147
Awassa T, Asfaw Z, Nordal I, Demissew S (2007) Ethno botany of Berta and Gumuz People in
Western Ethiopia. In: Plant diversity in Western Ethiopia: ecology, ethno botany and conserva-
tion, Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, University of Oslo, Norway, pp 1–34
Balemie K, Kelbessa E, Asfaw Z (2004) Indigenous medicinal plant utilization, management and
threats in Fentalle area, eastern Shewa, Ethiopia. Ethiopia J Biol Sci 3:37–58
Balick MJ, Cox PA (1996) Plant, people and culture: the science of ethno botany. Scientific
American Library, New York, p 220
Bekelle E (2007) Study on actual situations of medicinal plants in Ethiopia prepared for Japan
Association for international Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry, pp 1–76
Birhanu A (2002) Use and conservation of traditional medicinal plants by indigenous people in
Jabitehana Woreda, West Gojjam. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa
Cotton CM (1996) Ethno botany: principles and applications. John Willey and Sons Ltd.,
Chichester, p 242
Cunningham AB (1993) African medicinal plants: setting priorities at the interface healthcare
between conservation and primary health care. In: Sample A (ed) People and plants working
paper. UNESCO, Paris, pp 1–50
Dea D (1997) Rural livelihoods and social stratification among the Dawuro, Southern Ethiopia.
MSc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, p 136
Farnsworth NR (1985) Plants and modern medicine: where science and folklore Meets. World
Health Forum 6:76–80
Farnsworth NR, Soejarto DD (1991) Global importance of medicinal plants. In: Akerel O,
Heywood N, Synge H (eds) Conservation of medicinal plants. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge
Frankel OH, Brown AHD, Burdon JJ (1995) The conservation of plant biodiversity. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, p 299
Fullas F (2001) Ethiopian traditional medicine: common medicinal plants in perspective, Sioux
City
Gebre T (2005) Ethno botanical study of medicinal plants in the Konso Special Woreda (SNNPR),
Ethiopia, M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa
Getahun A (1976) Some common medicinal and poisonous plants used in Ethiopia folk medicine.
Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, p 63
Giday M (1999) An ethno botanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay People in Ethiopia.
M.Sc. Thesis, Uppsala, Sweden
Giday M (2007) Medicinal plants of the Bench, Meinit and Sheko socio-cultural groups in Ethiopia
with emphasis on use diversity, distribution and abundance. Ph.D. Thesis (Unpublished). Addis
Ababa University, Addis Ababa
Hailemariam T (2007) An ethno botanical study of medicinal plants used by local people in the
lowlands of Konta Special Woreda, SNNPRs, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University,
Addis Ababa, p 111
Hunde D (2001) Use and management of traditional medicinal plants by indigenous people in
‘Bosat’ Woreda ‘Welenchiti’ Area: an ethnobotanical approach. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa
University, Addis Ababa, p 132
IUCN (1993) Guidelines on conservation of medicinal plants. Castlecary Press, UK
Jain SK (1986) Ethno botany. National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India.
Interdisciplinary Sci Rev 11(3):285–292
Jansen PCM (1981) Species, condiments and medicinal plants in Ethiopia, their taxonomy and
agricultural significance. Center for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen,
Netherlands, p 327
Kelbessa E, Demissew S, Woldu Z, Edwards S (1992) Some threatened endemic plants of Ethiopia.
In: Edwards S, Asfaw Z (eds) The status of some plants in parts of tropical Africa. Botany
2000: East and Central Africa: NAPRECA Monograph Series No. 2. NAPRECA, Addis Ababa
University, Addis Ababa, pp 33–55
Letchamo W, Craker LE (1996) Cultivating and breeding of medicinal and aromatic plants. J Herbs
Spices Medicinal Plants 4:12
Lulekal E (2005) Ethno botanical Study of Medicinal Plants and Floristic Composition of the
Manna Angatu Moist Montana Forest, Bale, M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa
Martin GJ (1995) Ethno botany: a method manual. World wide Fund for Nature. Chapman and
Hall, London, p 263
Mesfin F (2007) An ethno botanical study of medicinal plants in Wonago Woreda, SNNPR,
Ethiopia. MSc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, p 74
Pareek A, Trivedi PC (2011) Ethno botanical studies on medicinal plants of Kaladera region of
Jaipur District. Indian J Fund App Life Sci 1:59–63
Pei SJ (1991) Conservation of biological diversity in temple yards and holly hills by the Dai ethnic
minorities of China. Ethno Botany 3:27–35
Seifu T, Asres K, Gebre-Mariam T (2006) Ethno botanical and ethno pharmaceutical studies on
medicinal plants of Chifra District, Afar region, North-Eastern Ethiopia. Ethiopian Pharm
J 24:41–58
Seta T, Demissew S, Asfaw Z (2013) Home gardens of Wolayta, Southern Ethiopia: an ethno
botanical profile. Acad J Med Plants 1(1):014–030
Sharma H, Kumar A (2011) Ethno botanical studies on medicinal plants of Rajasthan (India): a
review. J Med Plant Res 5:1107–1112
Sirvastava R (2000) Studying the information needs of medicinal plant stake holders in Europe.
TRAFFIC-International, UK
Taddese M (1986) Some medicinal plants of central Shewa and South Western Ethiopia. SINET:
Ethiopian J Sci 9(Suppl)
Taddese M, Demissew S (1992) Medicinal Ethiopian plants: inventory, identification and classifi-
cation. In: Edwards S, Asfaw Z (eds) Plants used in African traditional medicine as practiced
in Ethiopia and Uganda, Botany 2000: East and Central Africa: NAPRECA Monograph Series
No. 5. NAPRECA, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, pp 1–19
Tamene B (2000) A floristic analysis and ethno botanical study of the semi-wet land of Cheffa
Area, South Wello, Ethiopia, M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, p 139
Teklehaymanot T, Giday M (2007) Ethno botanical study of medicinal plants used by people in
Zegie peninsula, north-western Ethiopia. J Ethno Biol Ethno Med 3:12
Tolasa E (2007) Use and conservation of traditional medicinal plants by indigenous people in
Gimbi Woreda, Western Wellega, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis
Ababa, p 111
Vanon T, Quyen D, Bich LD (2001) A survey of medicinal plants in Bavi National Park, Vietnam:
methodology and implications for conservation and sustainable use. Biol Conserv 97:295–304
Venkataswamy R, Mohammad Mubarak H, Doss A, Ravi TK, Sukumar M (2010) Ethno botanical
study of medicinal plants used by Malabar tribes in Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu, South
India. Asian J Exp Biol Sci 1:387–392
WCMC (1992) Global biodiversity status of the Earth’s Living resources. World Conservation
WHO (1991) Traditional medicine and modern health care: progress report by the director-
general paper presented to the forty-fourth world health assembly. Monitoring centre. Chapman
and Hall
WHO (2003) Traditional medicine. Fact sheet No. 134
World Health Organization (2002–2005).WHO traditional medical strategy, WHO, Geneva
Yineger H (2005) A study of ethno botany of medicinal plants and floristic composition of the dry
Afromontane forest at Bale Mountains National Park. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University,
Addis Ababa
Medicinal Bryophytes Distributed
in Turkey
Munir Ozturk, İsa Gökler, and Volkan Altay
Introduction
There are nearly 23,000 taxa of bryophytes distributed in the world. These are
grouped under three: the mosses (14,000 species), the Marchantiophyta or liver-
worts (6000 species), and the Anthocerotophyta or hornworts (300 species).
However, almost every year the number of taxa keeps changing due to reports of
new species and synonymization of others (Sabovljević et al. 2016). Some authors
consider these as the second largest group of land plants after angiosperms (Marko
et al. 2001; Shaw and Renzaglia 2004). General concept about this group of plants
is that these are the earliest plants. They are said to have evolved 472 million years
ago. This depicts that they could be the ancestors of all land plants (Wellman et al.
2003; Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017). These plants seem to have played a great role
in maintaining ecosystems because of their buffer system characteristics for other
plants. On a global basis bryophytes form a major part of the biodiversity in moist
environments, and are important components of the forests, wetlands, and high-
altitude ecosystems (Hallingbäck and Hodgetts 2000; Chandra et al. 2017). They
are found in all ecosystems except saline waters, but some species inhabit habitats
rich in salts and are classified as halophytic bryophytes (Riella sp., Entosthodon
hungaricus, Hennediella heimii). The reports show that Physcomitrella patens, a
non-halophytic species, grows well in liquid media with 1.5% salt concentration
M. Ozturk (*)
Vice President of the Islamic World, Academy of Sciences, Amann, Jordan
Department of Botany and Centre for Environmental Studies, Ege University, Izmir, Izmir, Turkey
İ. Gökler
Faculty of Science, Biology Department, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey
V. Altay
Faculty of Science & Arts, Biology Department, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University,
Antakya, Hatay, Turkey

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_8
under laboratory conditions (King et al. 2016; Sabovljević et al. 2016). This group
of plants lacks seeds or flowers and is thus placed under the group of cryptogams,
which are too small, characterized by dominant perennial gametophytic stages, with
relatively small, unbranched sporophyte, which remains permanently attached to
the maternal gametophyte (Cox et al. 2010). Most people do not have much infor-
mation about these plants, due to their small size, and less biomass. The latter fea-
tures have made these plants neglected for wide use (Harris 2008). On the other
hand, the bryophytes have been used in packing, plugging, as well as decoration
from very ancient times (Chandra et al. 2017).
The plant taxa belonging to this group are used as indicator species, for erosion
control, as bioindicators of heavy metals in air pollution, as aquatic bioindicators,
and as radioactivity indicators. They are also evaluated as material for seed beds,
fuel, medicines, food sources, and pesticides; in nitrogen fixation, moss gardening,
treatment of waste, constructions, clothing, furnishing, packing, and genetic engi-
neering; and for soil conditioning and culturing (Saxena and Harinder 2004; Glime
2007). One of the important characteristics of bryophytes is that they serve as
important environmental indicators. These plants have been used as predictors of
past climate change to validate climate models and potential indicators of global
warming (Gignac 2001; Azuelo et al. 2011).
The reports published sometime back have revealed that bryophytes are an
important contributor to the total stream metabolism, nutrient cycling, food web
interactions in streams, and a direct food source for some invertebrates (Azuelo
et al. 2011). In particular the mosses like Bryum, Hypnum, and Fissidens grow in
association with thallophytes in shallow waters of lakes, streams, and springs. They
contain huge amounts of lime and act as rock builders. According to Chandra et al.
(2017) the insoluble calcium carbonate precipitates along with mosses and their
symbionts, thereby helping in the soil conservation. In industrialized countries like
Sweden, West Germany, Finland, Poland, Ireland, and Soviet Union liverworts and
mosses are evaluated as a source of fuel for generating natural gas, hydrogen, ethyl-
ene, and methanol. The peat moss is accepted as the best source of fuel for genera-
tion of heat and methane and this group of mosses shows rapid regeneration and low
sulfur content, their heating value is greater than wood (Saxena and Harinder 2004;
Chandra et al. 2017). The bryophytes in general lack leaf cuticle; this enables them
to gain and lose water quickly. These plants are able to absorb minute quantities of
available moisture from fog, mist, and dew. This characteristic is not generally
found in the higher plants except Welwitschia mirabilis. Other uses of plants
included here such as liverworts and mosses are regarded as good indicators of
environmental conditions; they can act as growth regulators (auxins, gibberellins,
cytokinins, and ethylene), whereas mosses are used as stuffing material (Sabovljevic
et al. 2011a; Chandra et al. 2017).
The data published by Asakawa (1981, 1982, 1994, 1995, 2001, 2007), Pant and
Tewari (1990), Asakawa et al. (2013), and Chandra et al. (2017) on the phytochemis-
try of bryophytes shows that they exhibit a greater range of biologically active com-
pounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, steroids, polyphenols, terpenoids,
organic acids, sugar alcohols, fatty acids, aliphatic compounds, acetogenins, phenyl-
Medicinal Bryophytes Distributed in Turkey 325
quinones, and aromatic and phenolic substances, all showing significant b ioactivities.
These active constituents are widely used as antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic, anti-
tumor, and insecticidal agents (Asakawa 2007; Ucuncu et al. 2010). They are also
used in the medicinal and agricultural areas (Saxena and Harinder 2004; Pant 1998).
Some taxa are a great source of herbal medicines (Azuelo et al. 2011).
Bryophytes in the Traditional Medicine: Global Perspective
The use of bryophytes by various ethnic groups for their healthcare or other needs
has not been investigated at length, because the feeling among the people is that
these plants do not play a direct role in human health care (Alam et al. 2015; Chandra
et al. 2017). Undoubtedly not much has been published on the ethnobotanical uses
of plants from this group, when compared to the vascular plants. Their ethnobotani-
cal importance has not attracted the attention of individuals in different cultures
around the world. In all 136 taxa of bryophytes have been recorded up till now with
their ethnobotanical use around the globe for different purposes (Harris 2006;
Sabovljević et al. 2016). A half of these uses are of medical importance (Sabovljević
et al. 2016) (Table 1; Fig. 1). These tiny creatures are widely used by different tribal
groups in Nepal; different parts of South, North, and East India; Pakistan; Argentina;
Poland; Africa; Australia; New Zealand; Japan; Taiwan; China; the USA, and
Europe (Flowers 1957; Chandra et al. 2017).
The reasons for a restricted use of bryophytes as medicinal plants throughout the
world are that they produce little biomass per single species per locality, and are
small and hard to distinguish. However, in the areas like boreo-polar and tropical
regions there are evidences of ethnobotanical use of bryophytes by the local people
on a large scale, because their biomass in these areas is substantially higher. On the
other hand, in the dryer areas ethnobotanical use of bryophytes decreases due to
smaller biomass, in spite of high species diversity. Some big exceptions do exist, as
in high-biomass-yielding species Fontinalis antipyretica and species of the genus
Polytrichum the situation is different (Sabovljević et al. 2016).
An ancient way of looking at the medicinal value of plants is the concept of
Paracelsus “doctrine of signatures,” which deals with the resemblance of plant parts
with the shape and structure of an organ in human or animal body for which it is
remedial (Chandra et al. 2017). According to this philosophy, Marchantia polymor-
pha is used to cure hepatic disorders as its shape is like liver (Miller and Miller
1979). In the same way, the hair cup moss Polytrichum commune bears hairy calyp-
tra and oil extracted from this moss has been used by the women in ancient time for
their hair treatment (Glime 2007). Different ethnic groups around the world are
using these tiny plants to cure various ailments in their daily lives. For example,
people of Gaddi tribes of Himachal Pradesh in India are using Plagiochasma appen-
diculatum for treating skin diseases (Kumar et al. 2000). The thalloid Targionia
hypophylla is used by Irular tribe of the Attappady valleys of Kerala state in India to
cure skin diseases due to resemblance of thallus of this liverwort to the rough surface
Table 1 Medicinally important bryophytes used in the traditional medicine on global scale
Family/taxa Medical uses Sourcesa
Liver
Worts
Aneuraceae
Riccardia sp. Antileukemic activity 1, 2
Riccardia multifida Antileukemic activity 3, 4
Aytoniaceae
Plagiochasma sp. Antimicrobial, cancer, thrombosis, muscle relaxation, burn 5-7
infection
Plagiochasma Skin diseases 1, 8
appendiculatum
Plagiochasma Antifungal 9
intermedium
Reboulia Blotches, hemostasis, external wounds, bruises, 9
hemisphaerica antiplatelet, antiobesity
Conocephalaceae
Conocephalum Antimicrobial, antifungal, antipyretic, cancer, antidotal 1, 6, 10, 11
conicum activity, cuts, swollen tissue, scalds, burns, fractures,
poisonous snake bites, gallstones
Dumortieraceae
Dumortiera hirsuta Antimicrobial, cancer 2, 12
Herbertaceae
Herbertus sp. Antiseptics, antidiarrheal agents, expectorants, astringents 1, 2
Herbertus aduncus Antifungal 4, 13, 14
Jubulaceae
Frullania sp. Cancer, antiseptic activity, nourishment of hair 9, 15
Frullania tamarisci Antiseptic 9
Frullania ericoides Anti-lice (in hair) 15
Jungermaniaceae
Jungermannia sp. Neurotrophic action, antituberculosis 16, 17
Lepidoziaceae
Bazzania sp. Antimicrobial, cancer 18
Lepidozia sp. Cancer, antiplatelet 19
Lophocoleaceae
Hepatostolonophora Cancer 20
paucistipula
Chiloscyphus rivularis Cancer 20
Plicanthus hirtellus Cancer 4, 9
Marchantiaceae
Dumortiera hirsuta Antibiotics 2
Marchantia sp. Boils, abscesses 21
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Marchantia Diuretics, liver ailments, insect bites, boils, abscesses, 2, 8, 22-26
polymorpha pulmonary tuberculosis, cuts, fractures, poisonous snake
bites, burns, scalds, open wounds, cardiovascular disease,
antimicrobial, cancer, thrombosis, muscle relaxation,
antiviral (flu), skin ailments, antileukemic
Marchantia convoluta Hepatitis, fever, gastric intolerance 27
Marchantia palmata Acute inflammation caused by the touch of fire and hot; 26, 28
boils, abscesses
Marchantia paleacea Skin tumefaction, hepatitis, antipyretic 29
Pallaviciniaceae
Pallavicinia sp. Antimicrobial, antifungal 2, 4, 30, 31
Pelliaceae
Pellia endiviifolia Antimicrobial, skin diseases 32
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochila sp. Antileukemic, antimicrobial, cancer, neurotrophic action, 1, 5, 9,
antifeeding, antiviral (flu), burns, blisters, insecticidal 32–34
Plagiochila beddomei Wound healing 35
Porellaceae
Porella sp. Antimicrobial, cancer 36
Radulaceae
Radula sp. Antimicrobial, antiviral (flu), thrombosis 4, 37
Ricciaceae
Riccia sp. Ringworms (in children), antimicrobial 8
Scapaniaceae
Diplophyllum sp. Cancer 38
Targioniaceae
Targionia hypophylla Scabies, itches, and other skin diseases (in children) 15
Weisnerellaceace
Wiesnerella denudata Cancer 1
MOSSES
Amblystegiaceae
Cratoneuron filicinum Heart disease 9, 20, 39
Leptodictyum Antipyretic 20, 39
riparium
Bartramiaceae
Philonotis fontana Pain, adenopharyngitis, antipyretic 9, 39, 40
Philonotis sp. Burns, adenopharyngitis, antipyretic, antidotal 9, 20
Plagiopus oederianus Sedative, epilepsy 39
Bryaceae
Bryum sp. Fever, body aches, healing wounds, burns, bruises, fungal 2, 22, 41
infections
Bryum argenteum Antidote, antipyretic, antifungal 9, 42
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Bryum capillare Wounds, burns, bruises, fungal infections 22, 41
Rhodobryum Cardiovascular problem, nervous prostration, angina, 9, 10, 39,
giganteum antihypoxia, diuretic, antipyretic, antihypertensive 43, 44
Rhodobryum roseum Nervous prostration, cardiovascular diseases 9, 39, 43,
44
Dicranaceae
Dicranum scoparium Antimicrobial 4, 45
Leucobryum bowringii Body pain 35
Oreas martiana Anodyne (pain), hemostasis, wounds, epilepsy, 9
menorrhagia, neurasthenia (nervosism, nervous
exhaustion)
Ditrichaceae
Ceratodon purpureus Antifungal 42
Ditrichum pallidum Convulsions (in infants) 9, 39
Entodontaceae
Entodon flavescens Earache 35
Entodon myurus Antibacterial activity 6
Fissidentaceae
Fissidens adianthoides Bandage wounds 4
Fissidens nobilis Diuretic, swollen throats, hair growth stimulation 2, 15, 39,
46, 47
Funariaceae
Funaria hygrometrica Hemostasis, pulmonary tuberculosis, bruises, skin 39
infection
Fontinalaceae
Fontinalis antipyretica Chest fever, antimicrobial 48, 49
Hypnaceae
Hypnum Antimicrobial, antifungal 4, 50
cupressiforme
Taxiphyllum Wounds, hemostasis 9, 39
taxirameum
Meteoriaceae
Aerobryum lanosum Burns 35
Mniaceae
Plagiomnium Hemostasis, nose bleeding 9, 39
cuspidatum
Mnium sp. Pain of burns, bruises, and wounds; hemostasis; and 2, 6, 20
nosebleed
Plagiomnium sp. Infections and swellings 2, 49
Octoblepharaceae
Octoblepharum Febrifuge and anodyne 51
albidum
Polytrichaceae
Atrichum undulatum Antimicrobial 29, 52-54
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Dawsonia superba Diuretics, hair growth stimulation, cold 2, 49
Pogonatum Inflammation, fever, detergent diuretic, laxative, 1, 2, 49
macrophyllum hemostatic agent
Polytrichum sp. Burns, bruises, wounds, fever, inflammation, antipyretic, 2, 22, 55
antidotal, hemostasis, cuts, bleeding from gingivae, cold
Polytrichum commune Hemostasis, wound, antipyretic, antidotal, dissolve kidney, 8, 10, 22,
gallbladder stones, to speed up labor process during child 23, 39, 47,
birth, burns and bruises, fever, inflammation, cuts, 55-58
bleeding from gingivae, diuretic, laxative, and hemostatic
agent
Polytrichum Prostate, urinary difficulties, skin ailments 4, 55,
juniperinum 58-60
Pottiaceae
Barbula sp. Antirheumatic febrifuge, colds, fever, body aches 41
Barbula unguiculata Fever, cold, body aches 2
Barbula indica Menstrual pain, intermittent fever 35
Hyophila attenuata Cold, cough, neck pain 35
Weissia controversa Cold, fever 9, 39
Sphagnaceae
Sphagnum Antimicrobial 12
portoricense
Sphagnum sericeum Dressing wounds, antimicrobial properties for skin 2, 10, 21,
ailments (insect bites, scabies, acne), hemorrhoids, and 25
eye diseases
Sphagnum strictum Antimicrobial 12
Sphagnum teres Eye diseases 10, 59
Thuidiaceae
Haplocladium Cystitis, bronchitis, tonsillitis, pneumonia, fever 10, 39
microphyllum
HORNWORTS
Ceratophyllaceae
Ceratophyllum Purgative, astringent, constipating, antipyretic 61
demersum
a
Sources: 1: Alam 2012; 2: Azuelo et al. 2011; 3: Asakawa 1982; 4: Sabovljević et al. 2016; 5: Singh
et al. 2006; 6: Singh et al. 2011; 7: Wigginton 2002; 8: Shirsat 2008; 9: Asakawa 2007; 10: Ding 1982;
11: Ando 1983; 12: Madsen and Pates 1952; 13: Matsuo et al. 1982; 14: Matsuo et al. 1983; 15:
Remesh and Manju 2009; 16: Kondoh et al. 2005; 17: Grolle et al. 2005; 18: Scher et al. 2004; 19:
Paliwal et al. 2014; 20: Asakawa et al. 2013; 21: Saxena and Harinder 2004; 22: Beike et al. 2010; 23:
Hu 1987; 24: Miller and Miller 1979; 25: Bland 1971; 26: Pant and Tewari 1989; 27: Rao 2009; 28:
Tag et al. 2007; 29: Sabovljevic et al. 2011a; 30: Subhisha and Subramoniam 2005; 31: Millar et al.
2007; 32: Sharma et al. 2015; 33: Kumar et al. 2000; 34: Ramirez et al. 2010; 35: Lubaina et al. 2014;
36: Dey and Mukherjee 2015; 37: Castle 1967; 38: Hong 1980; 39: Pant 1998; 40: Flowers 1957; 41:
Sturtevant 1954; 42: Frahm 2004; 43: Wu 1977; 44: Wu 1982; 45: Pavletic and Stilinovic 1963; 46:
Harris 2002; 47: Harris 2008; 48: Drobnik and Stebel 2014; 49: Chandra et al. 2017; 50: Veljić et al.
2009; 51: Singh 2011; 52: McCleary and Walkington 1966; 53: Sabovljevic et al. 2011b; 54:
Sabovljevic et al. 2010; 55: Gulaban 1974; 56: Turner et al. 1983; 57: Sabovljevic et al. 2001; 58: Hart
1981; 59: Glime 2007; 60: Belkin et al. 1952–1953; 61: Pullaiah 2006
Fig. 1 Some of the medicinally important bryophytes in the world (a) Conocephalum conicum
(www.bioref.lastdragon.org); (b) Funaria hygrometrica (www.uniprot.org); (c) Haplocladium
microphyllum (www3.sfasu.edu); (d) Marchantia polymorpha (www.inaturalist.org); (e)
Polytrichum commune (www.ohiomosslichen.org); (f) Reboulia hemisphaerica (www.bryophytes.
plant.siu.edu); (g) Rhodobryum giganteum (www.bryophytes.plant.siu.edu); (h) Ceratophyllum
demersum (www.gobotany.newenglandwild.org)
of the diseased part. The liverwort Frullania ericoides has a long stem and hairlike
thallus; it is applied for hair-related afflictions by tribal people of South India
(Remesh and Manju 2009; Chandra et al. 2017).
The Gasuite Indians in Utah, USA, are using several genera of bryophytes such
as Philonotis, Bryum, Mnium, or some hypnaceous forms to alleviate the pain from
burns. The reason behind this is the consequence of cooling the burnt skin; they also
make a kind of paste and apply it as a poultice (Ando and Matsuo 1984; Sabovljevic
et al. 2001, 2016). Cheyenne Indians in Montana, USA, and few other indigenous
tribes from Alaska use the moss Polytrichum juniperinum for the same purpose
(Ando and Matsuo 1984; Sabovljević et al. 2016). Marchantia polymorpha has been
used as a diuretic in Europe. French liverworts were soaked with white liquor and
patients drank the resulting mixture of liquor and extracts (Garnier et al. 1961).
In the traditional Chinese medicinal system bryophytes have been adequately
used. According to Ding (1982) nearly 40 bryophyte species are evaluated as crude
drugs in the Chinese traditional medicine. The thalloid liverworts Conocephalum
conicum and Marchantia polymorpha are often mixed with vegetable oils and used
as ointments for boils, eczema, cuts, bites, and burns. Peat moss Sphagnum teres is
very popular among the Chinese for eye diseases. Haplocladium microphyllum
moss is used for tonsillitis, bronchitis, cystitis, and tympanitis. Polytrichum com-
mune is widely evaluated as a natural cure for many health disorders. They possess
antipyretic, diuretic, and hemostatic features. The liverworts Frullania tamarisci
and Reboulia hemisphaerica and mosses Weissia controversa, Funaria hygromet-
rica, Bryum argenteum, and Climacium dendroides are widely available and sold in
the Chinese markets. Ding (1982) has published a detailed report on Chinese medic-
inal bryophytes with their Latin names, morphological features, habitats, distribu-
tion localities, pharmacological activity, and effects, together with their prescription
uses. Several mosses are widely used medicinally in China, to treat burns, bruises,
external wounds, snake bite, pulmonary tuberculosis, neurasthenia, fractures, con-
vulsions, scald, uropathy, pneumonia, and neurasthenia, among other uses (Ding
1982; Asakawa 1999; Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017).
Use of Bryophytes in Clinical Practices: Global View
In many pharmaceutical laboratories, research institutes, and universities scientific

research on medicinal uses of bryophytes is carried out on a large scale. These
investigations involve work on the active ingredients of medicinally important bryo-
phytes which are used in curing diseases such as hepatic disorders, skin diseases,
cardiovascular diseases, and several other ailments. These research studies also deal
with the discovery of new kinds of drugs from bryophytes, not explored so far. The
drugs reported in Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha system need to be further evaluated
and validated scientifically (Ratra and Gupta 2015; Chandra et al. 2017). This new
trend of evaluation and validation of traditional practices with modern knowledge
provides significant opportunities for new drug discoveries; these will lead to an
effective strategy for the improvement of human health care (Chandra et al. 2017).
The bryophytes are regarded as the earliest land plants. They are reported to have
a capability to synthesize a number of secondary metabolites to combat against dif-
ferent kinds of stress. The phytochemicals from these plants can cope up with infec-
tion, predation, radiation, as well as temperature and salinity fluctuations. The
pharmacological investigations, phytochemical evaluations, and clinical trials can
be used for exploiting the diverse and novel nature of secondary constituents.
Development of drug resistance in proliferative cells as well as in microbes can be
controlled by using such novel natural products. The possible use of bryophytes as
medicine may lead to cure of different ailments which have been difficult to treat by
conventional medicine (Dey and Mukherjee 2015).
Anticancer Activity
Several useful anticancer agents are reported to occur in plants; there are a number
of naturally derived compounds which act as an important source in this connection.
Polytrichum commune is used in traditional Chinese medicine for curing lympho-
cytic leukemia as well as other diseases like fever, hemostatic and traumatic injury
to pneumonia, and uterine prolapse (Zhonghua 1999). Moreover, the pharmacologi-
cal exploration of acid and alcohol extract of Polytrichum juniperinum has been
reported to exhibit inhibitory action against sarcoma (Asakawa 1982) implanted in
CAF1 mice (Cheng et al. 2012). Similarly the compound ohioensin A isolated from
Polytrichum ohioense is reported to show cytotoxicity against 9PS murine leukemia
and MCF-7 human breast tumor cells. Benzonaphthoxanthenone and cinnamoyl
bibenzyl derivatives isolated from ethanolic extract of Polytrichum pallidisetum are
mentioned to significantly impede the growth of RPMI-7951 melanoma and U-251
glioblastoma multiforme (Zheng et al. 1993).
According to Asakawa (1982) bryophytes have a great potential for antileukemia
activity; for example Marchantin A from Marchantia paleacea, M. polymorpha, and
M. tosana; riccardin from Riccardia multifida; and perrottetin E from Radula per-
rottetii are reported to show cytotoxicity against the leukemic KB cells. The active
constituent diplophyllin, an ent-eudesmanolide isolated from liverworts
Diplophyllum albicans and D. taxifolium, has a-methylene lactone unit which shows
significant anticancer activity against human epidermoid carcinoma (Ohta et al.
1977). Sesquiterpenoids costunolide and tulipinolide isolated from Frullania
monocera, Marchantia polymorpha, Porella japonica, Wiesnerella denudate,
Conocephalum supradecomositum, and Plagiochila semidecurrens are also
recorded as to show anticancer activity against human carcinoma of the nasophar-
ynx. The compound extracted from Plagiochila fasciculata is mentioned as to
inhibit P388 cells (leukemia) (Asakawa 1981). The mosses are also mentioned as
growth retarders for cancer cells in culture (Hallingbäck and Hodgetts 2000). The
mechanism of how bryophytes inhibit growth of different cancer cell lines and
exhibit anticancer activity has not been validated at length as yet (Chandra et al.
2017). More detailed studies are needed in this connection.
In the area of cancer chemotherapy, natural products derived from plants occupy
an important place, because of their minimal side effects. For example, Polytrichum
commune is reported to play a significant role in the therapy of lymphocytic leuke-
mia. It has also been found that P. ohioense and P. pallidisetum show cytotoxicity
against the 9PS murine leukemia and several other tumor cell lines. Marchantia
paleacea, M. polymorpha, and M. tosana; Riccardia multifida; and Radula per-
rottetii are reported to show cytotoxicity against the leukemic KB cell (Chandra
et al. 2017).
Other Potential Uses
Some of the liverworts are reported to produce hot-tasting substances, like capsaicin
or α piperine, which are attributed to some sesquiterpene and diterpene dialdehydes.
As against this, the species of mosses like Fissidens and Rhodobryum possess a
strong sweet taste. These could be useful as spices for food or may be used as food
additives (Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017). Some produce significant amounts of
vitamins B2 and E and related compounds. These reports stress the fact that such
bryophyte taxa are potentially important as food or spice; they can thus be exploited
(Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017). The use of bryophytes as insecticidal agents has
gained importance over the past few decades. Fatty acids derived from Hypnum
cupressiforme, Dicranum scoparium, Polytrichastrum formosum, Homalothecium
lutescens, and liverwort Conocephalum conicum have been used as insecticides
against Sitophilus granarius. Similarly, the solution of powder from Calymperes
afzelii, Thuidium gratum, Bryum coronatum, and Barbula lambarenensis is evalu-
ated against maize stem borers (Abay et al. 2013; Ande et al. 2010).
Negative Impacts of Bryophytes
Generally, bryophytes are not damaged by bacteria and fungi, insect larvae and
adults, snails, slugs, and small mammals. Some liverworts are allelopathic and do
cause intense allergic contact dermatitis (Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017). Some
taxa of Frullania like F. dilatata, F. tamarisci, F. tamarisci spp. nisquallensis, as
well as Chiloscyphus polyanthos and Schistochila appendiculata are reported to be
the main causative agents of potent allergic contact dermatitis, as these taxa contain
a number of sesquiterpene lactones with α-methylene g-lacone functionality. The
Frullania taxa cited above grow epiphytically on the bark of trees; as such they have
been recognized as the cause of occupational contact dermatitis in forest workers,
woodcutters, and olive pickers in some areas of Canada, the USA, Finland, and
France (Mitchell 1986; Mitchell et al. 1970; Knoche et al. 1969). The allergens,
(+)-frullanolide and (−)-frullanolide, isolated from F. dilatata and F. tamarisci ssp.
tamarisci, respectively, cause very intense allergenic contact dermatitis. The
allergens of the Schistochila appendiculata are long-chain alkylphenols, 3-undecyl,

6-undecyl, 3-tridecyl, 3-pentadecyl and 3-heptadecyl phenols; long-chain alkyl sali-
cylic acids, 6-tridecyl, 6-pentadecyl salicylates; and their potassium salts, potassium
6-undecyl, 6-tridecyl, 6-pentadecyl salicylates, and 6-undecyl catechol. These too
cause contact dermatitis (Asakawa 1994). Marchantia polymorpha and Metzgeria
furcata also show allergenic contact dermatitis activity, but their allergens have not
been isolated as yet (Asakawa 1982; Asakawa et al. 2013).
Studies on Bryophytes of Turkey
Bryofloristic Studies
Bryofloristic studies in Turkey by local bryologists started in 1980s (Gökler et al.

1984; Gökler and Öztürk 1986, 1987a, b, 1989). These have continued and much
information has been pooled up on bryophyte diversity (Abay et al. 2016; Erdağ and
Kürschner 2017a, b). The results have been published in the form of several provin-
cial checklists. The first checklist of liverworts in Turkey was prepared by Gökler
et al. (1985–1986), followed by the second detailed one on liverworts and hornworts
(Çetin 1988a). Gökler and Öztürk (1991, 1992, 1994a, b, 1996) have published the
list of Turkish liverworts. The first checklist of Turkish mosses was published by
Çetin (1988b). The period between 1988 and 2004 is one of the active periods
enlisting intensive bryological studies in the history of Turkish bryology (Abay
et al. 2016). A major publication on the Turkish moss checklist was published by
Uyar and Çetin (2004), followed by the second one for mosses, liverworts, and
hornworts in Turkey (Kürschner and Erdağ 2005). However, the number of bryo-
phytes in the country has kept on increasing during these years as many new species
and new records have been added (Abay et al. 2016). In the year 2009 Özenoğlu
Kiremit and Keçeli published a detailed list of the liverworts and hornworts of
Turkey. Keeping in view all these published records, the bryophytes in the country
are represented by a total of 960 species comprising approximately 6.5% (for now)
of world’s bryophytes. Among these, two species of bryophytes are endemic to
Turkey (Jungermannia caucasica and J. lignicola). The mosses are represented by
773 species, liverworts 183 species, and hornworts 4 species in Turkey (Erdağ and
Kürschner 2017a, b).
Bryo-Ecological and Bryo-Ecophysiological Studies
Bryo-ecological studies in Turkey by local bryologists were started in 1980s (Öztürk

and Gökler 1988). These studies, although limited in number, continued during the
following years (Gökler 1993; Gökler and Öztürk 1994b; Gökler and Özenoğlu
1999; Abay and Ursavaş 2009; Erkara 2017). However, during the last decade stud-
ies on the epiphytic bryophyte communities in Turkey have increased (Alataş et al.
2017). In bryosociological studies on epiphytic bryophytes, a total of 26 syntaxa
have been reported from Turkey till to date (Alataş et al. 2017). The investigations
on the bryophytes in Turkey were undertaken on a large scale on different ecophysi-
ological features such as bioaccumulation and oxidative stress, biomonitoring of
atmospheric heavy metal pollution, determination of heavy metal concentration,
levels of cesium radionuclides, assays of 210Po and 210Pb, support materials, and
upgrading of biomass materials as energy sources, pigment concentration, and alle-
lopathic effects (Tonguç 1998; Baysal and Özdemir 1999; Demirbaş et al. 2000;
Şahin et al. 2000; Tüzen et al. 2003; Uğur et al. 2003, 2004; Mendil et al. 2005,
2009; Sarı et al. 2005; Uyar et al. 2007a, b, 2009; Içel and Çobanoğlu 2009; Ezer
et al. 2010, 2016; Batan et al. 2011; Belivermiş et al. 2016; Aydoğan et al. 2017;
Demir et al. 2017; Türkyılmaz Ünal et al. 2017).
Bryo-Phytochemical Screening Studies
During the last few decades considerable number of studies have been carried out
on the taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, ecology, and ecophysiology of bryophytes
in Turkey. Some of these do focus on the phytochemical screening, such as essential
oil composition, total phenol and luteolin contents, and some elemental levels (Yayli
et al. 2009; Cansu et al. 2010, 2013; Özdemir et al. 2010, 2013; Ucuncu et al. 2010;
Gökbulut et al. 2012; Batan et al. 2013; Tosun et al. 2014; Aslanbaba et al. 2017;
Çöteli et al. 2017; Yağlıoğlu et al. 2017; Yong Tan et al. 2017).
Medicinally Important Bryophytes of Turkey
In the reports on the traditional folk medicine of Turkey no information could be

traced on the use of bryophytes. However, many species of bryophytes are widely
used in traditional folk medicine in other countries in the world. These are well
distributed in Turkey as well. The current research on bryophytes has been studied
on antibacterial, antimicrobial and antifungal, antioxidative and antiproliferative,
wound-healing activity, and insecticidal and cytotoxic potentials (Table 2; Fig. 2).
The taxa belonging to the group of bryophytes are used in the treatment of several
diseases such as hepatic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and many other disor-
ders in different parts of the world. But in Turkey no clinical studies have been
undertaken till now in connection with the treatment of these diseases.
Table 2 Studies undertaken on the potential medicinal uses of bryophytes in Turkey

No. Taxa Medicinal activity Sourcea
1 Anomodon viticulosus Antimicrobial 1, 2
2 Brachythecium campestre Antimicrobial 3
3 Calliergonella cuspidata Antibacterial 4, 5
4 Calliergonella lindbergii Antibacterial 5
5 Cinclidotus riparius Antibacterial 4
6 Cirriphyllum crassinervium Antibacterial 4
7 Conocephalum conicum Insecticidal 6
8 Corsinia coriandrina Wound healing 7
9 Ctenidium molluscum Antimicrobial 1, 8
Antioxidant 8
10 Dicranum majus Antibacterial 5
11 Dicranum scoparium Insecticidal 6
Antiproliferative 9
12 Diplophyllum taxifolium Antibacterial 5
13 Eurhynchium angustirete Antimicrobial 10
14 Eurhynchium pulchellum Antimicrobial 3
15 Eurhynchium striatum Antimicrobial 10
Antibacterial 5
16 Eurhynchium striatulum Antimicrobial 8
Antioxidant 8
17 Fontinalis antipyretica Antimicrobial 12
Antiproliferative 12
18 Funaria hygrometrica Antibacterial 11
Antifungal 11
19 Grimmia alpestris Antibacterial 5
20 Grimmia anodon Antibacterial 13
Antifungal 13
21 Grimmia orbicularis Antibacterial 5
22 Hedwigia ciliata Antibacterial 5
23 Homalothecium lutescens Antimicrobial 8, 14
Antioxidant 8
24 Homalothecium sericeum Antimicrobial 2, 8, 15
Antioxidant 8
Insecticidal 6
25 Hylocomium splendens Antimicrobial 16
26 Hypnum cupressiforme Antimicrobial 2, 8, 14
Antioxidant 8
Antibacterial 11
Antifungal 11
Insecticidal 6, 17
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
27 Hypnum imponens Antibacterial 11
Antifungal 11
28 Isothecium alopecuroides Antibacterial 5
29 Leucobryum glaucum Antibacterial 5
30 Leucobryum juniperoideum Antibacterial 4
31 Leucodon sciuroides Antimicrobial 2, 8, 16
Antioxidant 8
32 Mannia androgyna Wound healing 7
33 Marchantia polymorpha Antioxidant 18
34 Metzgeria conjugata Antibacterial 5
35 Mnium stellare Antimicrobial 19
36 Orthotrichum rupestre Antibacterial 13
Antifungal 13
37 Palustriella commutata Antimicrobial 20
38 Plagiochasma rupestre Wound healing 7
39 Plasteurhynchium meridionale Antimicrobial 1
40 Platyhypnidium riparioides Antimicrobial 1, 2
Antioxidant 21
41 Pleurochaete squarrosa Antibacterial 13
Antifungal 13
Antimicrobial 22
42 Pohlia nutans Antimicrobial 14
43 Polytrichastrum formosum Antimicrobial 1
(syn. Polytrichum formosum)
Insecticidal 6
Antibacterial 5
44 Polytrichum commune Antibacterial 5
45 Polytrichum juniperinum Antibacterial 11
Antifungal 11
46 Porella cordaeana Cytotoxic 23
Wound healing 7
47 Porella platyphylla Wound healing 7
48 Pseudoscleropodium purum Antimicrobial 10
49 Pterigynandrum filiforme Antimicrobial 24
50 Ptychostomum capillare (syn. Bryum capillare) Antibacterial 13
Antifungal 13
51 Reboulia hemisphaerica Wound healing 7
52 Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus Antiproliferative 25
Cytotoxic 25
53 Riccia fluitans Wound healing 7
54 Schistidium papillosum Antibacterial 5
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
55 Schistidium trichodon Antibacterial 5
56 Syntrichia calcicola Antibacterial 5
57 Syntrichia laevipila Antibacterial 5
58 Syntrichia montana (Syn. Syntricha intermedia) Antibacterial 5
59 Syntrichia ruralis Antibacterial 5, 13
Antifungal 13
60 Syntrichia virescens Antibacterial 5
61 Targionia hypophylla Wound healing 7
62 Thamnobryum alopecurum Antibacterial 4
63 Thuidium delicatulum Antimicrobial 8, 26
Antioxidant 8
64 Thuidium tamariscinum Antioxidant 21
65 Tomentypnum nitens (syn. Homalothecium nitens) Antimicrobial 8
Antioxidant 8
66 Tortella humilis Antibacterial 5
67 Tortella inclinata var. densa Antimicrobial 22
Antibacterial 5
68 Tortella tortuosa Antibacterial 5, 11, 13
Antifungal 11, 13
Antimicrobial 22, 27
Cytotoxic 25
69 Tortula muralis Antimicrobial 14
a
Sources: 1: Dulger et al. 2009; 2: Çolak et al. 2011; 3: Yayintas and Yapıcı 2009; 4: Uyar et al.
2016; 5: Sevim et al. 2017; 6: Abay et al. 2013; 7: Tosun et al. 2016; 8: Ertürk et al. 2015; 9: Abay
et al. 2015; 10: Tosun et al. 2015; 11: Savaroglu et al. 2011a; 12: Savaroğlu et al. 2011b; 13: Elibol
et al. 2011; 14: Ucuncu et al. 2010; 15: Oztopcu-Vatan et al. 2011; 16: Cansu et al. 2013; 17: Abay
et al. 2012; 18: Gökbulut et al. 2012; 19: Canli et al. 2015; 20: Ilhan et al. 2006; 21: Aslanbaba
et al. 2017; 22: Tosun et al. 2014; 23: Yong Tan et al. 2017; 24: Yetgin et al. 2017; 25: Yağlıoğlu
et al. 2017; 26: Altuner and Çetin 2009; 27: Altuner et al. 2010.
Conclusion
The bryophyte taxa are regarded as a “remarkable reservoir” of new natural prod-
ucts as well as secondary compounds, many of which show interesting biological
activity (Abdel-Shafi et al. 2017). Out of approximately 23,000 taxonomically
described taxa of bryophytes, only a few percent of this group of small photosynthe-
sizing terrestrial green spore-forming plants have been investigated chemically, but
nearly a thousand references are available (Ando and Matsuo 1984; Inoue 1988;
Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017). The liverworts from this group of plants have been
evaluated more comprehensively in terms of the chemistry and molecular biology
as compared to the mosses and the hornworts. The plants from the latter groups lack
Fig. 2 Some examples of the potentially important medicinal bryophytes from Turkey. (a)
Homalothecium sericeum (www.cisfbr.org.uk); (b) Hypnum cupressiforme (www.arcticatlas.org);
(c) Pleurochaete squarrosa (www.inaturalist.org); (d) Polytrichastrum formosum (www.cisfbr.org.
uk); (e) Porella cordaeana (www.inaturalist.org); (f) Syntrichia ruralis (www.cisfbr.org.uk); (g)
Thuidium delicatulum (www.florafinder.org); (h) Tortella tortuosa (www.ohiomosslichen.org)
cell oil bodies found in the liverworts, from which are a source of more than 1000
secondary metabolites (Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017). Some mosses produce
vitamin B2 and many kinds of unsaturated fatty acids and lipid (triglycerides)-con-
taining unsaturated alkane moieties. In view of these findings, further strategies to
focus on secondary metabolites that could be applied to the diets of cattle and cul-
tured fish are needed. In liverworts the metabolites have potential drug use because
of the presence of some biologically important compounds, particularly bis-
bibenzyls, from the marchantin and isoplagiochin series; these are involved in the
interference with the normal breakdown of microtubules during cell division of can-
cer cells, like the clinical drug paclitaxel (Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017).
Marchantia polymorpha and M. paleacea ssp. diptera both produce a large amount
of marchantin A (Yoshikawa et al. 2002) and its analogues, and are very easy to
culture in the field and in the greenhouse (Asakawa and Ludwiczuk 2017). There
are a large number of medicinally important bioactive compounds occurring in the
bryophytes but with little information at present. They are used globally as drugs as
remedies to cure various diseases (Bodade et al. 2008; Sabovljević et al. 2016). The
medicinal importance of this group has not been exploited fully. They can be used
as pharmaceutical products, in horticultural practices and for household purposes
(Kumar et al. 1999). They have an ability to treat illness of cardiovascular system,
tonsillitis, bronchitis, skin diseases, and burns. The bryophytes also possess antican-
cer and antimicrobial activity due to their unique chemical constituents (Banerjee
and Sen 1979; Abdel-Shafi et al. 2017). Plagiochila fasciculata shows inhibitory
effect on virus (herpes simplex type 1, Polio type 1) and bacteria (Bacillus subtilis,
E. coli, Candida albicans, and Cladosporium resinae) (Lorimeres and Perry 1994).
Both acetone and ethanol extracts of the bryophytes do inhibit the growth of
Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Erwinia chrysanthemi, and Pseudomonas aerugi-
nosa on an agar plate (Kandpal et al. 2016). In fact, these plants have been proven
to be potent, nontoxic, and broad-spectrum antibacterial substances (Lashin et al.
2015).
Bryophytes like ferns and other vascular plants embody immense potential in the
development of allopathic medicines for evaluation in the treatment of some impor-
tant diseases. The taxa known to us and used since ancient times in traditional folk
medicinal system need to be followed in depth. These medicines can be produced
for use by the commons and their supply arranged in order to meet the requirement
at global scale. Such plants can be prescribed as herbal formulations to cure many
diseases with a scope of economic earnings (Singh et al. 2010). It is strongly empha-
sized that there is an immediate need for all organic chemists and biochemists,
molecular geneticists, pharmacy faculty researchers, and industries to concentrate
on this group of plants to evaluate the tremendous genetic potential of bryophytes
(as potential medicinal plants) in Turkey. The bryophytes could be an alternative
solution for the treatment of several present-time diseases due to their secondary
metabolites.
References
Abay G, Altun M, Karakoc OC, Gul F, Demirtas I (2013) Insecticidal activity of fatty acid-rich
Turkish bryophyte extracts against Sitophilus granarius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Comb
Chem High Throughput Screen 16:806–816
Abay G, Batan N, Özdemir T (2016) Bryophyte checklist of Rize, north-East Turkey. Arctoa
25(2):386–392
Abay G, Karakoç OC, Tufekçi AR, Koldaş S, Demirtaş İ (2012) Insecticidal activity of Hypnum
cupressiforme (Bryophyta) against Sitophilus granarius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J Stored
Prod Res 51:6–10
Abay G, Koldaş S, Tüfekçi AR, Demirtaş İ (2015) Determination of antiproliterative activities of
volatile contents and HPLC profiles of Dicranum scoparium (Dicranaceae, Bryophyta). Comb
Chem High Throughput Screen 18:453–463
Abay G, Ursavaş S (2009) The moss (Musci) flora and ecology of Çankırı Research Forest. Bartın
Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 11(16):61–70
Abdel-Shafi S, Hussein Y, Lashin G, Abdel-Monaem A-S (2017) An evaluation of the antibacterial
and antiviral activities of some bryophytes. Egypt J Microbiol 52(1):63–86
Alam A (2012) Some Indian bryophytes known for their biologically active compounds. Int Jappl
Bio Pharma Tech 3:239–246
Alam A, Shrama V, Rawat KK, Verma PK (2015) Bryophytes-the ignored medicinal plants. SMU
Med J 2:299–316
Alataş M, Batan N, Ezer T, Uyar G (2017) The epiphytic bryophyte flora and vegetation of Boraboy
and Destek forests (Amasya, Turkey). Pak J Bot 49:1779–1786
Altuner EM, Çetin B (2009) Antimicrobial activity of Thuidium delicatulum (Bryopsida) extracts.
Kafkas Üniv Fen Bil Enst Derg 2(2):85–92
Altuner EM, Çetin B, Çökmüş C (2010) Tortella tortuosa (Hedw.) Limpr. özütlerinin antimikrobi-
yal aktivitesi. Kafkas Üniv Fen Bil Enst Derg 10:111–116
Ande AT, Wahedi JA, Fatoba PO (2010) Biocidal activities of some tropical moss extracts against
maize stem borers. Ethnobot Leafl 14:479–490
Ando H (1983) Use of bryophytes in China 2. Mosses indispensable to the production of Chinese
gallnuts. Proc Bryol Soc Japan 3:124–125
Ando H, Matsuo A (1984) Applied bryology. In: Schultze-Motel W, Cramer J (eds) Advances in
bryology, Vaduz, vol 2, pp 1–211
Asakawa Y (1981) Biologically active substances obtained from bryophytes. J Hattori Bot Lab
50:123–142
Asakawa Y (1982) Chemical constituents of the bryophytes. In: Herz et al (eds) Progress in the
chemistry of organic natural products, vol 42. Springer, Vienna, pp 1–285
Asakawa Y (1994) Highlights in phytochemistry of hepaticae-biologically active terpenoids and
aromatic compounds. Pure Appl Chem 66:2193–2196
Asakawa Y (1995) Chemical constituents of the bryophytes. In: Herz et al (eds) Progress in the
chemistry of organic natural products, vol 65. Springer-Verlag, Wien, pp 1–562
Asakawa Y (1999) Phytochemistry of bryophytes. In: Romeo J (ed) Phytochemicals in human
health protection, nutrition, and plant defense. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers/Springer,
New York, pp 319–342
Asakawa Y (2001) Pharmacologically active substances from oriental bryophytes and inedible
mushrooms and fijian kava. World Conference on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Book of
Abstracts
Asakawa Y (2007) Biologically active compounds from bryophytes. Pure Appl Chem 79:557–580
Asakawa Y, Ludwiczuk A (2017) Chemical constituents of bryophytes: structures and biological
activity. J Nat Prod. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.6b01046
Asakawa Y, Ludwiczuk A, Nagashima F (2013) Phytochemical and biological studies of bryo-
phytes. Phytochemistry 91:52–80
Aslanbaba B, Yılmaz S, Yayıntaş ÖT, Özyurt D, Öztürk BD (2017) Total phenol content and anti-
oxidant activity of mosses from Yenice Forest (Ida Mountaın). J Scientific Perspect 1(1):1–12
Aydoğan S, Erdağ B, Aktaş L (2017) Bioacumulation and oxidative stress impact of Pb, Ni, cu and
Cr heavy metals in two bryophyte species, Pleurochaete squarrosa and Timmiella barbuloides.
Turk J Bot 41:464–475
Azuelo AG, Sariana LG, Pabualan MP (2011) Some medicinal bryophytes: their ethnobotanical
uses and morphology. Asian J Biodivers 2(1):49–80
Banerjee RD, Sen SP (1979) Antibiotic activity of bryophytes. Bryologist 82(2):141–153
Batan N, Mendil D, Apaydin G, Cengiz E (2013) Some element levels in moss samples collected
from the Igdir-Nahhicevan International Highway, Turkey. Asian J Chem 25(12):6741
Batan N, Özdemir T, Mendil D (2011) Determination heavy metal concentration of mosses in
Değirmendere Valley of Trabzon province in Turkey. Asian J Chem 24(19):193–196
Baysal A, Özdemir T (1999) The levels of cesium radionuclides in mosses collected from
Akçaabat, Maçka and Sürmene in the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. Toxil Environ Chem
69:481–485
Beike AK, Decker E, Wolfgang F, Lang D, Verulit-Scheebaum M, Zimmer A, Reski R (2010) Appl
Bryol Bryotechnol Trop Bryol 31:22–32
Belivermiş M, Kılıç Ö, Çayır A, Coşkun M, Coşkun M (2016) Assesment of 210Po and 210Pb
in lichen, moss and soil around Çan coal - fired power plant, Turkey. J Radioanal Nucl Chem
307:523–531
Belkin M, Fitzgerald DB, Felix MD (1952–1953) Tumor-damaging capacity of plant materials.
II. Plants used as diuretics. J Natl Cancer Inst 13: 741-744
Bland J (1971) Forests of Lilliput. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, pp 1–210
Bodade RG, Borkar PS, Saiful MA, Khobragade CN (2008) In vitro screening of bryophytes for
antimicrobial activity. J Med Plants 7:23–28
Canli K, Altuner EM, Akata I (2015) Antimicrobial screening of Mnium stellare. Bangladesh
J Pharmacol 10(2):321–325
Cansu TB, Ucuncu O, Kahriman N, Ozdemir T, Yayli N (2010) Essential oil composition of
Grimmia trichophylla grew and G. decipiens (Shultz) Lindb. Grown in Turkey. Asian J Chem
22(9):7280
Cansu TB, Yaylı B, Özdemir T, Batan N, Alpay Karaoğlu S, Yaylı N (2013) Antimicrobial activ-
ity and chemical composition of the essential oils of mosses (Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.)
Schimp. And Leucodon sciuroides (Hedw.) Schwägr.) growing in Turkey. Turk J Chem
37:213–219
Castle H (1967) A revision of the genus radula. Part II. Subgenus Acroradula. Section 11.
Complanatae Rev Bryol Lichénol 35:1–94
Çetin B (1988a) Checklist of the liverworts and hornworts of Turkey. Lindbergia 14:12–14
Çetin B (1988b) Checklist of the mosses of Turkey. Lindbergia 14:15–23
Chandra S, Chandra D, Barh A, Pandey RK, Sharma IP (2017) Bryophytes: hoard of remedies, an
ethno-medicinal review. J Trad Complement Med 7(1):94–98
Cheng X, Xiao Y, Wang X et al (2012) Anti-tumor and pro-apoptotic activity of ethanolic extract and
its various fractions from Polytrichum commune L. ex Hedw in L1210 cells. J Ethnopharmacol
143:49–56
Çolak E, Kara R, Ezer T, Çelik GY, Elibol B (2011) Investigation of antimicrobial activity of some
Turkish pleurocarpic mosses. Afr J Biotechnol 10(60):12905–12908
Çöteli E, Alataş M, Batan N (2017) Comparing of glutathion ingradients of Syntrichia ruralis and
Syntrichia montana (Pottiaceae) taxa. Anatolian Bryol 3(1):25–30
Cox CJ, Goffinet B, Wickett NJ, Boles SB, Shaw AJ (2010) Moss diversity: a molecular phyloge-
netic analysis of genera. Phytotaxa:175–195
Demir ME, Uygun-Aktaş D, Erdağ A, Akgöl S (2017) A new support material for Ig adsorp-
tion: Syntrichia papillosissima (Copp.) Loeske. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol. https://doi.
org/10.1080/21691401-2017-1296848
Demirbaş A, Özdemir T, Şahin B, Güllü D, Akdeniz F, Çağlar A (2000) Upgrading of biomass

materials as energy sources: liquefaction of mosses from Turkey. Energy Sources 22:403–408
Dey A, Mukherjee A (2015) Therapeutic potential of bryophytes and derived compounds against
cancer. J Acute Dis 4(3):236–248
Ding H (1982) Medicinal spore-bearing plants of China. Shanghai Science and Technology Press,
Shanghai, pp 1–409
Drobnik J, Stebel A (2014) Medicinal mosses in pre-Linnaean bryophyte floras of Central Europe.
An example from the natural history of Poland. J Ethnopharmacol 153:682–685
Dulger B, Hacioglu N, Uyar G (2009) Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of some mosses from
Turkey. Asian J Chem 21(5):4093
Elibol B, Ezer T, Kara R, Yuvalı C, Colak E (2011) Antifungal and antibacterial effects of some
acrocarpic mosses. Afr J Biotechnol 10(6):986–989
Erdağ A, Kürschner H (2017a) Türkiye Bitkileri Listesi (Karayosunları). Ali Nihat Gökyiğit Vakfı
yayını, İstanbul, pp 1–181
Erdağ A, Kürschner H (2017b) A reference list of Turkish bryophytes. The state of knowledge
from 1829 until 2017. Anatolian Bryol 3:81–102
Erkara IP (2017) Spore morphology, taxonomical and ecological importance of some Encalyptaceae
Schimp. Species (Bryophyta) from Turkey. Bangladesh J Bot 46:139–145
Ertürk O, Sahın H, Ertürk EY, Hotaman HE, Koz B, Özdemır Ö (2015) The antimicrobial and
antioxidant activities of extracts obtained from some moss species in Turkey. Herba Polonica
61:52–65
Ezer T, Kara R, Demir İ (2010) The comparison of pigment concentration in some aquatic and
non-aquatic bryophytes: chlorophyll a/b and total carotenoid. Biyoloji Bilimleri Araştırma
Dergisi 3:181–183
Ezer T, Yılmaz T, İşlek C, Türkyılmaz-Ünal B (2016) Impact of heavy metals (zinc and lead)
on the photosynthetic pigment contents of Bryum schleicheri and Plagiomnium undulatum
(Bryophyta). Biol Divers Conserv 9:122–127
Flowers S (1957) Ethnobryology of the Gosiute Indians of Utah. Bryologist 60:11–14
Frahm JP (2004) Recent developments of commercial products from bryophytes. Bryologist
107:277–283
Garnier G, Bézanger-Beauquesne L, Debranx G (1961) Resources médicinales de la flore fran-
çaise, vol 1. Vigot Freres, Paris, pp 1–1511
Gignac LD (2001) New frontiers in bryology and lichenology: bryophytes as indicators of climate
change. Bryologist 104:410–420
Glime JM (2007) Economic and ethnic uses of bryophytes vol. 27. Fl North Am: Am Editorial
Committee pp 14-41
Gökbulut A, Satilmiş B, Batçioğlu K, Cetin B, Şarer E (2012) Antioxidant activity and luteolin
content of Marchantia polymorpha L. Turk J Biol 36(4):381–385
Gökler İ (1993) Studies on the taxonomy and ecology of some western Anatolian liverworts.
Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi 2:79–85
Gökler İ, Inoue H, Öztürk M (1984) A new record for Turkey, Pellia neesiana (Gott.) Limpr.
J Faculty Sci Ege Univ B 7:85–89
Gökler İ, Özenoğlu H (1999) Taxonomy and ecology of liverworts of Kazdağı National Park and
its environs. Çevre Koruma 8:22–26
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1986) Taxonomical investigations on some liverworts (Hepaticae) distributed
in Turkey. 1. Jungermanniales Anacrogynae and J Acrogynae Doğa, Türk Biyoloji Dergisi C
10: 163-170
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1987a) A new record for Turkey, Porella thuja (dicks.) C. Jens. Doğa. Türk
Botanik Dergisi 11:313–315
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1987b) New concepts concerning the methods used in the identification of
liverworts (Hepaticae). Doğa. Türk Botanik Dergisi C 11:306–312
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1989) An investigation on the liverworts (Hepaticae) of Black Sea region
Doğa. Türk Botanik Dergisi C 13:242–248
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1991) Liverworts of Turkey and their position in south-West Asia. Candollea
46:359–366
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1992) Liverworts (Marchantiopsida) from the Artvin province (A4, A5).
XI. Ulusal Biyoloji Kongresi, 24–27 Haziran 1992, Elazig, pp. 185–194
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1994a) Liverworts (Marchantiopsida) from the Istanbul province (A1).
XII. Ulusal Biyoloji Kongresi, 6–8 Temmuz 1994, Edirne, pp. 174-178
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1994b) Studies on the taxonomy and ecology of liverworts of the Kütahya
province. Ege Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Dergisi Ser B 16:1525–1529
Gökler İ, Öztürk M (1996) Liverworts of Turkish Thrace. Bocconea 5:319–323
Gökler İ, Öztürk M, Kesercioğlu T (1985–1986) Checklist of liverworts (Hepaticae) recorded
from Turkey. J Faculty Sci Ege Univ B 8: 1-10
Grolle R, Long D, McNeill J (2005) Nomenclatural problems in Pleurozia (Pleuroziaceae): the
lectotypification of Pleurozia Dumort., Jungermannia sphagnoides Schwägr., Pleurozia sphag-
noides Dumort., P. purpurea Lindb., Mnium jungermannia L. and Jungermannia undulata
L.(Hepaticae). Taxon 54:503–508
Gulaban A (1974) Bryophytes as economic plants. Botanica 14:73–75
Hallingbäck T, Hodgetts N (2000) Status survey and conservation action plan for bryophytes:
Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts. Gland: IUCN/SSC Bryophyte Specialist Group, IUCN,
pp 1–106
Harris E (2002) An examination of phylogenetic characters in mosses: Examples from Fissidens
Hedw. (Fissidentaceae: Musci). In: Presentation and abstract presented at the annual meeting
of the American Bryological and Lichenological Society, 26–27 July 2002, Storrs, CN, USA
Harris ES (2008) Ethnobryology: traditional uses and folk classification of bryophytes. Bryol
111:169–217
Harris ESJ (2006) Ethnobotany, evolution and chemistry of medicinal bryophytes: examples from
the moss genus Plagiomnium. PhD thesis, Berkeley University of California, Berkeley
Hart JA (1981) The ethnobotany of the northern Cheyenne Indians of Montana. J Ethnopharmacol
4:1–55
Hong WS (1980) A study of the distribution of Diplophyllum in western North America. Bryologist
83:497–504
Hu R (1987) Bryology. Higher Education Press, Beijing
Içel Y, Çobanoglu G (2009) Biomonitoring of atmospheric heavy metal pollution using lichens and
mosses in the city of Istanbul, Turkey. Fresen Environ Bull 18(11):2066–2071
Ilhan S, Savaroğlu F, Çolak F, İşçen CF, Erdemgil FZ (2006) Antimicrobial activity of Palustriella
commutata (Hedw.) ochyra extracts (Bryophyta). Turk J Biol 30(3):149–152
Inoue H (1988) Bryophytes as an indicator of continental drift (Gondwana land). Kagaku-Asahi
48:116–121
Kandpal V, Chaturvedi P, Negi K, Gupta S, Sharma A (2016) Evaluation of the antibiotic and
biochemical potential of bryophytes from Kumaun Hills and Taral Belt of Himalayas. Int
J Pharmacy Pharmaceut Sci 8:65–69
King BC, Vavitsas K, Ikram NKBK, Schrøder J, Scharff LB, Hamberger B, Jensen PE, Simonsen
HT (2016) In vivo assembly of DNA-fragments in the Mos, Physcomitrella patenss. Sci Rep
6:25030
Knoche H, Ourisson G, Perold GW, Foussereau J, Maleville J (1969) Allergenic component of a
liverwort: a sesquiterpene lactone. Science 166:239–240
Kondoh M, Nagashima F, Suzuki I, Harada M, Fujii M, Asakawa Y, Watanabe Y (2005) Induction
of apoptosis by new ent-kaurene-type diterpenoids isolated from the New Zealand liverwort
Jungermannia species. Planta Med 71:1005–1009
Kumar K, Singh KK, Asthana AK, Nath V (1999) Ethno therapeutics of bryophyte Plagiochasma
appendiculatum among the Gaddi tribes of Kangra Valley, Himachal Pradesh. Indian
Pharmaceut Biol 37:1–4
Kumar K, Singh KK, Asthana AK, Nath V (2000) Ethnotherapeutics of bryophyte Plagiochasma
appendiculatum among the Gaddi tribes of Kangra valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. Pharm
Biol 38:353–356
Kürschner H, Erdağ A (2005) Bryophytes of Turkey: an annotated reference list of the species with
synonyms from the recent literature and an annotated list of Turkish bryological literature. Turk
J Bot 29:95–154
Lashin GMA, Abdel-Shafi S, Hussein Y, Osman A, Al A-M (2015) Efficient inhibition of patho-
genic bacteria and potential toxicity by secondary metabolites of some bryophyte. Egypt J Bot
Microbiol 3:475–497
Lorimeres SD, Perry NB (1994) Antifungal hydroxyl acetophenones from the New Zealand liver-
wort, Plagiochila fasciculate. Planta Med 60:386–387
Lubaina AS, Pradeep DP, Aswathy JM, Remya Krishnan MKV, Murugan K (2014) Traditional
knowledge of medicinal bryophytes by the Kani tribes of Agasthiyarmalai biosphere reserve,
southern western ghats. IAJPS 4:2116–2121
Madsen GC, Pates AL (1952) Occurrence of antimicrobial substances in chlorophyllose plants
growing in Florida. Bot Gazette 113:293–300
Marko S, Aneta B, Dragoljub G (2001) Bryophytes as a potential source of medicinal compounds.
Pregl Rev 21:17–29
Matsuo A, Yuki S, Nakayama M (1983) Herbertenediol and (−)-herbertenolide, two new ses-
quiterpenoids of the ent-herbertane class from the liverwort Herberta adunca. Chem Lett
12:1041–1042
Matsuo A, Yuki S, Nakayama M, Hayashi S (1982) Three new sesquiterpene phenols of the ent-
herbertane class from the liverwort Herberta adunca. Chem Lett 11:463–466
McCleary JA, Walkington DL (1966) Moss and antibiosis. Rev Bryol Lichenol 34:309–314
Mendil D, Çelik F, Tuzen M, Soylak M (2009) Assessment of trace metal levels in some
moss and lichen samples collected from near the motorway in Turkey. J Hazard Mater
166(2–3):1344–1350
Mendil D, Tuzen M, Sari H, Hasdemir E (2005) Trace metal levels in moss samples collected from
the roadside in Tokat, Turkey. Trace Elem Electrol 22(1)
Millar KDL, Crandall-Stotler BJ, Ferreira JFS, Wood KV (2007) Antimicrobial properties of
three liverworts in axenic culture: Blasia pusilla, Pallavicinia lyellii and Radula obconica.
Cryptogam Bryol 28:197–210
Miller NG, Miller H (1979) Make ye the bryophytes. Horticulture 57:40–47
Mitchell JC (1986) Frullania (liverwort) phytodermatitis (woodcutter's eczema). Clin Dermatol
4:62–64
Mitchell JC, Fritig B, Singh B, Towers GHN (1970) Allergic contact dermatitis from Frullania and
compositae. The role of sesquiterpene lactones. J Investig Dermatol 54:233–239
Ohta Y, Andersen NH, Liu CB (1977) Sesquiterpene constituents of two liverworts of genus
Diplophyllum: novel eudesmanolides and cytotoxicity studies for enantiomeric methylene lac-
tones. Tetrahedron 33:617–628
Özdemir T, Apaydın G, Mendil D, Bulut VN, Cengiz E, Gündoğdu A, Aylıkçı V (2010)
Determination of some elements in moss samples from north eastern Anatolia, Turkey. Asian
J Chem 22(1):346–352
Özdemir T, Batan N, Mendil D, Apaydın G, Cengiz E (2013) Some element levels in moss
samples collected from the Iğdir-Nahhicevan international highway, Turkey. Asian J Chem
25:6741–6744
Özenoğlu Kiremıt H, Keçeli T (2009) An annotated check-list of the Hepaticae and Anthocerotae
of Turkey. Cryptogamie Bryol 30:343–356
Oztopcu-Vatan P, Savaroglu F, Filik Iscen C, Kabadere S, Ilhan S, Uyar R (2011) Antimicrobial and
antiproliferative activities of Homalothecium sericeum (Hedw.) Schimp. Extracts. Fresenius
Environ Bull 20:461–466
Öztürk M, Gökler İ (1988) Ecology of West-Anatolian liverworts. Bryol Times 47:1–3
Paliwal A, Arjun M, Madhav NV, Murthy E, Aruna M (2014) Endangered treatment of traditional
medicinal amphibian plants (Bryophytes). In: Proceedings of national seminar on traditional
medicine & health practices, pp 61–75
Pant G, Tewari SD (1989) Various human uses of bryophytes in the Kumaun region of northwest
Himalaya. Bryologist 92:120–122
Pant G, Tewari SD (1990) Bryophytes and mankind. Ethnobotany 2:97–103

Pant GP (1998) Medicinal uses of bryophytes. In: Chopra RN (ed) Topics in bryology. Allied
Publisher Limited, New Delhi, pp 112–124
Pavletic Z, Stilinovic B (1963) Untersuchungen über die antibiotische Wirkung von Moosextrakten
auf einige Bakterien. Acta Bot Croat 22:133–139
Pullaiah T (2006) Encyclopaedia of world medicinal plants, vol 1. Dayabooks, New Delhi,
pp 513–514
Ramirez M, Kamiya N, Popich S, Asakawa Y, Bardon A (2010) Insecticidal constituents from the
argentine liverwort Plagiochila bursata. Chem Biodivers 7:1855–1861
Rao M (2009) Microbes and non-flowering plants: impact and applications. Ane book Pvt. Ltd,
New Delhi, pp 213–214
Ratra M, Gupta R (2015) Future prospects and aspects of herbal drug discovery in herbal medi-
cines. Sciences 2:16–21
Remesh M, Manju CN (2009) Ethnobryological notes from Western Ghats, India. Bryol
112:532–537
Sabovljevic A, Sokovic M, Glamoclija J, Ciric A, Vujicic M, Pejin B, Sabovljevic M (2010)
Comparison of extract bio-activities of in situ and in vitro grown selected bryophyte species.
Afr J Microbiol Res 4:808–812
Sabovljevic A, Sokovic M, Glamoclija J, Ciric A, Vujicic M, Pejin B, Sabovljevic M (2011a)
Bio-activities of extracts from some axenically farmed and naturally grown bryophytes. J Med
Plants Res 5:565–571
Sabovljevic M, Bijelovic A, Grubisic D (2001) Bryophytes as a potential source of medicinal
compounds. Lekovite Sirovine 21:17–29
Sabovljevic M, Sabovljevic A, Vujicic M, Ljaljevic-Grbic M, Rodda M, Girlanda M (2011b) Are
there endobionts in bryophytes? The case study of peat-moss Sphagnum palustre. In: 19th
symposium of the Serbian plant physiology society, Banja Vrujci, June 13–15, 2011, Book of
Abstracts p 23
Sabovljević MS, Sabovljević AD, Ikram NKK, Peramuna A, Bae H, Simonsen HT (2016)
Bryophytes-an emerging source for herbal remedies and chemical production. Plant Genet
Resour 14(4):314–327
Şahin B, Doğan G, Demırbaş A, Özdemır T, Akdenız F, Aglar A (2000) Upgrading of biomass
materials as energy sources: liquefaction of mosses from Turkey. Engery sources, part 1: recov-
ery. Util Environ Effects 22:403–408
Sarı H, Mendil D, Tüzen M, Hasdemır E, Özdemir T (2005) AAS determination of trace metals in
some moss samples from Trabzon, Turkey. Fresenius Environ Bull 14:473–477
Savaroglu F, Ilhan S, Filik-Iscen C (2011a) An evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of some
Turkish mosses. J Med Plants Res 5(14):3286–3292
Savaroğlu F, İşçen CF, Vatan APÖ, Kabadere S, Ilhan S, Uyar R (2011b) Determination of anti-
microbial and antiproliferative activities of the aquatic moss Fontinalis antipyretica Hedw.
Turkish J Biol 35(3):361–369
Saxena DK, Harinder (2004) Uses of bryophytes. Resonance 9(6):56–65
Scher JM, Speakman JB, Zapp J, Becker H (2004) Bioactivity guided isolation of antifungal com-
pounds from the liverwort Bazzania trilobata (L.) SF gray. Phytochemistry 65:2583–2588
Sevim E, Baş Y, Celik G, Pınarbaş M, Bozdeveci A, Özdemir T et al (2017) Antibacterial activity
of bryophyte species against Paenibacillus larvae isolates. Turk J Vet Anim Sci 41(4):521–531
Sharma A, Slathia S, Gupta D, Handa N, Choudhary SP, Langer A, Bhardwaj R (2015) Antifungal
and antioxidant profile of ethnomedicinally important liverworts (Pellia endivaefolia and
Plagiochasma appendiculatum) used by indigenous tribes of district Reasi: north west
Himalayas. Proc Natl Acad Sci India Sect B: Biol Sci 85:571–579
Shaw AJ, Renzaglia KJ (2004) Phylogeny and diversification of bryophytes. Am J Bot
91:1557–1581
Shirsat RP (2008) Ethnomedicinal uses of some common bryophytes and pteridophytes used by
tribals of Melghat region (Ms), India. Ethnobot Leafl 1:92
Singh A (2011) Herbalism, phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology. CRC Press, New Delhi,
pp 286–293
Singh AP, Rawat VK, Behera SK, Khare PB (2010) Perspectives of pteridophytes biodiversity: a
source of economy elevation. In: National conference on biodiversity, development and pov-
erty alleviation, 22nd May, India, pp 46–49
Singh M, Raghavan G, Nath V, Rawat AKS, Mehrotra S (2006) Antimicrobial, wound healing
and antioxidant activity of Plagiochasma appendiculatum Lehm. & Lind. J Ethnopharmacol
107:67–72
Singh M, Singh S, Nath V, Sahu V, Rawat AKS (2011) Antibacterial activity of some bryophytes
used traditionally for the treatment of burn infections. Pharm Biol 49:526–530
Sturtevant W (1954) The Mikasuki seminole: medical beliefs and practices. PhD Dissertation. Yale
University
Subhisha S, Subramoniam A (2005) Antifungal activities of a steroid from Pallavicinia lyellii, a
liverwort. Indian J Pharmacol 37:304–308
Tag H, Das AK, Loyi H (2007) Anti-inflammatory plants used by the Khamti tribe of Lohit district
in eastern Arunachal Pradesh, India. Nat Prod Radiance 6:334–340
Tonguç Ö (1998) Determination of heavy metal levels in some moss species around thermic power
stations. Turk J Biol 22:171–180
Tosun A, Süntar İ, Keleş H, Özenoğlu-Kiremit H, Asakawa Y, Küpeli-Akkol E (2016) Wound heal-
ing potential of selected liverworts growing in Turkey. Turk J Pharmacy 13(3):285–291
Tosun G, Yayli B, Batan N, Yayli N, Karaoglu SA (2014) Chemical composition and antimicrobial
activity of essential oils from Tortella inclinata var. densa, T. tortusa and Pleurochaete squar-
rosa. Asian J Chem 26(7):2001
Tosun G, Yayli B, Özdemir T, Batan N, Bozdeveci A, Yayli N (2015) Volatiles and antimicrobial
activity of the essential oils of the mosses Pseudoscleropodium purum, Eurhynchium striatum,
and Eurhynchium angustirete grown in Turkey. Rec Nat Prod 9(2):237
Türkyılmaz Ünal B, İşlek C, Ezer T, Düzelten Z (2017) Allelopathic effects of Cinclidotus pachy-
lomoides (Bryophyta) on pepper and corn plants. Anatol Bryol 3(2):58–67
Turner NJ, Thomas J, Carlson BF, Ogilvie RT (1983) Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. Victoria. In: British Columbia Provincial Museum Occasional Paper
Number 24, Victoria. British Columbia, Canada
Tüzen M, Mendil D, Sarı H, Hasdemir E (2003) AAS determination of heavy metals in moss
samples of Giresun—Turkey. Fresenius Environ Bull 12:1283–1286
Ucuncu O, Cansu TB, Ozdemir T, Alpaykaraoglu S, Yayli N (2010) Chemical composition and
antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of mosses (Tortula muralis Hedw., Homalothecium
lutescens (Hedw.) H. Rob., Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw, and Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lindb.
from Turkey. Turk J Chem 34: 825–834
Uğur A, Özden B, Saç MM, Yener G (2003) Biomonitoring of 210Po and 210Pb using lichens
and mosses around a uraniferous coal-field power plant in western Turkey. Atmos Environ
37:2237–2245
Uğur A, Özden B, Saç MM, Yener G, Altınbaş Ü, Kurucu Y, Bolca M (2004) Lichens and mosses
for correlation between trace elements and 210Po in the areas near coal-fired power plant at
Yatağan, Turkey. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 259:87–92
Uyar G, Avcıl E, Ören M, Karaca F, Öncel MS (2009) Determination of heavy metal pollu-
tion in Zonguldak (Turkey) by moss analysis (Hypnum cupressiforme). Environ Eng Sci
26(1):183–194
Uyar G, Çetin B (2004) A new check-list of the mosses of Turkey. J Bryol 26:203–220
Uyar G, Hacıoğlu Doğru N, Ören M, Çavuş A (2016) Determining antibacterial activity of some
mosses [Cinclidotus riparius (host ex Brid.) Arn., Calliergonella ciuspidata (Hedw.) Loeske,
Thamnobryum alopecurum (Hedw.) Gangulee, Leucobryum juniperoideum (Brid.) Müll. Hal.,
Cirriphyllum crassinervium (Taylor) Loeske & M.Fleisch.]. Anatol Bryol 2:1–8
Uyar G, Ören M, İnce M (2007b) Atmospheric heavy metal deposition in Düzce Province by using
mosses as biomonitors. Fresenius Environ Bull 16:145–153
Uyar G, Ören M, Yıldırım Y, İnce M (2007a) Mosses as indicators of atmospheric heavy metal
deposition around a coal-filed power plant in Turkey. Fresenius Environ Bull 16:182–192
Veljić M, Djurić A, Soković M, Ćirić A, Glamočlija J, Marin P (2009) Antimicrobial activity
ofmethanol extracts of Fontinalis antipyretica, Hypnum cupressiforme and Ctenidium mollus-
cum. Arch Biol Sci 61:225–229
Wellman CH, Osterloff PL, Mohiuddin U (2003) Fragments of the earliest land plants. Nature
425:282–285
Wigginton MJ (2002) Checklist and distribution of the liverwort and hornworts of sub-Saharan
Africa, including the east African Islands. Trop Bryol Res Rep 3:1–88
Wu PC (1977) Rhodobryum giganteum (Schwaegr.) par can be used for curing cardiovascular
disease. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sin 15:93
Wu PC (1982) Some uses of mosses in China. Bryol Times 13:5
Yağlıoğlu MŞ, Abay G, Demirtaş İ, Yağlıoğlu AŞ (2017) Phytochemical screening, antiprolifera-
tive and cytotoxic activities of the mosses Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus (Hedw.) Warnst. And
Tortella tortuosa (Hedw.) Limpr. Anatol Bryol 3(1):31–42
Yayintas OT, Yapici BM (2009) In vitro antimicrobial activity of Brachythecium campestre and
Eurhynchium pulchellum extracts. Asian J Chem 21(3):2193
Yayli N, Cansu TB, Volga C, Yayli N (2009) Essential oils in mosses (Brachythecium salebro-
sum, Eurhynchium pulchellum and Plagiomnium undulatum) grown in Turkey. Asian J Chem
21(7):5505
Yetgin A, Şenturan M, Benek A, Efe E, Canlı K (2017) Pterigynandrum filiforme Hedw. türünün
antimikrobiyal aktivitesinin belirlenmesi. Anatol Bryol 3(1):43–47
Yong Tan C, Inagaki M, Chaia HB, Karadeniz Lambrechtsc M, Önder A, Özenoglu-Kiremit H,
Harinantenaina-Rakontondraibea L (2017) Phytochemical and cytotoxic investigations of pin-
guisanoids from liverwort Porella cordeana. Phytochem Lett 19:77–82
Yoshikawa H, Ichiki Y, Sakakibara KD, Tamura H, Suıko M (2002) The biological and structural
similarity between lunularic acid and abscisic acid. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 66(4):840–846
Zheng GQ, Chang CJ, Stout TJ, Clardy J, Ho DK, Cassady JM (1993) Ohioensins: novel benzo-
naphthoxanthenones from Polytrichum ohioense. J Org Chem 58:366–372
Zhonghua B (1999) State administration of traditional Chinese medicine of the People’s Republic
of China. Shanghai Science Technology Press, Shanghai, pp 22–23
A Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal
Pteridophytes in Turkey, Pakistan,
and Malaysia
Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Abdul Latıff, Tabinda Salman,

and Iqbal Choudhry
Introduction
The pteridophytes first appear in the fossil records of the Carboniferous but many of
the current families and species did not appear until roughly the late Cretaceous
(after flowering plants came to dominate many environments). The origin of this
group of plants is uncertain, but it is believed that they are more closely related to
algae rather than mosses and may have originated from them. The highest diversity
of species is found at lower altitudes. They are most common in the understory of
humid temperate and tropical forests. However, pteridophytes are widely distrib-
uted, and also grow in the Arctic and alpine tundra, saline mangrove swamps, semi-
arid deserts, and coastal rocks swept by salt spray. They provide the bulk of biomass
in some tropical forests and dominate the understories of some temperate conifer-
ous forests. Only a relatively small number is adapted to dry and sunny conditions
by having either reduced surfaces or a covering of hairs or scales to prevent loss of
moisture. The greatest number of the species is found in the tropics of both hemi-
spheres (Jahns 1983; Rost et al. 2006; Umi Kalsom 2010).
M. Ozturk (*)
V. Altay
Faculty of Science & Arts, Biology Department, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University,
Antakya, Hatay, Turkey
A. Latıff
Faculty of Science & Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
T. Salman · I. Choudhry
International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi,
Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_9
Currently the pteridophytes, distributed in the tropical, subtropical, and remote

tropical islands and in different habitats or even in deeper rainforests, play a defini-
tive role to constitute the strong carpet flora and undercover vegetation (Goswami
et al. 2016). A strong network of their roots is highly rich in organic compounds,
showing a great soil-binding capacity. These serve as the home for a large number
of smaller mammals, rodents, as well as amphibians, invertebrates, even arthropods,
and insects (Balick et al. 1978; Cooper-Drive 1978; Gerson, 1979). The pterido-
phytes are ecologically strong natural companions of a rich forest (Goswami 2009;
Mehltreter et al. 2010). Many among these are too hardy, colonizing, and adapted to
survive and reproduce in disturbed or barren land with the modest possibility of
moisture and drain water (Goswami et al. 2016). This group of plants is also able to
adapt to xeric environments, and appear as frequent colonizers following distur-
bances such as hurricanes, landslides, fires, floods, and even volcanic eruptions
(Mehltreter et al. 2010). The five major environments where these plants flourish are
tropical mesic, tropical xeric epiphytic, tropical xeric terrestrial, tropical alpine, and
temperate (Page 1979). Acrostichum aureum grows in the saline waters; Pteris vit-
tata often occupies the soil near the water drainage pipelines, on walls, and even on
cement-calcareous waste matter. A large number of ecologists have referred them to
be able to be disseminated on barren lands. These plants multiply aggressively by
vegetatively; an open area can be better utilized for their inhabitation before nasty
invasive species occupy the place. The tree fern Dicksonia antarctica has become
invasive in São Miguel Island (Arosa et al. 2012). This group of plants can survive
drought and even occupy the man-made disturbed habitats due to huge construction
works with cement concrete residue, but these genera may be different from the
original populations (Goswami et al. 2016).
Nearly 12,000 taxa of pteridophytes are reported to be distributed on earth in
different ecological niches. Out of these, 10,000 taxa are ferns and the rest fern
allies (Goswami et al. 2016). On the basis of morphological and gene sequencing
techniques pteridophytes are regarded as paraphyletic assemblage of lycophytes
and filicophytes (Smith et al. 2006). Although pteridophytes are the second largest
group, they represent only 5–7% of the total vascular plants, but still play an impor-
tant ecological role particularly in the tropical vegetation (Page 1979; Goswami
et al. 2016). The number of taxa of pteridophytes included within The Plant List
belongs to 48 families and 587 genera. This list includes 47,439 scientific plant
names of species rank for the pteridophytes. Of these 10,620 are accepted species
names (www.plantlist.com). In South East Asia around 4400 species are known and
1165 species have been recorded from the tropical rainforest of Malaysia (Roos
1996; Parris and Latiff 1997; Umi Kalsom 2010). In Turkey, 89 species belonging
to 19 families and 34 genera have been recorded (Güner et al. 2012). A total of 133
species belonging to 41 genera and 9 families from West Pakistan and Kashmir have
been reported (Stewart 1972). Majority of these are growing in mixed coniferous
forests in mountainous regions forming a substantial component of terrestrial plant
communities. The list of pteridophytes published by Nakaike and Malik (1992)
includes 82 species belonging to 30 genera and 18 families along with their distribu-
tion in Pakistan.
A Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Pteridophytes in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia 351
This group of plants is long known for its medicinal and therapeutic uses. In
ancient times they were prescribed as herbal extract for the cure of several diseases.
Theophrastus (327–287 BC) and Dioscorides (50 AD) have listed many pterido-
phytes as a potential herbal formulation to cure more deadly disorders (Puri 1970;
Parihar et al. 2004; Goswami et al. 2016). However, Singh et al. (2010) in their
monumental contribution on the medicinal attributes of this plant group have enor-
mously mentioned the utility of Marsilea minuta, Adiantum capillus-veneris, and
few others. Few of the prescriptions based on the doctrine of signature reveal that
plants of particular shape were recommended for the cure of certain organs resem-
bling to it; these include the lower plants as well (Singh et al. 2010; Goswami et al.
2016). In nineteenth century first attempt has been made by Caius (1935) who pre-
sented the medicinal uses of ferns in India. He is recognized as the first researcher
to take this initiative in pteridophytes. Recently, tremendous work has been done to
determine the potentiality of pteridophytes in relation to their chemical composition
and other aspects. The pteridophytes are rich in glycosides, flavonoids, terpenoids,
alkaloids, and several primary vis-à-vis secondary metabolites. These are used for
the preparation of expectorant and formulations too are advised as supplement of
aphrodisiac, appetizer, and stimulants. As against this, certain species are used as
diuretic, for treatment of ulcer as well as stomach disorders. Not very many taxa
from this group are historically in practice in homeopathy and Ayurvedic system of
medicines. Selaginella bryopteris and Lycopodium clavatum are well-known exam-
ples used in homeopathic system of medicine; the former is prescribed for the cure
of neurological disorders and heat stroke effects, whereas the latter is recommended
to the patients suffering from splinted bones. Helminthostachys zeylanica is a part
of the well-known herbal Ayurvedic formulation used to enhance the sexual effi-
ciency and as a source of stimulant and aphrodisiac. Few of the pteridophytes have
been and are being screened out chemically and numbers of active novel new chem-
ical compounds are validated. The marsiline isolated from Marsilea minuta has
great importance because it is used in psychopathy, diarrhea, cough, skin diseases,
dyspepsia, fever, and insomnia. Many other taxa have been extensively explored
and found to exhibit great economic value. Pteris vittata, “the Bracken fern,” is
reported to show antimicrobial activities against a number of gastrointestinal bacte-
rial strains. These findings stress the fact that pteridophytes possess great impor-
tance due to their vast medicinal scope; they can prove as biological resources for
the upliftment of humans (Singh et al. 2010).
Interestingly great majority of indigenous people have little information on the
uses of pteridophytes, the reason being that they are not easily available like flower-
ing plants. The pteridophytes have an important role in the global biodiversity.
Although both economic and medicinal values of higher plants have been and are
being investigated thoroughly, unfortunately pteridophytes have been ignored. The
reason may be the problem with the collection of large quantities of material needed
to find out the chemical compounds in these plants. Not much information is avail-
able in the literature related to the medicinal importance of these plants except a few
studies (Caius 1935; Manandhar 1996; Kumar and Kaushik 1999; Benjamin and
Manickam 2007; Karthik et al. 2011). It is a must that we document and evaluate the
medicinal uses of pteridophytes which were used by the indigenous people. The
indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge of these plants may show a great potential
for research and as a source of new materials for the discovery of new drugs by the
phytopharmaceutical industry to fight the diseases (Karthik et al. 2011). There is an
urgent need for the conservation of traditional ethnobotanical knowledge which is
important for sustainable biological and cultural diversity (Sujarwo et al. 2014). Our
main aim here has been to analyze the distribution of the traditional medicinal
knowledge about the pteridophytes in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia.
Study Areas
Turkey
Turkey is a meeting place of different phytogeographical regions showing great

variation in plant diversity with different types of ecosystems, occupying different
habitats and showing varying vegetational characteristics (Ozturk et al. 2006, 2012a,
b; Ozturk et al. 2017a, b). Among the countries in southwest Asia and the
Mediterranean basin, as well as whole of Europe, the richest flora has been reported
for the Anatolian peninsula. Phytogeographically the country is a meeting place for
two centers of diversity and origin: the Near East and the Mediterranean (Fig. 1).
The number of flowering plant taxa distributed in the country is estimated to be
more than 11,000, which is very near to the number recorded from the whole of
Europe (Güner et al. 2012). A great variety of geomorphological, topographical,
and climatic features are responsible for its widespread habitat and plant diversities
as well as endemism, with 3035 taxa of endemics, comprising 31.12% of the total
flora and confined to narrow and restricted ecological niches (Güner et al. 2012;
Ozturk et al. 2016).
Fig. 1 Map of Turkey

Fig. 2 Map of Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan too has a peculiar geographical position (Fig. 2), and harbors a great diver-
sity of flora. More than 6000 vascular plant species are reported to occur in this
region (Shinwari and Shinwari 2010), out of which 5600 species have been described
to date in the Flora of Pakistan, representing 22 families and about 150 genera
(Nasir and Ali 1970–1995). Among the lower plants, there are at least 189 pterido-
phytes (ferns and their allies), of which 153 are Sino-Japanese elements and 36
Euro-Siberian (Nasir and Ali 1970–1995; Shinwari and Shinwari 2010). Four
monotypic genera of flowering plants (Douepia, Suleimania, Spiroseris, Wendelboa)
and around 400 species (7.8%) are endemic to Pakistan. Most endemics are Irano-
Turanian and Sino-Japanese (Shinwari and Shinwari 2010).
A short analysis of plant diversity in Pakistan reveals that the number of species
per genus is much lower than the global average, indicating a high rate of diversity
at the gene level (Ali and Qaiser 1986). The plant wealth of the country includes
elements of six phytogeographical regions, namely the Mediterranean, Saharo-
Sindian, Euro-Siberian, Irano-Turanian, Sin-Japanese, and Indian.
Fig. 3 Map of Malaysia
Malaysia
Malaysia is located just north of equator, with a warm equatorial climate but little
seasonality, hot, and humid throughout the year. The total landmass of the country
is 329.847 km2 (Fig. 3). South China Sea divides the country into two regions of
similar size: Peninsular Malaysia connected to mainland Asia on the western half
and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo on the east (Saw and
Chung 2015). These two halves of the country pose interesting challenges towards
documenting the Malaysian flora. Peninsular Malaysia, part of the Malay Peninsula
(here includes Singapore and Peninsular Thailand), contains the floristic elements
of the Sunda Shelf and also of the mainland Asiatic species from seasonal climates
(Wong 1998; Saw and Chung 2015).
Up till now no comprehensive and up-to-date checklist for the Malaysian flora
has been published (Saw and Chung 2015). There are several checklists prepared by
different workers due to different botanical history of the two main regions of
Malaysia. The work of Ridley (1922–1926) for Peninsular Malaysia is an outdated
one. But it provided the first complete enumeration of the vascular plants of the
Malay Peninsula. The angiosperms have been published in five volumes during
1922–1925. Subsequently, a separate checklist of ferns was published (Ridley
1926). “A Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Malaya” (Turner 1997) serves as the
most recent checklist for the Peninsular Malaysia based on an existing literature
survey. This catalogue enumerates 8198 species. Parris and Latiff (1997) have pub-
lished a further update on the ferns and fern allies with some additions and nomen-
clatural changes. In this checklist, ferns and fern allies of Sabah and Sarawak were
included to provide the first complete checklist of the group for Malaysia (Parris
and Latiff 1997; Saw and Chung 2015).
Pteridophytes and Traditional Medicine
Turkey
The total number of pteridophytes evaluated in the traditional medicine includes 19

species from 8 families and 11 genera (Table 1). These are given alphabetically with
their botanical name, part used, ailment treated, and information on the preparations
used (Table 1). The following families are represented by the largest number of spe-
cies: Equisetaceae (six species), Aspleniaceae (four species), Dryopteridaceae
(three species), and Pteridaceae (two species). Species/genera ratio is higher in
Equisetaceae (6.0), Aspleniaceae (2.0), Dryopteridaceae (1.5), and Pteridaceae
(1.0) (Table 2).
Pakistan
The total number used in the traditional medicine includes 59 species belonging to
18 families and 28 genera, listed alphabetically with their botanical name, part used,
ailment treated, and information on the preparations used (Table 3). The following
families are represented by the largest number of species: Pteridaceae (17 species),
Dryopteridaceae (8 species), Equisetaceae (5 species), Ophioglossaceae (5 species),
Athyriaceae (4 species), and Aspleniaceae (3 species). Species/genera ratio is higher
in Dryopteridaceae (4.0), Pteridaceae (3.4), Aspleniaceae (3.0), Equisetaceae (2.5),
Ophioglossaceae (2.5), and Athyriaceae (1.3) (Table 4).
Malaysia
Total number of plants used in the traditional medicine includes 40 species spread
over 17 families and 30 genera, arranged alphabetically with their botanical name,
part used, ailment treated, and information on the preparations used in Malaysia
(Table 5). The families with largest number of taxa are Polypodiaceae (nine spe-
cies), Pteridaceae (five species), Lycopodiaceae (four species), and Tectariaceae
(three species). Species/genera ratio is higher in Lygodiaceae (4.0), Polypodiaceae
(1.8), Tectariaceae (1.5), and Pteridaceae (1.0) (Table 6).
Table 1 Pteridophytes used in the traditional medicine in Turkey

Part
No Taxa Family used PreparationAilments Resource
1 Adiantum Pteridaceae AP, AT, BO, Appetizing, shortness of 1–21
capillus- LE, DE, JU, breath, chest tightness,
veneris L. UP IN, PN, PU expectorant, anti-
dandruff, menstrual
regulatory,
gastrointestinal
diseases, bronchitis,
urinary disorders,
kidney stones and sand,
diarrhea, kidney
problems, cough, for
veterinary purposes
(diarrhea in calves),
male aphrodisiac,
diuretic, stomachache,
swollen testicles,
prostate, tonic.
2 Asplenium Aspleniaceae AP, BO, DE, Hemorrhoid, menstrual 21–27
adiantum- FS, IN regulatory, kidney
nigrum L. LE, stone, stomachache,
WP shortness of breath,
diuretic, eczema,
sinusitis, tension
regulator
3 Asplenium Aspleniaceae AP, AT, DE, IN Diuretic, chest 5, 26, 28
scolopendrium LE, tightness, constipation,
L. WP hemorrhoid,
stomachache,
arteriosclerosis, anemia,
diabetes, wounds, burns
4 Asplenium Aspleniaceae AP, BO, CO Stomachache, 26, 28
trichomanes L. WP hemorrhoid, eczema
5 Ceterach Aspleniaceae AP, BO, DE, Abdominal pain, kidney 6, 21, 22,
officinarum LE, IN, PU stone and sand, diuretic, 24, 25,
Willd. SP, constipation, 29–43
WP hemorrhoid, cold,
bronchitis,
stomachache, shortness
of breath, urinary tract
disorders, urinary
antiseptic, gallbladder
diseases, gallstones,
wounds, kidney
diseases, stomach
diseases, ulcer,
gastrointestinal
diseases, gynecology
diseases
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Part
No Taxa Family used Preparation Ailments Resource
6 Dryopteris Dryopteridaceae AP, DE Intestinal parasites, 5, 7, 28
filix-max (L.) RH stomachache
Schott
7 Dryopteris Dryopteridaceae LE, IN Kidney stone 13, 21
raddeana WP
(Fomin) Fomin
8 Equisetum Equisetaceae AP, AT, BO, Diuretic, kidney stone 5, 7, 10,
arvense L. LE, DE, IN and sand, rheumatism, 12, 26,
SO, urinary tract diseases, 28, 35,
ST, wounds, prostate 37,
WP diseases, kidney 39–62
diseases, skin diseases,
eczema, hemorrhoid,
internal bleeding, nose
bleeds, blood
purification, edema,
circulatory disorders,
hair straighteners, gum
inflammations,
tonsillitis,
arteriosclerosis,
tachycardia,
calcification, cancer,
gallbladder diseases,
nephralgia,
gastrointestinal
diseases, hypertension,
menstrual regulatory,
cystitis, bronchitis,
ovaritis, antiperspirant,
liver diseases, weakens,
lung injury,
tuberculosis, shortness
of breath, cough,
diabetes
9 Equisetum Equisetaceae AP BO Tension, kidney 56
fluviatile L. diseases
10 Equisetum Equisetaceae AP BO, DE Kidney stone, clean 63–65
hyemale L. stomach, diuretic
11 Equisetum Equisetaceae AP, DE, IN Hemorrhoids, kidney 38, 66
palustre L. WP stones, peptic ulcer
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Part
12 Equisetum Equisetaceae AP, BO, DE, Kidney stone and sand, 6, 7, 9,
ramosissimum LE, IN wounds, diuretic, 10, 13,
Desf. SO, urinary tract diseases, 14, 19,
ST, stomachache, anti- 21, 27,
WP leptotrichia, 36, 40,
anticoagulant, 46,
arteriosclerosis, 67–76
cardiovascular diseases,
cancer, vulnerary,
stomach disorders, skin
diseases, tuberculosis,
diabetes, hemostatic at
inner bleeding, gum
inflammations,
tonsillitis, eczema,
rheumatism, mouth and
throat inflammation
13 Equisetum Equisetaceae AP, BO, DE, Kidney stone and sand, 5, 14, 19,
telmateia LE, IN stomachache, diuretic, 21, 24,
Ehrh. WP kidney diseases, 43, 66,
prostate diseases, pain, 68,
vasodilating, urinary 77–85
tract diseases, acne,
rheumatism, pain in
former broken bones,
expectorant, strengthen
hair, skin and nails,
infections in the mouth,
chronic eczema,
antifungal, wounds,
internal bleeding,
shortness of breath,
cystitis, nephritis,
cardiac deficiency,
arteriosclerosis
14 Lycopodium Lycopodiaceae AP, DE, IN For irritated body 28, 55,
clavatum L. LE, region, carminative (in 63
SP, infants), skin diseases,
ST intertrigo, liver
diseases, hepatitis,
rheumatism
15 Osmunda Osmundaceae RH IN Diuretic, constipation, 5
regalis L. Roborant
16 Polypodium Polypodiaceae AP, DE Kidney stones, 31
vulgare L. RO gallstones, headache,
tonsillitis, carminative,
abdominal pain
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Part
17 Polystichum Dryopteridaceae AP Abdominal pain 86
aculeatum (L.)
Roth
18 Pteridium Dennstaedtiaceae AP, BO, DE, Eczema, rheumatism, 16, 21,
aquilinum (L.) LE, IN toothache, intestinal 22, 52,
Kuhn. RO parasites, diuretic, 79, 85,
constipation, kidney 87, 89
diseases, wounds
19 Pteris cretica Pteridaceae AP BO Hemorrhoid 88
L.
Part used: AP Aerial parts, FS fronds, LE leaves, RH rhizome, RO root; SO shoot; SP spores; ST
stem, UP underground parts, WP whole plants
Preparation: AT As tea; BO boiled; CO cooked; CR crushed; DE decoction; JU juice; IN infusion;
PA paste; PU poultice, PN pounded; PO powder; SY syrup
Resource: 1: Gençay 2007; 2: Özçelik et al. 1990; 3: Kilic and Bagci 2013; 4: Sürmeli et al. 2000;
5: Baytop 1984; 6: Demirci and Özhatay 2012; 7: Fakir et al. 2009; 8: Altan and Alçıtepe 2000; 9:
Mart 2006; 10: Altundag and Ozturk 2011; 11: Topaloğlu 1987; 12: Çömlekçioğlu and Karaman
2008; 13: Aslan et al. 2007; 14: Koçak 1999; 15: Ertug 1999; 16: Sargin 2015; 17: Sezik et al.
1991; 18: Sargin et al. 2015; 19: Koçyiğit and Özhatay 2006; 20: Hayta et al. 2014; 21: Tuzlacı
2006; 22: Bulut and Tuzlacı 2015; 23: Başer et al. 1986; 24: Tuzlacı and Aymaz 2001; 25: Tuzlacı
and Aymaz 2001; 26: Sağıroğlu et al. 2012; 27: Uysal et al. 2010; 28: Saraç et al. 2013; 29: Tuzlacı
2005; 30: Tuzlacı and Erol 1999; 31: Polat and Satil 2012; 32: Yeşilada et al. 1993; 33: Alpınar
1999; 34: Ertuğ et al. 2004; 35: Uysal et al. 2012; 36: Tuzlacı and Sadıkoğlu 2007; 37: Sarı et al.
2010; 38: Honda et al. 1996; 39: Yücel 2014; 40: Bulut and Tuzlacı 2013; 41: Sadıkoğlu 2003; 42:
Gürdal and Kültür 2013; 43: Tuzlacı and Tolon 2000; 44: Akan et al. 2005; 45: Ozgokce and
Ozcelik 2004; 46: Korkmaz et al. 2011; 47: Toksoy et al. 2010; 48: Yiğit 2014; 49: Sargin et al.
2013; 50: Vural et al. 1997; 51: Akdoğan and Akgün 2006; 52: Güler et al. 2015; 53: Cakilcioglu
et al. 2011; 54: Polat et al. 2011; 55: Akbulut and Bayramoglu 2014; 56: Kaval et al. 2014; 57:
Korkmaz and Karakurt 2014; 58: Everest and Ozturk 2005; 59: Kargioğlu et al. 2008; 60: Özüdoğru
et al. 2011; 61: Ugurlu and Secmen 2008; 62: Tetik 2011; 63: Yeşilada et al. 1999; 64: Bulut 2006;
65: Ozçelik and Balabanlı 2005; 66: Yeşilada et al. 1995; 67: Bulut and Tuzlacı 2005; 68: Genç and
Özhatay 2006; 69: Öztürk and Ölçücü 2011; 70: Çakılcıoğlu et al. 2007; 71: Tümen et al. 2005; 72:
Öz Aydın et al. 2005; 73: Polat et al. 2013; 74: Arıcan et al. 2013; 75: Karataş 2007; 76: Doğanoğlu
et al. 2006; 77: Eryaşar 1998; 78: Fenercioğlu 1997; 79: Bulut 2011; 80: Uzun et al. 2004; 81:
Polat et al. 2015; 82: Sadıkoğlu and Alpınar 2000; 83: Ertuğ 2004; 84: Ezer and Arisan 2006; 85:
Kültür 2007; 86: Fujita et al. 1995; 87: Mart and Türkmen 2008; 88: Saraç 2013; 89: Sağiroğlu
et al. 2013.
Table 2 Genera and species with highest numbers (Turkey)

Family Genera Species Species/genus ratio
Equisetaceae 1 6 6.0
Aspleniaceae 2 4 2.0
Dryopteridaceae 2 3 1.5
Pteridaceae 2 2 1.0
Table 3 Pteridophytes used in the traditional medicine in Pakistan

Part
Taxa Familia used Preparation Ailments Source
1 Actiniopteris Pteridaceae RH PA, PO Snake bite 35
australis link
2 Adiantum Pteridaceae AP, AT, BO, Gastrointestinal 1–19,
capillus-veneris L. FS, CR, DE, diseases, bronchial 35
LE, JU, IN, PA, disorders, cough,
WP SY diuretic, cold, flu,
asthma, jaundice,
hair tonic, scorpion
bites, expectorant,
laxative, emetic, anti
skin allergy, chest
pain, measles,
removing spleen
stones, emollient,
febrifuge, snake bite,
dog bite, pneumonia,
catarrh, sore throat,
demulcent, female
sterility
3 Adiantum Pteridaceae FS Wound healing 35
caudatum L.
4 Adiantum chilense Pteridaceae WP PU Congestion 35
Kaulf.
var. sulphureum
(Kaulf.) Kuntze ex
Hicken
5 Adiantum incisum Pteridaceae FS, JU Skin diseases, 1, 3,
Forsk. LE, febrifuge, cough, 20–25,
WP diabetes, 35
cardiovascular
diseases, headache,
diaphoretic, chronic
diarrhea, dysentery,
jaundice, menstrual
regulatory, diuretic,
bronchitis, general
body weakness,
malaria, fever,
bronchial diseases,
falling hairs
6 Adiantum Pteridaceae WP DE Chronic catarrhs 35
myriosorum baker
7 Adiantum Pteridaceae LE PA Antidote in snake 12
raddianum bite
C. Presl.
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Part
8 Adiantum venustum Pteridaceae FS, BO, JU, Scorpion bites, 5, 9,
D. Don LE, PA, PO expectorant, emetic, 10, 14,
SO, diuretic, hair growth, 20–23,
WP laxative, febrifuge, 26–28,
eye disorders, cold, 35
cough, headache,
snake bite, lung
disorders,
aphrodisiac,
stomachache,
backache, blood
purifier
9 Allantodia aspera Athyriaceae FS EX Demulcent, 35
(Blume) Ching hypotensive, tonic,
antiviral,
antibacterial
10 Allantodia Athyriaceae LE, PA Tonic 35
squamigera (Mett.) RH
Ching
11 Asplenium Aspleniaceae FS Scorpion bites 21
adiantum-nigrum
L.
12 Asplenium Aspleniaceae LE, DE, JU Snake bite, 14, 35
dalhousiae hook. RH gonorrhea, hepatitis
13 Asplenium Aspleniaceae LE For veterinary 3
septentrionale (L.) purposes (cattle oral
Hoffm. cavity infection)
14 Botrychium lunaria Ophioglossaceae WP IN Fever 35
(L.) Sw.
15 Botrychium Ophioglossaceae RO Hypertension, 35
virginianum (L.) wounds
Sw.
16 Cheilanthes Pteridaceae LE DE Bleeding, skin 35
acrostica (Balb.) diseases
Tod.
17 Cheilanthes Pteridaceae LE PO Body pain 35
albomarginata
C.B. Clarke
18 Cheilanthes bicolor Pteridaceae WP Weakness 35
Fraser-Jenk.
19 Cheilanthes Pteridaceae RO, BO, PA Tonic, gout, 35
farinosa (Forssk.) RH rheumatism
Kaulf.
20 Cheilanthes Pteridaceae LE JU, PO Dysentery, leprosy, 35
pteridioides C. Chr. skin diseases
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Part
21 Christella dentata Thelypteridaceae LE, EX Spermatorrhea, 35
(Forssk.) Brownsey RH, rheumatism,
& Jermy RO antidiabetic
22 Deparia japonica Athyriaceae FS, Weakness 35
(Thunb.) M. Kato RH
23 Diplazium Athyriaceae FS, Asthma, cold, cough, 35
esculentum (Retz.) RH tonic
Sw.
24 Dryopteris Dryopteridaceae FS, PA, PO Epilepsy, leprosy, 35
cochleata (D. Don) RH pain
C. Chr.
25 Dryopteris Dryopteridaceae FS Stimulant 23
erythrosora
(D.C.Eaton)
Kuntze
26 Dryopteris Dryopteridaceae FS, Digestive power, 10, 20,
juxtaposita Christ YSO aphrodisiac, 26, 27
febrifuge
27 Dryopteris Dryopteridaceae RH DE Snake bite, 35
nigropaleacea rheumatism, leprosy
(Fraser-Jenk.)
Fraser-Jenk.
28 Dryopteris Dryopteridaceae WP Chronic dysentery 29
raddeana (Fomin)
Fomin
29 Dryopteris ramosa Dryopteridaceae FS, JU Gastric ulcer, 11, 29,
(C. Hope) C. Chr. LE, constipation, 30
ST stomachache,
aphrodisiac
30 Equisetum arvense Equisetaceae AP, AT, DE, Kidney stones, 2, 10,
L. CN, PA, PO, PU urinary tract diseases, 16, 21,
SO, wound healing, 31–35
WP prostatitis, hair tonic,
cystitis, diabetes,
diarrhea, gallstone,
against lice, cleaning
and shinning of teeth,
cholera
31 Equisetum debile Equisetaceae AP JU Jaundice, intestinal 17, 19
Roxb. Ex Vaucher inflammation
32 Equisetum palustre Equisetaceae CN DE Stomach disorders 35
L.
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Part
33 Equisetum Equisetaceae SO, Diuretic, gonorrhea, 3, 28,
ramosissimum WP anti-lice, tonic, renal 35
Desf. disorders, scabies,
itches, skin
infections, bone
fracture, female
infertility, wound
healing
34 Hippochaete Equisetaceae WP DE, PA, PO Fracture, dislocation 35
debilis (Roxb. Ex of bones, stomach
Vaucher) Ching disorder, fertility
35 Hypodematium Hypodematiaceae FS, DE, PA Aphrodisiac, 26, 35
crenatum (Forssk.) RH, febrifuge, infertility,
Kuhn SP wounds, snake,
scorpion and dog
bites
36 Lygodium Lygodiaceae LE IN Burns as cooling 35
japonicum agent, chest
(Thunb.) Sw. congestion
37 Lygodium scandens Lygodiaceae LE Female infertility 35
(L.) Sw.
38 Marsilea minuta L. Marsileaceae LE-P Cough, insomnia, 35
expectorant
39 Marsilea Marsileaceae LE, BO, CR, Flu, migraine, nerve 23, 35
quadrifolia L. LE-P JU, PA relaxant, infantile
diarrhea
40 Microsorum Polypodiaceae LE PA Purgative, diuretic, 35
membranaceum wound healing
(D. Don) Ching
41 Nephrolepis Nephrolepidaceae FS PA Bleeding 35
cordifolia (L.)
C. Presl
42 Ophioglossum Ophioglossaceae LE PA Menstrual disorders 35
capense Sw.
43 Ophioglossum Ophioglossaceae LE DE Dysentery 35
petiolatum hook.
44 Ophioglossum Ophioglossaceae LE DE Joint pain 35
vulgatum L.
45 Osmunda regalis L. Osmundaceae WP DE, PA Rickets, rheumatism 35
46 Pellaea Pteridaceae FS Cold, cough 35
calomelanos (Sw.)
link
47 Polystichum Dryopteridaceae SP PO Wound healing 3
lonchitis (L.) Roth
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Part
48 Polystichum Dryopteridaceae FS, PO Wound healing 35
squarrosum SP
(D. Don) Fée
49 Pseudophegopteris Thelypteridaceae RO DE Spermatorrhea 35
levingei
(C.B. Clarke)
Ching
50 Psilotum nudum Psilotaceae SP Diarrhea 35
(L.) P. Beauv.
51 Pteridium Dennstaedtiaceae FS, DE, IN, SY Dysentery, pain, 18, 33,
aquilinum (L.) RH earache, mouth sores, 35
Kuhn. sore throat, vomiting,
diarrhea, blood
purifier, gingivitis,
scabies, stomach
cramps, against
worms, abortifacient
52 Pteridium Dennstaedtiaceae RH DE Belly worms 35
revolutum (Blume)
Nakai
53 Pteris cretica L. Pteridaceae FS, DE, PA, PO Wound healing 23, 35
LE
54 Pteris quadriaurita Pteridaceae FS, EX Wounds 35
Retz. RH
55 Pteris vittata L. Pteridaceae LE DE, PA, PO Wounds, burns, 35
infections bacterial
56 Salvinia adnata Salviniaceae WP DE Antifungal 35
Desv.
57 Salvinia auriculata Salviniaceae WP Malaria 35
Aubl.
58 Schizaea Schizaeaceae RH EX Chest congestion 35
dichotoma (L.)
J. Sm.
59 Woodwardia Blechnaceae FS EX Worms 35
radicans (L.) Sm.
Part used: AP Aerial parts, CN cones, FS fronds, LE leaves, LE-P leaves with petioles, RH rhi-
zome; RO root, SO shoot, SP spores, ST stem, WP whole plants
Preparation: AT As tea, BO boiled, CR crushed, DE decoction, EX extract, JU juice, IN infusion,
PA paste, PU poultice, PO powder, SY syrup
Source: 1: Murad et al. 2011; 2: Shah et al. 2013; 3: Shah et al. 2015; 4: Shinwari et al. 2006; 5:
Kayani et al. 2014; 6: Bibi et al. 2014; 7: Ullah et al. 2013; 8: Shinwari and Shinwari 2010; 9: Shah
2015; 10: Alam et al. 2011; 11: Ahmed et al. 2013; 12: Ali et al. 2015; 13: Shaheen et al. 2010; 14:
Butt et al. 2015; 15: Hussain et al. 2012; 16: Ahmad et al. 2011; 17: Abbasi et al. 2009; 18: Abbasi
et al. 2010; 19: Abbasi et al. 2011; 20: Hamayun et al. 2007; 21: Shinwari et al. 2003; 22: Hamayun
2007; 23: Ali 2014; 24: Arshad and Ahmad 2005; 25: Mahmood et al. 2011; 26: Barkatullah et al.
2015; 27: Sher et al. 2015; 28: Awan et al. 2011; 29: Arshad and Ahmad 2004; 30: Ahmad and
Habib 2014; 31: Khan 2014; 32: Nisar and Ali 2012; 33: Mahmood et al. 2012; 34: Khan et al.
2015; 35: Gul et al. 2016.
Table 4 Genera and species with highest numbers (Pakistan)

Pteridaceae 5 17 3.4
Dryopteridaceae 2 8 4.0
Equisetaceae 2 5 2.5
Ophioglossaceae 2 5 2.5
Athyriaceae 3 4 1.3
Aspleniaceae 1 3 3.0
Table 5 Pteridophytes used in the traditional medicine in Malaysia (Umi Kalsom 2010; Latiff,
2016)
Part
No Taxa Family used Preparation Ailments
1 Acrostichum aureum L. Pteridaceae FS, Anthelmintic, vulnerary,
RH antifungal, ulcer
2 Allantodia aspera Athyriaceae FS, To treat body odor,
(Blume) Ching LE, swellings, pain
WP
3 Angiopteris evecta Marattiaceae FS, To treat beriberi,
(G. Forst.) Hoffm. LE, SP dysentery, leprosy, skin
diseases
4 Angiopteris Marattiaceae FS, LE Stomachache,
palmiformis (Cav.) abdominal problems
C. Chr.
5 Aspidium blechnoides Tectariaceae LE Treatment after
Sm. childbirth
6 Aspidium crenatus Tectariaceae FS, BO Gonorrhea
(Cav.) Ching RH,
WP
7 Asplenium nidus L. Aspleniaceae FS, LO To enrich the hair
LE, growth, depurative,
WP sedative, febrifuge, pain
8 Blechnum orientale L. Blechnaceae FS Urinary bladder
complaints, intestinal
wounds, anthelmintic
9 Ceratopteris Pteridaceae FS PU Skin diseases
thalictroides (L.)
Brongniart
10 Cheilanthes tenuifolia Pteridaceae RH, Hair tonic
Swartz. RO
11 Cheilosoria tenuifolia Pteridaceae FS To enrich the hair
(Burnm. f.) Trev growth
12 Cibotium barometz (L.) Cibotiaceae RH, Styptic, lumbago,
J. Sm. RO itching
13 Dicranopteris linearis Gleicheniaceae LE BO, PU Febrifuge, ulcer,
(Burnm. f.) Underw. wounds
(continued)
Table 5 (continued)
Part
14 Diplazium esculentum Athyriaceae LE Tonic after childbirth
(Retz.) Sw.
15 Drynaria quercifolia Polypodiaceae RH Cough, febrifuge
(L.) J. Sm.
16 Drynaria sparsisora Polypodiaceae FS, BO To treat eye sore,
(Desv.) T. Moore RH gonorrhea
17 Equisetum debile Roxb. Equisetaceae ST Joint problems
Ex Vaucher
18 Helminthostachys Ophioglossaceae FS, Dysentery, aphrodisiac,
zeylanica (L.) hook. LE, tonic to treat syphilis,
RH, whooping cough
WP
19 Lycopodiella cernua Lycopodiaceae FS, Cough, chronic asthma
(L.) pic. Serm. RH,
WP
20 Lycopodium carinatum Lycopodiaceae FS, CR To enrich the hair
Poir. RH growth
21 Lygodium circinatum Lygodiaceae FS, PU Insect bites, wounds
(Burnm. f.) Sw. RH
22 Lygodium flexuosum Lygodiaceae RH Gonorrhea, scabies,
(L.) Sw. rheumatism, eczema
23 Lygodium japonicum Lygodiaceae LE Expectorant
(Thunb.) Sw.
24 Lygodium Lygodiaceae FS, LE CR, PU Dysentery, skin
microphyllum (Cav.) diseases, swelling,
R. Br. cough
25 Microsorum rubidium Polypodiaceae RH PU Wound
(J.Sm.) Copell
26 Nephrolepis auriculata Nephrolepidaceae FS Hypertension
(L.) Trimen
27 Ophioglossum Ophioglossaceae FS Hair tonic
pendulum L.
28 Osmunda regalis L. Osmundaceae WP Rickets, rheumatism,
intestinal gripping,
tonic, styptic
29 Phymatosorus Polypodiaceae FS, Insect bites
longissimus (Blume) RH
pic. Serm.
30 Pityrogramma Pteridaceae RH, Kidney diseases,
calomelanos (L.) link WP dysentery
31 Platycerium holttumii Polypodiaceae LE Swellings
Joncheere &
Hennipman
32 Platycerium wallichii Polypodiaceae FS To treat inflammation
hook.
(continued)
Table 5 (continued)
Part
33 Pleocnemia irregularis Tectariaceae FS, Diarrhea, skin diseases
(C. Presl) Holttum LE,
RH
34 Pyrrosia lanceolata Polypodiaceae WP Cold, sore throat
(L.) Farw.
35 Pyrrosia Polypodiaceae FS, Cough, anticancer
nummulariifolia (Sw.) LE, properties
Ching WP
36 Pyrrosia piloselloides Polypodiaceae FS, Cough, gonorrhea,
(L.) M.G. Price LE, constipation, skin
WP diseases
37 Schizaea dichotoma Schizaeaceae FS, Cough, troubles of the
(L.) J. Sm. RH, throat, aphrodisiac
WP
38 Selaginella plana Selaginellaceae FS, CR Styptic
(Desv. Ex Pior.) Hieron. RH,
WP
39 Selaginella willdenowii Selaginellaceae FS, Ringworm, skin itches
(Desv. Ex Poir.) baker RH,
WP
40 Stenochlaena palustris Blechnaceae FS, Constipation, febrifuge
(Burnm. f.) Bedd. LE,
RH,
WP
Part used: FS Fronds, LE leaves, RH rhizome, RO root, SP spores, ST stem, WP whole plants
Preparation: BO Boiled, CR crushed, LO lotion, PU poultice
Table 6 Genera and species with highest numbers (Malaysia)

Polypodiaceae 5 9 1.8
Pteridaceae 5 5 1.0
Lygodiaceae 1 4 4.0
Tectariaceae 2 3 1.5
omparative Evaluation of Pteridophyte Taxa on the Basis

C
of Disease Groups
A total of 103 taxa of pteridophytes are used in traditional medicine. These are listed
in Table 7. The taxa determined in three countries show the following distribution: 19
taxa in Turkey, 59 taxa in Pakistan, and 40 taxa in Malaysia. A total of nine taxa are
common among Turkey-Pakistan, six between Pakistan and Malaysia, and only one
between Turkey and Malaysia (Table 7; Figs. 4 and 5). Only one taxon (Osmunda
regalis L.) is common in Turkey-Pakistan-Malaysia (Table 7; Figs. 4 and 5).
Table 7 Medicinal pteridophytes distributed in three countries, a general list

Taxa Turkey Pakistan Malaysia
1 Acrostichum aureum L. x
2 Actiniopteris australis link x
3 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. x x
4 Adiantum caudatum L. x
5 Adiantum chilense Kaulf. x
Var. sulphureum (Kaulf.) Kuntze ex Hicken
6 Adiantum incisum Forsk. x
7 Adiantum myriosorum baker x
8 Adiantum raddianum C. Presl. x
9 Adiantum venustum D. Don x
10 Allantodia aspera (Blume) Ching x x
11 Allantodia squamigera (Mett.) Ching x
12 Angiopteris evecta (G. Forst.) Hoffm. x
13 Angiopteris palmiformis (Cav.) C. Chr. x
14 Aspidium blechnoides Sm. x
15 Aspidium crenatus (Cav.) Ching x
16 Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L. x x
17 Asplenium dalhousiae hook. x
18 Asplenium nidus L. x
19 Asplenium scolopendrium L. x
20 Asplenium septentrionale (L.) Hoffm. x
21 Asplenium trichomanes L. x
22 Blechnum orientale L. x
23 Botrychium lunaria (L.) Sw. x
24 Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. x
25 Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongniart x
26 Ceterach officinarum Willd. x
27 Cheilanthes acrostica (Balb.) Tod. x
28 Cheilanthes albomarginata C.B. Clarke x
29 Cheilanthes bicolor Fraser-Jenk. x
30 Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.) Kaulf. x
31 Cheilanthes pteridioides C. Chr. x
32 Cheilanthes tenuifolia Swartz. x
33 Cheilosoria tenuifolia (Burm. f.) Trev. x
34 Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey & Jermy x
35 Cibotium barometz (L.) J.Sm. x
36 Deparia japonica (Thunb.) M. Kato x
37 Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw. x
38 Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. x x
39 Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm x
40 Drynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T. Moore x
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
41 Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don) C. Chr. x
42 Dryopteris erythrosora (D.C.Eaton) Kuntze x
43 Dryopteris filix-max (L.) Schott x
44 Dryopteris juxtaposita Christ x
45 Dryopteris nigropaleacea (Frase-Jenk.) Fraser-Jenk. x
46 Dryopteris raddeana (Fomin) Fomin x x
47 Dryopteris ramosa (C. Hope) C. Chr. x
48 Equisetum arvense L. x x
49 Equisetum debile Roxb. Ex Vaucher x x
50 Equisetum fluviatile L. x
51 Equisetum hyemale L. x
52 Equisetum palustre L. x x
53 Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. x x
54 Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. x
55 Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) hook. x
56 Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. Ex Vaucher) Ching x
57 Hypodematium crenatum (Forssk.) Kuhn x
58 Lycopodiella cernua (L.) pic. Serm. x
59 Lycopodium carinatum Poir. x
60 Lycopodium clavatum L. x
61 Lygodium circinatum (Burm. f.) Sw. x
62 Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. x
63 Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. x x
64 Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. x
65 Lygodium scandens (L.) Sw. x
66 Marsilea minuta L. x
67 Marsilea quadrifolia L. x
68 Microsorum membranaceum (D. Don) Ching x
69 Microsorum rubidium (J.Sm.) Copell. x
70 Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen x
71 Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl x
72 Ophioglossum capense Sw. x
73 Ophioglossum pendulum L. x
74 Ophioglossum petiolatum hook. x
75 Ophioglossum vulgatum L. x
76 Osmunda regalis L. x x x
77 Pellaea calomelanos (Sw.) link x
78 Phymatosorus longissimus (Blume) pic. Serm. x
79 Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) link x
80 Platycerium holttumii Joncheere & Hennipman x
81 Platycerium wallichii hook. x
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
82 Pleocnemia irregularis (C. Presl) Holttum x
83 Polypodium vulgare L. x
84 Polystichum aculeatum (L.) Roth x
85 Polystichum lonchitis (L.) Roth x
86 Polystichum squarrosum (D. Don) fee x
87 Pseudophegopteris levingei (C.B. Clarke) Ching x
88 Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv. x
89 Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. x x
90 Pteridium revolutum (Blume) Nakai x
91 Pteris cretica L. x x
92 Pteris quadriaurita Retz. x
93 Pteris vittata L. x
94 Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farw. x
95 Pyrrosia nummulariifolia (Sw.) Ching x
96 Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price x
97 Salvinia adnata Desv. x
98 Salvinia auriculata Aubl. x
99 Schizaea dichotoma (L.) J. Sm. x x
100 Selaginella plana (Desv. Ex Pior.) Hieron. x
101 Selaginella willdenowii (Desv. Ex Poir.) baker x
102 Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bedd. x
103 Woodwardia radicans (L.) Sm. x
Fig. 4 Venn diagram Turkey Pakistan

representing the overlap of
medicinally important
pteridophytes cited from 10 45
8
three countries
1
5
34
Malaysia
Fig. 5 Some medicinal pteridophytes distributed in three countries. 1: Osmunda regalis (www.
floraitaliae.actaplantorum.org); 2: Pteridium aquilinum (www.freenatureimages.eu); 3: Diplazium
esculentum (www.onlineplantguide.com); 4: Asplenium adiantum-nigrum (www.en.wikipedia.
org); 5: Equisetum arvense (www.botanologio.com); 6: Equisetum debile (www.macaubiodiver-
sity.org); 7: Pteris cretica (www.nzpcn.org.nz); 8: Adiantum capillus-veneris (www.luirig.alterv-
ista.org)
Digestive System
The use of plants for medicinal purposes is categorized as follows: stomachache,

stomach disorders, abdominal pain, gastrointestinal diseases, intestinal parasites/
anthelmintic/against worms, ulcer, gallstones, gallbladder diseases, carminative,
appetizing, dysentery, emetic/vomiting, digestive powder, stomach cramps, intesti-
nal inflammation, intestinal wounds, intestinal gripping, and abdominal problems.
These are seen in all three countries. Their use in stomachache, intestinal parasites/
anthelmintic/against worms, and ulcer disease group is outlined in traditional folk
medicine (Table 8). If evaluated on a nationality basis, the most common disease
group is stomachache in Turkey; dysentery, emetic/vomiting, and intestinal para-
sites/anthelmintic/against worms in Pakistan; and dysentery in Malaysia.
Dermal System
Use as medicine is categorized as wounds, eczema, skin diseases, hair straighteners/

hair tonic, vulnerary, anti-dandruff, strengthen skin and nails, burns, acne, skin
allergy, scabies, leprosy, skin itches/itching, skin infection, falling hairs, and ring-
worm that are seen in all three countries. The use in wounds, skin diseases, and hair
straighteners/hair tonic disease groups is mentioned in traditional folk medicine at
length (Table 9). An evaluation on a nationality basis reveals that the most common
disease groups are wounds and eczema in Turkey; wounds in Pakistan; and skin
diseases and hair straighteners/hair tonic in Malaysia.
Respiratory System
Evaluation in the treatment of different diseases is categorized as shortness of

breath/asthma, bronchitis, cough, expectorant, tuberculosis, chest tightness, cold,
lung injury, flu, emollient, chest pain, lung disorders, pneumonia, catarrh, chest
congestion, and whooping cough that are seen in all three research areas. In these
three countries, the use of pteridophytes in shortness of breath/asthma, cough,
expectorant, and cold disease groups is mentioned in the traditional folk medicine
of all three countries (Table 10). If evaluated on a nationality basis, the most com-
mon disease groups are shortness of breath/asthma in Turkey; cough and cold in
Pakistan; and cough in Malaysia.
Table 8 Number of pteridophytes used in the digestive system disorders in three countries
Medicinal use categories Turkey Pakistan Malaysia
Stomachache 8 2 1
Stomach disorders 3 2 –
Abdominal pain 3 – –
Gastrointestinal diseases 3 1 –
Intestinal parasites/anthelmintic/against worms 2 3 2
Ulcer 2 1 2
Gallstones 2 1 –
Gallbladder diseases 2 – –
Carminative 2 – –
Appetizing 1 – –
Dysentery – 5 4
Emetic/vomiting – 3 –
Digestive powder – 1 –
Stomach cramps – 1 –
Intestinal inflammation – 1 –
Intestinal wounds – – 1
Intestinal gripping – – 1
Abdominal problems – – 1
Table 9 Number of pteridophytes used in the dermal system disorders in three countries
Wounds 6 11 3
Eczema 6 – 1
Skin diseases 4 3 5
Hair straighteners/hair tonic 2 3 5
Vulnerary 1 – 1
Anti-dandruff 1 – –
Strengthen skin and nails 1 – –
Burns 1 2 –
Acne 1 – –
Skin allergy – 1 –
Scabies – 2 1
Leprosy – 3 1
Skin itches/itching – 1 2
Skin infection – 1 –
Falling hairs – 1 –
Ringworm – – 1
Table 10 Number of pteridophytes used in the respiratory system disorders in three countries
Shortness of breath/asthma 5 2 1
Bronchitis 3 3 –
Cough 2 6 6
Expectorant 2 3 1
Tuberculosis 2 – –
Chest tightness 2 – –
Cold 1 4 1
Lung injury 1 – –
Flu – 2 –
Emollient – 1 –
Chest pain – 1 –
Lung disorders – 1 –
Pneumonia – 1 –
Catarrh – 2 –
Chest congestion – 2 –
Whooping cough – – 1
Urogenital System
The medicinal evaluation is categorized as diuretic, kidney stone, hemorrhoids, kid-

ney diseases/renal disorders, urinary tract diseases, kidney sand, constipation, pros-
tate diseases, cystitis/urinary bladder complaints, swollen testicles, urinary
antiseptic, nephritis, diarrhea/diarrhoea, nephralgia, gonorrhea, laxative, spermator-
rhea, and purgative that have been recorded from all three countries. In all these
countries, use of medicinal pteridophytes in kidney diseases/renal disorders, consti-
pation, and cystitis/urinary bladder complaints disease groups is outlined in tradi-
tional folk medicine (Table 11). On a nationality basis, the most common disease
groups are diuretic, kidney stone, hemorrhoids, kidney diseases/renal disorders,
urinary tract diseases, kidney sand, and constipation in Turkey; diuretic and diar-
rhea/diarrhoea in Pakistan; and gonorrhea in Malaysia.
Cardiovascular System
The pteridophytes are used in the following categories: arteriosclerosis, tension

regulator, stop internal bleeding, anticoagulant, hemostatic in inner bleeding, circu-
latory disorders, vasodilating, anemia, cardiac deficiency, tachycardia, hyperten-
sion, blood purification, cardiovascular diseases, bleeding, malaria, congestion,
hypotensive, and styptic in all three countries. Use of plants from this group in
hypertension is mentioned in traditional folk medicine as well (Table 12). When
evaluated on a nationality basis, the most common disease groups are arteriosclero-
sis, tension regulator, and stop internal bleeding in Turkey; blood purification,
bleeding, and malaria in Pakistan; and styptic in Malaysia.
Table 11 Number of pteridophytes used in the urogenital system disorders in three countries
Diuretic 10 5 –
Kidney stone 10 1 –
Hemorrhoids 7 – –
Kidney diseases/renal disorders 6 1 1
Urinary tract diseases 5 1 –
Kidney sand 5 – –
Constipation 4 1 2
Prostate diseases 3 1 –
Cystitis/urinary bladder complaints 2 1 1
Swollen testicles 1 – –
Urinary antiseptic 1 – –
Nephritis 1 – –
Diarrhea/diarrhoea 1 5 1
Nephralgia 1 – –
Gonorrhea – 2 4
Laxative – 2 –
Spermatorrhea – 2 –
Purgative – 1 –
Table 12 Number of pteridophytes used in the cardiovascular disorders in three countries
Arteriosclerosis 4 – –
Tension regulator 2 – –
Internal bleeding 2 – –
Anticoagulant 1 – –
Hemostatic at inner bleeding 1 – –
Circulatory disorders 1 – –
Vasodilating 1 – –
Anemia 1 – –
Cardiac deficiency 1 – –
Tachycardia 1 – –
Hypertension 1 1 1
Blood purification 1 2 –
Cardiovascular diseases 1 1 –
Bleeding – 2 –
Malaria – 2 –
Congestion – 1 –
Hypotensive – 1 –
Styptic – – 3
Table 13 Number of pteridophytes used in the skeletal-muscular disorders in three countries
Rheumatism 5 4 2
Edema 1 – –
Calcification 1 – –
Pain in former broken bones 1 – –
Bone fracture – 2 –
Backache – 1 –
Dislocation of bones – 1 –
Joint pain – 1 –
Gout – 1 –
Rickets – 1 1
Lumbago – – 1
Joint problems – – 1
Table 14 Number of pteridophytes used in the gynecological disorders in three countries
Medicinal use category Turkey Pakistan Malaysia
Menstrual regulatory 3 2 –
Female sterility/infertility – 4 –
Fertility – 1 –
Abortifacient – 1 –
Ovaritis 1 – –
Gynecology diseases 1 – –
Treatment (or tonic) after childbirth – – 2
Skeletal-Muscular System
The medicinal uses of pteridophytes in three countries can be categorized as rheu-

matism, edema, calcification, pain in former broken bones, bone fracture, backache,
dislocation of bones, joint pain, gout, rickets, lumbago, and problems related to
joints. Their use in rheumatism is mentioned in traditional folk medicine at length
(Table 13). If evaluated on a nationality basis, the most common disease groups are
rheumatism in Turkey and Malaysia, but rheumatism and bone fracture in Pakistan.
Gynecological System
Pteridophytes are medicinally used in the treatment of; menstrual regulatory, female

sterility/infertility, fertility, abortifacient, ovaritis, gynecology diseases, and treat-
ment (or tonic) after childbirth are seen in all these countries. On a nationality basis,
the most common disease groups are menstrual regulatory in Turkey; female steril-
ity/infertility and menstrual regulatory in Pakistan; and treatment (or tonic) after
childbirth in Malaysia (Table 14).
Table 15 Number of pteridophytes used in the ear, nose, and throat disorders in three countries
Tonsillitis 3 – –
Throat inflammation 1 – –
Sinusitis 1 – –
Nose bleeds 1 – –
Sore throat – 2 1
Earache – 1 –
Troubles of the throat – – 1
Table 16 Number of pteridophytes used in the neurological and psychological disorders in three
countries
Headache 1 2 –
Demulcent – 2 –
Stimulate – 1 –
Insomnia – 1 –
Epilepsy – 1 –
Migraine – 1 –
Nerve relaxant – 1 –
Sedative – – 1
Ear, Nose, and Throat System
The medicinal uses can be categorized as tonsillitis, throat inflammation, sinusitis,

stop nose bleeding, sore throat, earache, and throat troubles met with in all three
countries (Table 15). In an evaluation on a nationality basis, the most common dis-
ease groups are tonsillitis in Turkey; sore throat in Pakistan; and sore throat and
throat troubles in Malaysia (Table 15).
Neurological and Psychological System
The use for medicinal purposes can be categorized as headache, demulcent, insom-
nia, epilepsy, migraine, nerve relaxant, and sedative as seen in all three countries.
When evaluated on a nationally basis, the most common disease groups are head-
ache in Turkey; headache and demulcent in Pakistan; and sedative in Malaysia
(Table 16).
Table 17 Number of pteridophytes used in the mouth and teeth ailments in three countries
Gum inflammations 2 – –
Mouth inflammation 2 – –
Toothache 1 – –
Mouth sores – 1 –
Gingivitis – 1 –
For cleaning and shinning of teeth – 1 –
Mouth and Teeth Ailments
The medicinal evaluation can be categorized as gum inflammations, mouth inflam-

mation, toothache, mouth sores, gingivitis, and teeth cleaning and shinning as
observed in all three countries (Table 17). On a nationality basis, the most common
disease groups are gum inflammations and mouth inflammation in Turkey, and
mouth sores, gingivitis, and cleaning and shinning of teeth in Pakistan (Table 17).
Other Ailments
These can be categorized as diabetes, liver diseases, cancer, irritated body region,
tonic, aphrodisiac, pain, antifungal, veterinary purposes, hepatitis, general body
weakness, anti-leptotrichia, antiperspirant, intertrigo, roborant, febrifuge/fever,
snake bites, scorpion bites, jaundice, against lice, antibacterial, dog bite, cholera,
spleen stones, diaphoretic, antiviral, measles, eye disorders, swellings, insect bites,
inflammation, body odor, beriberi, tonic to treat syphilis, and depurative that are
seen in all three countries. Their use as tonic, aphrodisiac, in pains, and antifungal
are mentioned in traditional folk medicine as well (Table 18). On a nationality basis,
the most common disease groups are diabetes, liver diseases, and cancer in Turkey;
febrifuge/fever, snake bites, tonic, aphrodisiac, and scorpion bites in Pakistan; and
febrifuge/fever and swellings in Malaysia.
An evaluation of the data presented above depicts that, on the basis of diseases
major number of taxa are used for urogenital system disorders (29.69%), followed
by digestive system disorders (14.58%) and dermal system disorders (11.98%) in
Turkey. In Pakistan this distribution is as follows: for respiratory disorders and der-
mal system disorders (14.14% each), followed by urogenital system disorders
(11.62%). The data for Malaysia reveals that use for dermal system disorders
(22.99%) is followed by digestive system disorders (13.79%) and respiratory disor-
ders (11.49%) (Table 19; Fig. 6). In all three countries, diseases related to the herbal
treatments of digestive, respiratory, dermal, and urogenital systems top the list
(Table 19; Fig. 6); other ailments in Pakistan (27.27%) and Malaysia (25.29%)
stand at high level on the basis of treatment with pteridophytes, whereas in Turkey
the ratio is medium (9.89%) (Table 19; Fig. 6). The neurological and psychological
Table 18 Number of pteridophytes used in other ailments in three countries

Diabetes 3 3 –
Liver diseases 2 – –
Cancer 2 – 1
Irritated body region 1 – –
Tonic 1 5 1
Aphrodisiac 1 4 2
Pain 1 3 2
Antifungal 1 1 1
Veterinary purposes 1 1 –
Hepatitis 1 1 –
General body weakness 1 3 –
Anti-leptotrichia 1 – –
Antiperspirant 1 – –
Intertrigo 1 – –
Roborant 1 – –
Febrifuge/fever – 7 4
Snake bites – 7 –
Scorpion bites – 4 –
Jaundice – 3 –
Against lice – 2 –
Antibacterial – 2 –
Dog bite – 2 –
Cholera – 1 –
Spleen stones – 1 –
Diaphoretic – 1 –
Antiviral – 1 –
Measles – 1 –
Eye disorders – 1 1
Swellings – – 3
Insect bites – – 2
Inflammation – – 1
Body odor – – 1
Beriberi – – 1
Tonic to treat syphilis – – 1
Depurative – – 1
system disorders in Pakistan (4.55%) stand at medium level on the basis of treat-
ment with medicinal pteridophytes, whereas in Malaysia the ratio is low (1.15%)
and in Turkey very very low (0.52%) (Table 19; Fig. 6). In addition, the disorders
related to the mouth and teeth ailments in Turkey (2.60%) and Pakistan (1.51%)
stand at low level on the basis of treatment with medicinal pteridophytes, whereas
in Malaysia the ratio is 0% (Table 19; Fig. 6).
Table 19 Therapeutic uses of pteridophytes in three countries (%)

Digestive system disorders 14.58 10.61 13.79
Respiratory system disorders 9.38 14.14 11.49
Urogenital system disorders 29.69 11.62 10.34
Dermal system disorders 11.98 14.14 22.99
Cardiovascular system disorders 9.38 5.05 4.60
Skeletal-muscular system disorders 6.25 5.56 5.75
Gynecological system disorders 2.60 4.04 2.30
Ear, nose, and throat system disorders 3.13 1.51 2.30
Neurological and psychological system 0.52 4.55 1.15
Mouth and teeth ailment system 2.60 1.51 –
Other ailments 9.89 27.27 25.29
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Turkey Pakistan Malaysia
Fig. 6 Comparison of therapeutic uses of pteridophytes in three countries (%)
On the basis of top three diseases in each of these countries, maximum use is as
follows: diuretic (10 taxa), kidney stone (10 taxa), and stomachache (8 taxa) in
Turkey; wound (11 taxa), febrifuge (7 taxa), and snake bites (7 taxa) in Pakistan;
and cough (6 taxa), skin diseases (5 taxa), and hair tonic (5 taxa) in Malaysia
(Table 20).
In Turkey and Pakistan five taxa are widely distributed and used almost for the
same applications: Adiantum capillus-veneris (for cough, gastrointestinal diseases,
diuretic, shortness of breath/asthma, expectorant, bronchitis, and chest tightness/
chest pain), Equisetum arvense (for kidney stone, urinary tract diseases, wounds,
prostate diseases, hair straighteners/hair tonic, cystitis, diabetes, and gallstone/gall-
bladder diseases), Equisetum ramosissimum (for diuretic, skin diseases, kidney
stone and sand, and wounds), Osmunda regalis (for rickets and rheumatism), and
Pteridium aquilinum (for intestinal parasites/against worms) (Table 21). For
Table 20 Pteridophytes used for the most common ten diseases in three countries
Number of Number of Number of
No Turkey taxa Pakistan taxa Malaysia taxa
1 Diuretic 10 Wound 11 Cough 6
2 Kidney stone 10 Febrifuge 7 Skin diseases 5
3 Stomachache 8 Snake bites 7 Hair tonic 5
4 Hemorrhoids 7 Cough 6 Dysentery 4
5 Wound 6 Diuretic 5 Gonorrhea 4
6 Kidney diseases 6 Dysentery 5 Febrifuge/ 4
fever
7 Eczema 6 Tonic 5 Wounds 3
8 Shortness of 5 Rheumatism 4 Swellings 3
breath
9 Urinary tract 5 Aphrodisiac 4 Styptic 3
diseases
10 Rheumatism 5 Female 4 Aphrodisiac 2
sterility
Table 21 Same and/or similar uses of pteridophytes in three countries

1 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Cough Cough
Gastrointestinal Gastrointestinal
diseases diseases
Diuretic Diuretic
Shortness of breath Asthma
Expectorant Expectorant
Bronchitis Bronchitis
Chest tightness Chest pain
2 Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Tonic Tonic
Sw.
3 Equisetum arvense L. Kidney stone Kidney stone
Urinary tract diseases Urinary tract diseases
Wounds Wounds
Prostate diseases Prostate diseases
Hair straighteners Hair tonic
Cystitis Cystitis
Diabetes Diabetes
Gallstone Gallbladder diseases
4 Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Diuretic Diuretic
Skin diseases Skin infections
Kidney stone and sand Renal disorders
Wounds Wound healing
5 Osmunda regalis L. Rickets Rickets
Rheumatism Rheumatism
6 Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Intestinal parasites Against worms
Pakistan and Malaysia only one taxa is used for the same applications, Diplazium
esculentum (for tonic) (Table 21). There are no common taxa between Turkey and
Malaysia for the same applications (Table 21).
Conclusion
Pteridophytes embody immense potential in the development of allopathic medi-

cines and their evaluation in the treatment of some dangerous and epidemic dis-
eases. The taxa known to us and used since ancient times in homeopathic and
Ayurvedic systems need to be followed in depth. These medicines can be produced
in large quantities for use by the commons and their supply arranged in order to
meet its requirement at a global scale. Most important information we have is that
the herbal medicines hardly show any side effects. Such plants can be prescribed as
herbal formulations to cure many diseases with a great scope of economic earnings.
Several uses of pteridophytes have been recorded by locals in the treatment of health
problems, but we need proper screening, testing, characterization, and validation of
compounds together with their theraupeutical values (Singh et al. 2010).
The decorative ferns are in great demand at the international markets which can
be cultivated at a large scale engaging indigenous communities to maintain their
better livelihood (Singh et al. 2010). Several researchers have stressed the need for
evaluation of pteridophytes and a detailed information has been put forth by
Goswami et al. (2016). These workers have strongly emphasized the fact that there
is an immediate need for all organic chemists and biochemists, evolutionary and
molecular geneticists, and pharmaceutical faculty researchers and industries to con-
centrate on this group of plants to evaluate the tremendous genetic potentials of
pteridophytes. This should be not only for producing useful drugs but also to con-
serve health of our ecosystems in particular forests. The pteridophytes commonly
known as seedless vascular plants are used by tribal, isolated populations in differ-
ent regions of the world, for different ailments or disorders (Goswami et al. 2016).
All through the history of humans these seedless plants have been used on a large
scale as ornamentals, in domestic utensils, in handicrafts, as components of cos-
metic formulations and foodstuffs, and for medicinal purposes (Morais-Braga et al.
2012). The therapeutic effectiveness, as well as scientific curiosity and the need for
new drugs, has prompted several groups to conduct pharmacological research on
these plants (Cao et al. 2017). Studies undertaken on the pharmacological have
shown that substances in this group of lower plants exhibit diverse pharmacological
effects such as cytotoxicity (Radhika et al. 2010), hepatoprotective activity (Wills
and Asha 2006), antihyperglycemic activity (Zheng et al. 2011a; Zheng et al.
2011b), leishmanicidal activity (Socolsky et al. 2016), trypanocidal activity (Morais-
Braga et al. 2013a; Morais-Braga et al. 2013b), anti-nociceptive activity, anti-
inflammatory activity (Yonathan et al. 2006), immunomodulatory activity (Wu et al.
2005), and chemopreventive effects (Wills and Asha 2009). There is a great need for
new medicines with such activities. The pteridophytes together with other lower
plants could be a solution for the treatment of several present-time diseases due to
their secondary metabolites (Cao et al. 2017).
References
Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Zafar M (2011) Medicinal plant biodiversity of lesser
Himalayas-Pakistan. Springer Science & Business Media
Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Jahan S, Sultana S (2010) Ethnopharmacological
application of medicinal plants to cure skin diseases and in folk cosmetics among the tribal
communities of North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 128(2):322–335
Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Khan H, Muhammad N, Sultana S (2009) Medicinal
plants used for the treatment of jaundice and hepatitis based on socio-economic documenta-
tion. Afr J Biotechnol 8(8):1643–1650
Ahmad I, Ibrar M, Barkatullah AN (2011) Ethnobotanical Study of Tehsil Kabal, Swat District,
KPK, Pakistan. J Bot:1–9
Ahmad KS, Habib S (2014) Indigenous knowledge of some medicinal plants of Himalaya region,
Dawarian Village, Neelum Valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Univ J Plant Sci
2(2):40–47
Ahmed E, Arshad M, Saboor A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G, Sadiq S, Chaudhari SK (2013)
Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of plants in Patriata, New Murree. J Ethnobiol
Ethnomed 9(1):1–11
Akan H, M.M.B. Aslan (2005) GAP yöresindeki tıbbi ve aromatik bitkiler. TUBITAK Proje No:
TBAG/Ç. SEK 22 (103-T009)
Akbulut S, Bayramoglu MM (2014) Reflections of socio-economic and demographic structure of
urban and rural on the use of medicinal and aromatic plants: the sample of Trabzon province.
Ethno Med 8(1):89–100
Akdoğan H, Akgün B (2006) Göksun (Kahramanmaras) çevresinde halk ilacı olarak kullanılan
bazı bitkisel gıdalar. Türkiye 9. Gıda Kongresi (Food Congress), 24–26 May, Bolu, Turkey,
pp 183–186
Alam N, Shinwari ZK, Ilyas M, Ullah Z (2011) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of
Chagharzai valley, District Buner. Pakistan Pak J Bot 43(2):773–780
Ali S (2014) Eco-taxonomic study of district Buner (KPK) Pakistan. Ph D thesis. University of
Karachi, Pakistan
Ali S, Perveen A, Qaiser M (2015) Vegetation structure, edaphalogy and ethnobotany of Mahaban
and Malka (district Buner) KPK, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 47(SI):15–22
Ali SI, Qaiser M (1986) A phytogeographic analysis of the phanerogams of Pakistan and Kashmir.
Proc Royal Soc Edinburgh 89B:89–101
Alpınar K (1999) Ayvalık (Balıkesir) ve yakınındaki adaların floristik ve etnobotanik açıdan
değerlendirilmesi. TBAG-1407
Altan Y, Alçıtepe E (2000) Kuşadası (Aydın)‘nın Etnobotanik Özellikleri. Geçmişten Geleceğe
Kuşadası Sempozyumu, 23–26 Şubat 2000, Meta Basım, Izmir, pp 499–506
Arıcan YE, Yeşil Y, Genç GE (2013) A preliminary ethnobotanical survey of Kumluca (Antalya).
J Fac Pharm Istanbul 43(2):95–102
Arosa ML, Ceia RS, Quintanilla LG, Ramos JA (2012) The tree fern Dicksonia antarctica invades
two habitats of European conservation priority in São Miguel Island, Azores. Biol Invasions
14(7):1317–1323
Arshad M, Ahmad M (2004) Medico-botanical investigation of medicinally important plants from

Galiat areas-NWFP (Pakistan). In: Internationl symposium medicinal plants: linkages beyond
national boundaries, September 7–9, 2004, Pakistan, pp 240–249
Arshad M, Ahmad M (2005) Ethnobotanical study of Galliyat for botanical demography and bio-
ecological diversification. Ethnobot Leaflets 1(4):1–30
Aslan A, Mat A, Özhatay N, Sarıyar G (2007) A contribution to traditional medicine in West
Anatolia. J Fac Pharm Istanbul 39:73–83
Awan MR, Iqbal Z, Shah SM, Jamal Z, Jan G, Afzal M et al (2011) Studies on traditional knowl-
edge of economically important plants of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra District. Pakistan J Med
Plants 5(16):3958–3967
Balick MJ, Furth DG, Cooper-Driver G (1978) Biochemical and evolutionary aspects of arthropod
predation on ferns. Oecologia 89:55–89
Barkatullah IM, Rauf A, Ben Hadda T, Mubarak MS, Patel S (2015) Quantitative ethnobotanical
survey of medicinal flora thriving in Malakand Pass Hills, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Başer KHC, Honda G, Mıkı W (1986) Herb drugs and herbalists in Turkey. Institue for the study of
languages and cultures of Asia and Africa. Studia Culturae Islamicae. 27, Tokyo
Baytop T (1984) Türkiye’de Bitkiler ile Tedavi. Istanbul. İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları No: 3255,
Eczacılık Fakültesi No: 40, İstanbul
Benjamin A, Manickam VS (2007) Medicinal pteridophytes from the Western Ghats. Indian J Trad
Knowl 6(4):611–618
Bibi S, Sultana J, Sultana H, Malik RN (2014) Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the high-
lands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 155(1):352–361
Bulut EG, Tuzlacı E (2005) An ethnobotanical study in Bozcaada (Çanakkale-Turkey). IVth
International Congress of Ethnobotany (ICEB, 2005) pp 581–583
Bulut G (2011) Folk medicinal plants of Silivri (İstanbul-Turkey). Marmara Pharmaceut
J 1(15):25–29
Bulut G, Tuzlaci E (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Turgutlu (Manisa-
Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 149(3):633–647
Bulut G, Tuzlacı E (2015) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Bayrami̇ç. Marmara
Pharm J 19(3):268–282
Bulut Y (2006) Manavgat (Antalya) yöresinin faydalı bitkileri. Msc thesis. Suleyman Demirel
Uninersity, Isparta
Butt MA, Ahmad M, Fatima A, Sultana S, Zafar M, Yaseen G, Ashraf MA, Shinwari ZK, Kayani S
(2015) Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of snake and scorpion bite in Northern
Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 168:164–181
Caius JF (1935) The medicinal and poisonous ferns of India. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 38:341–361
Çakilcioglu U, Khatun S, Turkoglu I, Hayta S (2011) Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal
plants in Maden (Elazig-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 137(1):469–486
Çakılcıoğlu U, Türkoğlu İ, Kürşat M (2007) Harput (Elazığ) ve çevresinin etnobotanik özellikleri.
Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi Araştırmaları:22–28
Cao H, Chai TT, Wang X, Morais-Braga MFB, Yang JH, Wong FC et al (2017) Phytochemicals
from fern species: potential for medicine applications. Phytochem Rev 16(3):379–440
Çömlekçioğlu N, Karaman Ş (2008) Kahramanmaraş şehir merkezindeki aktarlarda bulunan tıbbi
bitkiler. KSU J Sci Eng 11(1):23–32
Cooper-Drive G (1978) Insect-fern associations. Entomol Exp Appl 24:310–316
Demirci S, Özhatay N (2012) Wild plants used for medicinal purpose in Andırın, Kahramanmaraş.
Turkish. J Pharm Sci 9(1):75–92
Doğanoğlu Ö, Gezer A, Yücedağ C (2006) Studies on some important medicinal and aromatic
plant taxa in Yenişarbademli locality of Lakes District. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen
Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi 10(1):66–73
Ertug F (1999) Plant, animal and human relationships in the Folk Medicine of Turkey. In: Herbs,
humans and animals proceedings of the international seminar, Coreglia (Tuscany), Italy. Koln:
Experiences, pp 45–63
Ertuğ F (2004) Bodrum yöresinde halk tıbbında yararlanılan bitkiler. Retrieved from documents.
anadolu.edu. tr/bihat/e-kitap/fertugpdf.pdf E
Ertuğ F, Tümen G, Çelik A, Dirmenci T (2004) Buldan (Denizli) etnobotanik alan araştırması
2003. TÜBA Kültür Envanteri Dergisi 2
Eryaşar P (1998) Gönen (Balıkesir) yöresinin geleneksel halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkileri.
Marmara Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Farmasötik Botanik Anabilim Dalı. Yüksek
Lisans Tezi, İstanbul
Everest A, Ozturk E (2005) Focusing on the ethnobotanical uses of plants in Mersin and Adana
provinces (Turkey). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 1:1–6
Ezer N, Arisan OM (2006) Folk medicines in Merzifon (Amasya, Turkey). Turk J Bot 30(3):223–230
Fakir H, Korkmaz M, Güller B (2009) Medicinal plant diversity of Western Mediterranean Region
in Turkey. J Appl Biol Sci 3(2):3–4
Fenercioğlu E (1997) Şile (İstanbul) yöresinin geleneksel halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkileri. Msc
thesis. Marmara University, Istanbul
Fujita T, Sezik E, Tabata M, Yeşilada E, Honda G, Takeda Y, Tanaka T, Takaishi Y (1995)
Traditional medicine in Turkey VII. Folk medicine in middle and west Black Sea Regions.
Econ Bot 49:406–422
Genç EG, Özhatay N (2006) An ethnobotanical study in Çatalca (European part of Istanbul)
II. Turk J Pharmaceut Sci 3(2):73–89
Gençay A (2007) Cizre (Şırnak)‘Nin Etnobotanik Özellikleri. Msc thesis. Yüzüncü Yıl University,
Van
Gerson U (1979) The associations between pteridophytes and arthropods. Fern Gazette 12:29–45
Goswami HK (2009) Non angiospermic plants are also ancient medicinal plants: conserve and
explore them. Bionature 29:95–107
Goswami HK, Sen K, Mukhopadhyay R (2016) Pteridophytes: evolutionary boon as medicinal
plants. Plant Genet Resour: Charact Util 14(4):328–355
Gul A, Alam J, Ahmad H, Irfan M (2016) An updated checklist of pteridophytes of district
Mansehra, Khyber Pukhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Int J Biosci 9(5):116–133
Güler B, Manav E, Uğurlu E (2015) Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Bozüyük
(Bilecik-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 173:39–47
Istanbul-Türkiye. Nezahat Gökyiğit Botanik Bahçesi ve Flora Araştırmaları Derneği Yayını
Gürdal B, Kültür Ş (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Marmaris (Muğla,
Hamayun M (2007) Traditional uses of some medicinal plants of Swat Valley. Pakistan Indian
J Traditional Knowl 6(4):636–641
Hamayun M, Khan MA, Chudhary MF, Ahmad H (2007) Studies on traditional knowledge of
medicinal herbs of Swat Kohistan, District Swat, Pakistan. J Herbs Spices Med Plants
12(4):11–28
Hayta S, Polat R, Selvi S (2014) Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Elazığ (Turkey).
Honda G, Yeşilada E, Tabata M, Sezik E, Fujita T, Takeda Y et al (1996) Traditional medicine in
Turkey VI. Folk medicine in West Anatolia: Afyon, Kutahya, Denizli, Mugla, Aydin provinces.
Hussain W, Hussain J, Ali R, Hussain S, Khan MA, Khan I et al (2012) Phytomedicinal stud-
ies of kurram agency in the federally administered tribal areas (FATA) of Pakistan. J Appl
Pharmaceut Sci 2(10):81–85
Jahns HM (1983) Collins guide to the Ferns, Mosses and Lichens of Britain and North and Central
Europe. William Collins Sons and Co. Ltd, London
Karataş H (2007) Ilgaz (Çankırı) ilçesi ve çevresinin etnobotaniği. MSc thesis. Gazi University,
Ankara
Kargioğlu M, Cenkci S, Serteser A, Evliyaoğlu N, Konuk M, Kök MŞ, Bag̀ci Y (2008) An ethno-
botanical survey of inner-west Anatolia, Turkey. Hum Ecol 36(5):763–777
Karthik V, Raju K, Ayyanar M, Gowrishankar K, Sekar T (2011) Ethnomedicinal uses of pterido-
phytes in Kolli Hills, Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India 1(2): 50–55
Kaval I, Behçet L, Cakilcioglu U (2014) Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Geçitli and
its surrounding (Hakkari-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 155(1):171–184
Kayani S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Khan MPZ, Ashraf MA et al (2014) Ethnobotanical uses
of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies- Abbottabad,
Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 156:47–60
Khan KU (2014) Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacognostic exploration of Folk medicines of
Deosai Plateau Ph D thesis. Hazara University, Pakistan
Khan MT, Hashim S, Ayub S, Jan A, Marwat KB (2015) A case study of ethnobotany and biodi-
versity conservation from tehsil Barawal, Upper Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Pak J Bot 47:7–13
Kilic O, Bagci E (2013) An ethnobotanical survey of some medicinal plants in Keban (Elazg-
Turkey). J Med Plant Res 7(23):1675–1684
Koçak, S. (1999) Karaman yöresinde etnobotanik bir araştırma. Msc thesis. Istanbul University,
Istanbul
Koçyiğit M, Özhatay N (2006) Wild plants used as medicinal purpose in Yalova (Northwest
Turkey). Turk J Pharmaceut Sci 3(2):91–103
Korkmaz M, Fakir H, Guller B (2011) Consumer preferences for medicinal and aromatic plant
products: surveys of urban consumers and sellers in western mediterranean region of Turkey.
J Med Plant Res 5(10):2054–2063
Korkmaz M, Karakurt E (2014) Medicinal plants sold in the herbal markets in Kelkit (Gümüşhane).
Suleyman Demirel Univ J Nat Appl Sci 18(3):60–80
Kültür Ş (2007) Medicinal plants used in Kirklareli Province (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol
111(2):341–364
Kumar A, Kaushik P (1999) Antibacterial activity of Adiantum capillus-veneris. Indian Fern
J 16:1–2
Latiff A (2016) Medicinal and aromatic ferns and lycophytes of Malaysia. Unpublished personal
report, Malaysia
Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN (2012) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from
Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 143(1):338–346
Mahmood A, Qureshi RA, Mahmood A, Sangi Y, Shaheen H, Ahmad I, Nawaz Z (2011)
Ethnobotanical survey of common medicinal plants used by people of district Mirpur,
AJK. Pakistan J Med Plants Res 5(18):4493–4498
Manandhar PN (1996) Ethnobotanical observations on ferns and fern allies of Nepal. J Econ Tax
Bot 12:414–422
Mart S (2006) Bahçe ve Hasanbeyli (Osmaniye) halkının kullandığı doğal bitkilerin etnobotanik
yönden araştırılması. Msc thesis. Çukurova University, Adana
Mart S, Türkmen N (2008) Bahçe ve Hasanbeyli (Osmaniye) bölgesinin etnobotanik kültürü. Ot
Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 15(2):137–150
Mehltreter K, Walker IR, Sharpe JM (2010) Fern ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Morais-Braga MF, Souza TM, Santos KK, Guedes GM, Andrade JC, Tintino SR (2012) Phenolic
compounds and interaction between aminoglycosides and natural products of Lygodium venus-
tum SW against multiresistant bacteria. Chemotherapy 58:337–340
Morais-Braga MFB, Souza TM, Santos KKA et al (2013a) Citotocixidade e atividade
antiparasita’ria de Lygodium venustum SW. Acta Toxicol Argos 21:1–12
Morais-Braga MFB, Souza TM, Santos KKA et al (2013b) Phenol composition, cytotoxic and
anti-kinetoplastidae activities of Lygodium venustum SW. (Lygodiaceae). Exp Parasitol
134:178–182
Murad W, Ahmad A, Gilani SA, Khan MA (2011) Indigenous knowledge and folk use of medicinal
plants by the tribal communities of Hazar Nao Forest, Malakand District. North Pakistan J Med
Plants Res 5(7):1072–1086
Nakaike T, Malik S (1992) A list of pteridophytes collected from Pakistan in 1990. Cryptogamic
Flora of Pakistan
Nasir E, Ali SI (1970–1995) Flora of Pakistan. Islamabad and Karachi: National Herbarium/
NARC and Department of Botany, University of Karachi
Nisar M, Ali Z (2012) Ethnobotanical wealth of Jandool Valley, Dir Lower, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
(Kpk), Pakistan. Int J Phytomed 4(3):351
Öz Aydın S, Dirmenci T, Tümen G, Başer KHC (2005) Plants used as analgesic in the folk medi-
cine of Turkey. In: Proceeding of the IVth international congress of ethnobotany (ICEB 2005),
pp 197–171
Özçelik H, Ay G, Öztürk M (1990) Doğu ve Güneydoğu Anadolu’nun ekonomik yönden önemli
bazı bitkileri. X. Ulusal Biyoloji Kongresi, 18–20 Temmuz 1990, Erzurum pp 1–10
Ozçelik H, Balabanlı C (2005) Burdur ilinin tıbbi ve aromatik bitkileri. In: I. Burdur Sempozyumu.
Burdur, Turkiye pp 1127–1136
Ozgokce F, Ozcelik H (2004) Ethnobotanical aspects of some taxa in east Anatolia, Turkey. Econ
Bot 58(4):697–704
Öztürk F, Ölçücü C (2011) Ethnobotanical features of some plants in the district Şemdinli
(Hakkari-Turkey). Int J Acad Res 3(1):117–121
Ozturk M, Altay V, Aksoy A (2016) Ecology of endangered endemic plant taxa of Turkiye in
relation to climate change. In: Conservation and sustainable use of genepool of plant World in
Eur Secur at the present stage International Scientific Conference within Day of Kazakhstan.
September 3, EXPO-2016, Antalya, Turkiye
Ozturk M, Altay V, Gonenç TM (2017b) Herbal from High Mountains in the East Mediterranean.
In: Bhojraj S et al (eds) Drug discovery from herbs - approaches and applications Centre for
Scinece & Technology of the non-aligned and other developing countries (NAM S & T Centre).
DAYA Publishing House, New Delhi., Chapter 24, pp 327–367
Ozturk M, Altay V, Gücel S, Altundağ E (2017a) Plant diversity of the Drylands in southeast
Anatolia-Turkey: role in human health and food security. In: Ansari AA, Gill SS (eds) Plant
biodiversity: monitoring, assessment and conservation. CABI, pp 83–124
Ozturk M, Altundağ E, Gücel S (2012b) Medicinal and aromatic plants (Turkey). Ethnopharmacol
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). Retrieved from http://www.eolss.net/sample-
chapters/c03/e6-79-48.pdf
Ozturk M, Gucel S, Altundag E, Mert T, Gork C, Gork G, Akcicek E (2012a) An overview of the
medicinal plants of Turkey. In: Singh R (ed) Genetic resources, chromosome engineering and
crop improvement: medicinal plants. CRC Press, LLC, Taylor & Francis, USA., Chapter 7,
pp 181–206
Ozturk M, Guvensen A, Aksoy A, Beyazgul M (2006) An overview of the Soil and sustainable land
use in Turkiye. In: Proceedings of the fifth international GAP engineering congress, Sanlıurfa,
Turkey, pp 1548–1555
Özüdoru B, Akaydin G, Erik S, Yesilada E (2011) Inferences from an ethnobotanical field expe-
dition in the selected locations of Sivas and Yozgat provinces (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol
137(1):85–98
Page CN (1979) The diversity of ferns, an ecological perspective. In: Dyer AF (ed) The experimen-
tal biology of ferns. Academic Press, London, pp 9–56
Parihar P, Parihar L, Bohra A (2004) Antifungal activity of Cheilanthes albomarginata Clarke and
Marsilea minuta Linn. against Aspergillus flavus. Indian Fern J 21:140–143
Parris BS, Latiff A (1997) Towards a pteridophyte flora of Malaysia: a provisional checklist of
taxa. Malayan Nat J 50:235–280
Polat R, Cakilcioglu U, Kaltalioğlu K, Ulusan MD, Türkmen Z (2015) An ethnobotanical study on
medicinal plants in Espiye and its surrounding (Giresun-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 163:1–11
Polat R, Cakilcioglu U, Satil F (2013) Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Solhan (Bingöl-
Polat R, Satil F (2012) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Edremit Gulf (Balikesir-
Polat R, Satıl F, Çakılcıoğlu U (2011) Medicinal plants and their use properties of sold in herbal
market in Bingöl (Turkey) district. Biol Divers Conserv J 4(3):25–35
Puri HS (1970) Indian pteridophytes used in folk remedies. Am Fern J 60:137–142
Radhika NK, Sreejith PS, Asha VV (2010) Cytotoxic and apoptotic activity of Cheilanthes farinosa
(Forsk.) Kaulf. Against human hepatoma, Hep3B cells. J Ethnopharmacol 128(1):166–171
Ridley HN (1922–1925) The flora of the Malay peninsula. L. Reeve & Co. Ltd, London vol. 1:
918., 2: 672, 3: 405, 4: 383, 5: 470
Ridley HN (1926) The ferns of the Malay peninsula. Journal of the Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic.
Society 4:1–121
Roos M (1996) Mapping the world’s pteridophyte diversity—systematic and floras. In: Camus JM
et al (eds) Pteridology in perspective. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, pp 29–42
Rost TL, Barbour MG, Stockinga CR, Murphy TM (2006) Plant biol Thomson Brooks/Cole,
Toronto
Sadıkoğlu E (2003) Koçarlı (Aydın) yöresinin geleneksel halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkileri. Msc
Sadıkoğlu N, Alpınar K (2000) Bartın: from an ethnobotanical point of view. In: XIII th meeting on
plant originated crude drugs proceeding book. Marmara University Press, pp 87–100
Sağıroğlu M, Olgaç E, Ertürk B, Turna M (2012) An ethnobotanical survey from Şile (Istanbul)
and Karasu (Sakarya). Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 19(2):93–104
Sağiroğlu M, Topuz T, Ceylan K, Turna M (2013) An ethnobotanical survey from Yahyalı (Kayseri)
and tarsus (Mersin). SAÜ Fen Edebiyat Dergisi 2:13–37
Saraç DU (2013) Rize ili etnobotanik özellikleri. Msc thesis. Karadeniz Teknik University, Trabzon
Saraç DU, Özkan ZC, Akbulut S (2013) Ethnobotanic features of Rize/Turkey province. Biol
Divers Conserv 6(3):57–66
Sargin SA (2015) Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Bozyazi district of Mersin, Turkey.
Sargin SA, Akçicek E, Selvi S (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the
local people of Alaşehir (Manisa) in Turkey. J Ethnopharmacol 150(3):860–874
Sargin SA, Selvi S, Büyükcengiz M (2015) Ethnomedicinal plants of Aydincik District of Mersin,
Turkey. J Ethnopharmacol 174:200–216
Sarı AO, Oğuz B, Güvensen A, Bilgiç A, Şenol SG, Tort N (2010) Ege ve Güney Marmara
Bölgelerinde halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkiler. Anadolu J AARI 20(2):1–21
Saw LG, Chung RCK (2015) The flora of Malaysia projects. Rodriguesia 66(4):947–960
Sezik E, Tabata M, Yeşilada E, Honda G, Goto K, Ikeshiro Y (1991) Traditional medicine in Turkey
I. Folk medicine in North-east Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol 35:191–196
Shah A, Marwat SK, Gohar F, Khan A, Bhatti KH, Amin M et al (2013) Ethnobotanical study of
medicinal plants of semi-tribal Area of Makerwal & amp; Gulla Khel (Lying between Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab Provinces), Pakistan. Am J Plant Sci 4(1):98–116
Shah AH (2015) Cultural drivers of plant biodiversity of district Tor Ghar. Ph.D thesis. Hazara
University, Pakistan
Shah AH, Khan SM, Shah AH, Mehmood A, Rahman IU, Ahmad H (2015) Cultural uses of plants
among Basikhel tribe of district tor Ghar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Pakistan Pak J Bot 47:23–41
Shaheen H, Qureshi R, Zehra I, Arshad M, Chaudhry AK, Iqbal S (2010) Ethnobotanical sur-
vey of Santh Saroola, Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Proceeding of 2nd International
Conference “Biodiversity is our life” (IC Biour Life) December 2010, Pakistan pp 137–153
Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, De Boer HJ (2015) Indigenous knowledge of folk medicines among tribal
minorities in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northwestern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 166:157–167
Shinwari MI, Shinwari MI (2010) Botanical diversity in Pakistan; past present and future. World
Environ:85–104
Shinwari ZK, Khan AA, Nakaike T (2003) Medicinal and other useful plants of District Swat,
Pakistan. WWF, Pakistan 68
Shinwari ZK, Watanabe T, Rehman M, Youshikawa T (2006) A pictorial guide to Medicinal Plants
of Pakistan. KUST. Kohat, Pakistan
Singh AP, Rawat VK, Behera SK, Khare PB (2010) Perspectives of Pteridophytes biodiversity: a
source of economy elevation. National Conference on biodiversity, development and poverty
alleviation, 22nd may, India pp 46–49
Smith AR, Pryer KM, Schuettpelz E, Korall P, Schneider H, Wolf PG (2006) A classification for
extant ferns. Taxon 55(3):705–731
Socolsky C, Salamanca E, Giménez A, Borkosky SA, Bardón A (2016) Prenylated
Acylphloroglucinols with Leishmanicidal activity from the Fern Elaphoglossum lindbergii.
J Nat Prod 79(1):98–105
Stewart RR (1972) An annotated catalogue of the vascular plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir.
Fakhri Print. Press
Sujarwo W, Lugrayasa N, Caneva G (2014) Ethnobotanical study of edible ferns used in Bali
Indonesia. J Sustain Food Energy 2(2):1–4
Sürmeli B, Sakcali S, Ozturk M, Serin M (2000) Preliminary studies on the medicinal plants of
Kilis. XIII. Plant Raw Materials Meeting. Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey pp 211–220
Tetik F (2011) Malatya ilinin etnobotanik değeri olan bitkileri üzerine bir araştırma. Msc thesis.
Fırat University, Elazığ
Toksoy D, Bayramoglu M, Hacisalihoglu S (2010) Usage and the economic potential of the medic-
inal plants in Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey. J Environ Biol/Acad Environ Biol India
31(5):623–628
Topaloğlu M (1987) Antakya bölgesinin gıda ve ilaç olarak kullanılan bitkiler üzerinde araştırmalar.
Msc thesis. Istanbul University, Istanbul
Tümen G, Malyer H, Başer KHC, Öz Aydın S (2005) Plants used in Anatolia for wound healing.
Proceeding of the IVth International Congress of Ethnobotany (ICEB 2005) pp 217–221
Turner IM (1997) A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’ Bull Singapore 47:1–757
Tuzlacı E (2005) Geçmişten günümüze Bodrum’da Bitkiler ve Yaşam. Güzel Sanatlar Matbaası
A.Ş., İstanbul
Tuzlacı E (2006) Şifa Niyetine Türkiye’Nin Bitkisel Halk İlaçları. Alfa Yayınları, Istanbul
Tuzlacı E, Aymaz P (2001) Turkish Folk Medicinal Plants, Part IV: Gönen (Balıkesir-Turkey).
Fitoterapia 72:323–343
Tuzlacı E, Erol MK (1999) Turkish folk medicinal plants. Part II: Eğirdir (Isparta). Fitoterapia
70(6):593–610
Tuzlacı E, Sadıkoğlu E (2007) Turkish Folk Medicinal Plants, Part VI: Koçarlı (Aydın). J Fac
Pharm İstanbul 39:25–37
Tuzlacı E, Tolon E (2000) Turkish folk medicinal plants, part III: Şile (İstanbul). Fitoterapia
71:673–685
Ugurlu E, Secmen O (2008) Medicinal plants popularly used in the villages of Yunt Mountain.
Fitoterapia 79(2):126–131
Ullah M, Khan MU, Mahmood A, Malik RN, Hussain M, Wazir SM et al (2013) An ethnobotani-
cal survey of indigenous medicinal plants in Wana district south Waziristan agency, Pakistan.
Umi Kalsom Y (2010) Ferns of Malaysian rain Forest—a journey through the fern world. Universiti
Putra Malaysia Press, Serdang
Uysal I, Gücel S, Tütenocakli T, Öztürk M (2012) Studies on the medicinal plants of Ayvacik-
Çanakkale in Turkey. Pak J Bot 44:239–244
Uysal I, Onar S, Karabacak E, Çelik S (2010) Ethnobotanical aspects of Kapıdağ peninsula
(Turkey). Biol Divers Conserv 3:15–22
Uzun E, Sariyar G, Adsersen A, Karakoc B, Ötük G, Oktayoglu E, Pirildar S (2004) Traditional
medicine in Sakarya province (Turkey) and antimicrobial activities of selected species.
J Ethnopharmacol 95(2–3):287–296
Vural M, Karavelioğulları FA, Polat H (1997) Çiçekdağı (Kırşehir) ve çevresinin etnobotanik özel-
likleri. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 4(1):117–124
Wills PJ, Asha V (2006) Protective effect of Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. Extract against carbon
tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury in rats. J Ethnopharmacol 108(3):320–326
Wills PJ, Asha V (2009) Chemopreventive action of Lygodium flexuosum extract in human hepa-
toma PLC/PRF/5 and Hep 3B cells. J Ethnopharmacol 122(2):294–303
Wong KM (1998) Patterns of plant endemism and rarity in Borneo and the Malay peninsula. In:
Peng C-I, Lowry II (eds) Rare, threatened, and endangered floras of Asia and the Pacific Rim,
pp 139–169
Wu MJ, Weng CY, Wang L, Lian TW (2005) Immunomodulatory mechanism of the aqueous
extract of sword brake fern (Pteris ensiformis Burm.). J Ethnopharmacol 98(1–2):73–81
Yeşilada E, Honda G, Sezik E, Tabata M, Fujita T, Tanaka T et al (1995) Traditional medicine
in Turkey V: folk medicine in the inner Taurus Mountains. J Ethnopharmacol 46(3):133–152
Yesilada E, Honda G, Sezik E, Tabata M, Goto K, Ikeshiro Y (1993) Traditional medicine in
Turkey IV. Folk medicine in the Mediterranean subdivision. J Ethnopharmacol 39(1):31–38
Yeşilada E, Sezik E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T (1999) Traditional medicine in
Turkey IX: folk medicine in north-west Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol 64(3):195–210
Yiğit SŞ (2014) Gaziantep ili aktarlarında satılan bitkiler ve etnobotanik özellikleri. Msc thesis.
Gaziantep University, Gaziantep
Yonathan M, Asres K, Assefa A, Bucar F (2006) In vivo anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive
activities of Cheilanthes farinosa. J Ethnopharmacol 108(3):462–470
Yücel E (2014) Growing in Turkey guide to medicinal plants Türmatsan Organize Matbaacılık,
Eskişehir
Zheng XK, Li YJ, Zhang L, Feng WS, Zhang X (2011a) Antihyperglycemic activity of Selaginella
tamariscina (Beauv.) spring. J Ethnopharmacol 133(2):531–537
Zheng XK, Zhang L, Wang WW, Wu YY, Zhang QB, Feng WS (2011b) Anti-diabetic activity
and potential mechanism of total flavonoids of Selaginella tamariscina (Beauv.) spring in rats
induced by high fat diet and low dose STZ. J Ethnopharmacol 137(1):662–668
Medicinal Shrubs and Trees from the Nara
Desert, Pakistan
Rahmatullah Qureshi
Introduction
The Study Area
The Nara desert is situated between 26°−28° N and 68°−70° E (elevation 50–115 m)
in the Sindh province, Pakistan (Fig. 1). The approximately 23,000 km2 desert is
semi-arid, receiving most of its 88–135 mm of annual rainfall episodically during
the monsoon season. Mean minimum and maximum temperature averages are
20 °C and 45 °C, respectively (Qureshi and Bhatti 2005a). Topography is distinctly
marked with sandy hills, steep slopes, and vast low-lying areas locally known as
Patt. The vegetation, typical of arid regions, consists mainly of xerophytes that are
adapted to extreme temperature fluctuations and a wide variety of edaphic condi-
tions. Perennial vegetation is sparse, comprised mainly of stunted, thorny, or prickly
shrubs and herbs capable of drought resistance. Trees are few and scattered.
Ephemerals emerge during the rainy season, complete their life cycle before the
advent of summer, and the bulk of the area is once more transformed into an open
sandy plain, desolate and barren (Qureshi 2012).
This desert sustains a relatively high human and livestock populations, i.e., 1.05
and 1.25 million, respectively (Anonymous 1992). The language of the inhabitants
is Sindhi. Commonly the people of this area are called Thari people. The majority
of the population consists of nomads who follow the distribution of rainfall and
resultant forage. Livestock keeping is the only livelihood of the inhabitants of the
study area. Agriculture is in practice on both the flanks, the right and left sides of
Nara canal of this desert. It lies in the same topographical region, but the land under
cultivation has been physically modified to receive water for irrigation purpose from
R. Qureshi (*)
Department of Botany, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_10
392 R. Qureshi
Fig. 1 Location map of the Nara desert, Sindh, Pakistan

Medicinal Shrubs and Trees from the Nara Desert, Pakistan 393
the Nara canal. The outermost boundaries are intermingled with desert habitat.
Cotton and Guar are the major crops of Rabi seasons whereas wheat, Brassica, and
Alfalfa are cultivated in Kharif season (Qureshi and Bhatti 2005b).
A review of the literature reveals that much of the Nara desert is unexplored with
respect to the medicinal value of its flora and very little information is available with
respect to ethnobotany. Previously Qureshi and Bhatti (2008) and Qureshi et al.
(2010) have written medicinal aspects of herbs from the Nara desert, Pakistan. The
aim of this study is to document medicinal uses of shrubs and trees which are being
used by the local inhabitants including herbalists (Hakeems) and elderly known
people of the study area.
Materials and Methods
Ethnobotanical Data Collection
The study area was surveyed during September 1998 to December 2001 and 2004–
2007 to record medicinal uses of tree and shrubs from the study area. In all, 100
informants including herbal practitioners (Hakeems), women, religious teachers
(Pesh Imam), and elders were interviewed. A semi-structured questionnaire was
designed to collect information about native trees/shrubs, local names, parts used,
method of preparation, mode of administration, and ailments treated (Qureshi and
Bhatti 2008). In order to cross-check data, different age and gender classes were
interviewed to seek homogeneity of the information. The folk literature on medici-
nal uses (Ambasta 1986; Kritikar and Basu 1918; Nadkarni 1954; Dastur 1962;
Dymock et al. 1972; Baquar and Tasnif 1984; Murray 1989; Asolkar et al. 1992;
Sivarajan and Balachandran 1996) was matched to confirm their uses and any nov-
elty use.
The fidelity level (FL%) is used to calculate the most frequent diseases coupled
with the use of a certain plant for the same major purpose by using the following
formula:
Np
FL% = × 100
N
where Np is the number of informants who reported a use of a plant species to treat
a particular disease, and N is the number of informants who used the plants as a
medicine to treat any disease (Alexiades 1996).
394 R. Qureshi
Plant Specimen Collection and Preservation
Plant specimens were also collected, pressed, dried, and identified through various
floras (Jafri 1966; Nasir and Ali 1970–1989; Batanouny 1981; Ali and Nasir 1990–
1991; Ali and Qaiser 1993–1995, 2000–2004; Matthew 1981–83; Bhandari 1990;
Boulos 1991) and deposited in the Shah Latif University Botanic Garden and
Herbarium, Khairpur, Pakistan, for record.
Results
Result of the survey is presented in Table 1. For each taxon, the information includes
botanical name, plant family, local names, part(s) used, method of preparation, and
ailments treated. Fifty-two indigenous trees and shrubs belonged to 44 genera and
27 families are being used for curing various diseases by the inhabitants of the study
area. Among them, 16 species are reported containing novel medicinal uses com-
pared with medicinal literature. Fabaceae, Mimosaceae, and Solanaceae were lead-
ing families which jointly contributed 12 species, followed by Amaranthaceae,
Boraginaceae, Capparidaceae, Moraceae, and Poaceae each having 3 species.
Twelve different parts of plant species were used by the people of the Nara desert
as crude medicine (Fig. 2). For preparing various recipes, leaves were highly uti-
lized part (34%), followed by fruits (20%), and roots and flowers (7.37% each),
while rest of the parts were scarcely used (Fig. 3).
With reference to different recipe formations (Fig. 3), powder was the most pre-
ferred medicament for which 20 species were used, followed by juice, paste (12 spp.
each), decoction, poultice (7 spp.), and potherb (4 spp.), while others were less
used. In all, oral way of administration was preferred (60.53%), followed by exter-
nal one (39.47%).
Fifty-two medicinal plant species were used for treating 49 different diseases
(Table 2). Joint pain was treated by the highest number of plant species (9 spp.,
7.44%), followed by cold, cough and wounds (8 spp., 6.61% each), asthma, sper-
matorrhea, and as cooling agent (6 spp., 4.96% each), rheumatic pain (5 spp.,
4.13%), and diarrhea and inflammation (4 spp., 3.31% each), whereas rest of the
diseases were treated by less number of species.
Fidelity level (FL%) determines the level of significance of any species which is
preferably used in treating any particular disease. The fidelity level of novel use of
plants is provided in Table 3. Leptadenia pyrotechnica was the most important
medicinal plant in the study area which was particularly used to treat eczema/ring-
worm with 115 use reports and 92% fidelity, followed by Tamarix aphylla (89.6%
FL for boils and wounds), Tephrosia falciformis (88.8 FL% for rheumatic pain),
Calligonum polygonoides (88% FL for cooling agent), Calotropis procera (87.2%
FL for earache, sciatic pain and pneumonia, painful joints, and chest pain), Iphiona
grantioides (78.4% Fl for sores), and Schweinfurthia papilionacea (73.6% FL for
typhoid fever; skin impurities, chronic ulcers, and cancerous wounds).
Table 1 Medicinal use of trees and shrubs recorded from the Nara desert, Pakistan
Botanical name and voucher
S. No. Family specimen Local names Parts used Preparations (administrations) Uses/ailments treated
1 Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. (325) Ubat Kandri Whole plant Root powder with honey (I) Asthma, cough, cold,
pneumonia, and joints pain
Leaves Paste (E) Cuts and wounds
2 Aerva javanica var. bovei Booh Whole plant Decoction (I) Toothache
Webb. (56)
Booh Leaves, Paste (E) Wounds
flowers
3 Aerva javanica var. javanica Booh Leaves, Paste (E) Wounds
(Burm. f.) Juss ex J. A. Shultes. flowers
(57)
4 Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. (112) Amb Seeds Dried under shade and Diarrhea, dysentery
powdered (I)
5 Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera (Willd.) Ak Whole plant Latex (E) To expel spine from the body
R. Br. (918) partsa
Leaves Paste (E) Burnt injury and swellings
Medicinal Shrubs and Trees from the Nara Desert, Pakistan
Yellow leaves Juice obtained by slightly Otalgia and earachea

warming and compression (E)
Leaves Juice burnt in sesame oil (E) Applied over inflamed joints,
and for sciatic pain and
pneumoniaa
Leaves Coated with sesame oil and Painful joints and chest paina
slightly warmed (E)
Leaves Powder (E) Woundsa
Whole plant Ash with honey (I) Asthma and cougha
(continued)
395
Table 1 (continued)
396

6 Leptadenia pyrotechnica Khipp Stem Latex (E) Ringworma
(Forssk.) Decne. (2, 44)
7 Asteraceae Iphiona grantioides (Boiss.) Gandraf Leaves Paste (E) Soresa
Anderb. (898)
8 Pluchea lanceolata (DC.) Oliv. Phaar/ Whole plant Crushed in water combined Cooling agenta
& Hiern. (208) Resham Buti with candy (I)
9 Xanthium indicum Koenig ex Bhurt Roots Paste (E) Cancerous wounds
Roxb. (823)
10 Moraceae Ficus bengalensis L. (222) Barr Latex Eaten with candy (I) Spermatorrhea
11 Bignoniaceae Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Lohero Bark of stem Paste (E) Eczema
Seem. (719)
12 Boraginaceae Cordia myxa L. (725) Lesuro Leaves Burnt on fire and powdered (I) Flu and cough
13 Cordia gharaf (Forssk.) Ehren. Lesuro Leaves Burnt on fire and powdered (I) Flu and cough
ex Asch.
14 Heliotropium crispum Desf. Kharsan Whole plant Grinded in water with candy Cooling agent
(111) (I)
15 Burseraceae Commiphora stocksiana (Engl.) Gugur Resin Mixed with herbs and pill Piles
Engl. formation (I)
16 Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Pahar Wal Seeds Powder with black pepper (I) Malarial and intermittent fevera
(122)
17 Senna italica Mill. (139) Ghorawal Leaflets 1 gm powder along with honey Backache, sciatic, joints pain,
colic pain, laxative
18 Capparidaceae Cadaba farinosa Forssk. (619) Khabri Wal Leaves Infusion (I) Cold and cough
Leaves Paste (E) Sores
19 Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Kirrar Bark Coal of old plant macerated Muscular injuries and wounds
Edgew. (22) with sesame oil (E)
R. Qureshi
Stem Coal of old stem mixed with Asthma, cough, and joint pain
honey (I)
Tender Paste (E) Boils, pain, and inflammation
leaves/twigs
Flower bud/ Boiled and cooked (I) Rheumatic pain
unripe fruit
20 Capparis spinosa L. (1252) Kalvari/ Roots Paste (E) Sores
Golaro
Leaves Hot poultice (E) Gout
Fruits Potherb (I) Rheumatic pain
Fruits Pickled (I) Rheumatic paina
21 Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Trooh Roots Tooth stick (E) Toothache
Schrad. (51, 167)
Leaves Juice (E) Baldness
Fruits Black grams soaked in the 250 mg dose in diabetes
juice thrice and made into
powder
Fruits Powder (i) Leukorrheaa
Seeds Oil (E) Loss of hairs

22 Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. Heran buti Leaves Coated with sesame oil and Painful joints and chest paina
slightly warmed (E)
23 Fabaceae Alhagi maurorum Medic. (979) Kandero Whole plant Decoction (E) Piles
24 Crotalaria burhia Ham. ex Chagg Stem Soaked in water and rectified Cooling agent
Benth.
(continued)
397
Table 1 (continued)
398

25 Dalbergia sissoo L. (231) Tari Fallen leaves Soaked overnight in water and Spermatorrheaa
drunk (I)
26 Tephrosia falciformis Drebbar Seeds Seeds (I) Rheumatic paina
Romaswami. (106)
27 Malvaceae Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Pat Teer Leaves Decoction (E) To clean wounds and as gargle
(25) for tender gums and toothache
28 Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Juss. (980) Nim Leaves Soaked and then grinded in Skin diseases
water (I)
29 Menispermaceae Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels. Fareed Buti Leaves Poultice (E) Rheumatic pain
(517)
Leaves Juice (I) Skin diseases
Leaves Juice with candy (I) Cooling agent for gonorrhea
and micturation
30 Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Sindhi Babur Bark Gargle (bark soaked in water Pyorrhea
(1178) with potash alum
Bark Decoction (I) Diarrhea and dysenterya
Leaves, Mixed and powdered (I) Spermatorrhea
flower, gum,
pods
31 Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Khaunr Gum Mixed with wheat flour, sugar Tonica
(1243) and roasted in desi ghee (I)
32 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. Sarinh Seeds Powder (I) Spermatorrhea
(1921)
33 Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Kandi Leaves Paste (E) Skin affectiona
(1264)
Unripe pods Cooked as vegetable (I) Diarrheaa
Ripened fruits Powder (I) Congestion of chesta
R. Qureshi
34 Moraceae Morus alba L. (231) Achho toot Fruit Eaten (I) Constipation
35 Morus nigra L. (891) Karo Toot Fruit Syrup (I) Throat pain, cough
36 Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lamk. (1256) Suhanjaro Fresh flowers Cooked as vegetable (I) Joint pain and inflammation
37 Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (143) Jamun Seeds Powder (I) Diabetes
38 Poaceae Cymbopogon jwarancusa Kattan Leaves, Decoction (I) Seasonal fevers and catarrhal
(Jones) Schult. (96) flower, roots complaints
39 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Drabh Roots Poultice (E) Carbuncle
Stapf. (221)
40 Saccharum spontaneum L. (46) Booro Bark of stem Decoction (E) Mouth gargle to relieve
laryngitis and phthisis
Bark of stem Smoke (I) Hiccougha
41 Polygonaceae Calligonum polygonoides L. Phog Fallen twigs Soaked in water in earthen pot Cooling agenta
(29) for 36 h (I)
42 Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Ber Ripened fruits Eaten (I) Constipation
(109)
43 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. Jhangoori Unripe fruit Dried under shade and Spermatorrheaa
f.) Wt. & Arn. (270) Ber powdered (I)
44 Salvadoraceae Salvadora oleoides Decne. Jaar Ripened fruits Raw fruit chewed (I) Carminative and purgative
(809)
45 Scrophulariaceae Anticharis glandulosa Aschers. Gaamesh Leaves, Boiled in sesame oil (E) Earache
(149) flowers
46 Schweinfurthia papilionacea Akri/Paneer Leaves; fruits Powder (I) Chronic typhoid fever; skin
(Burm. f.) Boiss. (668) Wal impuritiesa
Leaves Juice (I and E) Chronic ulcers and cancerous
woundsa
(continued)
399
Table 1 (continued)
400

47 Solanaceae Datura fastuosa L. (1258) Charyo Leaves Coated with sesame oil and Carbuncle and boils
Dhaaturo slightly warmed (E)
48 Solanum surattense Burm.f. Kanderi Wal Ripened fruits Decoction of the fruit along Bronchial asthma
(165) with honey (I)
Ripened fruits Powder (E) Snuffed for headache and
migraine
Ripened fruits Powder mixed with honey (I) Cough and asthma
Ripened fruits Pills made with equal quantity Joint pain
of old molasses
49 Withania coagulans (L.) Dunal. Paneer Fruit Soaked in water (I) Blood purifier/cooling agent
(1341)
50 Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Akri/Aksan Fresh roots Paste (E) Scrupulous and glandular
(225) Buti swellings
Dried roots Powder combined with candy Joint pain, spermatorrhea, and
(I) as a nerve tonic
51 Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Lao Leaves Poultice (E) Boils and woundsa
(609)
52 Tamarix indica Willd. (21) Lai Galls Powder (I) Diarrhea and dysentery
Way of administration: (E) External use. (I) Internal use
a
Not previously reported in the Indo-Pak literature of medicinal plants
R. Qureshi
Fig. 2 Various plant parts used in preparing herbal preparation
Discussion
Medicinal plants are of special interest to the inhabitants of this desert due to little
or sometimes no access to the modern healthcare facilities. The availability of effec-
tive herbal drug resources at the doorstep associated with the generation-blocked
traditional knowledge retains the traditional communities to depend for more than
95% of their primary healthcare medicine from phytomedicine. Qureshi and Bhatti
(2008) reported 51 plant species distributed across 43 genera and 28 families which
are being used by the inhabitants for treating various diseases.
The study was aimed to collect information about the medicinal uses of native
plants, methods of preparation of herbal drugs, and part of plants used in various phy-
totherapies. The ethnobotanical survey of medicinal trees and shrubs was conducted
from the Nara desert, Pakistan. The study revealed that the dwellers mostly depended
on the wild plant resources to fulfill their basic health needs as reported by the author
in previous communications (Qureshi and Bhatti 2008; Qureshi et al. 2010).
402 R. Qureshi
Fig. 3 Medicaments of medicinal plants from the Nara desert, Pakistan
Comparing Indo-Pak medicinal plant literature (Ambasta 1986; Kritikar and Basu
1918; Nadkarni 1954; Dastur 1962; Dymock et al. 1972; Baquar and Tasnif 1984;
Murray 1989; Asolkar et al. 1992; Sivarajan and Balachandran 1996), 17 species such
as Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Caesalpinia bonduc, Calligonum polygonoides,
Calotropis procera, Capparis spinosa, Citrullus colocynthis, Dalbergia sissoo,
Iphiona grantioides, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Pluchea lanceolata, Prosopis ciner-
aria, Saccharum spontaneum, Schweinfurthia papilionacea, Tamarix aphylla,
Tephrosia falciformis, and Ziziphus nummularia had new uses (Table 1). Besides,
Achyranthes aspera, Citrullus colocynthis, and Solanum surattense possessed some
additional uses not previously known, while rest of the species were previously
known.
It is worthwhile to mention that the dwellers commonly stated the use of a spe-
cies to treat two or more diseases. For example Achyranthes aspera was used to
treat asthma, cough, cold, pneumonia, joint pain, cuts, and wounds. Capparis
decidua is reported in asthma, cough, joint pain, inflammation, boils, muscular inju-
ries, and wounds. Cocculus hirsutus is prescribed in rheumatic pain and skin dis-
eases, and as a cooling agent for gonorrhea and micturation. Senna italica is given
in backache, sciatic, joint pain, colic pain, and constipation. Withania somnifera is
used in scrofulous and glandular swellings, joint pain, and spermatorrhea and as a
nerve tonic. These diseases are distinctive to the Eastern Mediterranean region
(Aburjai et al. 2007).
Table 2 Diseases treated by number of species along with their proportions

# Diseases No. of species Percentage
1 Joint pain 9 7.44
2 Cold 8 6.61
3 Cough 8 6.61
4 Wounds 8 6.61
5 Asthma 6 4.96
6 Cooling agent 6 4.96
7 Spermatorrhea 6 4.96
8 Rheumatic pain 5 4.13
9 Diarrhea 4 3.31
10 Inflammation 4 3.31
11 Boils 3 2.48
12 Dysentery 3 2.48
13 Skin diseases 3 2.48
14 Sores 3 2.48
15 Toothache 3 2.48
16 Blood purifier 2 1.65
17 Carbuncle 2 1.65
18 Constipation 2 1.65
19 Diabetes 2 1.65
20 Earache 2 1.65
21 Piles 2 1.65
22 Pneumonia 2 1.65
23 Sciatic pain 2 1.65
24 Abdominal worms 1 0.83
25 Backache 1 0.83
26 Baldness 1 0.83
27 Burnt injury 1 0.83
28 Carminative 1 0.83
29 Colic pain 1 0.83
30 Eczema 1 0.83
31 Gout 1 0.83
32 Hair fall 1 0.83
33 Headache and migraine 1 0.83
34 Hiccough 1 0.83
35 Intermittent fever 1 0.83
36 Laryngitis 1 0.83
37 Laxative 1 0.83
38 Leukorrhea 1 0.83
39 Malaria 1 0.83
40 Nerve tonic 1 0.83
41 Otalgia 1 0.83
(continued)
404 R. Qureshi
Table 2 (continued)
# Diseases No. of species Percentage
42 Pain 1 0.83
43 Phthisis 1 0.83
44 Purgative 1 0.83
45 Pyorrhea 1 0.83
46 Ringworm 1 0.83
47 Throat pain 1 0.83
48 Tonic 1 0.83
49 Typhoid fever 1 0.83
121 100.00
Table 3 Novel medicinal uses recorded from the Nara desert, Pakistan
Use
Plant species Diseases treated report FL%
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Pyorrhea, diarrhea, and dysentery 105 84.00
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Tonic 79 63.20
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Malarial and intermittent fever 78 62.40
Calligonum polygonoides L. Cooling agent 110 88.00
Calotropis procera (Willd.) Otalgia and earache, sciatic pain, pneumonia, 109 87.20
R. Br. painful joints, and chest pain
Capparis spinosa L. Rheumatic pain 49 39.20
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Leukorrhea 15 12.00
Schrad.
Dalbergia sissoo L. Spermatorrhea 79 63.20
Iphiona grantioides (Boiss.) Sores 98 78.40
Anderb.
Leptadenia pyrotechnica Eczema, ringworm 115 92.00
(Forssk.) Decne.
Pluchea lanceolata (DC.) Cooling agent 69 55.20
Oliv. & Hiern.
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Skin affection, diarrhea, congestion of chest 64 51.20
Saccharum spontaneum L. Mouth gargle to relieve laryngitis and phthisis, 43 34.40
and hiccough
Schweinfurthia papilionacea Chronic typhoid fever; skin impurities, 92 73.60
(Burm. f.) Boiss. chronic ulcers, and cancerous wounds
Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Boils and wounds 112 89.60
Tephrosia falciformis Rheumatic pain 111 88.80
Romaswami.
Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. Spermatorrhea 45 36.00
f.) Wt. & Arn.
Some of the species possessed novel use not mentioned in the literature. For
instance, Prosopis cineraria was given in skin affection, diarrhea, and congestion of
chest. Schweinfurthia papilionacea is utilized in chronic typhoid fever, skin impuri-
ties, chronic ulcers, and cancerous wounds. The ethnopharmacology for newly
reported plants is sporadically known (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1993; Said et al. 1986).
It is therefore suggested that the reported species should be screened in terms of
phytochemicals as well as biological assays in order to establish their scientific
ground for the anecdotal uses reported in this communication.
It is worthwhile to mention that some of the toxic species such as Calotropis
procera (Asclepiadaceae), Datura fastuosa (Solanaceae), and Ricinus communis
(Euphorbiaceae) are popularly used; however their use is known as either topical or
mixed with other herbs. The milky latex of former species is externally applied as
well as the powder of leaves is dusted on wounds to heal. The leaf powder of Datura
fastuosa is smoked and inhaled to treat cough and asthma. The fresh leaves of
Ricinus communis are coated with sesame oil and slightly warmed over fire which
is tied on swelled joints to relieve pain and inflammation. According to Baydoun
et al. (2015), informants consider that the native species may always guarantee the
harmlessness and their safer use. There is no doubt that adequate knowledge about
the potential toxicity of species is necessary to prevent the ingestion of such toxic
plants or plant parts.
Mixing of herbs for making compounds culturally varies from area to area as
well as region. From this area, powder formation was common (Fig. 3) for which 20
species were used, followed by juice, paste (12 spp. each), decoction, poultice (7
spp.), etc. Some of the studies reported the same trend (Qureshi and Bhatti 2008;
Rauf et al. 2012; Qureshi and Shaheen 2013).
Fidelity level (FL%) of medicinal plants depicts the preference/reliance of key
informants most used in treating particular ailments (Table 3). Some of the impor-
tant species include Leptadenia pyrotechnica (92% FL for eczema/ringworm),
Tamarix aphylla (89.6% FL for boils and wounds), Tephrosia falciformis (88.8 FL%
for rheumatic pain), Calligonum polygonoides (88% FL for cooling agent),
Calotropis procera (87.2% FL for earache, sciatic pain, pneumonia, painful joints,
and chest pain), Iphiona grantioides (78.4% FL for sores), and Schweinfurthia
papilionacea. The most widely used species by the dwellers always possess higher
FL% than that of less used ones. This index is intended to measure the significance
of the species for a particular use (Baydoun et al. 2015).
The people of the study area are well aware about the use of plant. Nevertheless,
none of the informants in the study was aware of the growing recent controversial
scientific evidence regarding the effects of the plant in terms of the plant parts used,
way of preparation, dosage, and activity of the separate constituents of extract. Only
beneficial effects were actually reported with no mentioning of any side effects (El
Thaher et al. 2001; Zanoli et al. 2005).
Conclusion
This ethnobotanical inventory includes a wide range of therapeutic uses of 52

medicinal trees and shrubs cited for 49 illnesses. Besides, this study revealed some
of the novel/additional uses of medicinal plants not previously known in the
406 R. Qureshi
medicinal literature. The method of preparations recorded for the local popular
medicine of the studied area is mostly based on the use of a single species instead
of mixtures. Regardless of the wide range of their use by the dwellers, scientific
validation and authentication are required. In vitro and in vivo activities should be
undertaken in order to authenticate the claimed uses of native and endemic species.
Besides, there is need for identifying of active compounds that may be used in drug
discovery program.
Acknowledgment The author gratefully acknowledges the local people and herbalists (Hakeems)
who provided valuable information on medicinal uses of plants.
References
Aburjai T, Hudaib M, Tayyem R (2007) Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal herbs in

Jordan, the Ajloun Heights region. J Ethnopharmacol 110(2):294–304
Alexiades MN (1996) Collecting ethnobotanical data: an introduction to basic concepts and tech-
niques. In: Alexiades MN (ed) Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research: a field manual.
The New York Botanical Garden, New York, pp 53–94
Ali SI, Nasir YJ (Eds.) (1990–1991) Flora of Pakistan, Islamabad, Karachi
Ali SI, Qaiser M (Eds.) (1993–1995) Flora of Pakistan, Islamabad, Karachi
Ambasta SP (1986) The useful plants of India, CSIR, New Delhi
Anonymous (1992) Pak. Swiss Range and Livestock Improvement Project
Asolkar LV, Kakkar KK, Chakre OJ (1992) Secondary supplement to glossary of Indian medici-
nal plants with active principles, Publications and Information Directorate (CSIR), Dr. K.S.
Krishnan Marg, New Delhi
Baquar SR, Tasnif M (1984) Medicinal plants of Southern West Pakistan, Periodical Expert Book
Agency, D-42, Vivek Vihar, Delhi-113334
Batanouny KH (1981) Ecology and Flora of Qatar. Centre for scientific and applied Research,
University of Qatar, P.O. Box 2713, Doha
Baydoun S, Lamisb C, Helenaa D, Nellya A (2015) Ethnopharmacological survey of medici-
nal plants used in traditional medicine by the communities of Mount Hermon, Lebanon.
Bhandari MM (1990) Flora of the Indian desert. M.P.S. Repros., Rajasthan
Boulos L (1991) Flora of Egypt, vol 1. Al Hadara Publishing, Cairo, Egypt
Dastur JF (1962) Medicinal plants of India and Pakistan. D.B. Taraporevala, Bombay
Dymock W, Warden CJH, Hooper D (1972) Pharmacographia Indica, vol I–IV. Hamdard
Foundation, Nazimabad, Karachi
El-Thaher TS, Matalka KZ, Taha HA, Badwan AA (2001) Ferula hermonis ‘zallouh’ and enhanc-
ing erectile function in rats: efficacy and toxicity study. Int J Impot Res 13:247–251
Jafri SMH (1966) The Flora of Karachi. The Book Corporation, Karachi, Pakistan
Kritikar KR, Basu BD (1918) Indian medicinal plants, vol II–III. Indian Press, Allahabad
Matthew KM (1981–1983) Flora of Tamilnadu Carnatic. The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s
College, Tiruchirapalli, India, vol 1–3.
Murray JA (1989) The plants and drugs of Sindh, Karachi. Indus Publications
Nadkarni AK (1954) Indian materia medica, vol 1. Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd., Bombay,
pp 237–242
Nasir E, Ali SI (Eds) (1970–1989) Flora of Pakistan, Islamabad, Karachi.
Queshi R, Bhatti GR (2008) Ethnobotany of plants used by the Thari people of Nara Desert,
Pakistan. Fitoterapia 79:468–473
Qureshi R (2012) The Flora of Nara Desert, Pakistan, 1st edn. Nova Science Publishers, New York
Qureshi R, Bhatti GR (2005a) Nara Desert, Pakistan. Part I: Soils, climate and vegetation.
Rangelands 27(5):27–31
Qureshi R, Bhatti GR (2005b) Nara Desert, Pakistan. Part II: Human life. Rangelands 27(5):32–35
Qureshi R, Bhatti GR, Memon RA (2010) Ethnomedicinal uses of herbs from Nara Desert,
Pakistan. Pak J Bot 42(2):839–851
Qureshi R, Shaheen H (2013) The Ethnobotanical profile of Tehsil Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi,
Pakistan. Nova Science Publishers Inc., Hauppauge, New York, pp 1–165
Rastogi RP, Mehrotra BN (1993) Compendium of Indian medicinal plants, vol 1–3. CDRI, Luknow
and PID, New Delhi
Rauf F, Qureshi R, Shaeen H (2012) Folk medicinal uses of indigenous plant species of Barroha,
Bhara Kahu and Maanga in Islamabad, Pakistan. J Med Pl Res 6(11):2061–2070
Said HM, Ahmad VD, Rahman AU (1986) Pakistan encyclopedia planta medica, Hamdard
Foundation Press, Hamdard Centre, Nazimabad, Karachi
Sivarajan VV, Balachandran I (1996) Ayurvedic drugs and plants resources. Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Zanoli P, Rivasi M, Zavatti M, Brusiani F, Vezzalini F, Baraldi M (2005) Activity of single compo-
nents of Ferula hermonis on male rat sexual behavior. Int J Impot Res 17:513–518
A Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal
Plants Used for Diabetes Mellitus
in the Traditional Medicine in Turkey,
Pakistan, and Malaysia
Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Abdul Latiff, M. Asad Ziaee,

M. Iqbal Choudhry, Farzana Shaheen, and Cenk Durmuşkahya
Introduction
One of the fast-growing and complex and medical problem at global scale in both
developed and developing countries is diabetes mellitus. It is prevalent equally well
in both developed as well as developing countries, being the most common endo-
crine disorder in the world and as a serious global health problem (Tripathi et al.
2011; Kumar et al. 2013; Tiwari and Rana 2015). The herbal therapeutic remedies
are used with success to treat this disorder and its ramifications. The drugs derived
from the herbs and preparations made from these are generally accepted as less
toxic and free from side effects. However, this subject has not been validated scien-
tifically in order to move ahead for their substitution for the current therapeutics
(Arulselvan et al. 2014).
M. Ozturk (*)
V. Altay
Hatay, Turkey
A. Latiff
Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
M. Asad Ziaee
Fujian Institute of Research on Structure of Matter, University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
M. Iqbal Choudhry · F. Shaheen
Karachi City, Sindh, Pakistan
C. Durmuşkahya
Faculty of Forestry, Katip Çelebi University, Izmir, Turkey

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_11
Traditional antidiabetic plants used in the traditional medicine can serve as a use-
ful source for developing new oral hypoglycemic compounds. These may be evalu-
ated as simple dietary adjuncts to existing therapies. Such investigations can offer a
natural key to unlock future diabetologist’s pharmacy, because it is one of the major
chronic diseases and healthcare challenges. At present it globally affects over 370
million people. Several reports published show that more than 4.5 million deaths
have occurred due to diabetes in 2012. The latest estimates from the “International
Diabetes Federation” mentions that more than 550 million people will be facing this
disorder by 2030, and more than 75% of diabetic patients will be from developing
countries (International Diabetes Federation 2013; Nowbandegani et al. 2015),
especially the people with ages between 45 and 64 years (Roglic 2004; Trojan-
Rodrigues et al. 2012).
It is a multifarious group of disorders affiliated to the disturbance in the metabo-
lism of carbohydrates, fat, and protein and results in a shortage or lack of insulin
secretion and/or reduced sensitivity of the tissue to insulin (Arulselvan et al. 2014).
Despite advances in understanding and management of this metabolic disorder, the
rate of morbidity and mortality due to this disorder is increasing every year (Leite
et al. 2013; Arulselvan et al. 2014). The number of cases is rapidly increasing all
over the globe, and its complications are a major cause of disability and hospitaliza-
tion, posing a significant financial burden (Arulselvan et al. 2014).
Although tremendous information has been gathered in the understanding of
pathophysiology of diabetes and management of diabetes, the disease and disease-
associated complications are increasing. Much information is available on the pres-
ence of known antidiabetic medicine on the pharmaceutical market. Therapeutic
remedies from herbs are used with success to treat this disorder and its
ramifications.
Among the populations undergoing modernization of lifestyle, a striking emer-
gence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus as a major health problem is
recorded now both in developing nations and in rural areas of developed countries
(Bennett 1983; Bransome 1992; WHO 1985; Gohdes 1986; Schraer et al. 1988;
Marles and Farnsworth 1995). Alternate strategies for the prevention and treatment
of diabetes need be developed due to enormous costs of modern treatments. Nearly
90% of the residents in rural areas of developing countries still rely on traditional
medicines for their primary healthcare. The scientific investigations of traditional
medicines have led to the discovery of at least 88 drugs now in professional use
worldwide (Soejarto and Farnsworth 1989; Marles and Farnsworth 1995). A ratio-
nally designed interdisciplinary research program could lead to the development of
indigenous, renewable, medicinal plant resources as practical and cost-efficient
alternatives. The synthesis of local traditional and modern knowledge as well as
techniques for the management of diabetes should be feasible (Marles and
Farnsworth 1995).
Earliest recorded treatments for this disorder involve the use of plants, such as
the Papyrus Ebers of 1550 BC which show a high-fiber diet of wheat grains and
ochre. Large number of herbs, spices, and other plant materials have been recorded
for the treatment of diabetes globally starting with by ancient cultures (Ajgaonkar
A Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Plants Used for Diabetes Mellitus… 411
1979; Day and Bailey 1988a, b; Bailey and Day 1989; Marles and Farnsworth
1995; Soumyanath 2005; Durmuşkahya and Öztürk 2013; Subramoniam 2016a,
b). The availability of insulin, folklore medicines for diabetes have almost disap-
peared in occidental societies, but continue to be the cornerstone of therapy in
underdeveloped countries. Much attention to alternative medicines and natural
therapies has stimulated a new wave of research interest in traditional practices,
and “WHO” expert committee on diabetes has listed it as one of its recommenda-
tions that traditional methods of treatment for diabetes should be further investi-
gated (Bailey and Day 1989).
Ethnopharmacologically, more than 1000 taxa of organisms have been used to
experimentally treat the symptoms of this disease. These belong to more than 700
genera from 180 families. This list extends phylogenetically all the way from marine
algae and fungi to advanced plants. The large and widely distributed families are
Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Poaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. The
large number of taxa reported to have been used traditionally or experimentally for
the treatment of diabetes may be coincidental. The phylogenetic distance between
the selected groups of families is a strong indication of the varied nature of the
active constituents. While chemotaxonomic investigations are useful in the discov-
ery of new plants with biologically active constituents, it will be necessary to learn
more about particular groups of hypoglycemic natural products and their mecha-
nisms of action before this method of drug discovery can be successfully used
(Marles and Farnsworth 1995).
More than 1/3 of all plant-derived drugs come from tropical rainforest plant taxa.
This number may rise substantially if we learn more about the phytochemistry and
pharmacology of tropical plants. Even with their greater accessibility and longer
history of study, most temperate plants have not been exhaustively studied for thera-
peutic usefulness (Soejarto and Farnsworth 1989; Marles and Farnsworth 1995).
The destruction of tropical rainforests is resulting in the loss of a tremendous
natural resource for potential new drugs. Their germ plasm would be necessary for
genetic improvement of cultivated varieties and tissue cultures and their constitu-
ents which may serve as new drugs or prototypes for synthetic drug research. The
economic potential of novel drugs derived from primary rainforest plant taxa could
serve as an incentive for preservation of rainforest and its management as a renew-
able resource rather than just a source of land for mineral and agricultural exploita-
tion (Marles and Farnsworth 1995).
If the same or a closely related plant is used traditionally for the same at more
than one place, it suggests either cultural contact between the countries or inde-
pendent discovery. As such, the conservation of such traditional use indicates a
higher probability that the traditional practitioners found the remedy to be effec-
tive (Marles and Farnsworth 1995). The best strategy will involve the study of
traditional antidiabetic plants, and discovery of locally available alternative medi-
cines to treat diabetics in developing countries, as well as commercial develop-
ment of new botanical hypoglycemic agents and adjuncts to antidiabetic therapy
(Marles and Farnsworth 1995).
Our main aim here has been to analyze the distribution of the traditional medici-
nal plant knowledge used for diabetes mellitus in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia.
The specific aims are to compare the composition and richness of medicinal
ethnofloras.
Study Areas
Turkey is a meeting place of different phytogeographical regions showing great

variation in plant diversity with different types of ecosystems, occupying different
habitats and showing varying vegetational characteristics (Ozturk et al. 2006, 2012a,
b, 2017a, b). Among the countries in the Southwest Asia and the Mediterranean
basin, as well as whole of Europe, the richest flora has been reported for the Anatolian
peninsula. Phytogeographically, the country is a meeting place for two centers of
diversity and origin: the Near East and the Mediterranean (Fig. 1). The number of
flowering plant taxa distributed in the country is estimated to be more than 11.000,
which is very near to the number recorded from the whole of Europe (Güner et al.
2012). A great variety of geomorphological, topographical, and climatic features are
responsible for its widespread habitat and plant diversities as well as endemism, with
3035 taxa of endemics, comprising 31.12% of the total flora and confined to narrow
and restricted ecological niches (Güner et al. 2012; Ozturk et al. 2016).
Fig. 1 The map showing the countries included in this study

Nearly 1280 plant taxa belonging to 458 genera and 114 plant families have been
recorded to be used in Turkish folk medicine for food and health benefits. Most
frequently referred plant genera for healing potentials are as follows: Hypericum,
Origanum, Sideritis, Rosa, Urtica, Sambucus, Plantago, Ecballium, Equisetum,
Cotinus, Thymus, Malva, Helichrysum, Polygonum, Mentha, Achillea, Teucrium,
and Allium (Yeşilada 2013).
Pakistan has a unique biodiversity, having nine major ecological zones and a
peculiar geographical position (Fig. 1) and harbors a great diversity of flora. More
than 6000 vascular plant species are reported to occur in this region (Shinwari and
Shinwari 2010), out of which 5.600 species have been described to date in the flora
of Pakistan, representing 22 families and about 150 genera (Nasir and Ali 1970–
1995). Among the lower plants, there are at least 189 pteridophytes (ferns and their
allies), of which 153 are Sino-Japanese elements and 36 Euro-Siberian (Nasir and
Ali 1970–1995; Shinwari and Shinwari 2010). Four monotypic genera of flowering
plants (Douepia, Sulaimania, Spiroseris, Wendelboa) and around 400 species
(7.8%) are endemic to Pakistan. Most endemics are Irano-Turanian and Sino-
Japanese (Shinwari and Shinwari 2010). A short analysis of plant diversity in
Pakistan reveals that the number of species per genus is much lower than the global
average, indicating a high rate of diversity at the gene level (Ali and Qaiser 1986).
The plant wealth of the country includes elements of six phytogeographical regions,
namely, the Mediterranean, Saharo-Sindian, Euro-Siberian, Irano-Turanian, Sin-
Japanese, and Indian. Nearly 400–600 plant taxa are medicinally important (Rehman
et al. 2015). These are mainly used in Tibbi Dawakhan (Industries of herbal medi-
cines) with very little attention being paid to the ethnobotanical research (Hamayun
2003; Rehman et al. 2015). The studies on the traditional knowledge of medicinal
plants has increased in the country during the last three decades; consequently sig-
nificant knowledge has been documented (Rehman et al. 2015).
Malaysia is located just north of equator, with a warm equatorial climate but
little seasonality, hot and humid throughout the year. The total landmass of the
country is 329.847 km2 (Fig. 1). South China Sea divides the country into two
regions of similar size: Peninsular Malaysia connected to mainland Asia on the
western half and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo on the east
(Saw and Chung 2015). These two halves of the country pose interesting challenges
toward documenting the Malaysian flora. Peninsular Malaysia, part of the Malay
Peninsula (here includes Singapore and Peninsular Thailand), contains the floristic
elements of the Sunda Shelf and also of the mainland Asiatic species from seasonal
climates (Wong 1998; Saw and Chung 2015).
Up till now no comprehensive and up-to-date checklist for the Malaysian flora
has been published (Saw and Chung 2015). There are several checklists prepared by
different workers due to different botanical history of the two main regions of
Malaysia. The work of Ridley (1922–1925) for Peninsular Malaysia is an outdated
one. But, it provided the first complete enumeration of the vascular plants of the
Malay Peninsula. The angiosperms have been published in five volumes during
1922–1925. Subsequently, a separate checklist of ferns was published (Ridley
1926). “A Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Malaya” (Turner 1997) serves as the
most recent checklist for the Peninsular Malaysia based on an existing literature
survey. This catalogue enumerates 8.198 species. Parris and Latiff (1997) have pub-
lished a further update on the ferns and fern allies with some additions and nomen-
clatural changes.
The plant diversity of Malaysia is among some of the most diverse, being one of
the world’s richest in the world and most varied biophysical resources (Premilla
2002; Adnan and Othman 2012). The rainforest of the country turns out to be the
perfect place for luxuriant plant growth. Furthermore, it is also set apart with vast of
resources of plants either medicinal or with other usage (Adnan and Othman 2012).
Ethnobotany in this multiracial country is widely used in a broad manner. Every
ethnic group or race practices and uses its ethnobotanical knowledge in its own way
and depends on their beliefs (Adnan and Othman 2012). These communities com-
monly use plants for dietary purposes (food consumption). The utilities such as
materials for construction, medicinal, ritual, dyes, and cosmetics are also common.
The studies on the relationship between plants and the Malay culture help to pre-
serve the integrity of the cultures and at the same time protect the natural heritage
and its knowledge (Adnan and Othman 2012).
Malaysian traditions embody an exceptional vast knowledge and practices derived
from Malay, Chinese, Indian, and indigenous people’s traditions with regard to plants.
Malaysians have inherited multiple traditional medicine and ways of healing. It has
started with the indigenous people called Orang Asli since this group of people embod-
ied a wonderful knowledge and respect for plant life together with the nature and envi-
ronment that they inherited from their ancestors (Adnan and Othman 2012).
Turkey
The total number of medicinal plants evaluated for diabetes in the traditional medi-
cine includes 340 taxa. These belong to 66 families and 185 genera and are given
alphabetically with their botanical name, part used, ailment treated, and information
on the preparations used (Appendix 1). The following families are represented by
the largest number of taxa: Rosaceae (49), Lamiaceae (48), Asteraceae (45),
Apiaceae (20), and Fabaceae (17). The genera with highest number of taxa are
Prunus (11 taxa), Thymus (9 taxa), Quercus (7 taxa), and Juniperus, Hypericum,
Crataegus, Pyrus, Rubus, and Salvia (6 taxa each) (Appendix 1).
The most commonly used taxa among these are Rosa canina, Teucrium polium,
Urtica dioica, Juglans regia, Rubus sanctus, Viscum album ssp. album, Olea euro-
paea, Morus nigra, Prunus dulcis, Thymbra spicata, and Prunus spinosa ssp. das-
phylla (Appendix 1).
On the basis of parts mainly used, we found the numbers as follows: leaves used (107
taxa), aerial parts (104 taxa), fruits (77 taxa), and flower (55 taxa) (Table 1). The most
common preparations used are decoction (177 taxa), followed by infusion (138 taxa),
fresh (65 taxa), and raw (25 taxa). Other uses and their taxa numbers are given in Table 2.
Table 1 The parts of MAPS used in three countries studied with the number of taxa
Part used Code Turkey Pakistan Malaysia
Leaves L 107 87 35
Aerial parts AP 104 11 2
Fruit FR 77 54 12
Fruit shell FR-S 2 – –
Fruit juice FR-J 6 6 3
Flower FL 55 20 5
Root R 40 26 22
Seed S 39 41 7
Shoot SH 18 6 1
Stem ST 13 10 5
Herb H 10 – –
Stem bark ST-B 7 15 1
Cones CO 7 – –
Tuber T 6 1 1
Whole plants WP 5 51 3
Bulb B 5 3 2
Branches BR 5 2 –
Buds BD 4 1 –
Rhizome RH 3 6 2
Oil OO 2 1 –
Pine tar PT 2 – –
Resin RS 2 2 –
Capitulum CA 1 1 –
Latex LA 1 5 –
Cupula CU 1 – –
Fronds FO – 2 1
Receptacles RE – 1 –
Immature pods IP – 1 –
Pakistan
cine includes 281 taxa from 76 families and 209 genera. These are presented here
on the preparations used (Appendix 2). The following families are represented by
the largest number of taxa: Asteraceae (27), Fabaceae (25), Lamiaceae (14),
Cucurbitaceae (12), Apocynaceae (12), and Moraceae (11). The genera with highest
number of taxa are Ficus (9 taxa), Artemisia (6 taxa), Phyllanthus (5 taxa), and
Ziziphus, Solanum, and Fagonia (4 taxa each) (Appendix 2). The most commonly
used taxa among these are Syzygium cumini, Allium sativum, Momordica charantia,
Justicia adhatoda, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Ficus benghalensis, and Olea fer-
ruginea (Appendix 2).
Table 2 The preparations used in the studied countries with the number of taxa
Preparations Code Turkey Pakistan Malaysia
Decoction DE 177 42 32
Infusion IN 138 13 2
Eaten fresh EF 65 13 7
Raw R 25 3 5
Cooked C 20 15 1
Boiled BO 15 41 13
Mash MA 9 – –
Crushed CR 6 1 –
Pickled PI 5 – –
Dried DR 5 17 2
Powdered PW 5 62 3
Poultice PU 4 1 –
Syrup SY 4 – –
Jam JA 2 2 –
Pounded PN 2 – 3
Cataplasm CP 2 – –
Medicinal oil MO 2 1 –
As tea AT 1 1 –
Extract EX 1 72 21
Gum G 1 6 –
Chewing CH 1 4 –
Maceration MC 1 – –
One drop oil added, a glass of water DOA 1 – –
Juice JU – 17 2
As vegetable AV – 10 1
Pulp PL – 5 –
Roasted RA – 2 –
On the basis of parts mainly used, we found the numbers as follows: leaves used
(87 taxa), fruits (54 taxa), whole plants (51 taxa), and seed (41 taxa) (Table 1). The
most common preparations used are; extract (72 taxa), followed by powder (62
taxa), decoction (42 taxa), and boiled (41 taxa). Other uses and their taxa numbers
are given in Table 2.
Malaysia
cine includes 76 taxa from 43 families and 65 genera. Appendix 3 includes these
on the preparations used. The following families are represented by the largest
number of taxa: Fabaceae (8), Acanthaceae (5), Malvaceae and Phyllanthaceae (4

each), and Annonaceae and Zingiberaceae (3 each). The genera with highest num-
ber of taxa are Phyllanthus (3 taxa) and Piper, Orthosiphon, Sindora, Allium,
Annona, Terminalia, and Cnestis (2 taxa each) (Appendix 3). The most commonly
used taxa among these are Parkia speciosa, Andrographis paniculata, Averrhoa
bilimbi, Momordica charantia, and Morinda citrifolia (Appendix 3).
On the basis of parts mainly used, we found the numbers as follows: leaves used
(35 taxa), root (22 taxa), and fruits (12 taxa) (Table 1). The most common prepara-
tions used are decoction (32 taxa), followed by extract (21 taxa) and boiled (13
taxa). Other uses and their taxa number are given in Table 2.
In all three countries, for each of the MAPS scientific name, preparations, part
used and its use has been recorded (Appendices 1, 2, and 3). The information
recorded has been symbolized as follows from the three countries in order to follow
the appendices easily:
Part used: AP, aerial parts; BD, buds; BR, branches; B, bulb; CA, capitulum;
CO, cones; CU, cupula; FL, flowers; FO, fronds; FR, fruit; FR-J, fruit juice; FR-S,
fruit shell; H, herb; IP, immature pods; LA, latex; L, leaves; OO, oil; PT, pine tar;
RE, receptacles; RH, rhizome; RS, resin; R, root; S, seed; SH, shoots; ST, stem;
ST-B, stem bark; T, tuber; WP, whole plants
Preparations: AT, as tea; AV, as vegetable; BO, boiled; C, cooked; CH, chew-
ing; CP, cataplasm; CR, crushed; DE, decoction; DOA, one drop oil added, a glass
of water; DR, dried; EF, eaten fresh; EX, extract; G, gum; IN, infusion; JA, jam;
JU, juice; MA, mash; MC, maceration; MO, medicinal oil; PI, pickled; PL, pulp;
PU, poultice; PN, pounded; PW, powdered; R, raw; RA, roasted; SY, syrup
The taxa determined in three countries show the following distribution: 340
taxa in Turkey, 281 taxa in Pakistan, and 76 taxa in Malaysia. A total of 42 taxa are
common among Turkey and Pakistan, 11 between Pakistan-Malaysia, and 6
between Turkey-Malaysia (Table 3). A comparison on the basis of MAPS reveals
that in all these countries, five taxa are commonly used for the diabetes mellitus:
Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Momordica charantia, Nigella sativa, and Punica
granatum (Table 3).
If the data presented above is taken into consideration, similarity ratios can be
calculated, using Jaccard similarity index, ethnoflora used for diabetes mellitus
(Table 4) in three countries.
This index allows the percentage of similarity to be calculated in each area. The
formula to calculate this index is as follows:
Index of Jaccard = 100 × C / ( A + B − C )

where A is the number of species of the sample A, B the number of species of
the sample, and C is the number of species common to A and B (González-Tejero
et al. 2008).
Table 3 The medicinal plant taxa used in three countries for diabetes mellitus treatment
Abelmoschus esculentus x x
Allium cepa x x x
Allium sativum x x x
Aloe vera x x
Artemisia absinthium x x
Capparis spinosa x x
Catharanthus roseus x x
Centaurea iberica x x
Cichorium intybus x x
Coriandrum sativum x x
Cucumis sativus x x
Cynara scolymus x x
Daucus carota x x
Elaeagnus angustifolia x x
Equisetum arvense x x
Eruca vesicaria x x
Ficus carica x x
Foeniculum vulgare x x
Gentiana olivieri x x
Hedera helix x x
Hordeum vulgare x x
Juniperus communis x x
Juniperus excelsa x x
Lamium amplexicaule x x
Malus domestica x x
Malva neglecta x x
Mangifera indica x x
Mentha longifolia x x
Momordica charantia x x x
Morus alba x x
Morus nigra x x
Myrtus communis x x
Nigella sativa x x x
Ocimum basilicum x x
Olea europaea x x
Origanum vulgare x x
Phyllanthus acidus x x
Phyllanthus amarus x x
Plantago major x x
Portulaca oleracea x x
Prunus dulcis x x
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Prunus persica x x
Punica granatum x x x
Raphanus raphanistrum x x
Sesamum indicum x x
Taraxacum campylodes x x
Trigonella foenum-graecum x x
Viscum album x x
Ziziphus jujuba x x
Table 4 Jaccard similarity index related to diabetes mellitus in three countries studied
Turkey-Pakistan Pakistan-Malaysia Turkey-Malaysia
(%) (%) (%)
Diabetes mellitus disease 13.58 6.16 2.88
group
Conclusions
Antidiabetic plants used in the traditional medicine do provide useful information

on the source of new oral hypoglycemic compounds for development as pharma-
ceutical entities or as simple dietary adjuncts to existing therapies (Bailey and Day
1989). For a range of diabetic presentations in the world, traditional plant medicines
are used widely and investigating such medicines can offer a natural key to unlock
a diabetologist’s pharmacy for the future (Bailey and Day 1989).
The recommendations put forth by WHO reveal that antihyperglycemic agents of
natural plant origin used in traditional medicine are important. Antidiabetic poten-
tial of herbals is due to their ability to restore the function of pancreatic tissues by
causing an increase in concentration of insulin. The research for alternate herbal
remedies for diabetes mellitus is continuing widely all over the globe, because this
disease poses many challenges not only to the physician but also to the researcher
(Arulselvan et al. 2014).
In view of the increase in the number of diabetic patients, expenses related to this
are increasing and effecting our health economy. Therefore, there is urgent need for
higher number of more economical and effective alternative cheaper treatments.
Moreover, treatment of diabetes is still a challenging issue for the health specialists.
This chronic disease requires “lifestyle modifications” like exercise, balanced
nutrition, and weight control as well as regular drug use. It also requires discipline
and regular monitoring and follow-up.
The percentage of diabetic patients in the world who achieve treatment targets
(including Turkey) is unfortunately still around 43%. The reason for this low rate
can be listed as problems related to healthcare professionals and health system,

insufficiency of present therapies, and patients’ poor compliance with the recom-
mended treatments. Additionally, like many other chronic diseases, diabetes has a
degenerative and progressive character, which may raise feelings of despair, help-
lessness, and even tiredness in patients (Parildar et al. 2011).
In the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus, herbal treatments have been used
since ancient times. The historical documents 2000 years old depict this fact clearly
as recorded on the Egyptian Papyruses, in the works of Hippocrates and Chinese
medicine and Ayurveda texts. These sources also mention about herbal antidiabetic
treatments. But, there is only one antidiabetic drug generated from a plant: “metfor-
min” which originates from French lilac (Galega officinalis L.). Having gained
gradual importance in recent years, metformin has been successfully used in diabe-
tes treatment for the last five decades (Parildar et al. 2011).
The phytotherapy treatments of type 2 diabetes mellitus are attracting much
attention lately and are expected to increase gradually during the coming years.
Such treatments can be effective in the prevention of diabetes and its complications
as well as optimization of the treatment and life standards. The mechanism here is
closely related with several chronic metabolic diseases. In particular diabetes shows
closeness to oxidative stress and inflammation in the body. Because of the antioxi-
dant features of herbs, these are considered for both prevention and treatment of
diabetes (Parildar et al. 2011).
The herbs constitute a part of culture at global scale. This is a well-known fact
that for quite a long time, herbs are like nutrients and have beneficial effects on
health. It is quite important to utilize nature’s riches in the most efficient way.
Special attention need be paid to the herbal treatments, which have been tradition-
ally used by people for thousands of years. Undertaking more scientific investiga-
tions on these treatments will open new horizons in the treatment of diabetes.
Currently, scientific evidence and findings support the efficiency of herbal remedies
routinely in clinical practice, but the applications are insufficient. However, adverse
effects and/or drug interactions in these widely used therapies need to be definitely
taken into consideration by the healthcare professionals (Parildar et al. 2011).
In addition to this, we should not forget that phytotherapy is not an alternative but
a complementary and supportive treatment to the conventional diabetes therapy and
should be accompanied by diet and exercise treatment. The most important support
and information source for reliability, efficiency, and/or side effects of herbs and
herbal preparations should be health professionals who can undertake leadership
role effectively by improving and updating themselves in this field, as has to be in
all other fields (Parildar et al. 2011).
ppendix 1: Herbs Used for Diabetes Mellitus

A
in the Traditional Medicine in Turkey
Parts
No Family/taxa used Preparation Resourcesa
Adoxaceae
1 Sambucus ebulus S 124
2 Sambucus nigra FL DE 1, 44
3 Viburnum lantana FR DE 10
4 Viburnum opulus FR DE 57
Amaranthaceae
5 Beta vulgaris L EX 150
Amaryllidaceae
6 Allium akaka B EF 17
7 Allium ampeloprasum B DE, R 43, 57
8 Allium cepa B DE 47, 72
9 Allium sativum B, FL, L EF, R 16, 43, 103, 104
Anacardiaceae
10 Cotinus coggygria L DE 1–3
11 Pistacia terebinthus L DE 4
12 Pistacia vera FR, S EF 147
13 Rhus coriaria L CR, DE 147
Apiaceae
14 Ammi visnaga L IN 133
15 Apium graveolens R DE 6
16 Chaerophyllum RH R 19
bulbosum
17 Daucus carota AP IN 7
18 Diplotaenia AP DE 142, 146
cachrydifolia
19 Echinophora tenuifolia AP DE 8
ssp. sibthorpiana
20 Eryngium campestre ST EF 9
var. virens
21 Ferula caspica AP DE 10
22 Ferula orientalis AP C 11
23 Ferula rigidula H PU 10
24 Foeniculum vulgare S IN 12, 13
25 Heracleum persicum WP DE 146
26 Laser trilobum FR EF 14
27 Petroselinum crispum AP, L, EF, IN 15, 16
R
28 Peucedanum H PI 10
longifolium
Parts
29 Prangos ferulacea SH, ST BO, C 42, 127
30 Prangos pabularia R PI 135
31 Scandix pecten-veneris AP IN 149
32 Smyrnium connatum RH EF, C 14
33 Zosima absinthifolia L DE 10
Araceae
34 Arum rupicola var. L, R, T BO, DE, 10, 17, 18, 19
virescens DR, IN
Araliaceae
35 Hedera helix L, ST DE 3, 20–22
Asparagaceae
36 Asparagus acutifolius FR, R DE, IN 49
37 Polygonatum L IN 12, 13
multiflorum
Aspleniaceae
38 Asplenium AP AT, DE, IN 151
scolopendrium
39 Ceterach officinarum AP DE 23
Asteraceae
40 Achillea arabica FL IN 24
41 Achillea millefolium FL IN 24
42 Achillea schischkinii FL DE 25
43 Achillea tenuifolia L IN 10
44 Anthemis cotula AP DE 11
45 Artemisia absinthium AP, L, DE, IN 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 26–29
FL
46 Artemisia annua AP CR 114, 128
47 Artemisia FL, H DE 10
chamaemelifolia
48 Artemisia vulgaris AP DE 22
49 Carduus acanthoides AP DE 3
50 Carduus nutans AP DE 3
ssp. leiophyllus
51 Carduus AP EF 9
pycnocephalus
52 Centaurea benedicta AP, L, DE, IN 12, 13, 32, 33
ST
53 Centaurea iberica AP DE, EF 23, 30
54 Centaurea virgata FL DE 129
55 Cichorium intybus AP, SH C, EF 30, 31
56 Cirsium hypoleucum FL R 16
57 Cirsium vulgare R, ST BO 34
58 Cota austriaca AP IN 24
59 Cota tinctoria DE 22
Parts
60 Cota wiedemanniana BR IN 19
61 Cynara scolymus WP EF 35, 36
62 Filago arvensis AP BO, MA 43, 141
63 Gundelia tournefortii R, ST DE 10, 37
64 Helianthus tuberosus FR, ST, C, DE, EF 4, 10, 11, 14, 16, 19, 38–41
T
65 Helichrysum AP IN 146
armenium
66 Helichrysum plicatum AP, FL, DE, IN 10, 19, 24, 26, 37, 146
ssp. plicatum H
67 Helichrysum plicatum AP DE 146
ssp. pseudoplicatum
68 Helichrysum FL DE 42
rubicundum
69 Jurinea moschus H DE 10
ssp. pinnatisecta
70 Matricaria chamomilla FL IN 44
71 Onopordum acanthium AP EF 9
72 Onopordum tauricum AP, FL DE, IN 10, 25, 37
73 Scolymus hispanicus AP, R DE 6, 16
74 Scorzonera cinerea T R 19
75 Scorzonera mollis T R 19
ssp. szovitzii
76 Scorzonera semicana L EF, C 32
77 Tanacetum aureum AP IN 142
78 Tanacetum AP IN 142
polycephalum
ssp. argyrophyllum
79 Taraxacum AP, FL, DE, IN, R 15, 47–49
campylodes L, R,
SH
80 Taraxacum farinosum L DE 14
81 Taraxacum L, R DE 11
macrolepium
82 Taraxacum stevenii FL BO 46
83 Tripleurospermum CA DE 136
parviflorum
84 Xanthium strumarium FR 15
Berberidaceae
85 Berberis crataegina L, FR, DE, EF, IN 10, 12, 13, 16, 41, 50–52
R
86 Berberis integerrima FR EF 42
87 Berberis vulgaris FR DE 10
88 Bongardia T IN 129
chrysogonum
Parts
Boraginaceae
89 Anchusa azurea AP, R DE 19
90 Anchusa undulata L BO 137
ssp. hybrida
Brassicaceae
91 Brassica elongata FL DE 14
92 Brassica oleracea AP C 16
93 Brassica nigra AP DE 23
94 Capsella AP DE, IN 10, 16, 39
bursa-pastoris
95 Eruca vesicaria L EF 45
96 Lepidium sativum L R 133
97 Nasturtium officinale AP, FL, EF, IN 9, 49, 53
L, SH
98 Raphanus AP C, EF 54
raphanistrum
99 Sinapis alba FL IN 36, 55
100 Sinapis arvensis FL, SH EF, IN 30, 36, 55
Capparaceae
101 Capparis spinosa AP DE 56
Caprifoliaceae
102 Dipsacus laciniatus R DE 10
Caryophyllaceae
103 Dianthus carmelitarum FL IN 16
Cistaceae
104 Cistus creticus L DE, IN 35, 36, 43
105 Cistus laurifolius BD, BR, DE, IN, MA 6, 12, 13, 26, 35, 36, 43, 51, 58
FL, L,
R, SH
106 Cistus salviifolius BR IN 36
Cornaceae
107 Cornus mas FR, L DE, EF 1, 2, 59–61
Cucurbitaceae
108 Cucumis sativus FR EF 62, 63
109 Cucurbita moschata S EF 29
110 Ecballium elaterium 64
111 Momordica charantia FR PW 12, 13, 15
Cupressaceae
112 Cupressus CO, S DE 16, 34, 64, 65
sempervirens
113 Juniperus communis FR DE 62
114 Juniperus drupacea FR, R 15
115 Juniperus excelsa CO DE 45, 62
116 Juniperus foetidissima CO EF, IN 16, 66
Parts
117 Juniperus oxycedrus BR, DE, IN 14, 16, 33, 65–70
CO, L,
S
118 Juniperus sabina SH DE 42
Dioscoreaceae
119 Dioscorea communis FL, R BO, R 43
Ebenaceae
120 Diospyros kaki FR EF 139
Elaeagnaceae
121 Elaeagnus angustifolia FR, L DE, IN 16, 43
Equisetaceae
122 Equisetum arvense AP, L 15
123 Equisetum AP BO, DE, IN 10, 151
ramosissimum
Ericaceae
124 Arbutus andrachne FR DE 71
125 Arbutus unedo FR EF 144
126 Vaccinium myrtillus FR, L DR, EF, IN 12, 13, 72, 73
Euphorbiaceae
127 Euphorbia rigida LA 123
128 Ricinus communis S EF, DE 12, 13
Fabaceae
129 Astracantha R DE, IN 10, 37, 146
gummifera
130 Astragalus brevicalyx R R 25
131 Astragalus bustillosii R DE 19
132 Astragalus ceramicus R IN 146
var. filifolius
133 Ceratonia siliqua FR DE 14, 16
134 Galega officinalis FL IN 15
135 Glycyrrhiza glabra R DE 16
136 Lathyrus sativus S DE 74
137 Lathyrus tuberosus L C 11
138 Lupinus albus S CR, EF 13, 27
139 Lupinus angustifolius S CR 21
ssp. angustifolius
140 Lupinus pilosus FR C, DR, 26
EF, PW
141 Phaseolus vulgaris AP DE 133
142 Robinia pseudoacacia FL R 128
143 Trigonella S DE, IN, 12, 13, 18, 72, 75
foenum-graecum PN, PW
144 Vicia ervilia S DE 52
145 Vicia faba FR, S EF 74, 75
Parts
Fagaceae
146 Castanea sativa FL IN 31, 76
147 Quercus brantii FR EF 30, 56
148 Quercus cerris FR DE 24
149 Quercus coccifera BR, CU, DE, EF 14, 16, 43, 66, 77
FR, R
150 Quercus infectoria FR DE, EF 77, 78
ssp. veneris
151 Quercus ithaburensis FR EF 30
ssp. macrolepis
152 Quercus petraea FR DE, IN 19
ssp. pinnatiloba
153 Quercus robur FR, ST DE 24, 78
Gentianaceae
154 Centaurium erythraea AP DE, IN, MO 43
155 Gentiana olivieri FL IN 78
Geraniaceae
156 Erodium cedrorum AP IN 149
ssp. salmoneum
157 Erodium cicutarium AP IN 149
158 Erodium gruinum AP IN 149
159 Erodium AP IN 149
pelargoniflorum
160 Geranium robertianum AP DE, IN 12, 13, 71
161 Geranium tuberosum AP DE 17
162 Pelargonium L DE 133
graveolens
Hypericaceae
163 Hypericum AP BO 76
adenotrichum
164 Hypericum AP IN 54
empetrifolium
165 Hypericum perforatum AP, FL, DE, IN 3, 16, 44, 64, 75, 79, 80
L
166 Hypericum scabrum FL DE 16
167 Hypericum AP DE 80
tetrapterum
168 Hypericum AP DE 16, 56, 80
triquetrifolium
Juglandaceae
169 Juglans regia FR, DE, IN, 1, 12–14, 16, 18, 19, 24, 25, 31,
FR-S, R, MC 32, 40, 43, 64, 72, 75, 81–84
L, S,
ST-B
Lamiaceae
Parts
170 Ajuga chamaepitys L DE 71
ssp. chia
171 Lamium amplexicaule WP DE 85
172 Lavandula stoechas AP, FL, DE 15, 16, 54, 75, 86
L
173 Melissa officinalis AP, FL, DE, IN 3, 15, 16, 49, 60, 87, 88
L, SH
174 Mentha aquatica AP EF 9
175 Mentha longifolia L DE 74
176 Mentha pulegium AP DE 54
177 Mentha spicata L DE 89
178 Micromeria cristata AP IN 135
ssp. orientalis
179 Micromeria juliana AP IN 76
180 Ocimum basilicum L CP, IN, MA 43
181 Origanum majorana AP IN 16, 90
182 Origanum onites AP, FL, DE, EF, IN 6, 12, 13, 16, 35, 36, 54, 80
L, ST
183 Origanum vulgare AP IN 39
ssp. gracile
184 Origanum vulgare AP, FL, IN 7, 16, 60, 88, 91
ssp. hirtum L
185 Origanum vulgare AP DE 1, 2
ssp. vulgare
186 Phlomis linearis AP DE 24
187 Rosmarinus officinalis AP, FL, DE, IN 15, 43, 49, 62, 80, 92
L
188 Salvia cyanescens AP DE 136
189 Salvia fruticosa L IN 133
190 Salvia hydrangea H IN 10
191 Salvia multicaulis AP IN 33
192 Salvia officinalis L IN 133
193 Salvia virgata 93
194 Satureja cuneifolia AP, FL, IN 12, 13, 24
L, ST
195 Satureja thymbra AP IN 149
196 Sideritis congesta L IN 74
197 Sideritis lanata FL IN 133
198 Sideritis perfoliata 92
199 Stachys annua AP IN 94
200 Stachys cretica AP 141
201 Teucrium chamaedrys FL IN 49
ssp. chamaedrys
202 Teucrium chamaedrys AP IN 16
ssp. lydium
Parts
203 Teucrium chamaedrys S, AP DE, IN 32, 27
ssp. sinuatum
204 Teucrium chamaedrys FL, L IN 130
ssp. tauricola
205 Teucrium polium AP, FL, DE, IN, EF 2, 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19, 25, 32, 33,
L, WP 35–37, 45–47, 52, 61, 62, 66, 78,
95–100
206 Thymbra capitata AP, OO DOA, IN 6, 149
207 Thymbra spicata AP, FL, CP, IN 7, 16, 35, 36, 43, 60, 76, 88, 92, 96
L
208 Thymus cilicicus L IN 96
209 Thymus fallax AP DE, IN 10, 52
210 Thymus kotschyanus AP, H, DE, IN 10, 22, 46, 52
ssp. kotschyanus L
211 Thymus leucostomus AP IN 88
212 Thymus longicaulis AP, L DE, IN 3, 16, 31, 48, 60, 88
ssp. chaubardii
213 Thymus praecox AP DE, IN 16, 101
ssp. jankae
214 Thymus nummularius AP IN 16
215 Thymus sipyleus AP DE, IN 10, 20, 47, 52, 88
216 Thymus zygioides AP IN 1, 7, 26, 67, 68
217 Vitex agnus-castus S BO 76, 98
Lauraceae
218 Cinnamomum ST-B DE 27
zeylanicum
219 Laurus nobilis FR, L DE, EF 14, 16, 89, 102
Linaceae
220 Linum hirsutum S PW 67
221 Linum usitatissimum S IN 21
222 Linum tenuifolium AP DE 3
Lythraceae
223 Punica granatum FL, DE, IN, SY 4, 16, 23, 35, 36, 43, 62, 110
FR-J,
FR
Malvaceae
224 Abelmoschus S IN 27, 28, 107
esculentus
225 Malva neglecta FL, L C, IN, MA 43, 108
226 Malva sylvestris AP, FL, DE, IN, MA 23, 31, 43
L, R
Moraceae
227 Ficus carica 144
228 Morus alba L, FR DE, SY 2, 16, 22, 31, 59, 64, 89, 94
Parts
229 Morus nigra FR, L, DE, IN 3, 4, 15, 16, 32, 72, 74, 94, 96, 108,
ST-B 109
230 Morus rubra FR-J, IN, R, SY 43, 66
FR, L
Myrtaceae
231 Eucalyptus L DE, IN 12, 13
camaldulensis
232 Myrtus communis FR, L DE, EF, IN 6, 12–14, 16, 23, 29, 45, 54, 62, 74,
110
Oleaceae
233 Jasminum officinale FL DE 133
234 Olea europaea BD, FL, DE, IN, 6, 13, 15, 16, 40, 43, 45, 49, 54,
FR, MA, PU, R 64, 72, 96, 97, 90
FR-J,
L, OO,
S
235 Phillyrea latifolia FR, L EF, IN 16, 60
Orchidaceae
236 Orchis simia B DE 111
Paeoniaceae
237 Paeonia arietina AP IN 10, 39
Papaveraceae
238 Fumaria officinalis AP C 61
239 Papaver argemone AP IN 80
240 Papaver dubium AP IN 80
ssp. lecoqii
241 Papaver rhoeas AP IN 22, 80
Pedaliaceae
242 Sesamum indicum FR, S EF 12, 13
Pinaceae
243 Cedrus libani R DE 126
244 Pinus brutia CO, L, CH, DE, 6, 14, 43, 110
PT, RS, IN, PU, R
SH,
ST-B
245 Pinus nigra CO, PT, BO, G 34, 43, 112
ssp. pallasiana RS
246 Pinus sylvestris CO BO, DE 113
Plantaginaceae
247 Plantago lanceolata L DE 46, 50
248 Plantago major L DE, IN 2, 3, 16, 44
ssp. major
249 Plantago major L DE 67, 114
ssp. intermedia
Platanaceae
Parts
250 Platanus orientalis FR, L DE, IN 25, 32, 60, 102
Poaceae
251 Elymus repens AP, RH DE 15, 22, 33
252 Avena barbata L, SH IN 49
253 Avena sativa FR DE 133
254 Cynodon dactylon AP, L, DE, IN 31, 46, 60, 138
R
255 Hordeum vulgare S C 73
Polygonaceae
256 Polygonum cognatum L C, EF, IN 33, 96
257 Rheum ribes R, SH, DE, IN, R 10, 17, 18, 39, 42, 104, 127, 132, 142
ST
258 Rumex acetosella L EF 23, 39, 63
259 Rumex crispus L DE, IN, C 25, 42, 94
260 Rumex pulcher L R 94, 134
261 Rumex scutatus H DE 42
262 Rumex tuberosus H, L, R C, EF, IN, R 25, 42, 115
Portulacaceae
263 Portulaca oleracea AP, L C, DE, IN, 19, 25, 30, 33, 43, 45
MA, PU, R
Ranunculaceae
264 Nigella sativa S DE, EF, PW 12, 13, 62, 110
265 Nigella segetalis S, SH DE 10, 18, 21
Rhamnaceae
266 Paliurus spina-christi R, S CR, DE 2, 43, 44, 54, 62
267 Rhamnus lycioides FR EF 24
ssp. oleoides
268 Ziziphus jujuba FR EF, DE, DR 12, 13, 16, 35, 36, 116
Rosaceae
269 Alchemilla compactilis FL, L DE, IN 148
270 Prunus dulcis FR, S EF 12, 13, 16, 27, 43, 54, 62, 67, 75, 94,
144
271 Cotoneaster FR, L DE, PN, R 19, 24, 113
nummularius
272 Crataegus azoralus FL, FR DE 10, 20
var. aronia
273 Crataegus meyeri FR, R DE, EF 10, 52
274 Crataegus monogyna SH DE 14
275 Crataegus orientalis FR, L, S DE, IN, MA, 43
ssp. orientalis R
276 Crataegus orientalis FL, L, DE, IN 134
ssp. szovitsii ST-B,
SH
277 Crataegus FL, SH DE 113
tanacetifolia
Parts
278 Cydonia oblonga FR, L DE, EF, IN 16, 19, 35, 36, 44, 103, 110
279 Eriobotrya japonica L DE, IN 149
280 Fragaria vesca FR, R DE 16
281 Fragaria viridis FR R 140
282 Malus domestica FR DE 35
283 Malus pumila FL IN 62
284 Malus sylvestris FR, L DE, EF 3, 10, 38, 106
ssp. orientalis var.
orientalis
285 Mespilus germanica FR, L EF, IN 31, 103
286 Prunus armeniaca FR, S R 25
287 Prunus avium 135, 145
288 Prunus cerasus S MO 125
289 Prunus cocomilia FR DE 3
290 Prunus divaricata FR DE, R, SY 43, 61
var. divaricata
291 Prunus laurocerasus FR, L, S DE, EF 16, 20, 31, 60, 73
292 Prunus mahaleb FR, S EF, IN 10, 12, 13, 22, 27, 47, 56, 61
293 Prunus orientalis S BO, EF 63, 94
294 Prunus persica S EF 30
295 Prunus spinosa FR BO, DE, DR, 1–3, 15, 16, 31, 44, 62, 79, 103
ssp. dasphylla EF, JA, IN
296 Pyrus amygdaliformis FL, FR DE 6, 92, 117
var. amygdaliformis
297 Pyrus amygdaliformis FR PI 131
var. lanceolata
298 Pyrus bulgarica FR EF, PI 1
299 Pyrus communis FR DE 33
ssp. caucasica
300 Pyrus communis FR, R, 15
ssp. communis ST-B
301 Pyrus elaeagnifolia FL, FR, DE, IN 3, 29, 62
ssp. elaeagnifolia L
302 Rosa boissieri FR-J 135
303 Rosa canina FL, FR, DE, EF, 2, 4, 10, 14, 16, 17, 31, 33, 35–38, 43,
FR-S, JA, IN 46, 47, 50, 51, 58–60, 71, 74, 81, 82,
L, 85, 96, 98, 100, 103, 108, 109, 114,
R, S 115, 118, 119
304 Rosa mollis FR-J 135
305 Rosa phoenicia FR DE 35, 36
306 Rubus caesius R DE 23
307 Rubus canescens BD, FR, DE, IN 1, 7, 10, 16, 21, 30, 45, 75
L, R,
SH
308 Rubus hirtus L, R DE, IN 10, 16, 57
Parts
309 Rubus ibericus L, R DE, IN 1, 16, 33
310 Rubus idaeus L, R DE, IN 16, 62
311 Rubus sanctus BD, FR, IN 2, 7, 12–14, 16, 19, 22, 49, 57, 76, 79,
L, R, 92, 94, 101, 114, 117, 118
SH
312 Sarcopoterium AP, R, DE, IN 12, 13, 72, 104
spinosum ST,
ST-B
313 Sorbus aucuparia FR EF 60
314 Sorbus domestica FR, L DE, EF, PI 3, 12, 13, 16, 72, 91, 106
315 Sorbus umbellata var. FR, L IN 49
cretica
316 Sorbus umbellata var. FR, L IN 49
umbellata
317 Sorbus torminalis L DE 3
Rubiaceae
318 Galium aparine AP DE 6, 33
Rutaceae
319 Citrus maxima FR-J EF 6
Salicaceae
320 Populus tremula L IN 1, 116
321 Salix alba BR, FL, DE 14, 16, 60
L
Santalaceae
322 Viscum album ssp. FR, L DE 149
abietis
323 Viscum album ssp. AP, H, DE, IN 6, 10, 14, 16, 24, 26, 31, 38, 39, 51,
album L 61, 94, 98, 100, 101, 106
324 Viscum album ssp. L DE 43
austriacum
Scrophulariaceae
325 Verbascum macrurum FL IN 16
326 Verbascum FL, L EF, IN 38
stenostachyum
Simaroubaceae
327 Quassia amara ST IN 103
Smilacaceae
328 Smilax excelsa SH BO 105
Solanaceae
329 Physalis alkekengi FR, S DE 34, 74
330 Solanum tuberosum T R 133, 143
Styracaceae
331 Styrax officinalis L, S DE, EF 14, 26
Urticaceae
332 Parietaria judaica AP DE 100
Parts
333 Parietaria officinalis AP DE 133
334 Urtica dioica AP, L, C, DE, IN 2, 4, 6, 11, 16, 22, 23, 29, 31–34, 37,
S, WP 41, 45, 57, 60, 68, 78, 92, 101, 103,
109, 113, 115, 119–122
335 Urtica pilulifera AP, S C, DE 14, 80, 81
336 Urtica urens AP, L, CR, DE 9, 16, 80
R, S
Vitaceae
337 Vitis vinifera L 150
Xanthorrhoeaceae
338 Asphodelus aestivus L C 63
339 Eremurus spectabilis AP, R DE, MA 19, 39
Zygophyllaceae
340 Tribulus terrestris AP DE 23, 96
a
Resources: 1: (Genç and Özhatay 2006); 2: (Alparslan and Tuzlacı 2006); 3: (Kültür 2007); 4:
(Sezik et al. 2001); 5: (Çelik et al. 2008); 6: (Ertuğ 2002); 7: (Bulut 2008); 8: (Balos 2007); 9:
(Sarper et al. 2009); 10: (Altundag and Ozturk 2011); 11: (Güneş and Özhatay 2011); 12:
(Durmuşkahya and Öztürk 2013); 13: (Durmuşkahya and Öztürk 2013); 14: (Güneş 2010); 15:
(Sarı et al. 2010); 16: (Tuzlacı 2006); 17: (Öztürk and Ölçücü 2011); 18: (Özgokce and Ozcelik
2004); 19: (Polat et al. 2013); 20: (Koyuncu 2005); 21: (Ugulu et al. 2009); 22: (Çakilcioglu et al.
2011); 23: (Kıran 2006); 24: (Keskin 2011); 25: (Tetik et al. 2013); 26: (Oral 2007); 27:
(Çömlekçioğlu and Karaman 2008); 28: (Uysal 2010); 29: (Uysal et al. 2010); 30: (Gençay 2007);
31: (Kızılaslan 2008); 32: (Çakılcıoğlu et al. 2007); 33: (Çakilcioglu and Turkoglu 2010); 34:
(Sağıroğlu et al. 2012a); 35: (Fujita et al. 1995); 36: (Polat and Satil 2012); 37: (Çakılcıoğlu et al.
2010); 38: (Kargioğlu et al. 2008); 39: (Tuzlacı and Dogan 2010); 40: (Kahraman and Tatlı 2004);
41: (Savran et al. 2009); 42: (Özgen et al. 2012); 43: (Sargin et al. 2013); 44: (Tuzlacı et al. 2010);
45: (Akaydın et al. 2013); 46: (Doğan and Bağcı 2011); 47: (Öztürk 2006); 48: (Uysal et al. 2012);
49: (Fakir et al. 2009); 50: (Gençler and Koyuncu 2005); 51: (Vural 2008); 52: (Yeşil and Akalın
2009); 53: (Polat et al. 2012); 54: (Gürdal and Kültür 2013); 55: (Polat and Satil 2012); 56: (Akgül
2008); 57: (Sezik et al. 1997); 58: (Unsal et al. 2010); 59: (Yeşilada et al. 1999); 60: (Koçyiğit and
Özhatay 2006); 61: (Demirci and Özhatay 2012); 62: (Metin 2009); 63: (Tekin 2011); 64: (Başer
et al. 1986); 65: (Emre 2003); 66: (Tuzlacı and Erol 1999); 67: (Deniz et al. 2010); 68: (Akçiçek
and Vural 2003); 69: (Alparslan 2003); 70: (Sadıkoğlu 2003); 71: (Saday 2009); 72: (Baytop
1984); 73: (Sağıroğlu et al. 2012b); 74: (Everest and Ozturk 2005); 75: (Akan et al. 2005); 76:
(Ertuğ et al. 2004); 77: (Keskin and Alpınar 2002); 78: (Şığva and Seçmen 2009); 79: (Bulut
2011); 80: (Alpınar 1999); 81: (Türkan et al. 2006); 82: (Sayar et al. 1995); 83: (Tabata et al.
1988); 84: (Vural 2004); 85: (Akyol and Altan 2013); 86: (Malyer et al. 2004) 87: (Yücel and
Tülükoğlu 2000); 88: (Koyuncu et al. 2010); 89: (Yazıcıoğlu and Tuzlacı 1996); 90: (Uzun et al.
2004); 91: (Tuzlacı and Aymaz 2001); 92: (Tümen and Sekendiz 1990); 93: (Ahiskalı et al. 2012);
94: (Tuzlacı and Şenkardeş 2011); 95: (Mart 2006); 96: (Özçelik and Balabanlı 2005); 97:
(Çubukçu and Özhatay 1987); 98: (Koçak 1999); 99: (Özdemir 2005); 100: (Öztürk and Dinç
2005); 101: (Ezer and Arisan 2006); 102: (Genç 2003); 103: (Tuzlacı and Tolon 2000); 104:
(Yıldırım et al. 2008); 105: (Koca and Yıldırımlı 2010); 106: (Aktan 2011); 107: (İlçim and Varol
1996); 108: (Ezer and Avcı 2004); 109: (Çakılcıoğlu and Türkoğlu 2009); 110: (Polat et al. 2011);
111: (Yapıcı et al. 2009); 112: (Honda et al. 1996); 113: (Özüdoru et al. 2011); 114: (Akalın and
Alpınar 1994); 115: (Elçi and Erik 2006); 116: (Ugurlu and Secmen 2008); 117: (Bulut and Tuzlacı
2005); 118: (Aslan 2002); 119: (Şimsek et al. 2004); 120: (Akan et al. 2008); 121: (Gümüş 1994);
122: (Şimşek et al. 2001); 123: (Keklik Koçoğlu et al. 1996); 124: (Sadıkoğlu and Alpınar 2000);
125: (Karaman and Kocabas 2001); 126: (Yeşilada et al. 1995); 127: (Özgen and Coşkun 2000);
128: (Akalın 1998); 129: (Özuslu 2005); 130: (Çubukcu et al. 1994); 131: (Duran et al. 2001); 132:
(Güneş and Özhatay 2011); 133: (Tümen and Selvi 2011); 134: (Şenkardeş 2014); 135: (Korkmaz
and Karakurt 2014); 136: (Han and Bulut 2015); 137: (Arı et al. 2015); 138: (Yeşilyurt et al. 2017);
139: (Şenkardeş and Tuzlaci 2014); 140: (Polat et al. 2015); 141: (Sargin et al. 2015a); 142: (Kaval
et al. 2014); 143: (Güler et al. 2015); 144: (Sargin et al. 2015b); 145: (Günbatan et al. 2016); 146:
(Mükemre et al. 2015); 147: (Bulut et al. 2017); 148: (Akbulut and Bayramoglu 2014); 149:
(Sargin 2015); 150: (Wong et al. 2011); 151: (Oztürk et al. 2018)
ppendix 2: Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment

A
of Diabetes Mellitus in the Traditional Medicine in Pakistan
No Family/taxa Parts used Preparations Resourcesa

Acanthaceae
1 Justicia adhatoda BD, FR, DE, EF, EX, JU 1–8
L, WP
Adoxaceae
2 Viburnum grandiflorum L EX 9
Aizoaceae
3 Trianthema triquetra WP DE, IN, PW 10
Alismataceae
4 Alisma L, RH PW 8, 11
plantago-aquatica
Amaranthaceae
5 Achyranthes aspera S PW 12, 13
6 Aerva javanica DE 14, 15
7 Chenopodium album 14, 15
8 Chenopodium foliosum R DE 16
9 Chenopodium murale 14, 15
10 Dysphania botrys AP 17
11 Salsola imbricata DE 15
Amaryllidaceae
12 Allium cepa B G 1, 2, 8, 18, 19
13 Allium sativum B, L C, EF 1, 2, 8, 11, 19, 20–24
Asparagaceae
14 Asparagus officinalis S PW 25
Anacardiaceae
15 Mangifera indica L, S DR, EX 24, 26
Annonaceae
16 Polyalthia longifolia L, R, ST BO 8, 27
Apiaceae
17 Carum carvi S BO, EX 28
18 Coriandrum sativum OO, S CH 24, 29, 30

19 Cuminum nigrum FR 31
20 Daucus carota JU 2, 15, 32
21 Ferula narthex WP PW 8
22 Foeniculum vulgare L, S BO, EX, PW 19, 33
23 Narthex asafoetida RS 34
Apocynaceae
24 Calotropis procera FL BO, EX 8
25 Caralluma adscendens ST 35
var. fimbriata
26 Caralluma edulis AP, WP C, EX, PW 1, 2, 6, 8, 36, 37
27 Caralluma tuberculata FR, R, AV, C, EX 6, 36, 38, 39
ST, WP
28 Carissa spinarum L, R DE 4
29 Catharanthus roseus L, WP JU 1, 8, 11, 40, 41
30 Gymnema sylvestre L BO, IN 22, 42
31 Nerium oleander L, LA, S IN, PW 19
32 Pergularia tomentosa 8
33 Rauvolfia serpentina L EX 43, 44
34 Rhazya stricta L, WP BO, PW 6, 8, 45, 47, 126
35 Tylophora hirsuta BR, L EX, JU 2, 8
Araceae
36 Anthurium sp. 14
37 Monstera deliciosa FR PL 9
38 Pistia stratiotes L, ST EX 48
Araliaceae
39 Hedera helix B, L EX 5, 8, 49, 50
40 Hedera nepalensis L, FR EX, PW 7, 11, 19, 49, 51, 52
Arecaceae
41 Nannorrhops ritchiana 14
42 Phoenix sylvestris S DE 53
Asteraceae
43 Achillea santolinoides WP DE, IN 33
ssp. wilhelmsii
44 Arctium lappa L, R, ST DE 8, 54
45 Artemisia absinthium FL, L, BO, DE, EX 8, 16, 54
WP
46 Artemisia gmelinii 55
47 Artemisia herba-alba WP PW 56
48 Artemisia indica AP EX 56, 57
49 Artemisia roxburghiana L EX 9
50 Artemisia scoparia FR EF 17
51 Baccharoides S PW 52
anthelmintica
52 Centaurea iberica L EX 9

53 Chrysanthemum FL EX 52
indicum
54 Cichorium intybus R, L, SH DE, PW 1, 2, 58, 59
55 Erigeron bonariensis 14
56 Cousinia thomsonii CA DR, PW 16
57 Cynara scolymus RE 11
58 Galinsoga parviflora 60
59 Lactuca sativa L JU 11
60 Launaea procumbens L, WP AV, C, EX 8, 27
61 Parthenium FL PW 8, 37, 61
hysterophorus
62 Seriphidium quettense L 33
63 Silybum marianum WP DE 4
64 Sonchus asper L, R AV, C 7, 52
65 Stevia rebaudiana L EX 62
66 Tanacetum WP BO 8, 54
artemisioides
67 Taraxacum campylodes L, R, WP AV, DE, PW 1, 2, 8, 9, 16, 37
68 Tricholepis furcata 8
69 Vernonia cinerea FR 39
Berberidaceae
70 Berberis brandisiana R, ST PW 8
71 Berberis lycium FR, R, DE, EX, PW 8, 52, 63, 64, 65
ST-B, WP
72 Berberis orthobotrys FR, L, R 16
Betulaceae
73 Alnus nitida L 8
Boraginaceae
74 Arnebia benthamii FL, L DE 16
75 Onosma echioides R EX 12
Brassicaceae
76 Brassica cretica FL AV 66
77 Lepidium didymum 15
78 Eruca vesicaria S, WP AV, C, MO 4, 52
79 Farsetia stylosa WP DE, PW 10, 67
80 Raphanus raphanistrum R BO 8
ssp. sativus
Cactaceae
81 Opuntia dillenii FR, FR-J, DR, EF, JU 8, 68, 69
LA
82 Opuntia monacantha FR DR 8
Capparaceae
83 Capparis cartilaginea L PW 8
84 Capparis decidua FR, S EX 8, 70, 71
85 Capparis spinosa L BO, EX 6, 8

Cleomaceae
86 Cleome scaposa L BO, DE 10
Caricaceae
87 Carica papaya FR 8
Caryophyllaceae
88 Stellaria media WP IN 72
Convolvulaceae
89 Convolvulus arvensis 14
90 Convolvulus prostratus L BO, DE 10
91 Cuscuta campestris WP BO, EX 8
92 Cuscuta reflexa SH, WP EX 8, 33, 39
Cucurbitaceae
93 Coccinia grandis L, R JU 8, 73–75
94 Cucumis melo FR PL 17
95 Cucumis sativus FR-J 8
96 Cucurbita maxima FR R 33
97 Cucurbita pepo FR 8, 14
98 Luffa acutangula FR C 17, 76
99 Momordica balsamina FR EX, PW 8, 77
100 Momordica charantia FR, L C, DR, EX, JU, 1–3, 8, 15, 22, 33, 78–80
PW, R
101 Momordica dioica FR DR, EF, JU, PW 8, 45, 81
102 Mukia maderaspatana 14
103 Citrullus colocynthis FR, R, S EF, PW 6, 8, 10, 24, 38, 45
104 Citrullus lanatus FR EF 8, 14
Cupressaceae
105 Juniperus communis IN 82
var. saxatilis
106 Juniperus excelsa FR BO 8
Cyperaceae
107 Cyperus rotundus AP, R, T BO, DE 2, 10, 83, 84
Dioscoreaceae
108 Dioscorea deltoidea 60
Elaeagnaceae
109 Elaeagnus angustifolia FR R 33
110 Elaeagnus rhamnoides FR, S JA 8, 85
Equisetaceae
111 Equisetum arvense AP, WP AT, DE, PU 125, 127
Euphorbiaceae
112 Acalypha wilkesiana 86
113 Euphorbia helioscopia FL, L EX 9
114 Euphorbia hirta L, WP BO, EX 8
115 Euphorbia thymifolia WP PW 8, 87
116 Manihot esculenta 86

Fabaceae
117 Acacia modesta FL, S DE, G, PW 8
118 Acacia nilotica L, S, ST BO, DE, EF, G, 6, 8, 74, 79, 88
IN
119 Acacia senegal G 74, 11
120 Argyrolobium roseum WP IN 6, 8
121 Alhagi maurorum R PW 8, 73, 74
122 Albizia lebbeck S PW 6, 8, 89
123 Albizia procera 60
124 Bauhinia purpurea WP AV 8, 41
125 Bauhinia variegata L IN 9
126 Butea monosperma FL, LA, G, PW 8, 53, 59
ST-B
127 Cajanus cajan S C 2, 8, 90
128 Cassia fistula L, S DR, PL 8, 12, 65
129 Cicer arietinum FR, S DE, RA 2, 11, 14, 31
130 Dalbergia sissoo G, PW 19
131 Glycine max S EX 11, 91
132 Medicago monantha WP AV 92
133 Medicago polymorpha 14
134 Melilotus albus 14
135 Mucuna pruriens S DE 12, 62
136 Parkinsonia aculeata FL, ST-B 92
137 Prosopis cineraria 14
138 Senna obtusifolia FL EX 88
139 Trigonella L, S DE, EX 1, 2, 8, 22, 78, 93, 94
foenum-graecum
140 Vigna mungo S C 2
141 Vigna unguiculata IP AV 2
Fagaceae
142 Quercus ilex 95
Gentianaceae
143 Gentiana olivieri AP EX 96
144 Gentiana tianschanica FL, L BO, EX, IN 8, 16, 58
145 Swertia chirata WP DR, EX 8, 52
146 Swertia petiolata WP DE 16
Lamiaceae
147 Ajuga integrifolia WP BO 8
148 Ajuga parviflora AP EX 97
149 Ajuga reptans WP 39
150 Clerodendrum 8
phlomidis
151 Lamium amplexicaule L JU 59
152 Mentha x piperita L, S BO, IN, PW 8, 19

153 Mentha longifolia L BO, DE, EX 8, 33
154 Ocimum basilicum L PW 8
155 Ocimum tenuiflorum L PW 8
156 Origanum vulgare L EX 8, 79
157 Pseudocaryopteris FL, L PW 8
bicolor
158 Salvia coccinea L EX 9
159 Teucrium stocksianum SH, WP BO, CR, DE, EX 8, 17, 33, 98
160 Vitex negundo FL PW 53
Limeaceae
161 Limeum obovatum WP BO, IN 10
Lythraceae
162 Lawsonia inermis L EX 78, 99
163 Punica granatum FR DR, EF, PW 5, 51, 69
164 Woodfordia fruticosa FL PW 53
Malvaceae
165 Abelmoschus esculentus R DR 32
166 Bombax ceiba L, WP EX 19, 100
167 Grewia asiatica FR EF 12, 17, 34, 38, 101, 102
168 Malva neglecta L EX, JU 8, 61
169 Sida cordata WP EX 19
Meliaceae
170 Azadirachta indica FL, FR, L DR, PW 2, 8
171 Cedrela serrata L, ST DE, EX, JU 51, 53, 104
172 Melia azedarach FR, L, DE, DR, JU 1, 4, 18, 32, 39, 45
WP
173 Toona ciliata L PW 105
Menispermaceae
174 Cissampelos pareira S PW 19
175 Cocculus hirsutus AP EX 96
Moraceae
176 Ficus benghalensis BR, FR, 2, 3, 6, 8, 24, 106, 107
L,
LA, R,
ST-B
177 Ficus carica L BO, EX 8, 24, 42
178 Ficus hispida ST-B EX 8
179 Ficus lacor FR DR, PW 8
180 Ficus microcarpa FR, L, PW 8, 106
ST-B
181 Ficus palmata FR 8, 81, 89
182 Ficus racemosa ST-B BO, EX 8, 12
183 Ficus religiosa ST-B 8, 106
184 Ficus virens L 8
185 Morus alba L, R BO 8, 19, 65, 78, 108

186 Morus nigra FR, L, 8, 52
ST-B
Moringaceae
187 Moringa oleifera FL, FR, S BO, C 8, 11
Musaceae
188 Musa acuminata FL PW, RA 38
Myrtaceae
189 Eucalyptus globulus ST-B BO 19
190 Eucalyptus obliqua 15
191 Myrtus communis L EX 109
192 Psidium guajava L, ST-B EX 1, 2, 8, 14, 52
193 Syzygium cumini FR, S BO, PW 1, 2, 8, 11, 12, 14, 22, 24, 37,
38, 40, 42, 52, 61, 78
Nitrariaceae
194 Peganum harmala WP JU 92
Nyctaginaceae
195 Boerhavia diffusa L EX 19
Orchidaceae
196 Dactylorhiza hatagirea RH BO 16
Oleaceae
197 Fraxinus excelsior S PW 19
198 Olea europaea FR EF, DE, DR 4, 6, 8
199 Olea ferruginea FR BO, DE, DR, EF 1, 2, 8, 17, 38, 74, 75
Oxalidaceae
200 Oxalis corniculata WP EX 19, 33, 65
Papaveraceae
201 Fumaria indica WP JU 8, 18, 52, 100
202 Fumaria parviflora WP DE 92
203 Papaver somniferum FL, FR, BO, EX 8, 52
LA, S
Pedaliaceae
204 Sesamum indicum 8
Phyllanthaceae
205 Leptopus cordifolius L BO, EX 8, 49
206 Phyllanthus acidus 86
207 Phyllanthus amarus 86
208 Phyllanthus emblica FR DR, JA, PW 8, 65, 86
209 Phyllanthus 86
maderaspatensis
210 Phyllanthus urinaria 86
Pinaceae
211 Abies pindrow L EX 9
212 Pinus roxburghii RS 17
Plantaginaceae

213 Kickxia incana WP PW 92
214 Nanorhinum WP PW 1, 2, 75, 92
ramosissimum
215 Picrorhiza kurroa R PW 61
Poaceae
216 Avena fatua 14
217 Hordeum vulgare S, WP BO, PW 2, 24
218 Oryza sativa S PW 2
219 Ochthochloa compressa 14
220 Pennisetum glaucum S 8
221 Phalaris minor 15
222 Sporobolus ioclados 14
223 Triticum aestivum FR, S 2, 81, 110
224 Zea mays FL EX 2, 8, 111
Polygonaceae
225 Fagopyrum esculentum L, S C, PW 8, 85
226 Polygonum plebeium 14
227 Rumex acetosa SH 39
228 Rumex hastatus WP 4
Portulacaceae
229 Portulaca oleracea L C 38
Primulaceae
230 Anagallis arvensis 14
Pteridaceae
231 Adiantum ST-B BO, DE 8, 22, 112
capillus-veneris
232 Adiantum incisum FO JU 8, 59, 104, 112, 113
Ranunculaceae
233 Aconitum chasmanthum RH 11
234 Delphinium R PW 16
brunonianum
235 Nigella sativa L, S, WP BO, EX, PW 8, 78, 114
236 Ranunculus muricatus 15
Rhamnaceae
237 Ziziphus jujuba FR, L, CH, DE, EX, 8, 17, 35, 79, 115
WP PW
238 Ziziphus nummularia FR, L, R, DE, EF, PW 8, 116, 120
S, ST-B
239 Ziziphus oxyphylla L, R DE, EX 7, 117, 118, 119
240 Ziziphus spinosa L 8, 14
Rosaceae
241 Fragaria indica WP PW 8
242 Fragaria nubicola FR 11
243 Prunus dulcis FR, L 8

244 Prunus persica FR EF 8, 11
245 Malus domestica FR-J 8
246 Rosa x damascena S PW 8
247 Rubus ellipticus FR-J 8, 69, 120
Rubiaceae
248 Spermacoce articularis 60
Rutaceae
249 Aegle marmelos L EX 96
250 Citrus limon FR-J 8
251 Citrus medica FR-J 8
252 Citrus reticulata cv. L CH 37
Murcott
253 Zanthoxylum armatum 60
Salicaceae
254 Flacourtia indica FR EF, PL 4, 7
255 Populus alba ST-B DE 60
256 Salix babylonica L EX 115
Santalaceae
257 Viscum album L, SH BO, EX 121
Sapindaceae
258 Dodonaea viscosa L, ST-B CH, DE 1, 2, 4, 8
Saxifragaceae
259 Bergenia ciliata R, RH BO, PW 7, 72, 122
260 Bergenia pacumbis RH BO 8, 9
Solanaceae
261 Atropa belladonna S, WP EX 19
262 Datura innoxia 8
263 Solanum americanum AP, L, ST C, JU 1, 8, 61, 81
264 Solanum incanum AP AV 2, 8, 116
265 Solanum melongena FR C 76
266 Solanum surattense FR DE, DR, PW 8, 81, 98
267 Withania coagulans FR, S PW 1, 2, 8, 81, 123
268 Withania somnifera L, R DE 6, 10, 15
Tamaricaceae
269 Tamarix aphylla FR BO 8
Thelypteridaceae
270 Christella dentata FO, RH EX 125, 127
Verbenaceae
271 Lantana camara FR, WP DE, EX 8, 53
272 Phyla nodiflora S BO 123
Xanthorrhoeaceae
273 Aloe vera L PL 2, 6, 18, 52, 124
274 Asphodelus tenuifolius 14
Zingiberaceae

275 Elettaria cardamomum S PW 2
Zygophyllaceae
276 Balanites aegyptiaca FR EX 96
277 Fagonia bruguieri WP IN 33
278 Fagonia cretica WP EX 35, 116
279 Fagonia indica AP, L, ST, EX 2, 81, 89
WP
280 Fagonia olivieri SH EX 98
281 Tribulus pentandrus 14
a
Resources: 1: (Ahmad et al. 2004); 2: (Ahmad et al. 2009); 3: (Ahmed et al. 2007); 4: (Shaheen
et al. 2010); 5: (Saqib et al. 2014); 6: (Shah et al. 2013); 7: (Ahmed et al. 2013); 8: (Yaseen et al.
2015); 9: (Hussain et al. 2004); 10: (Ahmad et al. 2014a); 11: (Shinwari et al. 2006); 12: (Akhtar
1992); 13: (Qureshi and Bhatti 2009); 14: (Ahmed et al. 2014); 15: (Ahmed et al. 2015); 16: (Khan
2014); 17: (Khan et al. 2015); 18: (Abbasi et al. 2010a); 19: (Shah and Khan 2006); 20: (Ashraf
et al. 2011); 21: (Begum et al. 2015); 22: (Fatima et al. 2005); 23: (Hussain et al. 2009); 24:
(Marwat et al. 2011); 25: (Hafizur et al. 2012); 26: (Khattak and Khattak 2011); 27: (Hussain et al.
2010a); 28: (Sadiq et al. 2010); 29: (Waheed et al. 2006); 30: (Sahib et al. 2013); 31: (Ahmad et al.
2000); 32: (Malik et al. 2004); 33: (Bibi et al. 2014); 34: (Zia-Ul-Haq et al. 2012a); 35: (Barkatullah
et al. 2015); 36: (Mahmood et al. 2010); 37: (Mahmood et al. 2013); 38: (Adnan et al. 2014b); 39:
(Shah et al. 2015); 40: (Arshad et al. 2011); 41: (Kanwal et al. 2011); 42: (Ishtiaq et al. 2015); 43:
(Azmi and Qureshi 2012); 44: (Harisaranraj et al. 2009); 45: (Ahmad 2006); 46: (Gilani et al.
2007); 47: (Qureshi 2012); 48: (Khan et al. 2014); 49: (Alam et al. 2011); 50: (Ibrar et al. 2004);
51: (Awan et al. 2011); 52: (Sabeen and Ahmad 2009); 53: (Rashid et al. 2015); 54: (Khan and
Khatoon 2008); 55: (Khan and Khatoon 2004); 56: (Hayat et al. 2009); 57: (Ahmad et al. 2014b);
58: (Pushparaj et al. 2007); 59: (Ali 2014); 60: (Shah 2015); 61: (Mahmood et al. 2012); 62: (Khan
et al. 2008); 63: (Arshad and Ahmad 2004); 64: (Ahmad and Alamgeer 2009); 65: (Husain et al.
2008); 66: (Munir and Qureshi 2018); 67: (Hayat et al. 2014); 68: (Mahmood et al. 2011); 69:
(Abbasi et al. 2013); 70: (Zia-Ul-Haq et al. 2011); 71: (Rathee et al. 2010); 72: (Ali et al. 2011);
73: (Panhwar and Abro 2007); 74: (Panhwar 2013); 75: (Hussain 2013); 76: (Khan et al. 2013); 77:
(Zammurad and Qaiser 2011); 78: (Arayne et al. 2007); 79: (Akhtar and Begum 2009); 80: (Singh
et al. 2011); 81: (Ahmad et al. 2010); 82: (Kayani et al. 2015); 83: (Ardestani and Yazdanparast
2007); 84: (Raut and Gaikwad 2006); 85: (Hussain et al. 2011); 86: (Khalil et al. 2014); 87:
(Qureshi and Bhatti 2008); 88: (Wadood et al. 1989); 89: (Mushtaq et al. 2012); 90: (Amalraj and
Ignacimuthu 1998); 91: (Khushk et al. 2010); 92: (Rehman et al. 2015); 93: (Zia et al. 2001); 94:
(Abdel-Barry et al. 1997); 95: (Hussain et al. 2012); 96: (Wong et al. 2011); 97: (Khan et al. 1999);
98: (Ibrar and Hussain 2009); 99: (Chaudhary et al. 2010); 100: (Saleem et al. 1999); 101: (Zia-Ul-
Haq et al. 2012b); 102: (Mesaik et al. 2013); 103: (Shah and Khan 2014); 104: (Shinwari et al.
2003); 105: (Abbasi et al. 2010b); 106: (Khan et al. 2011); 107: (Khan et al. 2012); 108: (Singab
et al. 2005); 109: (Choudhary et al. 2013); 110: (MacFarlane et al. 2003); 111: (Miao et al. 2008);
112: (Hamayun et al. 2006); 113: (Hamayun 2007); 114: (Ahmad et al. 2013); 115: (Haq et al.
2011); 116: (Murad et al. 2013); 117: (Nisar et al. 2007); 118: (Nisar et al. 2010); 119: (Choudhary
et al. 2011); 120: (Zada Khan et al. 2015); 121: (Adnan et al. 2014a); 122: (Ali et al. 2015); 123:
(Ullah et al. 2013); 124: (Jafri et al. 2011); 125: (Oztürk et al. 2018); 126: (Hussain et al. 2010b);
127: (Gul et al. 2016).
ppendix 3: Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment

A
of Diabetes Mellitus in the Traditional Medicine in Malaysia
No Family/taxa Part used Preparation Resourcesa

Acanthaceae
1 Acanthus ilicifolius FR PN 1
2 Andrographis paniculata AP, L, R, ST, WP DE, EX, IN, R 1–7
3 Barleria lupulina AP EX 2
4 Clinacanthus nutans L 8
5 Strobilanthes crispus L EX 2, 3
Amaryllidaceae
6 Allium cepa B JU 2
7 Allium sativum B JU 2, 3
Anacardiaceae
8 Anacardium occidentale L, S EX 2, 6
9 Mangifera indica L EX 2
Annonaceae
10 Annona muricata FR-J 5
11 Annona squamosa L 3
12 Polyalthia bullata FL, L, R DE, PN 1, 7, 9
Apiaceae
13 Centella asiatica L, ST DE 1
14 Coriandrum sativum S PW 2, 3
Apocynaceae
15 Catharanthus roseus L, R, WP DE, EX 2–4
Arecaceae
16 Nypa fruticans FR DR 1
17 Sanguis draxonis 2
Asteraceae
18 Cosmos caudatus FL, L 6
19 Gynura procumbens L EF 5, 6
Blechnaceae
20 Stenochlaena palustris FO C 1
Bromeliaceae
21 Ananas comosus L EX 2
Cactaceae
22 Hylocereus lemairei FR EF 2
23 Pereskia bleo L DE 1
Combretaceae
24 Terminalia catappa FR BO, EX 2, 3
25 Terminalia chebula FR EX 2
Connaraceae
26 Cnestis sp. R, ST DE 1, 7

27 Cnestis palala R DE 12
Convolvulaceae
28 Ipomea batatas L 2
Crassulaceae
29 Bryophyllum pinnatum L BO 3
Cucurbitaceae
30 Momordica charantia FR, FR-J AV, BO, EF, EX, R 1–3, 9, 11
Dilleniaceae
31 Tetracera indica R DE 1
Fabaceae
32 Archidendron bubalinum R, S DE, R 1
33 Archidendron jiringa R, S DE, EF, R 1, 4, 7
34 Leucaena leucocephala R DE 1
35 Mimosa pudica L EX 2
36 Parkia speciosa FR, R, S BO, DE, EF, EX, R 1–3, 5, 7, 11–13
37 Pongamia pinnata FL EX 2
38 Sindora coriacea FR DE 9
39 Sindora wallichii FR DE 9
Lamiaceae
40 Orthosiphon aristatus L DE 1, 5, 13
41 Orthosiphon stamineus L 6
Lythraceae
42 Lagerstroemia speciosa L 2
43 Punica granatum FL BO 3
Malvaceae
44 Ceiba pentandra ST-B EX 2, 3
45 Durio zibethinus R DE 1, 7
46 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis FL EX 2
47 Theobroma cacao EX 2
Menispermaceae
48 Tinospora crispa ST DE, EX 1, 2, 14
Moraceae
49 Ficus deltoidea L, R 6
Muntingiaceae
50 Muntingia calabura L DE 1, 7
Myrtaceae
51 Psidium guajava SH BO, EF 3
Oleaceae
52 Jasminum sambac R BO, IN 14
Ophioglossaceae
53 Helminthostachys zeylanica R DE 10
Oxalidaceae
54 Averrhoa bilimbi FR-J, L BO, DE 3–5, 9, 11
55 Averrhoa carambola L, R DE, DR 1, 7

Pandanaceae
56 Pandanus amaryllifolius R EX 2
Phyllanthaceae
57 Bridelia stipularis R PN 15
58 Phyllanthus acidus L DE 5
59 Phyllanthus amarus L, S BO, DE 1, 3
60 Phyllanthus niruri L 6
Piperaceae
61 Piper betle L EX 2
62 Piper sarmentosum L, R DE 5, 6
Plantaginaceae
63 Plantago major L, R, WP BO, DE 9, 16, 17
Poaceae
64 Imperata cylindrica R DE 1
Ranunculaceae
65 Nigella sativa S 3
Rubiaceae
66 Morinda citrifolia FR, L BO, DE, EF 1, 3, 4, 9
Rutaceae
67 Murraya koenigii FR, L EX 2
Simaroubaceae
68 Eurycoma longifolia R, ST BO, DE 1, 3, 7
Smilacaceae
69 Smilax myosotiflora T DE 1
Solanaceae
70 Physalis minima FR, L, R DE 17
Urticaceae
71 Leucosyke capitellata L DE 17
Vitaceae
72 Leea indica L DE 10
Xanthorrhoeaceae
73 Aloe vera L 18
Zingiberaceae
74 Alpinia galanga RH EX, PW 2
75 Curcuma longa RH BO, PW 3
76 Zingiber officinale 19
a
Resources: 1: (Ong and Azliza 2015); 2: (Wong et al. 2011); 3: (Latiff 2016); 4: (Ong et al.
2011a); 5: (Ong et al. 2011b); 6: (Sekar et al. 2014); 7: (Azliza et al. 2012); 8: (Kassim et al. 2016);
9: (Ong and Nordiana 1999); 10: (Mohammad et al. 2012); 11: (Alsarhan et al. 2012); 12: (Ong
et al. 2012); 13: (Ramli et al. 2015); 14: (Samuel et al. 2010); 15: (Kulip 2003); 16: (Kulip 1997);
17: (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003); 18: (Mustaffa et al. 2011); 19: (Alsarhan et al. 2014)
References
Abbasi AM, Khan M, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Jahan S, Sultana S (2010a) Ethnopharmacological

Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M (2010b) Herbal medicines used to cure various ail-
ments by the inhabitants of Abbottabad district, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Indian
J Tradit Knowl 9:175–183
Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Khan N, Shah MH (2013) Ethnobotanical survey of medicinally impor-
tant wild edible fruits species used by tribal communities of Lesser Himalayas-Pakistan.
Abdel-Barry JA, Abdel-Hassan IA, Al-Hakiem MH (1997) Hypoglycaemic and antihyperglycae-
mic effects of Trigonella foenum-graecum leaf in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rats.
Adnan N, Othman N (2012) The relationship between plants and the Malay Culture. Proc Soc
Behav Sci 42:231–241
Adnan M, Bibi R, Mussarat S, Tariq A, Shinwari ZK (2014a) Ethnomedicinal and phytochemical
review of Pakistani medicinal plants used as antibacterial agents against Escherichia coli. Ann
Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 13(40):1–18
Adnan M, Ullah I, Tariq A, Murad W, Azizullah A, Khan AL, Ali N (2014b) Ethnomedicine use in
the war affected region of Northwest Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 10(16):1–16
Ahiskalı M, Arı Ç, Selvi S (2012) Edible wild plants and their consumption during winter in a rural
village on Kazdağı (Mount Ida). Bocconea 24:195–198
Ahmad M (2006) Checklist of medicinal flora of Tehsil Isakhel, District Mianwali-Pakistan.
Ethnobot Leaflets 10:41–48
Ahmad M, Alamgeer ST (2009) A potential adjunct to insulin: Berberis lycium Royle. Diabetol
Croat 38:13–18
Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK (2003) Medicinal plants of Sabah, East Malaysia-Part I. Pharm Biol
41(5):340–346
Ahmad M, Akhtar MS, Malik T, Gilani AH (2000) Hypoglycaemic action of the flavonoid fraction
of Cuminum nigrum seeds. Phytother Res 14(2):103–106
Ahmad M, Khan MA, Arshad M, Zafar M (2004) Ethnophytotherapical approaches for the treat-
ment of diabetes by the local inhabitants of district Attock (Pakistan). Ethnobot Leaflets 2004:7
Ahmad M, Qureshi R, Arshad M, Khan MA, Zafar M (2009) Traditional herbal remedies used for
the treatment of diabetes from district Attock (Pakistan). Pak J Bot 41(6):2777–2782
Ahmad M, Khan MA, Awan AG, Zafar M, Sultana S (2010) Floral biodiversity of medicinal plants
in salt range (Punjab) Pakistan: Current threats and conservation measures. Proceedings of 2nd
International Conference “Biodiversity is our life” (IC Biour Life) December 2010 pp 41–59
Ahmad A, Husain A, Mujeeb M, Khan SA, Najmi AK, Siddique NA, Damanhouri ZA, Anwar F
(2013) A review on therapeutic potential of Nigella sativa: a miracle herb. Asian Pac J Trop
Biomed 3(5):337–352
Ahmad S, Wariss HM, Alam K, Anjum S, Mukhtar M (2014a) Ethnobotanical studies of plant
resources of Cholistan desert, Pakistan. IJSR 3(6):1781–1788
Ahmad W, Khan I, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Subhan F, Karim N (2014b) Evaluation of antidiabetic
and antihyperlipidemic activity of Artemisia indica linn (aeriel parts) in Streptozotocin induced
diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 151(1):618–623
Ahmed M, Khan MA, Zafar M, Sultana S (2007) Treatment of common ailments by plant-
based remedies among the people of district Attock (Punjab) of northern Pakistan. Afr J Trad
Complement Alternat Med 4:112–120
Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of plants in Patriata, New Murree, evidence from
Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 9(1):1–11
Ahmed N, Mahmood A, Tahir SS, Bano A (2014) Ethnomedicinal knowledge and relative
importance of indigenous medicinal plants of Cholistan desert, Punjab Province, Pakistan.
Ahmed N, Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Sadeghi Z, Farman M (2015) Ethnopharmacological impor-
tance of medicinal flora from the district of Vehari, Punjab province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
168:66–78
Ajgaonkar SS (1979) Herbal drugs in the treatment of diabetes: a review. IDF Bull 24:10–17
Akalın E (1998) Tekirdağ İli halk ilaçları ve gıda olarak kullanılan yabani bitkiler. Geleneksel ve
Folklorik Droglar Dergisi 5(1):1–98
Akalın E, Alpınar K (1994) Tekirdağ’ın tıbbi ve yenen bitkileri hakkında bir araştırma. Ege
Üniversitesi Eczacılık Fak Derg 1(2):1–11
Akan H, Aslan M, Balos MM (2005) GAP yöresindeki tıbbi ve aromatik bitkiler. TUBITAK Proje
No: TBAG/Ç. SEK 22 (103-T009)
Akan H, Korkut MM, Balos MM (2008) Arat Dağı ve çevresinde (Birecik, Şanlıurfa) etnobotanik
bir araştırma. Fırat Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi 20(1):67–81
Akaydın G, Şimşek I, Arıtuluk ZC, Yeşilada E (2013) An ethnobotanical survey in selected towns
of the Mediterranean subregion (Turkey). Turk J Biol 37:230–247
Ethno Med 8(1):89–100
Akçiçek E, Vural M (2003) Kumalar dağı (Afyon) ve çevresindeki bazı bitkilerin yöresel adları ve
etnobotanik özellikleri. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 12(2):151–162
Akgül A (2008) Ethnobotany at Midyat (Mardin-Turkey). Msc thesis. Ege University, Izmir
Akhtar MS (1992) Hypoglycaemic activities of some indigenous medicinal plants traditionally
used as antidiabetic drugs. J Pak Med Assoc 42:271
Akhtar N, Begum S (2009) Ethnopharmacological important plants of Jalala, district Mardan,
Pakistan. Pak J Pl Sci 15(2):95–100
Aktan T (2011) Ethnobotany of Yenişehir Villages (Bursa-Turkey). Msc thesis. Celal Bayar
University, Manisa
Akyol Y, Altan Y (2013) Ethnobotanical studies in the Maldan Village (Province Manisa, Turkey).
Marmara Pharmaceut J (17):21–25
Alam N, Shinwari Z, Ilyas M, Ullah Z (2011) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of
Chagharzai valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:773–780
Ali S (2014) Eco-Taxonomic study of District Buner (KPK) Pakistan. PhD thesis. University of
Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
Ali SI, Qaiser M (1986) A phytogeographic analysis of the phanerogams of Pakistan and Kashmir.
Proc R Soc Edinb B 89:89–101
Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A (2011) Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam
Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 5:4676–4687
Ali H, Uddin S, Jalal S (2015) Chemistry and biological activities of Berberis lycium Royle.
JBAPN 5:295–312
Alparslan DF (2003) Babaeski (Kırklareli) yöresinin geleneksel halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bit-
kileri. Msc thesis. Marmara University, Marmara, İstanbul
Alparslan DF, Tuzlacı E (2006) The folk medicinal plants of the European part of Turkey.
Proceedings of the IV. Intenational Congress of Ethnobotany (ICEB 2005), Istanbul pp. 201–204
değerlendirilmesi. TUBITAK, TBAG-1407, Turkey
Alsarhan A, Sultana N, Kadir MRA, Aburjai T (2012) Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal
plants in Malaysia, the Kangkar Pulai region. Int J Pharmacol 8(8):679–686
Alsarhan A, Sultana N, Al-khatib A, Rafiq M, Kadir A (2014) Review on some Malaysian tradi-
tional medicinal plants with therapeutic properties. Aust J Basic Appl Sci 10:149–159
Turkey. Proc Soc Behav Sci 19:756–777
Amalraj T, Ignacimuthu S (1998) Hypoglycemic activity of Cajanus cajan (seeds) in mice. Indian
J Exp Biol 36(10):1032–1033
Arayne MS, Sultana N, Mirza AZ, Zuberi MH, Siddiqui FA (2007) In vitro hypoglycemic activity
of methanolic extract of some indigenous plants. Pak J Pharm Sci 20(4):268–273
Ardestani A, Yazdanparast R (2007) Cyperus rotundus suppresses AGE formation and pro-
tein oxidation in a model of fructose-mediated protein glycoxidation. Int J Biol Macromol
41(5):572–578
Arı S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M (2015) Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in
Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 11(1):84
Arshad M, Ahmad M (2004) Medico-botanical investigation of medicinally important plants from
Galiat areas-NWFP (Pakistan). Internationl Symposium Medicinal Plants: Linkages Beyond
National Boundaries, September 7–9, 2004, Pakistan, pp 240–249
Arshad M, Nisar MF, Majeed A, Ismail S, Ahmad M (2011) Ethnomedicinal flora in district
Sialkot, Punjab, Pakistan. Middle-East J Sci Res 9:209–214
Arulselvan P, Amynurliyana H, Ghofar A, Firdaus M, Halim A, Syafiq M, Ghafar A (2014)
Antidiabetic therapeutics from natural source: a systematic review. Biomed Prev Nutr
4(4):607–617
Ashraf R, Khan RA, Ashraf I (2011) Garlic (Allium sativum) supplementation with standard anti-
diabetic agent provides better diabetic control in type 2 diabetes patients. Pak J Pharm Sci
24(4):565–570
Aslan A (2002) Ege Bölgesi bazı halk ilaçları üzerinde etnofarmakognozik bir değerlendirme. Msc
thesis. İstanbul University, İstanbul
Awan MR, Iqbal Z, Shah SM, Jamal Z, Jan G, Afzal M, Majid A, Gul A (2011) Studies on tra-
ditional knowledge of economically important plants of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra District,
Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 5:3958–3967
Azliza MA, Ong HC, Vikineswary S, Noorlidah A, Haron NW (2012) Ethno-medicinal resources
used by the Temuan in Ulu Kuang Village. Ethno-Med 6(1):17–22
Azmi MB, Qureshi SA (2012) Methanolic root extract of Rauwolfia serpentina improves the glu-
cose tolerance in wister mice. J Food Drug Anal 20(2)
Bailey CJ, Day C (1989) Traditional plant medicines as treatments for diabetes. Diabetes Care
12(8):553–564
Balos MM (2007) The flora and ethobotany of the region between Zeytinbahce and Akarçay
(Birecik-Urfa-Turkey). Harran University, Şanlıurfa, Msc thesis
Barkatullah IM, Rauf A, Ben Hadda T, Mubarak MS, Patel S (2015) Quantitative ethnobotanical
survey of medicinal flora thriving in Malakand Pass Hills, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Başer KHC, Honda G, Mıkı W (1986) Herb drugs and herbalists in Turkey, Institute for the study
of languages and cultures of Asia and Africa. Studia Culturae Islamicae 27, Tokyo
Baytop T (1984) Türkiye’de Bitkiler ile Tedavi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları No: 3255, Istanbul
Begum HA, Hamayun M, Zaman K, Hussain A, Ruaf M (2015) Phytochemical Evaluation of
Ethnobotanically Selected Medicinal Plants of Mardan, Pakistan. J Adv Bot Zool 3:1–5
Bennett PH (1983) Diabetes in developing countries and unusual populations. In: Mann JI,
Pyorala K, Teuscher A (eds) Diabetes in epidemiological perspective. Churchill Livingstone,
Edinburgh, pp 43–57
lands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 155(1):352–361
Bransome ED Jr (1992) Financing the care of diabetes mellitus in the U.S. Diabetes Care 15(Supp.
1): 1–5
Bulut GE (2008) Bayramiç (Çanakkale) yöresinde etnobotanik araştırmalar. PhD thesis. Marmara
Üniversitesi, İstanbul
Bulut G (2011) Folk Medicinal Plants of Silivri (İstanbul-Turkey). Marmara Pharmaceut
J (15):25–29
Bulut, EG, Tuzlacı E (2005) An ethnobotanical study in Bozcaada (Çanakkale-Turkey). IVth

International Congress of Ethnobotany (ICEB, 2005), pp 581–583
Bulut G, Korkmaz A, Tuzlacı E (2017) The ethnobotanical notes from Nizip (Gaziantep-Turkey).
Istanbul J Pharm 47(2):57–62
Çakılcıoğlu U, Türkoğlu İ (2009) Çitli Ovası (Elazığ) ve çevresinin etnobotanik özellikleri. Ecolog
Life Sci 4(2):81–85
Çakilcioglu U, Turkoglu I (2010) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Sivrice (Elazıg-
Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 132:165–175
Çakılcıoğlu U, Şengün MT, Türkoğlu I (2010) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants of
Yazıkonak and Yurtbaşı districts of Elazığ province, Turkey. J Med Plant Res 4(7):567–572
plants in Maden (Elazig-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 137(1):469–486
Çelik S, Karabacak E, Uysal I (2008) Plants have been collected from Mythological Kazdağı (Mt.
Ida) National Park, West Turkey by Turkmens and their folk, cultural and social uses. Eur J Sci
Res 19(4):835–843
Chaudhary G, Goyal S, Poonia P (2010) Lawsonia inermis L.: a phytopharmacological review. Int
J Pharm Sci Drug Res 2(2):91–98
Choudhary MI, Adhikari A, Rasheed S, Marasini BP, Hussain N, Kaleem WA (2011) Cyclopeptide
alkaloids of Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew as novel inhibitors of α-glucosidase enzyme and protein
glycation. Phytochem Lett 4:404–406
Choudhary MI, Khan N, Ahmad M, Yousuf S, Fun HK, Soomro S, Asif M, Mesaik MA, Shaheen
F (2013) New inhibitors of ROS generation and T-cell proliferation from Myrtus communis.
Org Lett 15(8):1862–1865
Çömlekçioğlu N, Karaman Ş (2008) Kahramanmaraş şehir merkezindeki aktar’larda bulunan tıbbi
Çubukçu B, Özhatay N (1987) Anadolu halk ilaçları hakkından bir araştırma. III. Milletlerarası
Türk Folklor Kongresi Bildirileri, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Milli Folklor Araştırma Dairesi
Yayınları: 86, Başbakanlık Basımevi, Ankara
Çubukcu B, Atay M, Sarıyar G, Özhatay N (1994) Aydın ili halk ilaçları. Geleneksel ve Folklorik
Droglar Dergisi 1(1):1–55
Day C, Bailey CJ (1988a) Hypoglycemic agents from traditional plant treatments for diabetes. Int
Ind Biotechnol 8:5–8
Day C, Bailey CJ (1988b) A Diabetologist’s Herbal: Current Medical Literature on Diabetes.
London, R. Soc. Med. 5
Demirci S, Özhatay N (2012) An ethnobotanical study in Kahramanmaraş (Turkey); wild plants
used for medicinal purpose in Andırın, Kahramanmaraş. Turk J Pharmaceut Sci 9(1):75–92
Deniz L, Serteser A, Kargıoğlu M (2010) Uşak Üniversitesi ve yakın çevresindeki bazı bitkilerin
mahalli adları ve etnobotanik özellikleri. AKÜ Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 1:57–72
Doğan G, Bağcı E (2011) The plants benefit to public in some residential area of Elazığ (Turkey)
using traditional ecological knowledge and their ethnobotanical features. Fırat Univ Fen
Bilimleri Dergisi 23(2):77–86
Duran A, Satıl F, Tümen G (2001) The edible wild fruits in Balıkesir and their ethnobotanical
features. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 8(1):87–94
Durmuşkahya C, Öztürk M (2013) Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for the treat-
ment of diabetes in Manisa, Turkey. Sains Malaysiana 42(10):1431–1438
Elçi B, Erik S (2006) Güdül (Ankara) ve çevresinin etnobotanik özellikleri. Hacettepe Üniversitesi
Eczacılık Fak Dergisi 26:57–64
Emre G (2003) Ezine (Çanakkale) yöresinin geleneksel halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkileri. Msc
thesis. Marmara University, İstanbul
Ertuğ F (2002) Bodrum yöresinde halk tıbbında yararlanılan bitkiler. 14. Bitkisel ilaç hammad-
deleri toplantısı. 29–31 Mayıs 2002, Eskişehir
provinces (Turkey). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 1:1–6
Ezer N, Arisan OM (2006) Folk medicines in Merzifon (Amasya, Turkey). Turk J Bot 30(3):223–230
Ezer N, Avcı K (2004) Çerkeş (Çankırı) yöresinde kullanılan halk ilaçları. Hacettepe Üniversitesi
Eczacılık Fakültesi Dergisi 24(2):67–80
Fakir H, Korkmaz M, Güller B (2009) Medicinal plant diversity of western Mediterranean region
in Turkey. J Appl Biol Sci 3(2):3–4
Fatima N, Maqsood Z, Khan B (2005) Study of some micronutrients in selected medicinal plants.
Sci Iran 12:269–273
Fujita T, Sezik E, Tabata M, Yeşilada E, Honda G, Takeda Y, Tanaka T, Takaishi Y (1995)
Traditional medicine in Turkey VII. Folk medicine in middle and west Black Sea regions. Econ
Bot 49:406–422
Genç EG (2003) Çatalca yöresinde etnobotanik bir çalışma. Msc thesis. Istanul University, İstanbul
Genç EG, Özhatay N (2006) An ethnobotanical study in Çatalca (European part of Istanbul)
II. Turk J Pharmaceut Sci 3(2):73–89
Gençay A (2007) Cizre (Şırnak)‘nin Etnobotanik Özellikleri. Msc thesis. Yüzüncü Yıl University,
Van
Gençler ÖAM, Koyuncu M (2005) Traditional medicinal plants used in Pınarbaşı area (Kayseri-
Turkey). Turk J Pharm Sci 2(2):63–82
Gilani SA, Kikuchi A, Shinwari ZK, Khattak ZI, Watanabe KN (2007) Phytochemical, pharma-
cological and ethnobotanical studies of Rhazya stricta Decne. Phytother Res 21(4):301–307
Gohdes DM (1986) Diabetes in American Indians: a growing problem. Diabetes Care 9:609–613
Gul A, Alam J, Ahmad H, Irfan M (2016) An updated checklist of Pteridophytes of district
Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Int J Biosci 9(5):116–133
Güler B, Manav E, Uğurlu E (2015) Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Bozüyük
(Bilecik-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 173:39–47
Gümüş İ (1994) Ağrı yöresinde yetişen bazı faydalı bitkilerin yerel adları ve kullanılışları. Turk
J Bot 18:107–112
Günbatan T, Gürbüz İ, Özkan AMG (2016) The current status of ethnopharmacobotanical knowl-
edge in Çamlıdere (Ankara, Turkey). Turk J Bot 40(3):241–249
Güneş S (2010) Karaisalı (Adana-Turkey) and villages natural plants used by the ethnobotanical
respect investigation. Msc thesis. Nigde University, Nigde
Güneş F, Özhatay N (2011) An ethnobotanical study from Kars (Eastern) Turkey. Biol Divers
Conserv 4(1):30–41
Gürdal B, Kültür Ş (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Marmaris (Muğla,
Hafizur RM, Kabir N, Chishti S (2012) Asparagus officinalis extract controls blood glucose by
improving insulin secretion and β-cell function in streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic rats.
Br J Nutr 108(9):1586–1595
Hamayun M (2003) Ethnobotanical studies of some useful shrubs and trees of District Buner,
NWFP, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets 12
Hamayun M (2007) Traditional uses of some medicinal plants of Swat Valley, Pakistan. Indian
J Tradit Knowl 6(4):636–641
Hamayun M, Khan SA, Sohn EY, Lee I-J (2006) Folk medicinal knowledge and conservation status
of some economically valued medicinal plants of district swat, Pakistan. Lyonia 11:101–113
Han MI, Bulut G (2015) The folk-medicinal plants of Kadişehri (Yozgat-Turkey). Acta Soc Bot
Pol 84(2):237–248
Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M (2011) Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catch-
ment (District Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 5:39–48
Harisaranraj R, Suresh K, Saravanababu S, Achudhan VV (2009) Phytochemical based strategies
for pathogen control and antioxidant capacities of Rauwolfia serpentina extracts. Recent Res
Sci Technol 1(2)
Hayat MQ, Khan MA, Ashraf M, Jabeen S (2009) Ethnobotany of the genus Artemisia
L.(Asteraceae) in Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl 7:147–162
Hayat MM, Sarwar S, Anjum S, Uzair M, Rasheed HMF, Jabeen Q, Choudhary BA, Ashraf M
(2014) Anti-diabetic and spasmolytic potential of Farsetia hamiltonii Royle from Cholistan
desert. J Ethnopharmacol 156:347–352
Honda G, Yeşilada E, Tabata M, Sezik E, Fujita T, Takeda Y et al (1996) Traditional medicine in
Turkey VI. Folk medicine in West Anatolia: Afyon, Kutahya, Denizli, Mugla, Aydin provinces.
Husain SZ, Malik RN, Javaid M, Bibi S (2008) Ethonobotanical properties and uses of medicinal
plants of Morgah biodiversity park, Rawalpindi. Pak J Bot 40:1897–1911
Hussain MI (2013) Studies on plant biodiversity conservation and sustainable utilization of
medicinally important plant species of Johi & Gorakh Hill. PhD thesis. University of Karachi,
Karachi, Pakistan
Hussain Z, Waheed A, Qureshi RA, Burdi DK, Verspohl EJ, Khan N, Hasan M (2004) The effect of
medicinal plants of Islamabad and Murree region of Pakistan on insulin secretion from INS-1
cells. Phytother Res 18:73–77
Hussain J, Khan AL, Rehman N, Hamayun M, Shah T, Nisar M, Bano T, Shinwari ZK, Lee I
(2009) Proximate and nutrient analysis of selected vegetable species: a case study of Karak
region, Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol 8
Hussain K, Nisar MF, Majeed A, Nawaz K, Bhatti KH (2010a) Ethnomedicinal survey for impor-
tant plants of Jalalpur Jattan, district Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets 2010:11
Hussain J, Ullah R, Rehman N, Khan AL, Muhammad Z, Khan FU, Hussain ST, Anwar S (2010b)
Endogenous transitional metal and proximate analysis of selected medicinal plants from
Hussain I, Bano A, Ullah F (2011) Traditional drug therapies from various medicinal plants of
central karakoram national park, Gilgit-Baltistan Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:79–84
Hussain W, Hussain J, Ali R, Hussain S, Khan MA, Khan I, Shinwari ZK, Lopes WA, Nascimento
IA (2012). Phytomedicinal Studies of Kurram Agency in the Federally Administered Tribal
Areas (FATA) of Pakistan
Ibrar M, Hussain F (2009) Ethnobotanical studies of plants of Charkotli hills, Batkhela district,
Malakand, Pakistan. Front Biol China 4(4):539
Ibrar M, Ilahi I, Hussain F (2004) Hypoglycemic activity of Hedera helix L. leaves and the pos-
sible mechanism of action. Pak J Bot 35:805–810
İlçim A, Varol Ö (1996) Hatay ve K. Maraş (Türkiye) illerindeki bazı bitkilerin etnobotanik özel-
likleri. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 3(1):69–74
International Diabetes Federation (IDF) (2013) IDF diabetes atlas, 6th edn. International Diabetes
Federation, Brussels, Belgium
Ishtiaq M, Mahmood A, Maqbool M (2015) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from
Sudhanoti district (AJK), Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 168:201–207
Jafri SA, Hasan SS, Nadeem A, Iqbal J (2011) Hypoglycemic effect of Aloe vera Extract in
alloxan-induced diabetic Albino rats. Med J Islamic World Acad Sci 19:127–130
Kahraman A, Tatlı A (2004) Umarbaba dağı (Eşme-Uşak) ve çevresindeki bazı bitkilerin mahalli
adları ve etnobotanik özellikleri. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 11(2):147–154
Kanwal AMM, Shaukat S, Javed R, Ilyas R (2011) Exploration of ethnomedicinal values of imper-
ative plants of District Gujrat, Pakistan. Middle-East J Sci Res 7:397–400
Karaman S, Kocabas YZ (2001) Traditional medicinal plants of K. Maras (Turkey). Science
1(3):125–128
Kargioğlu M, Cenkci S, Serteser A, Evliyaoğlu N, Konuk M, Kök MŞ, Bag̀ci Y (2008) An ethno-
botanical survey of inner-west Anatolia, Turkey. Hum Ecol 36(5):763–777
Kassim DHA, Raduan SZ, Aziz MA, Chelum A, Morni AAM, Wahab RA (2016) Indigenous
knowledge of medicinal plants used and its ımplication towards health-seeking behavior
among the Melanau in Pulau Bruit, Sarawak, Malaysia. J Adv Res Soc Behav Sci 4(2):136–145
Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Khan Z (2015) Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the com-
munities of alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 164:186–202
Keklik Koçoğlu T, Çubukcu B, Özhatay N (1996) Konya ve Karaman illeri halk ilaçları. Geleneksel
ve Folklorik Droglar Dergisi 3(1):1–70
Keskin L (2011) Ethnobotanical features of plants in Kadinhani (Konya-Turkey) and enviroments.
Msc thesis. Selcuk University, Konya
Keskin M, Alpınar K (2002) Kışlak (Yayladağı-Hatay) hakkında etnobotanik bir araştırma. Ot
Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 9:91–100
Khalil AT, Shinwari ZK, Qaiser M, Marwat KB (2014) Phyto-therapeutic claims about euphor-
beaceous plants belonging to Pakistan; an ethnomedicinal review. Pak J Bot 46(3):1137–1144
Khan KU (2014) Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacognostic exploration of folk medicines of
Deosai Plateau. PhD thesis. Hazara University, Hazara, Pakistan
Khan SW, Khatoon S (2004) Ethnobotanical studies in Haramosh and Bugrote valleys (Gilgit). Int
J Biol Biotechnol 1(4):585–589
Khan SW, Khatoon S (2008) Ethnobotanical studies on some useful herbs of Haramosh and
Bugrote valleys in Gilgit, northern areas of Pakistan. Pak J Bot 40:43
Khan PM, Nawaz HR, Ahmad S, Malik A (1999) Ajugins C and D, new withanolides from Ajuga
parviflora. Helv Chim Acta 82(9):1423–1426
Khan SA, Khan L, Hussain I, Marwat KB, Akhtar N (2008) Profile of heavy metals in selected
medicinal plants. PJWSR 14:101–110
Khan KY, Khan MA, Niamat R, Munir M, Fazal H, Mazari P, Seema N, Bashir T, Kanwal A,
Ahmed SN (2011) Element content analysis of plants of genus Ficus using atomic absorption
spectrometer. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol 5:317–321
Khan KY, Khan MA, Niamat R, Shah GM, Fazal H, Seema N, Hussain I, Ahmad I, Inayat H, Jan
G (2012) Elemental content of some anti-diabetic ethnomedicinal species of genus Ficus Linn
using atomic absorption spectrophotometry technique. J Med Plant Res 6:2136–2140
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM (2013) Medicinal flora
and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol
Khan MA, Marwat KB, Gul B, Wahid F, Khan H, Hashim S (2014) Pistia stratiotes L.(Araceae):
Phytochemistry, use in medicines, phytoremediation, biogas and management options. Pak
J Bot 46:851–860
Khan AA, Ali F, Ihsan M, Hayat K, Nabi G (2015) Ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants of
Tehsil Charbagh, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Am Eurasian Agric Environ
Sci 15:1464–1474
Khattak MI, Khattak MI (2011) Study of heavy trace metals in some medicinal–herbal plants of
Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:2003–2009
Khushk I, Dahot M, Baloach S, Bhutto M (2010) The evaluation of soybean extracts in alloxan-
induced diabetic rabbits. World Appl Sci J 8:22–25
Kıran Ö (2006) Kozan yöresi florasındaki tıbbi bitkiler ve bunların halk tıbbında kullanılışı. Msc
thesis. Çukurova Üniversity, Adana
Kızılaslan Ç (2008) An ethnobotanical survey in the South Part of Izmit Gulf. Msc thesis. Istanbul
University, İstanbul
Koca AD, Yıldırımlı Ş (2010) Ethnobotanical proporties of Akçakoca District in Düzce (Turkey).
Hacettepe J Biol Chem 38(1):63–69
Koçak S (1999) Karaman yöresinde etnobotanik bir araştırma. Msc thesis. İstanbul University,
İstanbul
Koçyiğit M, Özhatay N (2006) Wild plants used as medicinal purpose in Yalova (Northwest
Turkey). Turk J Pharmaceut Sci 3(2):91–103
Korkmaz M, Karakurt E (2014) Medicinal plants sold in the herbal markets in Kelkit (Gümüşhane).
Suleyman Demirel Univ J Nat Appl Sci 18(3):60–80
Koyuncu O (2005) Investigation of floristic and ethnobotanical aspect of Geyve (Sakarya) and its
environs. PhD thesis. Osmangazi University, Eskişehir
Koyuncu O, Yaylacı ÖK, Öztürk D, Erkara İP, Savaroğlu F, Akçoşkun Ö, Ardıç M (2010) Risk
categories and ethnobotanical features of the Lamiaceae taxa growing naturally in Osmaneli
(Bilecik/Turkey) and environs. Biol Divers Conserv 3(3):31–45
Kulip J (1997) A preliminary survey of traditional medicinal plants in the west coast and interior
of Sabah. J Trop For Sci 10(2):271–274
Kulip J (2003) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah,
Malaysia. Telopea 10(1):81–98
Kültür Ş (2007) Medicinal plants used in Kirklareli Province (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol
111(2):341–364
Kumar A, Goel MK, Jain RB, Khanna P, Chaudhary V (2013) India towards diabetes control: key
issues. Australias Med J 6(10):524–531
Latiff A (2016) Antidiabetic plants of Malaysia. Unpublished personal report, Malaysia
Leite RS, Marlow NM, Fernandes JK (2013) Oral health and type 2 diabetes. Am J Med Sci
345(4):271–273
MacFarlane AJ, Burghardt KM, Kelly J, Simell T, Simell O, Altosaar I, Scott FW (2003) A type 1
diabetes-related protein from wheat (Triticum aestivum) cDNA clone of a wheat storage globu-
lin, Glb1, linked to islet damage. J Biol Chem 278(1):54–63
Mahmood T, Muhammad S, Shinwari ZK (2010) Molecular and morphological characterization of
Caralluma species. Pak J Bot 42:1163–1171
Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Tabassum A (2011) Ethnomedicinal survey of plants from District
Sialkot, Pakistan. J Appl Pharmacol 2:212–220
Mahmood A, Rashid S, Naseem R (2013) Determination of toxic heavy metals in indigenous
medicinal plants used in Rawalpindi and Islamabad cities, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
148(1):158–164
Malik RN, Rafique A, Husain SZ (2004) Ethnobotanical resources of District Sialkot. International
Symposium Medicinal Plants: Linkages Beyond National Boundaries, September 7–9, 2004
pp 42–49
Malyer H, Aydın SÖ, Tümen G, Er S (2004) Tekirdağ ve çevresindeki aktarlarda satılan bazı bit-
kiler ve tıbbi kullanım özellikleri. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi
7:103–112
Marles RJ, Farnsworth NR (1995) Antidiabetic plants and their active constituents 1. Phytomedicine
2(2):137–189
Mart S (2006) Bahçe ve Hasanbeyli (Osmaniye) halkının kullandığı doğal bitkilerin etnobotanik
yönden araştırılması. Msc thesis. Çukurova University, Adana
Marwat SK, Mak F-U-R, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Ghulam S (2011) Medicinal folk recipes used as tra-
ditional phytotherapies in district Dera Ismail Khan, KPK, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:1453–1462
Mesaik MA, Ahmed A, Khalid AS, Jan S, Siddiqui AA, Perveen S, Azim MK (2013) Effect of
Grewia asiatica fruit on Glycemic index and phagocytosis tested in healthy human subjects.
Pak J Pharm Sci 26(1)
Metin A (2009) Ethnobotanical features of plants in Mut (Mersin) and its environments. Msc the-
sis. Selçuk University, Konya
Miao MS, Zhang GL, Miao YY, Shi JJ, Liu HL (2008) Influence of Zea mays L. saponin (ZMLS)
on ultrastructure of kidney and pancreas in diabetes rats induced by streptozocin. China J Chin
Materia Medica 33(10):1179–1183
Mohammad NS, Milow P, Ong HC (2012) Traditional medicinal plants used by the Kensiu tribe of
Lubuk Ulu Legong, Kedah, Malaysia. Ethno-Med 6(3):149–153
Mükemre M, Behçet L, Çakılcıoğlu U (2015) Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in villages
of Çatak (van-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 166:361–374
Munir M, Qureshi R (2018) Antidiabetic plants of Pakistan. (In Press)
Murad W, Azizullah A, Adnan M, Tariq A, Khan KU, Waheed S, Ahmad A (2013) Ethnobotanical
assessment of plant resources of Banda Daud Shah, District Karak, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol
Ethnomed 9:77
Mushtaq A, Muhammad Z, Ajab KM, Shazia S, Mujtaba SG, Jan G (2012) Ethnomedicinal
ınvestigation of phytomedicines among the local communities of. Arid Areas of Pakistan
11(July):436–446
Mustaffa F, Indurkar J, Ali NIM, Hanapi A, Shah M, Ismail S, Mansor SM (2011) A review of
Malaysian medicinal plants with potential antidiabetic activity. J Pharm Res 4(11):4217–4224
Nasir E, Ali SI (1970–1995) Flora of Pakistan. National Herbarium/NARC and Department of
Botany, University of Karachi, Islamabad/Karachi
Nisar M, Adzu B, Inamullah K, Bashir A, Ihsan A, Gilani A (2007) Antinociceptive and antipyretic
activities of the Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. Leaves. Phytother Res 21:693–695
Nisar M, Kaleem WA, Adhikari A, Ali Z, Hussain N, Khan I, Qayum M, Choudhary MI (2010)
Stereochemistry and NMR data assignment of cyclopeptide alkaloids from Ziziphus oxyphylla.
Nat Prod Commun 5(8):1205–1208
Nowbandegani AS, Kiumarcy S, Rahmani F, Dokouhaki M, Khademian S, Zarshenas MM, Faridi
P (2015) Ethnopharmacological knowledge of Shiraz and Fasa in Fars region of Iran for diabe-
tes mellitus. J Ethnopharmacol 172:281–287
Ong HC, Azliza MA (2015) Medicinal plants for diabetes by the Orang Asli in Selangor, Malaysia.
Ethno-Med 9(1):77–84
Ong HC, Nordiana M (1999) Malay ethno-medico botany in Machang, Kelantan, Malaysia.
Ong HC, Ruzalila BN, Milow P (2011a) Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants among the
Malay villagers in Kampung Tanjung Sabtu, Terengganu, Malaysia. Indian J Tradit Knowl
10(3):460–465
Ong HC, Zuki RM, Milow P (2011b) Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants among the
Malaysia. Ethno-Med 5(3):175–185
Ong HC, Faezah AW, Milow P (2012) Traditional knowledge and usage of medicinal plants among
the Semai Orang Asli at Kampung Batu 16, Tapah, Perak, Malaysia. Ethno-Med 6(3):207–211
Oral DÇ (2007) Konya ilinde kullanılan halk ilaçları üzerinde etnobotanik araştırmalar. Msc thesis.
Gazi University, Ankara
Özçelik H, Balabanlı C (2005) Burdur ilinin tıbbi ve aromatik bitkileri. I. Burdur Sempozyumu,
Burdur/Turkiye
Özdemir E (2005) Niğde-Aladağlar’ın batısında etnobotanik bir araştırma. Msc thesis. Istanbul
University, Istanbul
Özgen U, Coşkun M (2000) Ilıca (Erzurum) ilçesine bağlı köylerde halk ilacı olarak kullanılan
bitkiler. XIII. Bitkisel İlaç Hammaddeleri Toplantısı, 20–22 Eylül 2000, Istanbul pp 135–143
Özgen U, Kaya Y, Houghton P (2012) Folk medicines in the villages of Ilıca District (Erzurum,
Turkey). Turk J Biol 36:93–106
Özgokce F, Ozcelik H (2004) Ethnobotanical aspects of some taxa in East Anatolia, Turkey. Econ
Bot 58(4):697–704
Öztürk M (2006) Nizip bölgesi (Aksaray) florası ve etnobotanik özellikleri. Msc thesis. Selçuk
University, Konya
Öztürk M, Dinç M (2005) Nizip (Aksaray) bölgesinin etnobotanik özellikleri. Ot Sistematik
Botanik Dergisi 12(1):93–102
Öztürk F, Ölçücü C (2011) Ethnobotanical features of some plants in the district Şemdinli
(Hakkari-Turkey). Int J Acad Res 3(1):117–121
Ozturk M, Guvensen A, Aksoy A, Beyazgul M (2006) An overview of the soils and sustain-
able land use in Turkiye. Proceedings of the Fifth International GAP Engineering Congress,
Sanlıurfa, Turkey, pp 1548–1555
Ozturk M, Gucel S, Altundag E, Mert T, Gork C, Gork G, Akcicek E (2012a) Chapter 7: An over-
view of the medicinal plants of Turkey. In: Singh R (ed) Genetic Resources, chromosome engi-
neering and crop improvement: medicinal plants. CRC Press, LLC, Taylor & Francis, USA,
pp 181–206
Ozturk M, Altundağ E, Gücel S (2012b) Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey).
Ethnopharmacology, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). http://www.eolss.net/
sample-chapters/c03/e6-79-48.pdf
relation to climate change. In: Conservation and Sustainable use of genepool of plant World
in Eurasia at the present stage International Scientific Conference within Day of Kazakhstan.
Ozturk M, Altay V, Gonenç TM (2017a) Chapter 24: Herbal from High Mountains in the
East Mediterranean. In: Bhojraj S et al (eds) Drug Discovery from Herbs-Approaches and
Applications Centre for Scinece & Technology of the Non-aligned and other Developing
Countries (NAM S & T Centre). DAYA Publishing House, New Delhi, India, pp 327–367
Ozturk M, Altay V, Gücel S, Altundağ E (2017b) Plant Diversity of the drylands in Southeast
biodiversity: monitoring, assessment and conservation. CABI, UK, pp 83–124
Oztürk M, Altay V, Latiff A, Salman T, Choudhry I (2018) A comparative analysis of the medicinal
pteridophytes in Turkey, Pakistan and Malaysia. (In press)
Özüdoru B, Akaydin G, Erik S, Yesilada E (2011) Inferences from an ethnobotanical field expe-
dition in the selected locations of Sivas and Yozgat provinces (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol
137(1):85–98
Özuslu E (2005) Sof Dağı (Gaziantep) yöresindeki bazı bitkilerin etnobotanik özellikleri ve
mahalli adları. Kırsal Çevre Yıllığı:7–22
Panhwar AQ (2013) Ethnobotanical and taxonomic studies of selected plant species from Mahal
Kohistan region of Sindh, Pakistan. PhD thesis. University of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan
Panhwar AQ, Abro H (2007) Ethnobotanical studies of Mahal Kohistan (Khirthar National Park).
Pak J Bot 39:2301–2315
Parildar H, Serter R, Yesilada E (2011) Diabetes mellitus and phytotherapy in Turkey. J Pak Med
Associat 61:1116–1120
Parris BS, Latiff A (1997) Towards a pteridophyte flora of Malaysia: a provisional checklist of
taxa. Malay Nat J 50:235–280
Polat R, Satil F (2012) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Edremit Gulf (Balikesir-
Polat R, Satıl F, Çakılcıoğlu U (2011) Medicinal plants and their use properties of sold in herbal
market in Bingöl (Turkey) district. Biol Divers Conserv J 4(3):25–35
Polat R, Selvi S, Çakılcıoğlu U, Açar M (2012) Investigations of ethnobotanical aspect of wild
plants sold in Bingöl (Turkey) local markets. Biol Divers Conserv J 5(3):155–161
Polat R, Cakilcioglu U, Satil F (2013) Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Solhan (Bingöl-
Premilla M (2002) Green Malaysia: Rainforest Encounters Editions Didier Millet Sdn Bhd: Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
Pushparaj PN, Low HK, Manikandan J, Tan BKH, Tan CH (2007) Anti-diabetic effects of
Cichorium intybus in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 111(2):430–434
Qureshi R (2012) Medicinal flora of Hingol National Park, Baluchistan, Pakistan. Pak J Bot
44:725–732
Qureshi R, Bhatti GR (2008) Ethnobotany of plants used by the Thari people of Nara Desert,
Pakistan. Fitoterapia 79(6):468–473
Qureshi R, Bhatti G (2009) Folklore uses of Amaranthaceae family from Nara desert, Pakistan.
Pak J Bot 41:1565–1572
Ramli MR, Milow P, Chooi OH (2015) Traditional knowledge of a practitioner in medicinal plants
of Masjid Ijok village, Perak, Malaysia. Ethno-Med 9(1):59–66
Rashid S, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Ayub M, Khan MA, Yaseen G (2015) Ethnobotanical
survey of medicinally important shrubs and trees of Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and
Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 166:340–351
Rathee S, Mogla OP, Sardana S, Vats M, Rathee P (2010) Antidiabetic activity of Capparis decidua
Forsk Edgew. J Pharm Res 3:231–234
Raut NA, Gaikwad NJ (2006) Antidiabetic activity of hydro-ethanolic extract of Cyperus rotundus
in alloxan induced diabetes in rats. Fitoterapia 77(7):585–588
Rehman K, Mashwani Z, Ali M, Ullah Z (2015) An ethno botanical perspective of traditional
medicinal plants from the Khattak tribe of Chonthra Karak, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
165:251–259
Ridley HN (1922–1925) The flora of the Malay Peninsula. L. Reeve & Co. Ltd, London1: 918, 2:
672, 3: 405, 4: 383, 5: 470
Ridley HN (1926) The ferns of the Malay Peninsula. J Malayan Branch Roy Asiatic Soc 4:1–121
Roglic G (2004) Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for
2030. Diabetes Care 27:10147–11053
Sabeen M, Ahmad SS (2009) Exploring the folk medicinal flora of Abbotabad city, Pakistan.
Ethnobot Leaflets 2009:1
Saday H (2009) Ethnobotanical properties of Guzeloluk Village and its vicinity (Erdemli-Mersin).
Msc thesis. Selçuk University, Konya
Sadıkoğlu E (2003) Koçarlı (Aydın) yöresinin geleneksel halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkileri. Msc
Sadıkoğlu N, Alpınar K (2000) Bartın: from an ethnobotanical point of view. XIII th meeting on
Plant Originated Crude Drugs Proceeding Book. Marmara University press pp 87–100
Sadiq S, Nagi AH, Shahzad M, Zia A (2010) The reno-protective effect of aqueous extract of
Carum carvi (black zeera) seeds in streptozotocin induced diabetic nephropathy in rodents.
Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 21:1058
Sağıroğlu M, Olgaç E, Ertürk B, Turna M (2012a) An ethnobotanical survey from Şile (Istanbul)
and Karasu (Sakarya). Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 19(2):93–104
Sağıroğlu M, Aslantürk A, Akdemir ZK, Turna M (2012b) An ethnobotanical survey from Hayrat
(Trabzon) and Kalkandere (Rize/Turkey). Biol Divers Conserv 5(1):31–43
Sahib NG, Anwar F, Gilani AH, Hamid AA, Saari N, Alkharfy KM (2013) Coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.): a potential source of high-value components for functional foods and
Nutraceuticals-a review. Phytother Res 27(10):1439–1456
Saleem R, Ahmad M, Hussain SA, Qazi AM, Ahmad SI, Qazi MH, Ali M, Faizi S, Akhtar S,
Husnain SN (1999) Hypotensive, hypoglycaemic and toxicological studies on the flavonol
C-glycoside shamimin from Bombax ceiba. Planta Med 65(4):331–334
Samuel AJSJ, Kalusalingam A, Chellappan DK, Gopinath R, Radhamani S, Husain HA et al
(2010) Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the Orang Asli in Kampung Bawong, Perak,
West Malaysia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 6(1):5
Saqib Z, Mahmood A, Malik RN, Mahmood A, Syed JH, Ahmad T (2014) Indigenous knowl-
edge of medicinal plants in Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi district, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
151:820–828
Sargin SA, Akçicek E, Selvi S (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the
local people of Alaşehir (Manisa) in Turkey. J Ethnopharmacol 150(3):860–874
Sargin SA, Selvi S, López V (2015a) Ethnomedicinal plants of Sarigöl district (Manisa), Turkey.
Sargin SA, Selvi S, Büyükcengiz M (2015b) Ethnomedicinal plants of Aydincik District of Mersin,
Sarı AO, Oğuz B, Güvensen A, Bilgiç A, Şenol SG, Tort N (2010) Ege ve Güney Marmara
Bölgelerinde halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkiler. Anadolu J AARI 20(2):1–21
Sarper F, Akaydın G, Şimşek I, Yeşilada E (2009) An ethnobotanical field survey in the Haymana
District of Ankara Province in Turkey. Turk J Biol 33:79–88
Savran A, Bağcı Y, Kargıoğlu M (2009) Gemerek (Sivas) ve çevresindeki bazı bitkilerin yerel adları
ve etnobotanik özellikleri. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 8(1):313–321
Sayar A, Güvensen A, Özdemir F, Öztürk M (1995) Muğla (Türkiye) ilindeki bazı türlerin etno-
botanik özellikleri. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 2(1):151–160
Schraer CD, Lanier AP, Boyko E, Gohdes D, Murphy NJ (1988) Prevalence of diabetes mellitus in
Alaskan Eskimos, Indians and Aleuts. Diabetes Care 11:693–700
Sekar M, Zulhilmi M, Hamdi AY, Nabila N, Zahida Z, Shafiq M (2014) Ten commonly available
medicinal plants in Malaysia used for the treatment of diabetes-a review. Asian J Pharm Clin
Res 7(1):1–5
Şenkardeş I (2014) Nevşehir’in güney ilçelerinde (Acıgöl, Derinkuyu, Gülşehir, Nevşehir-merkez,
Ürgüp) etnobotanik araştırmalar. PhD thesis. Marmara University, Istanbul
Şenkardeş I, Tuzlaci E (2014) Some ethnobotanical notes from Gundogmus District (Antalya/
Turkey). Marmara Üniversitesi Saglik Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi 4(2):63–75
Sezik E, Yeşilada E, Tabata M, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Fujita T, Tanaka T, Takeda Y (1997) Traditional
medicine in Turkey VIII. Folk medicine in East Anatolia: Erzurum, Erzincan, Ağrı, Kars, Iğdır
Provinces. Econ Bot 51(3):195–211
Sezik E, Yeşilada E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T (2001) Traditional medicine in
Turkey X: folk medicine in central Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol 75:95–115
Shah AH (2015) Cultural drivers of plant biodiversity of district Tor Ghar. PhD thesis. Hazara
Shah GM, Khan MA (2006) Checklist of Medicinal Plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan.
Shah NA, Khan MR (2014) Antidiabetic effect of Sida cordata in alloxan induced diabetic rats.
Biomed Res Int 2014:15
Shah A, Marwat SK, Gohar F, Khan A, Bhatti KH, Amin M, Din NU, Ahmad M, Zafar M (2013)
Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of semi-tribal area of Makerwal & Gulla Khel (lying
between Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab Provinces), Pakistan. Am J Plant Sci 4:98–116
among Basikhel tribe of District Tor Ghar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 47:23–41
Shaheen H, Qureshi R, Zehra I, Arshad M, Chaudhry AK, Iqbal S (2010) Ethnobotanical sur-
vey of Santh Saroola, Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Proceeding of 2nd International
Conference “Biodiversity is our life” (IC Biour Life) December 2010, Pakistan pp 137–153
Shinwari MI, Shinwari MI (2010) Botanical diversity in Pakistan; past present and future. World
Environ:85–104
Pakistan. WWF, Pakistan 68
Shinwari ZK, Watanabe T, Rehman M, Youshikawa T (2006) A pictorial guide to medicinal plants
of Pakistan. KUST, Kohat, Pakistan
Şığva HÖ, Seçmen Ö (2009) Ethnobotanic survey of Işıklı (Çarpın) Dağdancık and Tokdemir in
Gaziantep (Turkey). IUFS J Biol 68(1):19–26
Şimşek I, Aytekin F, Yeşilada E, Yıldırımlı Ş (2001) Ankara, Gölbaşı’nda yabani bitkilerin kullanılış
amaçları ve şekilleri üzerinde bir araştırma. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 8(2):105–120
Şimsek I, Aytekin F, Yesilada E, Yıldırımlı Ş (2004) An ethnobotanical survey of the Beypazarı,

Ayas and Güdül District towns of Ankara Province (Turkey). Econ Bot 58(4):705–720
Singab ANB, El-Beshbishy HA, Yonekawa M, Nomura T, Fukai T (2005) Hypoglycemic effect
of Egyptian Morus alba root bark extract: effect on diabetes and lipid peroxidation of
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 100(3):333–338
Singh J, Cumming E, Manoharan G, Kalasz H, Adeghate E (2011) Medicinal chemistry of the
anti-diabetic effects of Momordica charantia: active constituents and modes of actions. Open
Med Chem J 5(Supp. 2):70
Soejarto DO, Farnsworth NR (1989) Tropical rain forests: potential source of new drugs? Perspect
Biol Med 32:244–256
Soumyanath A (2005) Traditional medicines for modern times: antidiabetic plants. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL
Subramoniam A (2016a) Anti-diabetes mellitus plants: active principles, mechanisms of action
and sustainable utilization. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Subramoniam A (2016b) Plants with anti-diabetes mellitus properties. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Tabata M, Honda G, Sezik E (1988) A report on traditional medicine and medicinal plants in
Turkey. Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Kyoto University, Kyoto
Tekin S (2011) Ethnobotanic aspects of Üzümlü town (Erzincan-Turkey). Msc thesis. Erzincan
University, Erzincan
Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U (2013) Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya
(Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 146:331–346
Tiwari R, Rana CS (2015) Phytomedicine for the diabetes: a traditional approach. Ann Phytomed
4(1):108–110
Tripathi AK, Bhoyar PK, Baheti JK, Biyanim DM, Khaliquem M, Kothmirem MS, Yogesh M,
Amgaonkar YM, Bhanarkar AB (2011) Herbal antidiabetics-a review. Int J Res Pharm Sci
2(1):30–37
Trojan-Rodrigues M, Alves TLS, Soares GLG, Ritter MR (2012) Plants used as antidiabetics in
popular medicine in Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil. J Ethnopharmacol 139(1):155–163
Tümen G, Sekendiz O (1990) Balıkesir ve merkez köylerinde halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkiler.
VIII. Bitkisel İlaç Hammaddeleri Toplantısı, İstanbul, 19–21 Mayıs 1989, İstanbul Üniversitesi
Yayınları No: 3733, Eczacılık Fakültesi Yayınları No: 64, İstanbul, pp 347–354
Tümen G, Selvi S (2011) Türkiye’de yaygın görülen tip II diyabet tedavisinde kullanılan tıbbi bit-
kiler üzerine etnobotanik bir araştırma. Merkez Efendi Tıp günleri, 16–20 Mayıs 2011. Denizli
Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları, Denizli, pp 68–81
Türkan Ş, Malyer H, Aydın SÖ, Tümen G (2006) Ordu ili ve çevresinde yetişen bazı bitkile-
rin etnobotanik özellikleri. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi
10(2):162–166
Turner IM (1997) A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore
47:1–757
Tuzlacı E (2006) Şifa niyetine Türkiye’nin bitkisel halk ilaçları. Alfa Yayınları, Istanbul
Tuzlacı E, Aymaz P (2001) Turkish Folk Medicinal Plants, Part IV: Gönen (Balıkesir-Turkey).
Tuzlacı E, Dogan A (2010) Turkish folk medicinal plants, IX Ovacık (Tunceli Turkey). Marmara
Pharmaceut J 14:136–143
Tuzlacı E, Erol MK (1999) Turkish folk medicinal plants. Part II: Eğirdir (Isparta). Fitoterapia
70(6):593–610
Tuzlacı E, Şenkardeş I (2011) Turkish folk medicinal plants, X: Ürgüp (Nevşehir-Turkey).
Marmara Pharmaceut J 15:58–68
Tuzlacı E, Tolon E (2000) Turkish folk medicinal plants, part III: Şile (İstanbul). Fitoterapia
71:673–685
Tuzlacı E, Alparslan İDF, Bulut G (2010) Turkish folk medicinal plants, VIII. Lalapaşa (Edirne)
14:47–52
Ugulu I, Baslar S, Yorek N, Dogan Y (2009) The investigation and quantitative ethnobotanical eval-
uation of medicinal plants used around Izmir province, Turkey. J Med Plant Res 3(5):345–367
Ugurlu E, Secmen O (2008) Medicinal plants popularly used in the villages of Yunt Mountain
(Manisa-Turkey). Fitoterpia 79:126–131
Unsal Ç, Vural H, Sarıyar G, Özbek B, Ötük G (2010) Traditional mecine in Bilecik province
(Turkey) and antimicrobial activities selected species. Turk J Pharm Sci 7(2):139–150
Uysal I (2010) An overwiev of plant diversity of Kazdagi Forest National Park, Turkey.
J Enviroment Biol 31:141–147
Uysal I, Onar S, Karabacak E, Çelik S (2010) Ethnobotanical aspects of Kapıdağ Peninsula
(Turkey). Biol Divers Conserv 3:15–22
Uysal I, Gücel S, Tütenocakli T, Öztürk M (2012) Studies on the medicinal plants of Ayvacik-
Çanakkale in Turkey. Pak J Bot 44(Supp. 1):239–244
Uzun E, Sariyar G, Adsersen A, Karakoc B, Ötük G, Oktayoglu E, Pirildar S (2004) Traditional
medicine in Sakarya province (Turkey) and antimicrobial activities of selected species.
J Ethnopharmacol 95(2–3):287–296
Vural H (2004) Bilecik ili bazı halk ilaçları üzerine farmakognozik araştırmalar. Msc thesis.
Istanbul University, Istanbul
Vural G (2008) Ethnobotanical features some of the wild plants on the Honaz Mountain and its
environment. Msc thesis. Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon
Wadood A, Wadood N, Shah S (1989) Effects of Acacia arabica and Caralluma edulis on blood
glucose levels of normal and alloxan diabetic rabbits. J Pak Med Assoc 39:208–212
Waheed A, Miana GA, Ahmad SI, Khan MA (2006) Clinical investigation of hypoglycemic effect
of Coriandrum sativum in type-2 (NIDDM) diabetic patients. Pak J Pharmacol 23(1):7–11
WHO (1985) Diabetes Mellitus: Report of a WHO Study Group. WHO Technical Report Series
727. WHO, Geneva
Wong KM (1998) Patterns of plant endemism and rarity in Borneo and the Malay Peninsula. In:
Peng C-I., Lowry II (eds) Rare, threatened, and endangered floras of Asia and the Pacific Rim.
Academia Sinica Monograph Series No 16, pp 139–169
Wong TW, Choo CY, Ilyanie Y (2011) Antidiabetic plants Monographs-Outcome of scientific
evaluation of antidiabetic plants. LAP LAMPERT Academic Publishing pp 1–472
Yapıcı İÜ, Hoşgören H, Saya Ö (2009) Ethnobotanical features of Kurtalan (Siirt) District. Dicle
Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 12:191–196
Yaseen G, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Kayani S, Cetto AA, Shaheen S (2015) Traditional
management of diabetes in Pakistan: Ethnobotanical investigation from traditional health prac-
titioners. J Ethnopharmacol 174:91–117
Yazıcıoğlu A, Tuzlacı E (1996) Folk medicinal plants of Trabzon (Turkey). Fitoterapia
67(4):307–318
Yeşil Y, Akalın E (2009) Folk Medicinal Plants in Kürecik Area (Akçadağ Malatya-Turkey). Turk
J Pharm Sci 6(3):207–220
Yeşilada E (2013) An overview of Turkish folk medicine; past and present. Curr Drug Deliv
10(1):92–95
Yeşilada E, Honda G, Sezik E, Tabata M, Fujita T, Tanaka T et al (1995) Traditional medicine
in Turkey V: folk medicine in the inner Taurus Mountains. J Ethnopharmacol 46(3):133–152
Yeşilada E, Sezik E, Honda G, Takaishi Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T (1999) Traditional medicine in
Turkey IX: folk medicine in north-west Anatolia. J Ethnopharmacol 64(3):195–210
Yeşilyurt EB, Şimşek I, Akaydin G, Yeşilada E (2017) An ethnobotanical survey in selected dis-
tricts of the Black Sea region (Turkey). Turk J Bot 41(1):47–62
Yıldırım B, Terzioğlu Ö, Özgökçe F, Türközü D (2008) Ethnobotanical and pharmacological uses
of some plants in the districts of Karpuzalan and Adigüzel (Van-Turkey). J Anim Vet Adv
7(7):873–878
Yücel E, Tülükoğlu A (2000) Gediz (Kütahya) çevresinde halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkiler.
Ekoloji Çevre ve Doğa Dergisi 36:12–14
Zada Khan MP, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Ali MI, Sun H (2015) Ethnomedicinal uses of
edible wild fruits (EWFs) in Swat Valley, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 173:191–203
Zammurad S, Qaiser M (2011) Pakistan’daki Nagar Parkar-Sindh yöresi bitkilerin geleneksel
tedavide kullanım alanları. I. Merkez Efendi Tıp Günleri. Denizli Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları,
Denizli, pp 63–67
Zia T, Hasnain SN, Hasan SK (2001) Evaluation of the oral hypoglycaemic effect of Trigonella
foenum-graecum L. (Methi) in normal mice. J Ethnopharmacol 75(2):191–195
Zia-Ul-Haq M, Ćavar S, Qayum M, Imran I, Feo VD (2011) Compositional studies: antioxidant
and antidiabetic activities of Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. Int J Mol Sci 12(12):8846–8861
Zia-Ul-Haq M, Raza Shah M, Qayum M, Ercisli S (2012a) Biological screening of selected flora
of Pakistan. Biol Res 45:375–379
Zia-Ul-Haq M, Shahid SA, Muhammed S, Qayum M, Khan I, Ahmad S (2012b) Antimalarial, anti-
emetic and antidiabetic potential of Grewia asiatica L. leaves. J Med Plant Res 6:3087–3092
Antidiabetic Plants of Pakistan
Mubashrah Munir and Rahmatullah Qureshi
Introduction
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic illness, and every year, millions of people suffer
from this disease (Ezuruike and Prieto 2014). This is a metabolic disorder in which
blood sugar level remains high over a prolonged period triggered by the inequity
among insulin supply and demand (Andrade-Cetto and Heinrich 2005). DM is clas-
sified into many types among which type 1 and 2 are most common (Group 2007).
Diabetic patients suffer from hyperglycemia that damages many systems of their
body (Mukherjee et al. 2006). DM has caused approximately 1.5 million mortalities
across the globe, 80% of which are in the low- and middle-income countries. DM
would rank seventh among the causes of the deaths by 2030 (WHO 2016).
The intensity of this disease is very rapidly increasing, and according to a recent
survey, 371 million people were recorded in 2012 (Song et al. 2014), which may
reach up to 552 million by 2030 (Oputa and Chinenye 2012). This disease is the
most prevalent (80%) in underdeveloped and developing countries (Oputa and
Chinenye 2012) that caused about 3.2 million deaths per year. This situation neces-
sitates in developing useful antidiabetic drugs. Many drugs are available to control
blood glucose level which poses serious side effects (Currie et al. 2009; Mukherjee
et al. 2006), while plants are good source of antidiabetic medicine with least side
effects (Riya et al. 2015; Venkatesh et al. 2003) and low cost (Sunmonu and Afolayan
2013). Therefore, it is worthwhile to find out traditional medicinal plants for control
of diabetes (Suba et al. 2004). Increasing intensity of side effects and reduced effi-
cacy of antidiabetic allopathic drugs caught the attention of patients, physicians, and
researchers toward searching for an alternative source of plant-based medicament.
M. Munir · R. Qureshi (*)

Department of Botany, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_12
464 M. Munir and R. Qureshi
There it is the need of hours to investigate the potential use of plants and herbal
therapies used in diabetes control. Presently, medicinal plants are targeted in search-
ing novel antidiabetic agents due to their efficacy in human clinical trials and the
less adverse effects as well as easy availability (Suba et al. 2004).
The prevalence of DM is increasing in almost every country. Pakistan occupies
the seventh position in the list of Middle East and North African countries with large
population of diabetics (Whiting et al. 2011). The country has a rich heritage in
using a wide range of plants and their compounds in treating diabetes. Worldwide,
there is reawakening in the use of herbs for treating such noxious diseases. Several
native plants have been evaluated for their effectiveness in diabetes. Regardless of
remarkable advancement in medicine during the recent past, still there is no cure
and effective prevention/treatment of utmost importance to prevent a potential rise
in the disease. Plants possess commendable drug sources, and many of the existing
drugs have been obtained from them. Today, herbal products are believed to be used
safely compared to the synthetics (Haridasan 2001; Jain 1989). Many folk medici-
nal and scientific investigations dealing with the antidiabetic plants of Pakistan have
been published during the last few decades (Ahmad et al. 2009; Yaseen et al. 2015).
However, no comprehensive evidence-based review is available. Therefore this
review was aimed to document the antidiabetic plants, their effective parts and folk
recipes, and their distribution across the country.
Methodology
Various literature resources such as online bibliographic databases and libraries

(MEDLINE, CAM-PubMed, HealthSTAR and the Cochrane Library) were searched
from 1989 to 2015 for the information pertinent to antidiabetic plants, which are
commonly used by the traditional health practitioners (THPs) of Pakistan. Moreover,
semi-structured ethnobotanical questionnaires also gathered traditional information
from herbal practitioners. For the validation of information, we contacted experts in
the field to validate the information as well as handsearched references of key
articles.
Data analysis
Data obtained on antidiabetic plants from various sources were analyzed, and the
antidiabetic plant families of medicinal plants were ranked based on number of spe-
cies contributed. Percentage (%age) of mode of administration, usage of plant parts,
and life forms was ranked. Frequency of citation (FC) of each plant was computed
based on the number of times a plant is reported in the literature as antidiabetic
remedy.
Antidiabetic Plants of Pakistan 465
Results and Discussion
Antidiabetic Plants and Their Families’ Contribution
A total of 209 antidiabetic plant species belonging to 74 families were reported, of

which 182 species (Table 1) are used individually and 27 are used in herbal mixtures
(Table 2). Moreover, six herbal mixtures are new to science for the treatment of DM
(Table 2). Three species, viz., Astragalus gummifer, Lactuca sativa, and Santalum
album, are first time recorded having antidiabetic potential in the herbal mixtures.
Besides, 38 species such as Adiantum incisum, Alnus nitida, Andrachne cordifolia,
Artemisia roxburghiana, Berberis brandisiana, Capparis cartilaginea, Caryopteris
odorata, Centaurea iberica, Chrysanthemum indicum, Cleome scaposa, Convolvulus
prostratus, Cuscuta campestris, Euphorbia helioscopia, Farsetia hamiltonii, Ferula
narthex, Ficus virens, Fragaria indica, Gentianodes tianschanica, Hedera nepalen-
sis, Kickxia ramosissima, Limeum indicum, Malva neglecta, Mentha longifolia,
Onosma echioides, Opuntia monacantha, Oxalis corniculata, Papaver somniferum,
Prunus amygdalus, P. persica, Pyrus malus, Salix babylonica, Stellaria media,
Tamarix aphylla, Tanacetum artemisioides, Taraxacum officinale, Tylophora hir-
suta, Ziziphus oxyphylla, and Z. spinosa are ethnobotanically used to treat diabetes,
which are required to be scientifically evaluated for in vitro and in vivo antidiabetic
activity. Some of the species like Alisma plantago-aquatica, Caralluma edulis,
Cedrela serrata, Fagonia cretica, Juniperus excelsa, Launaea procumbus, Salvia
coccinea, Sonchus asper, and Trianthema triquetra are sporadically known for the
scientific validation of hypoglycemic activity.
The most dominant family was Fabaceae which contributed 18 species (8.6%),
followed by Asteraceae (16 spp., 7.66%); Moraceae (11 spp., 5.26%); Lamiaceae (10
spp., 4.78%); Cucurbitaceae (9 spp., 4.30%); Rosaceae (8 spp., 3.82%); Apocynaceae,
Solanaceae, and Apiaceae (7 spp., 3.35%); Rhamnaceae (6 spp., 2.87%); and Poaceae
(5 spp., 2.39%), while Brassicaceae, Capparidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Meliaceae
were represented by four species each (1.19% each). The rest of the 59 families con-
tributed species from 3 to 1 (Fig. 1).
Over 200 species are used in the treatment of DM worldwide as traditional medi-
cine (Simpson and Morris 2014). The present endeavor reported 209 plant species
from Pakistan (Tables 1 and 2) by adding 89 species to the antidiabetic plants of
Pakistan. Previously, Yaseen et al. (2015) reported 120 species from Pakistan. They
indicated Moraceae as the leading family which contributed 11 species; however,
present investigation reported Fabaceae as the most dominant family. Marles and
Farnsworth (1995) and Patel et al. (2012b) also reported that Fabaceae contributes
the largest taxa for antidiabetic activity.
466
Table 1 Single herb recipes used for treatment of diabetes mellitus in Pakistan
Botanical name
(local name)/ Ethnobotanical
Sr. # family/habit Parts used Recipe Phytochemicals reported Pharmacological activity studies
1. Justicia adhatoda Fruits, Vegetative buds are Vasicoline, vasicolinone, vasicinone, Antidiabetic (Gulfraz et al. Ahmad et al.
L. (Baikar)/ fresh eaten fresh. One vasicine, adhatodine, anisotine, 2011), antimicrobial (Pa and (2004, 2009),
Acanthaceae/herb leaves, cup of juice of deoxyvasicine, adhatodine, adhatonine, Mathew 2012) Ahmed et al.
vegetative freshly ground adhavasinon E, anisotine, hydroxypeg (2007), Shah et al.
buds leaves and fruit is anine glucosides, kaempferol, essential (2013a), Saqib
used oils, resins, gum, vitamin “C,” phenols, et al. (2014),
tannins, anthraquinone, saponins, Yaseen et al.
betaines, and steroids (Jha et al. 2012; (2015)
Yaseen et al. 2015)
2. Viburnum foetens Leaves Leaf extract is used Flavanoids, coumarins, and tannins Insulin secretagogue activity Hussain et al.
Dcne./Ghar Meva/ (Bibi et al. 2010) (Hussain et al. 2004; Bibi et al. (2004)
Adoxaceae/shrub 2010)
3. Limeum indicum Whole Plant material is – – Ahmad et al.
Stocks ex plant boiled for 5 min and (2014a)
T. Anderson/Lonri/ infusion is used
Aizoaceae/herb
4. Trianthema Whole Powder, infusion, or – Antioxidant (Chitra and Ahmad et al.
triquetra Rottl. & plant decoction is used Nithyanandhi 2007) (2014a)
Willd./Choti
Ulwaiti/Aizoaceae/
herb
5. Alisma plantago- Leaves 10 g powder of Alisolide, alisol O, alisol P, and Radical scavenging activity Yaseen et al.
aquatica L./Jabai/ dried leaves is triterpene (Zhao et al. 2008) (Kim et al. 2007) (2015)
Alismataceae/herb administered three
times a day
M. Munir and R. Qureshi
6. Aloe vera (L.) Leaves Leaf pulp is used Lophenol, 24-methyl-lophenol, In vivo hypoglycemic and Sabeen and
Burm.f./Kunwar with sugar 24-ethyl-lophenol, cycloartanol, and antioxidant activity Ahmad (2009),
Gandal/Alliaceae/ 24-methylene-cycloartanol (Tanaka (Rajasekaran et al. 2005) and Abbasi et al.
herb et al. 2006) antidiabetic (Tanaka et al. (2010a), Jafri et al.
2006) (2011), Shah et al.
(2013a)
7. Achyranthes aspera Seeds Seed powder is Saponins, oleanolic acid, dihydroxy Hypoglycemic effects on Akhtar (1992),
L./Ubat Kandri/ used. Also tested on ketones, alkaloids (Srivastav et al. rabbits (Akhtar and Iqbal Qureshi and Bhatti
Amaranthaceae/ diabetic rabbit to 2011) 1991), free radical scavenging (2009)
herb decrease blood and antihyperglycemic activity
glucose (Zohura Talukder et al. 2012)

8. Allium cepa L./ Bulb, gum, Fresh juice of bulb S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide (Kumari In vivo antioxidant activity in Ahmad et al.
Piaz/ root, bark is taken or used in and Augusti 2002), isoallin (Corzo- rats (Kumari and Augusti (2004, 2009),
Amaryllidaceae/ cooked form. Pieces Martínez et al. 2007) 2002) and antihyperglycemic Shah and Khan
herb of bulb are soaked activity (El-Demerdash et al. (2006), Abbasi
in water overnight 2005; Eldin et al. 2010) et al. (2010a),
and one cup is Yaseen et al.
drunk (2015)
9. Allium sativum L./ Rhizome, Blub is used in Alliin, cysteine, allylcysteine, Antidiabetic activity in rats Ahmad et al.
Lahsan/ leaf, fresh form or cycloalliin, sulfoxides, glutamyl (Eidi et al. 2006), improved (2004, 2009),
Amaryllidaceae/ cloves cooked with peptides, thiosulfinates (Sendl 1995), glucose tolerance and renal Fatima et al.
herb vegetable and used sulfur containing amino (Shori and function in rats (Liu et al. (2005), Shah and
daily twice. Fresh Baba 2014) 2006) Khan (2006),
leaves are also eaten Hussain et al.
(2009), Marwat
et al. (2011),
Begum et al.
(2015), Yaseen
et al. (2015)
(continued)
467
Table 1 (continued)
468
Botanical name
10. Mangifera indica Leaves, Water extract of Polyphenols, mangiferin (Núñez Sellés Hypoglycemic activity in mice Khattak and
L./Aam/ seeds leaves is taken. et al. 2002; Rastogi et al. 2007) (Aderibigbe et al. 2001), Khattak (2011),
Anacardiaceae/tree Dried or fresh seed antihyperglycemic in rats Marwat et al.
is consumed daily (Bhowmik et al. 2009; (2011)
Muruganandan et al. 2005),
antidiabetic and antioxidant
(Shah et al. 2010)
11. Polyalthia Leaves, Plant parts are Steroids, alkaloids, diterpenoids, In vivo hypoglycemic and Hussain et al.
longifolia root, stem boiled in half liter carbohydrates, amino acids, essential antihyperglycemic and (2010d), Yaseen
(Sonnerat) Thwait/ of water for 10 min. oil, phenolics, and flavonoids (Ghosh antioxidant (Nair et al. 2007; et al. (2015)
Ulta Ashok/ One cup of this tea et al. 2008) Ghosh et al. 2010;
Annonaceae/tree is used thrice a day Sivashanmugam and Chatterjee
2013)
12. Coriandrum Seeds, Oil is taken orally, Mostly alcohols and aldehyde. In vivo hypoglycemic Waheed et al.
sativum L./Dahnia, essential or seeds are chewed 2E-decenal, decanal, 2E-decen-1-ol, (Aissaoui et al. 2011), (2006), Marwat
Kashneez Khushk/ oil daily and n-decanol (Matasyoh et al. 2009), hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, et al. (2011)
Apiaceae/herb linalool, geranyl acetate, and and antioxidant (Sreelatha and
γ-terpinene (Bhuiyan et al. 2009) Inbavalli 2012)
13. Foeniculum vulgare Leaves, Leaves and seeds Methyl chavicol, fenchone, anethole, In vivo hypoglycemic (El-Soud Shah and Khan
Mill./Sonf/ seeds are boiled in water and fencho (García-Jiménez et al. et al. 2011; Badgujar et al. (2006)
Apiaceae/herb and extract is used 2000), linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and 2014), antidiabetic (Rather
oleic acid (Singh et al. 2006a), phenol et al. 2012)
and phenolic glycosides (Rather et al.
2012)
14. Ferula asafoetida Resin Ground resin is Resin, gum essential oil, phenolic, and In vitro hypoglycemic and Zia-Ul-Haq et al.
L./Hing/Apiaceae/ used tannins (Iranshahy and Iranshahi 2011; hyperinsulinemic (Helal et al. (2012a)
herb Iranshahi and Alizadeh 2012) 2005), in vivo antidiabetic
(Abu-Zaiton 2010),
antihyperglycemic (Iranshahi
and Alizadeh 2012)
15. Ferula narthex Whole 1–10 g of plant Luteolin and pinene (Shinwari and – Yaseen et al.
Boiss./Jangli sonf/ plant powder is consumed Gilani 2003) (2015)
Apiaceae/herb three times a day
16. Catharanthus Leaves Juice of fresh leaves Flavanoids and alkaloids (Islam et al. In vivo antidiabetic and Ahmad et al.
roseus (L.) is used after each 2009), monoterpenoid indole alkaloid hypolipidemic (Nammi et al. (2004), Arshad
G. Don./Sada meal (Jaleel et al. 2009) 2003; Islam et al. 2009; et al. (2011),
Bahar/ Rasineni et al. 2010; Zhang Kanwal et al.
Apocynaceae/shrub et al. 2016) (2011a), Yaseen
et al. (2015)
17. Caralluma edulis Aerial Aerial parts are Fatty acid, hydrocarbon, and sterols Radical scavenging activity Ahmad et al.
(L.) Benth ex parts cooked and used. (Rizwani et al. 1993a) (Ansari et al. 2005) (2004, 2009),
Hook. F./Chugain/ Flowers are placed Mahmood et al.
Apocynaceae/herb in water overnight (2010), Shah et al.
and their extract is (2013a), Yaseen
used early in the et al. (2015)
morning. Powder of
dried whole plant is
also used once a
day
18. Caralluma Whole Used as vegetable Steroids, terpenoids, reducing sugars, Antidiabetic effect in rats Mahmood et al.
tuberculata N. E. plant, in cooked form. tannins, betacyanin, and amino acid (Abdel-Sattar et al. 2013), (2010), Shah et al.
Br./Pamanay or roots, fruit Young plant extract (Rauf et al. 2013), pregnane glycosides antihyperglycemic and (2013a), Adnan
Pawoona/ is also used (Rizwani et al. 1993b) antilipidemic (Abdel-Sattar et al. (2014b)
Apocynaceae/herb et al. 2011)
19. Gymnema sylvestre Leaves Leaves are boiled in Gymnemic acid (Saneja et al. 2010), Enhance endogenous insulin Fatima et al.
R. Br./Gurmar buti/ water and infusion gymnemasaponins and gurmarin (Shanmugasundaram et al. (2005)
Apocynaceae/herb is taken twice per (Porchezhian and Dobriyal 2003) 1990), increase insulin release
day in vitro (Persaud et al. 1999)
(continued)
469
Table 1 (continued)
470
Botanical name
20. Nerium oleander Leaf, Tea of leaves is Oleanderol (Siddiqui et al. 1988), Antidiabetic in rats along with Shah and Khan
L./Kaner/ latex, seed taken. Powder of neriine, digitoxigenin, amorphane, glimepiride (Yassin and Mwafy (2006)
Apocynaceae/shrub seed and latex is 1.8-cineole, α-pinene, calarene, 2007), in vivo and in vitro
also taken twice a limonene, Β-phellandrene, terpinene- improved fat and glucose
day 4-ol, sabinene, isoledene, 3-carene, metabolism (Bas et al. 2012)
humulene, β-pinene, and cymen-8-ol
(Derwich et al. 2010)
21. Rhazya stricta Leaves, One spoon of Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, In vivo antidiabetic [−] (Wasfi Ahmad (2006),
Decne./Winra, whole powder of dried peptides, triterpenes, fatty esters (Ullah et al. 1994; Ali 1997) Hussain et al.
Verian/ plant leaves is used after 2012) (2010c), Qureshi
Apocynaceae/herb each meal. (2012), Shah et al.
Sometimes aerial (2013a), Yaseen
parts are boiled for et al. (2015)
30 min and
decoction is taken.
Also used with
Withania somnifera
22. Tylophora hirsuta Branches Fresh juice is used Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, – Yaseen et al.
(Wall.) Wight/Akri/ and leaves three times a day saponins, glycosides, terpenoids, (2015)
Apocynaceae/shrub sterols, and carbohydrates (Ali 2013),
phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids
(Bhutani et al. 1984)
23. Monstera deliciosa Fruit pulp Paste of fruit is used Tannins, steroids, flavonoids, alkaloids, In vivo insulin secretagogue Hussain et al.
Liebm./Araceae/ three times a day and saponins (Rao et al. 2015) activity (Lim 2012), in vivo (2004)
climber antihyperglycemic and
antihyperlipidemic (Abo-Ellil
2014)
24. Pistia stratiotes L./ Leaves Extract of leaves Alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, and Antidiabetic and diuretic in Khan et al.
Jalkumbhi/ and stem and stem is used phytosterols (Khan et al. 2014a) rats (Tripathi 2011), (2014a)
Araceae/herb antidiabetic activity in rats
(Khan et al. 2014a)
25. Hedera helix L./ Leaves, Half cup of extract Triterpene and steroid saponins (Facino Hypoglycemic activity in rats Ibrar et al. (2004),
Payo Zelani, Bilari/ bulb of 5–10 leaves et al. 1995; Bedir et al. 2000), (Ibrar et al. 2004) Alam et al. (2011),
Araliaceae/climber soaked overnight is falcarinol and didehydrofalcarinol Saqib et al.
used (Hausen et al. 1987), alkaloids, (2014), Yaseen
saponins, terpenoids, and tannins et al. (2015)
(Uddin et al. 2011)
26. Hedera nepalensis Leaves Leaves (5–10) are Terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, – Shah and Khan
K. Koch/Arbumbal, soaked whole night steroids, tannins, glycosides and (2006), Sabeen
Phalol, Bilari, and half cup of saponins (Kanwal et al. 2011b) and Ahmad
Albomor, Zailai/ extract is used (2009), Alam et al.
Araliaceae/climber before meal thrice a (2011), Awan et al.
day (2011)
27. Calotropis procera Flowers Flowers are boiled Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, In vivo antihyperglycemic and Yaseen et al.
(Aiton.) W. T. for 30 min and half saponins, cardiac glycosides, balsams antioxidant activity [+] (Roy (2015)
Aiton/Akk/ cup of extract is and volatile oil, and steroids et al. 2005; Bhaskar and Ajay
Asclepiadaceae/ used before meal (Mainasara et al. 2012) 2009; Neto et al. 2013)
shrub thrice a day
28. Artemisia Whole Half cup of juice of Hydroxybenzoic acids, In vivo antidiabetic [+] Khan and Khatoon
absinthium L./ plant, whole plant is used hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonols, (Daradka et al. 2014), in vitro (2008), Yaseen
Kakamush, flower, and early in the salicylic acid, myricetin, caffeic acid, antioxidant [+] (Singh et al. et al. (2015)
Afsanteen/ leaves morning. Extract of gallic acid and ferulic acid (Lee et al. 2012; Wani et al. 2014)
Asteraceae/herb flower and leaves is 2013), essential oil has chrysanthenyl
used after boiling in acetate (Wani et al. 2014)
water three times a
day
(continued)
471
Table 1 (continued)
472
Botanical name
29. Artemisia Whole Plant powder is Sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoid, In vivo antidiabetic [+] Hayat et al. (2009)
herba-alba Asso./ plant used phenols, wax (Mohamed et al. 2010), (Iriadam et al. 2006; Taştekin
Mushki afsantheen/ camphor, trans-pinocarveol, et al. 2006)
Asteraceae/herb chrysanthenone and β-thujone, and
monoterpenoids (Dob and
Benabdelkader 2006)
30. Artemisia indica Aerial Aerial parts extract Artemisia ketone, germacrene B, Antidiabetic and Hayat et al.
Willd./Nagdona/ parts borneol, and cis-chrysanthenyl acetate antihyperlipidemic in rats [+] (2009), Ahmad
Asteraceae/herb (Rashid et al. 2013b), eucalyptol, (Ahmad et al. 2014b) et al. (2014b)
camphor, borneol, terpineol, cubebene,
caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide,
and germacrene D (Wu et al. 2008)
31. Artemisia Leaves Extract of leaves is Α-thujone and β-thujone (Mathela et al. – Hussain et al.
roxburghiana Wall. used 1994), thujane, camphane and (2004)
Ex Besser/ 1,8-cineole, monoterpenes,
Garrotra/ caryophyllene, and cadinene (Thakur
Asteraceae/herb et al. 1990; Bicchi et al. 1998)
32. Arctium lappa Leaves, Half cup of juice of Neoarctin B (VI), arctigenin (II), In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Cao Khan and Khatoon
Linn./Chero/ seeds, and leaves and roots is arctiin (III), matairesinol (IV), and et al. 2012), in vivo and in vitro (2008), Yaseen
Asteraceae/herb roots recommended. A lappaol F (V) (Wang and Yang 1992), antioxidant activity [+] (Liu et al. (2015)
cup of decoction is fructan (Kardošová et al. 2003), tannin, et al. 2014)
taken after every arctigenin, arctiin, beta-eudesmol,
meal caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, inulin,
trachelogenin 4, sitosterol-beta-d-
glucopyranoside, lappaol, and
diarectigenin (Chan et al. 2011)
33. Centaurea iberica Leaves Extract of leaves is – – Hussain et al.
Trevir. & Spreng./ used (2004)
Kandiyara/
Asteraceae/herb
34. Chrysanthemum Flower Flower extract is 8-Cineole, camphor, borneol, and – Sabeen and
indicum L./ prepared by soaking bornyl acetate (Shunying et al. 2005), Ahmad (2009)
Gul-e-daudi/ in water for few volatiles, flavonoids, (quercitrin,
Asteraceae/herb hours and myricetin, and luteolin-7-glucoside),
administered and flavonoid glycosides (Wu et al.
2010)
35. Cichorium intybus Roots Before meal powder Chicoric acid (Benalla et al. 2010), In vivo and in vitro Ahmad et al.
L./Kasni/ of roots is taken saccharides, methoxycoumarin antihyperglycemic [+] (2004, 2009)
Asteraceae/herb twice a day cichorine, flavonoids, essential oils, (Azay-Milhau et al. 2013;
anthocyanins, octane, n-nonadecane, Street et al. 2013), antioxidant
pentadecanone, and hexadecane (Street [+] (Samarghandian et al.
et al. 2013) 2013)
36. Launaea Whole Water extract is Flavonoids and phenolics (myricetin, In vitro antioxidant [+] Hussain et al.
procumbus Roxb/ plant, consumed or leaves catechin, vitexin, orientin, hyperoside, (2010d), Yaseen
Bhatter/Asteraceae/ leaves are cooked as and rutin) (Khan et al. 2012b), et al. (2015)
herb vegetable and taken flavanols, flavanones, flavones, and
as per need isoflavones (Mishra et al. 2012)
37. Parthenium Aerial Powder of plant is Saponins and hysterolactone (Shah In vivo hypoglycemic [−] Mahmood et al.
hysterophorus L./ parts used twice or three et al. 2009), histamine, saponin, (Patel et al. 2008), in vitro (2012), Yaseen
Thandan, Partha/ times a day glucosides, and triterpene antioxidant [+] (Sinha and Paul et al. (2015)
Asteraceae/herb (sesquiterpene) (Khushk et al. 2010), 2014)
flavonoids, tannins, phenolic
compounds, steroids, terpenoids, and
alkaloids (Sinha and Paul 2014)
(continued)
473
Table 1 (continued)
474
Botanical name
38. Sonchus asper (L.) Leaves Cooked as Alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, In vitro antioxidant [+] (Xu Sabeen and
Hill/Hund/ and roots vegetable phenols, saponins, and tannins et al. 2011) Ahmad (2009)
Asteraceae/herb (Hussain et al. 2010a), tannic acid,
quercetin, and catechin (Khan et al.
2012c)
39. Stevia rebaudiana Leaves Fresh leaves or their Diterpene glycosides (Brandle et al. Recovers islet β-cell Khan et al. (2008)
(Bertoni) Bertoni/ extract is 1998), stevioside (Abou-Arab et al. dysfunction [+] (Kosta et al.
Methi booti/ recommended twice 2010) 2015), antidiabetic activity [−]
Asteraceae/shrub a day (Kujur et al. 2010),
antihyperglycemic,
insulinotropic, and
glucagonostatic actions [+]
(Jeppesen et al. 2002;
Gregersen et al. 2004)
40. Tanacetum Whole Tea is prepared by Ceramide, tanacetamide d, – Khan and Khatoon
artemisioides plant boiling plant for 15 5-demethylnobiletin, and 5-hydroxy- (2008), Yaseen
Schultz-Bip.ex min and once cup is 3,6,7,8,3′,4′-hexamethoxyflavone et al. (2015)
Hook.f. taken three times a (Hussain et al. 2010b)
day
41. Taraxacum Leaves, Used as vegetable Luteolin 7-glucoside and two luteolin – Ahmad et al.
officinale Weber./ roots 7-diglucosides, hydroxycinnamic acids, (2004, 2009),
Paloyo Zoon/ chicoric acid, monocaffeyltartaric acid, Hussain et al.
Asteraceae/herb and chlorogenic acid (Williams et al. (2004), Yaseen
1996) et al. (2015)
42. Vernonia Seeds Powder of seed is Steroid: vernoanthelsteron (Hua et al. Antidiabetic and Sabeen and
anthelmintica taken twice a day 2012), oil, resin, myristic acid, palmitic antihyperlipidemic [+] (Fatima Ahmad (2009)
Willd./Kali Zeri/ acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic et al. 2010; Manvar and Desai
Asteraceae/herb acid, vernolic acid, and methyl 2012)
vernolate (Manvar and Desai 2012)

43. Berberis Root and Powder of roots and Berberine, berbamine, palmitine, – Yaseen et al.
brandisiana stem stem is mixed with jatrorrhizine, and isotetrandrine (2015)
Ahrendt/Sumbloo/ butter oil and taken (Srivastava et al. 2015)
Berberidaceae/ with milk three
shrub times a day
44. Berberis lycium Root, bark, Roots roasted Alkaloids, cardioactive glycosides, Antihyperglycemic and Husain et al.
Rnoyl./Sumblu/ whole powder is consumed saponins, tannins, anthocyanins, antilipidemic (Ali et al. (2008), Ahmad
Berberidaceae/ plant, fruit with milk. This vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, 2015b), hypoglycemic [+] and Alamgeer
shrub powder is also lipids, fiber content, β-carotene, (Ahmad and Alamgeer 2009; (2009), Sabeen
mixed with butter cellulose, phytic acid, and phytate Gulfraz et al. 2011) and Ahmad
and used with milk. phosphorous (Shabbir et al. 2012), (2009), Yaseen
Fruit and leaves alkaloids: berberine, tannin, flavonoids, et al. (2015)
decoction is used. phenols, terpenoids, fat, and resin
Antidiabetic (Gupta et al. 2015)
potential of root
bark was tested on
rabbits
45. Alnus nitida Endl./ Leaves Leaves are soaked – – Yaseen et al.
Gheray/Betulaceae/ overnight and half (2015)
tree cup is taken before
breakfast
46. Bombax ceiba Leaves, Plant extract is Shamimin (Saleem et al. 1999), In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Shah and Khan
Linn./Sambal/ whole prepared and used triterpenoid (Bhavsar and Talele 2013), (Saleem et al. 1999; Bhavsar (2006)
Bombacaceae/tree plant daily mangiferin, stigma-5-en-3-O- and Talele 2013)
glucoside, and amyrin (Faizi et al.
2012), quercetin (Verma et al. 2014)
(continued)
475
476
Table 1 (continued)
Botanical name
47. Onosma echioides Roots Roots are soaked in Alkannin, shikonin, and – Akhtar (1992)
L./Rattanjot// water overnight and naphthoquinone derivatives
Boraginaceae/herb water extract is (Papageorgiou et al. 1999, 2006;
taken in the Sagratini et al. 2008)
morning
48. Brassica oleracea Flower Used as vegetable Saponins, tannins, triterpenes, In vivo antihyperglycemic and Khan et al.
var. botrytis/Phul alkaloids, and flavonoids (Asadujjaman antioxidant [+] (Kataya and (2013a, 2013b)
gobi/Brassicaceae/ et al. 2011) Hamza 2008; Asadujjaman
herb et al. 2011; Haque et al. 2013),
hypoglycemic and
hypolipidemic [+] (Assad et al.
2014)
49. Eruca sativa Lamk/ Whole Plant is cooked as Carotenoids, vitamin C, fibers, Antidiabetic [+] (El-Missiry Sabeen and
Tara Mera/ plant vegetable and used flavonoids, and glucosinolates and El Gindy 2000; Melchini Ahmad (2009)
Brassicaceae/herb three times a day (Barillari et al. 2005a), and Traka 2010)
4-methylthiobutylisothiocyanate
(60.13%) and
5-methylthiopentanonitrile (Miyazawa
et al. 2002), erucin (Melchini and
Traka 2010)
50. Raphanus sativus Root Two to three fresh Glucosinolates (Barillari et al. 2005b; In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Yaseen et al.
L./Mooli/ roots are boiled in Jing et al. 2012), sinapinic acid esters (Taniguchi et al. 2006; Shukla (2015)
Brassicaceae/herb 1 L water for and flavonoids (Takaya et al. 2003) et al. 2011), antioxidants [+]
10–15 min. Take (Takaya et al. 2003; Papi et al.
one cup of this 2008)
water thrice a day
51. Farsetia hamiltonii Whole Plant powder or Flavonoids (Shahat et al. 2005) – Ahmad et al.
Royle/Fareed buti plant decoction is used (2014a), Hayat
or Lathia/ et al. (2014)
Brassicaceae/shrub
52. Opuntia dillenii Fruit, latex Fruit juice is taken Polysaccharide (Zhao et al. 2011), In vivo antihyperglycemic [+] Mahmood et al.
(Ker Gawler) or fruit paste is used tannins, saponins, and mucilages (Zhao et al. 2011), in vivo (2011), Yaseen
Haworth/Chattar three times per day. (Nougbodé et al. 2013) antidiabetic [+] (Gao et al. et al. (2015)
Thoar, Zaqoom/ Shade-dried latex is 2015)
Cactaceae/herb taken two times a
day
53. Opuntia Fruit Dried fruit three Alkaloids, tannins, saponins, – Yaseen et al.
monacantha doses are flavonoids, and polysaccharides (2015)
Haworth/Thooer/ administered three (Hussain et al. 2010a)
Cactaceae/herb times per day
54. Capparis Leaves Paste of leaves is Isothiocyanates (Hammed et al. 2007) – Yaseen et al.
cartilaginea used three times. (2015)
Decne./Kirip/ Powder of dried
Capparidaceae/ leaves is also
shrub consumed.
55. Capparis decidua Seeds and Plant material is Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, Hypoglycemic [+] (Rathee Zia-Ul-Haq et al.
Pax/Kair/ fruits soaked in water tocopherols, and glucosinolates et al. 2010), in vivo (2011), Yaseen
Capparidaceae/ overnight and (Zia-Ul-Haq et al. 2011), tannin, antidiabetic [+] (Sharma et al. et al. (2015)
shrub extract is used flavonoid, alkaloid, phenol, and steroid 2010)
(Shad et al. 2014)
(continued)
477
Table 1 (continued)
478
Botanical name
56. Capparis spinosa Leaves Leaves are boiled in Β-sitosterylglucoside-6-octadecanoate, In vivo hypolipidemic [+] Shah et al.
L./Kavir, Karein/ water when half of −methyl-2-butenyl-β-glucoside, (Eddouks et al. 2005), (2013a), Yaseen
Capparidaceae/ it is evaporated and sorhamnitine-3-O-rutinoside, antioxidant [+] (Yang et al. et al. (2015)
shrub water extract is used 1-tetradecanol, 2010), antihyperglycemic [+]
two times a day p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, (Huseini et al. 2013)
6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone,
ursolic acid, glycerol
monotetracostanoate, 4-coumaric acid,
nicotinamide, methyl hexadecanoate,
−sitosterol, −sitosteryl glucoside,
cadabicine, octadecanoic acid, rutin,
and stachydrine (Khanfar et al. 2003),
methyl isothiocyanate, benzyl
isothiocyanate, sesquiterpenes, and
monoterpenes (Romeo et al. 2007),
glucosinolates, fatty acid, sterols, and
tocopherol (Matthäus and Özcan 2005)
57. Cleome scaposa Leaves Leaves are boiled – – Ahmad et al.
DC./Kastoori Buti/ for 30 min and (2014a)
Capparidaceae/herb decoction is used
once a day
58. Carica papaya L./ Fruit Unripe fruit paste is Saponins and cardenolides, sodium, In vivo antihyperglycemic and Yaseen et al.
Papita/Caricaceae/ taken four to five calcium, iron, phosphorus, zinc, hypolipidemic [+] (Sasidharan (2015)
tree times a day copper, magnesium, and manganese et al. 2011; Maniyar and
(Oloyede 2005) Bhixavatimath 2012),
hypoglycemic and antioxidant
[+] (Juárez-Rojop et al. 2012)
59. Stellaria media L./ Whole Tea of plant is used – – Ali et al. (2011a)
Oulalai/ plant daily
Caryophyllaceae/
herb
60. Cuscuta campestris Whole Fresh material is Flavonoid, quercetin, and – Yaseen et al.
Yunck./Baypaari/ plant boiled for 20 min polysaccharide (Lee et al. 2011) (2015)
Convolvulaceae/ and extract is used
herb three times in one
day
61. Cuscuta reflexa Whole Extract is used three 7-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-N-[(4- Glucoside inhibitory [+] (Anis Mahmood et al.
Roxb./Neeli taar/ plant times a day methoxyphenyl)ethyl]propenamide; et al. 2002), in vivo (2013), Yaseen
Convolvulaceae/ 7-(4-hydroxy,3-methoxyphenyl)-N-[(4- hypoglycemic (Rahmatullah et al. (2015)
herb butylphenyl)ethyl]propenamide; et al. 2010)
6,7-dimethoxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-
one; 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-
propen-1-ethanoate;
6,7,8-trimethoxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-
one; 3-(4-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-3,5-
dimethoxyphenyl)-2-propen-1-ol; and
2-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)-3,5-
dihydroxy-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-
4H-1-benzopyrane-4-one (Anis et al.
2002)
62. Convolvulus Leaves Leaves are boiled – – Ahmad et al.
prostratus Forssk./ for 30 min and (2014a)
Hiran Buti/ decoction is used
Convolvulaceae/ once a day
climber
(continued)
479
Table 1 (continued)
480
Botanical name
63. Coccinia grandis Root, leaf Fresh juice of root Heptacosane, cephalandrol, Antihyperglycemic [+] Panhwar and Abro
(L.) Voigt./Golaru, and leaves is used β-sitosterol, alkaloids cephalandrins A (Gunjan et al. 2010), in vivo (2007), Yaseen
Kanduri/ in the morning and B, β-amyrin acetate, lupeol, hypoglycemic [+] (Pekamwar et al. (2015)
Cucurbitaceae/ cucurbitacin B, taraxerone, taraxerol, et al. 2013)
climber β-carotene, lycopene, cryptoxanthin,
xyloglucan, β-sitosterol, and stigma-7-
en-3-one. Resin, alkaloids, starch, fatty
acids, carbonic acid, triterpenoid,
saponin coccinoside, flavonoid
glycoside, lupeol, β-amyrin,
β-sitosterol, and taraxerol (Pekamwar
et al. 2013)
64. Cucumis sativus L./ Fruit Fresh fruit juice is Phytosterols, amyrin, multiflorenol, Antidiabetic and Yaseen et al.
Khira/ taken three times 24-methylenecycloartanol, antihyperlipidemic [+] (2015)
Cucurbitaceae/herb with black salt cycloartenol, tirucallol, and isopentenyl (Karthiyayini et al. 2009),
adenosine trialcohol (Yaseen et al. hypoglycemic (Sharmin et al.
2015) 2012)
65. Cucumis melo L./ Fruit Pulp is used Phenolic compounds and flavonoids In vitro antidiabetic potential Khan et al. (2015)
Kerkunda/ (Ismail et al. 2010) [+] (Chen and Kang 2013)
Cucurbitaceae/herb
66. Cucurbita pepo Fruit Paste of fresh fruit Fiber, protein, −carotene, In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Yaseen et al.
Wall./Kadu/ is used three times a carbohydrates, minerals, and fatty acids (Sedigheh et al. 2011) (2015)
Cucurbitaceae/herb day. Also cooked as (Badr et al. 2011), tocopherol (Bharti
vegetable et al. 2013)
67. Luffa acutangula Fruit Cooked as Triterpene, saponins, acutosides A–G Hypoglycemic [+] (Quanico Khan et al. (2015,
(L.) Roxb./Tori/ vegetable and taken (Nagao et al. 1991) et al. 2008), antidiabetic [+] 2013a)
Cucurbitaceae/ two times a day (Raj et al. 2012),
climber antihyperglycemic [+] (Akther
et al. 2014)
68. Momordica Fruit Fresh fruit extract is Lipids, nonpolar lipids, phospholipids, Hypoglycemic [+] (Sarkar Akhtar (1992),
charantia L./ used or one and glycolipids (Yuwai et al. 1991), et al. 1996; Miura et al. 2001; Ahmad et al.
Kerala/ teaspoon of charantin, vicine, and polypeptide-p Trakoon-osot et al. 2013), (2004, 2009),
Cucurbitaceae/ shade-dried fruit (Krawinkel and Keding 2006), in vivo antidiabetic [+] (Xu Fatima et al.
climber powder is consumed trans-nerolidol, apiole, cis- et al. 2015) (2005), Ahmed
three times a day dihydrocarveol, and germacrene D et al. (2007),
(Braca et al. 2008) Akhtar and Begum
(2009), Yaseen
et al. (2015)
69. Momordica dioica Fruit Fruit is used fresh Steroids, fatty acids and proteins, Antihyperglycemic and Ahmad (2006),
Roxb. Ex Willd./ or dried to make saponin glycosides, and triterpenes antilipidemic (Ilango et al. Yaseen et al.
Jungli Kerala/ powder for use with (Ilango et al. 2012) 2009), antidiabetic [+] (Sharma (2015)
Cucurbitaceae/ water daily and Singh 2014)
climber
70. Citrullus Roots, One seed is Glycosides (Hatam et al. 1989), Clinical investigation-proved Ahmad (2006),
colocynthis (L.) fruits, and swallowed early in glucosides (Tannin-Spitz et al. 2007), hypoglycemic activity (Huseini Marwat et al.
Schrad./Tumba/ seeds the morning. Seed tannins, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, et al. 2009), antidiabetic (2011), Shah et al.
Cucurbitaceae/herb powder (one spoon) and glycosides (Najafi et al. 2010) (Gurudeeban and Ramanathan (2013a), Adnan
is also used three 2010), hypoglycemic [+] et al. (2014b),
times a day. Paste of (Agarwal et al. 2012) Ahmad et al.
fresh fruit is also (2014a), Yaseen
recommended. It is et al. (2015)
used as vegetable as
well
71. Citrullus vulgaris Fruit Fresh fruit is taken Violaxanthin, luteoxanthin, lycopene, Antidiabetic and protects Yaseen et al.
Schrad/Tarbooz/ β-carotene, sucrose, fructose, citric pancreatic cells in mice [+] (2015)
Cucurbitaceae/herb acid, malic acid, and limonene (Liu (Ahn et al. 2011; Simpson and
et al. 2012) Morris 2014)
(continued)
481
482
Table 1 (continued)
Botanical name
72. Juniperus excelsa Fruit Fruit is boiled to Diterpenes (Topçu et al. 1999), Antioxidant [−] (Bakkour et al. Yaseen et al.
Webb ex Parl/Chili/ make tea for 15 min α-pinene (Ehsani et al. 2012), 2013) (2015)
Cupressaceae/tree and taken in the β-myrcene (6.99%), (E,E)-farnesol
morning (4.66%), and β-pinene (Bakkour et al.
2013)
73. Cyperus rotundus Roots and Roots and tubers Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, Antihyperglycemic and Ahmad et al.
L./Deela or Murki, tubers are boiled for isorotundene, cypera-2,4(15)-diene, antioxidants (Raut and (2014a)
Nagar Mooth/ 30 min and norrotundene, ketone cyperadione Gaikwad 2006)
Cyperaceae/herb decoction is used (Sonwa and König 2001), α-cyperone,
once a day myrtenol, caryophyllene oxide, and
β-pinene (Lawal and Oyedeji 2009),
7-isopropenyl-1,4a-5,6,7,8-hexahydro-
3H-naphthalen-2-one, zierone, and
(+)-cis-longipinan (Surendran and
Vijayalakshmi 2011)
74. Hippophae Fruit and Jams and jellies are Flavonoids (Qunhua et al. 2003; Cao Hypoglycemic effect in Hussain et al.
rhamnoides L./Soq, seeds effective for et al. 2005), flavones, quercetin, and diabetic rats (Zhang et al. (2011), Yaseen
Boo hay/ DM. Juice of equal isorhamnetin (Lan et al. 2004), 2010), antihyperglycemic [+] et al. (2015)
Elaeagnaceae/herb weight of fruit and vitamins A, B1, B12, C, E, K, and P, and antioxidant (Sharma et al.
seed is drunk daily flavonoids, lycopene, carotenoids, and 2011)
phytosterols (Patel et al. 2012a)
75. Andrachne Leaves In clay pot, water is Glut-5(10)-en-3-one (Mukherjee et al. – Alam et al. (2011),
cordifolia Mull. taken and leaves are 1986; Mukherjee and Bhattacharjee Yaseen et al.
Arg./Chagzip placed for whole 1987) (2015)
Panra/ night and half cup is
Euphorbiaceae/ taken in the
shrub morning. Leaf
extract can also be
prepared by boiling
for 5 min, taken
once in a day
76. Euphorbia Leaves Extract of parts is Triterpenoids, diterpenoids, flavonoids, – Hussain et al.
helioscopia L./ and administered daily tannins, steroids, and lipids (Zhang and (2004)
Chattri dodak/ flowers Guo 2006), jatrophane diterpene ester,
Euphorbiaceae/ lupane derivatives, and triterpenoids
herb
77. Euphorbia hirta L./ Leaves, It is boiled in water Phenols and flavonoids (Yi et al. 2012), In vitro antidiabetic and Yaseen et al.
Kaazi Dustaar/ whole for 30 min and one steroids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, antioxidant [+] (Kumar et al. (2015)
Euphorbiaceae/ plant cup extract is taken phenol, and quinone (Gopinath et al. 2010b), in vivo antidiabetic [+]
herb three times. Paste or 2012) (Subramanian et al. 2011b),
juice is also used in vivo antioxidant (Widharna
et al. 2010)
78. Euphorbia Whole Powder of plant Flavonoids: luteonin (EL01) and Antihyperglycemic [+] Qureshi and Bhatti
thymifolia L./Kheer plant material is taken quercetin-3-O-arabinofuranoside (Rahmatullah et al. 2012) (2008), Yaseen
Wal/ twice a day (Quyen 2013), tannins (Lee et al. 1990) et al. (2015)
Euphorbiaceae/
herb
79. Alhagi maurorum Roots Powder of roots is Tannins, unsaturated sterols, In vivo antihyperglycemic, Panhwar and Abro
Medic./Kas taken twice a day triterpenes, flavonoids, flavanone antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant (2007), Yaseen
Kundero/Fabaceae/ glycosides (Samejo et al. 2012) [+] (Sheweita et al. 2016) et al. (2015)
herb
(continued)
483
484
Table 1 (continued)
Botanical name
80. Acacia arabica Seeds, Leaves and seeds Phenolic compound (Sundaram and Antioxidant [+] (Sundaram and Wadood et al.
Lam./Babul/ leaves are boiled for Mitra 2007; Yasir et al. 2010), linoleic Mitra 2007), in vivo (1989), Shah et al.
Fabaceae/tree 20 min sand and acid and oleic acid (Maity and Mandal hypoglycemic and (2013a)
decoction is used 1990) antihyperglycemic [+] (Modak
et al. 2007; Yasir et al. 2010;
Patil et al. 2011, 2010)
81. Acacia modesta Gum, Gum is roasted, Alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Yaseen et al.
Wall./Phulai/ flower mixed with oil, tannin (Bukhari et al. 2010) (Singh et al. 1975) (2015)
Fabaceae/tree eggs, almonds,
bark, seed/
powder, poppy seed, and
dates, and used
three times a day.
Juice or decoction
can be used
82. Acacia nilotica (L.) Leaves, Leaf infusion is Tannin (Sotohy et al. 1997), In vivo antidiabetic and Akhtar and Begum
Delile/Desi Kikar/ gum, pods taken or gum is phytosterols, fixed oils, fats, phenolic hypolipidemic [+] (Ahmad (2009), Shah et al.
Fabaceae/tree taken twice a day. compounds, flavonoids, and saponins, et al. 2008), in vivo (2013a), Yaseen
Fresh soft pods are crude protein, crude fiber, crude fat, hypoglycemic [+] (Asad et al. et al. (2015)
eaten as vegetable ash, carbohydrates, potassium, 2011)
phosphorus, magnesium, iron and
manganese, cystine, methionine,
threonine, lysine, tryptophan, and oleic
and linoleic acids (Siddhuraju et al.
1996a), kaempferol (Singh et al. 2008)
83. Bauhinia purpurea Whole Used as vegetable Albumins and globulins and potassium In vitro antidiabetic [+] (Gupta Kanwal et al.
Dc. Ex walp/ plant (Rajaram and Janardhanan 1991), et al. 2012a, 2013) (2011a), Yaseen
Kachnar/Fabaceae/ crude protein, crude fiber, crude fat, et al. (2015)
tree ash, carbohydrates, potassium,
phosphorus, iron, cystine, methionine,
threonine, lysine and tryptophan, and
oleic and linolenic acid (Vijayakumari
et al. 1997), glycolipids, phospholipids,
and tocopherols (Ramadan et al. 2006)
84. Bauhinia variegata Leaves Leaf infusion Flavonoids (Reddy et al. 2003) In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Koti Hussain et al.
(L.) Benth/ et al. 2009; (2004)

Kachnar/Fabaceae/ Thiruvenkatasubramaniam and
tree Jayakar 2010; Kumar et al.
2012)
85. Butea monosperma Flower, Powder of flower Butrin, butein, butin, flavonoids butrin, In vivo antidiabetic [+] Yaseen et al.
L./Palas/Fabaceae/ latex taken three times a and isobutrin (Choedon et al. 2010) (Somani et al. 2006), in vivo (2015)
tree day/small amount antihyperglycemic [+]
of dried latex (Bavarva and Narasimhacharya
2008)
86. Cassia fistula L./ Leaves, Juice of fresh or Ca, Fe, Mn, aspartic acid, glutamic In vivo antihyperglycemic and Akhtar (1992),
Amaltas/Fabaceae/ seed, and dried leaves is used acid, and lysine (Barthakur et al. 1995), antilipidemic [+] (Nirmala Husain et al.
tree pulp two to three times a hydrocarbons, sterols, triterpene, et al. 2008), in vivo (2008), Yaseen
day. Confection of anthraquinone, coumarins, and antidiabetic (Ratnasooriya et al. (2015)
pulp and seed is chromones (Lee et al. 2001), et al. 2004; Khan et al. 2010b)
also used anthraquinones and flavonoids
(Bahorun et al. 2005)
87. Cassia obtusifolia Flowers Extract of flowers Naphthopyrones (Tianaka and takido In vitro antioxidant and Yaseen et al.
L./Chaund/ taken in the 1988; Jiang et al. 2005), emodin (Yang antidiabetic (Vadivel et al. (2015)
Fabaceae/herb morning daily et al. 2003) 2012)
88. Cajanus cajan (L.) Seed Pulse cooked Hydrocyanic acid and vicianine In vivo antihyperglycemic Yaseen et al.
Druce/Arar ke dal/ (Yaseen et al. 2015) (Jaiswal et al. 2008; Anwar (2015)
Fabaceae/shrub et al. 2010)
485
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
486
Botanical name
89. Dalbergia sissoo Gum Gum roasted for a Polysaccharides (Rana et al. 2012) In vivo antidiabetic [+] Shah and Khan
Roxb./Talhi/ while, powdered, (Niranjan et al. 2010) (2006)
Fabaceae/shrub and used three
times
90. Glycine max (L.) Seed Extract is used once
Kaempferol glycoside (Zang et al. In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Badole Khushk et al.
Merr./Soybean/ a day 2011), beta-sitosterol (Tang et al. 2008) and Bodhankar 2009; Zang (2010)
Fabaceae/herb et al. 2011)
91. Mucuna pruriens Seeds Seeds decoction is Crude protein, crude fiber, crude fat, In vivo antihyperglycemic [+] Akhtar (1992),
DC. Ex Pammel/ prepared and used ash, and carbohydrates; potassium, (Bhaskar et al. 2008; Murugan Khan et al. (2008)
Kowanch/ twice a day phosphorus, and calcium; globulins and and Reddy 2009; Majekodunmi
Fabaceae/herb albumins; valine and tryptophan; oleic et al. 2011)
and linoleic acids; and palmitic acid
(Siddhuraju et al. 1996b)
92. Trigonella Leaves, Seeds (21 g) are 4-Hydroxyisoleucine (Haeri et al. Decrease in insulin resistance Zia et al. (2001),
foenum-graecum seeds taken orally for 2012), galactomannans (Kamble et al. in clinical trials [+] (Gupta Ahmad et al.
L./Mathi/Fabaceae/ 21 days 2013), furostanolic saponins (Swaroop et al. 2001), in vivo (2004, 2009),
herb et al. 2014) hypoglycemic [+] (Baquer Fatima et al.
et al. 2011; Haeri et al. 2012), (2005), Yaseen
in vivo antihyperglycemic [+] et al. (2015)
(Kamble et al. 2013), in vivo
and in vitro antidiabetic [+]
(Swaroop et al. 2014)
93. Vigna sinensis (L.) Immature Soft immature pods Protein similar to bivine insulin In vitro antioxidant (Zia-Ul- Ahmad et al.
Savi ex Hassk./ pods are used as (Venâncio et al. 2003), saponin, Haq et al. 2013a), in vivo (2009)
Safed Lobia/ vegetable thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin antihyperglycemic [+] (Tazin
Fabaceae/herb B6, pantothenic acid and foliate et al. 2014), hypolipidemic and
(Chandrasekaran et al. 2015). hypoglycemic [+]
(Weththasinghe et al. 2014)
94. Gentianodes Leaves Extract of leaves is – – Khan and Khatoon
tianschanica (Rupr. prepared by boiling (2008), Yaseen
ex Kusn.) Omer, in water for 20 min et al. (2015)
Ali & Qaiser/ and a cup is used
Kamalay Char, two times a day.
Jangli boti/
Gentianaceae/herb
95. Swertia chirayita Whole Fresh water extract Chiratin, xanthones, flavonoids, In vitro antidiabetic [+] Sabeen and
(Roxb ex. Fleming) plant is advised thrice a terpenoids, iridoids, glycosides (Phoboo et al. 2013) Ahmad (2009),
H. Karst./Choriata, day. Dried plant is carbonates, and phosphates of calcium, Yaseen et al.
Karaita/ ground to make potassium, and magnesium (Phoboo (2015)

Gentianaceae/herb powder. Two et al. 2010)
teaspoons are taken
two times a day
96. Ajuga bracteosa Whole Plant is boiled in Bracteonin-A (1) 6 f-acetoxy; 15 Reduce blood glucose level [+] Yaseen et al.
Benth/Hari booti/ plant water, placed in (R&S)-methoxy; 18-neoclerodane; (Gupta et al. 2008), clinically (2015)
Lamiaceae/herb dew whole night, 14,15-dihydroajugapitin; 14-hydro-15- proved antidiabetic [+]
and taken before hydroxy-ajugapitin; g-sitosterol; and (Chaudhary et al. 2015)
breakfast stigmasterol (Verma et al. 2002),
1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid bis
(2S-methyl heptyl) ester; ajugarin-I;
reptoside; 8-O-acetyl harpagide; and
linalyl acetate (Singh et al. 2006b)
97. Caryopteris Leaves, One teaspoon Glucosides (Abbasi et al. 2014), ‑ Yaseen et al.
odorata B. L. Rob./ flowers powder of equal 8-O-trans-cinnamoyl caryoptoside, (2015)
Path gar/ amount of leaves 8-O-trans-cinnamoyl shanzhiside
Lamiaceae/shrub and flowers is taken methylester, 8-O-trans-cinnamoyl
thrice a day mussaenoside, and 8-O-cafeoyl
massenoside (Shahzadi et al. 2013)
(continued)
487
488
Table 1 (continued)
Botanical name
98. Mentha piperita Seeds, Seeds and leaves Menthon, menthol, menthyl acetate, In vivo antihyperglycemic [−] Shah and Khan
L. Pro spec. & leaves are boiled for 5 min and menthofuran (Andoğan et al. (Alarcon-Aguilara et al. 1998), (2006), Yaseen
Hylander/Podina/ and infusion is used 2002), tannin and flavonoid (Pramila in vitro antioxidant and et al. (2015)
Lamiaceae/herb twice. Powder of et al. 2012) antiglycation activity [+]
leaves (two (Ramkissoon et al. 2013),
teaspoons) is used in vivo hypoglycemic [+]
after each meal (Barbalho et al. 2011)
99. Mentha longifolia Leaves Leaves are boiled in Pulegone, isomenthone, 1,8-cineole, – Yaseen et al.
Host/Podina/ water. Half cup of borneol, and piperitenone oxide (2015)
Lamiaceae/herb this extract is taken (Mkaddem et al. 2009)
three times
100. Salvia coccinea Leaves Leaves are soaked Salviacoccin (Savona et al. 1982), In vitro antioxidant [+] (Yadav Hussain et al.
Juss. Ex Murr./ in water and extract linolenic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid, and Mukundan 2011) (2004)
Lamiaceae/herb is used daily and stearic acid (Delange et al. 2012)
101. Ocimum album L./ Leaves 10 g of powder of Flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, and In vivo hypoglycemic effect Yaseen et al.
Chiti Tulsi/ dried leaves is used anthocyanins (Yaseen et al. 2015) [−] (Yaseen et al. 2015) (2015)
Lamiaceae/herb two times daily
102. Ocimum sanctum Leaves 10 g of powder of Essential oil and eugenol (Kumar et al. In vivo hypoglycemic [+] (Rai Yaseen et al.
L./Tulsi, Niazbo/ dried leaves is used 2010a), stearic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, et al. 1997; Gupta et al. 2002; (2015)
Lamiaceae/herb two times daily and linolenic acids (Singh et al. 1996), Vats et al. 2002, 2004), in vivo
eugenol, euginal, ursolic acid, antihyperglycemic [+] (Hannan
carvacrol, linalool, limatrol, et al. 2006)
caryophyllene, methyl chavicol,
sitosterol, sugars, and anthocyanins
(Pattanayak et al. 2010)
103. Origanum vulgare Leaves Extract of leaves Phenolics (Şahin et al. 2004), origanol In vivo antioxidant, Akhtar and Begum
L./Shamake/ soaked in clay pot A, origanol B along with ursolic acid, immunomodulator and in an (2009), Yaseen
Lamiaceae/herb for whole night is oleanolic acid, β-sitosterol, and i(Rao antiapoptotic manner, protect et al. (2015)
taken in the et al. 2011) from diabetes development
morning (Vujicic et al. 2015)
104. Teucrium Shoots Plant is boiled for Tannin, flavonoids, sterols, and In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Rashid Yaseen et al.
stocksianum Boiss/ 15 min and one cup saponins (Ali et al. 2011b) et al. 2013a) (2015)
Aspa botay/ of extract is taken
Lamiaceae/herb three times per day
105. Viscum album Leaves One cup of leaves Flavonoid, tannins, alkaloids, and In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Orhan Adnan et al.
L. Kishmish and twigs and twigs extract is carbohydrate (Oguntoye et al. 2008), et al. 2005; Adaramoye et al. (2014a)
kaabuli/ prepared after phenols (Oluwaseun and Ganiyu 2008) 2012; Ibegbulem and Chikezie
Loranthaceae/shrub boiling. Half cup is 2013)
administered daily
one time
106. Malva neglecta Leaves Leaves are soaked Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and – Yaseen et al.
Wall./Sonchal/ along with small saponins (Mojab et al. 2010) (2015)
Malvaceae/herb quantity of table
salt for whole night
and half cup of
extract is used in
the morning
107. Sida cordata Whole Extract is used Flavonoid (Shah et al. 2013b) In vivo antidiabetic [+] Shah and Khan
(Burm. F.) plant (Srinivasan et al. 2013) (2014)
Waalkes/Bhuinii/
Malvaceae/herb/
(continued)
489
Table 1 (continued)
490
Botanical name
108. Azadirachta indica Leaf, bark, Half tablespoon of Salannin and azadirachtin (Johnson In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Akter Ahmad et al.
A. Juss./Neem/ fruit, and dried fruit powder is et al. 1996), tetranortriterpenoid and et al. 2013), in vivo (2009), Yaseen
Meliaceae/tree flower used. Fresh juice of odoratone (Siddiqui et al. 2003), hypoglycemic [+] (Ojiako et al. et al. (2015)
leaf is taken. Tea of flavonoids, tannins, saponins, 2014)
flowers may be used polyphenols, and alkaloids (Atangwho
three times. All et al. 2009), triterpenoids: neemfruitins
plant parts are A and B (Chianese et al. 2010)
placed in water
overnight, and one
cup of extract is
taken in the
morning
109. Cedrela serrata Leaves Extract is made by Phenols (Ahmad et al. 2013b) Antioxidant in vitro [+] Awan et al. (2011)
Royle/Darawa/ and wood soaking plant (Ahmad et al. 2013b)
Meliaceae/tree material in water
and taken
110. Cedrela toona Leaves Leaf powder is Cedrelone, 1,2-dihydrocedrelone, In vitro antioxidants [−] Abbasi et al.
Roxb. Ex Willd./ taken along with bergapten, and β-sitosterol (Chatterjee (Kumari and Kakkar 2008), (2010b)
Nem/Meliaceae/ table salt daily et al. 1971; Modey et al. 1996), astrin, lipid peroxidation inhibitory
tree antiper, toonafolin, and toonacillin potential [+] (Asif 2015),
(Kumari and Kakkar 2008) in vivo antihyperglycemic
(Rana et al. 2016)
111. Melia azedarach Fruits Half tablespoon of Flavonoids and phenols (Italo et al. In vivo antidiabetic [+] Ahmad et al.
L./Dharek/ dried ground 2009; Safithri and Sari 2016) (Chasturvedi et al. 2005), (2004), Ahmad
Meliaceae/tree pericarp is used for in vitro antidiabetic [+] (Khan (2006), Abbasi
1 month et al. 2014b), in vitro et al. (2010a),
antihyperglycemic [+] (Safithri
and Sari 2016)
112. Cissampelos Seed Seed powder is used Cissampareine (Kupchan et al. 1965), In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Yadav Shah and Khan
pareira L./Ghora twice a day after cissampeloflavone (Ramı́rez et al. et al. 2013; Basumata 2016) (2006)
Sum/ meal 2003), alkaloids (Bafna and Mishra
Menispermaceae/ 2010)
herb
113. Albizia lebbeck (L.) Seed One spoon of Saponins (Barbosa 2014), phenols, In vivo antihyperglycemic and Shah et al.
Benth./Shrin/Kala powder of seed is flavonoids, steroids, phytosterol, antihyperlipidemic [+] (Ahmed (2013a), Yaseen
Shareen/ used daily in the triterpenoid, and tannin (Jeeva et al. et al. 2014b), in vitro et al. (2015)
Mimosaceae/tree morning or twice a 2011), 5-deoxyflavone (geraldone), antidiabetic [+] (Ahmed et al.
day luteolin, and isookanin (Ahmed et al. 2014a)
2014a)
114. Ficus benghalensis Latex, Latex mixed with Carbohydrates, flavonoids, amino In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Shukla Ahmed et al.
L./Burgad, Bohr/ bark, honey is used. Fresh acids, steroids, saponins, and tannin et al. 1994; Singh et al. 2009) (2007), Ahmad
Moraceae/tree roots, fruit, milk latex is poured (Uma et al. 2009; Joseph and Raj 2010) et al. (2009),
prop root, in water and used Khan et al. (2011,
leaves, and three times a day 2012a), Marwat
branches et al. (2011), Shah
et al. (2013a),
Yaseen et al.
(2015)
115. Ficus carica L./ Leaf 10–15 leaves are Pyrogallic acid, ferulic acid, coumaric In vivo hypoglycemic and Marwat et al.
Anjeer/Moraceae/ boiled and extract is acid, galangin, cinnamic acid, antioxidant [+] (El-Shobaki (2011), Yaseen
shrub taken quercetin, and pinostobin (El-Shobaki et al. 2010), in vivo et al. (2015)
et al. 2010), aldehydes, alcohols, antidiabetic [+] (Stalin et al.
ketone, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, 2012)
oxalic, citric, malic, quinic, shikimic,
and fumaric acid (Oliveira et al. 2010),
coumarins (Lazreg-Aref et al. 2012)
(continued)
491
Table 1 (continued)
492
Botanical name
116. Ficus hispida Bark The fresh bark is Alkaloids, phenolics, tannins, and In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Ghosh Yaseen et al.
Roxb. Ex wall./ soaked in water cyanogenic glycosides (Mahajan and et al. 2004; Shahreen et al. (2015)
Botaye/Moraceae/ whole night and Badgujar 2008), hispidacine and 2012)
shrub half cup of extract hispiloscine (Yap et al. 2015)
is used in the
morning
117. Ficus lacor Buch. Fruit Dried fruit is Flavonoids, carbohydrates, saponins, In vivo antihyperglycemic [−] Yaseen et al.
Ham./Anjeer/ ground and powder phenolic compounds, sterols, and (Shahreen et al. 2012) (2015)
Moraceae/tree is used three times a amino acids (Sindhu and Arora 2013)
day
118. Ficus microcarpa Leaf, bark, Equal quantity of Phenolic compound and catechin In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Khan et al. (2011),
Hort. Berol. Ex fruit all parts is taken to (Kalaskar and Surana 2011), oleanolic (Kumar et al. 2007). Yaseen et al.
Walp/Anjeer/ make powder and acid, betulinic acid, lupeol, β-sitosterol, (2015)
Moraceae/tree two teaspoons are catechin, and gallic acid (Kalaskar and
used three times a Surana 2012), polysaccharide (Jiang
day et al. 2014)
119. Ficus racemosa Bark Bark is boiled in Tannin (Velayutham et al. 2012), In vivo antidiabetic [+] Akhtar (1992),
Roxb./Oormal, water for 30 min phenolic compounds (Ahmed and (Bhaskara Rao et al. 2002; Yaseen et al.
Bara Anjeer/ and extract is used Urooj 2009) Sachan et al. 2009; Veerapur (2015)
Moraceae/tree daily et al. 2012), in vitro
hypoglycemic [−] (Ahmed and
Urooj 2010)
120. Ficus palmata Fruit Two spoons of paste Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Singh Yaseen et al.
Forssk./Anjeer/ of fruit are unsaturated sterols/triterpenes, resins, et al. 2014) (2015)
Moraceae/tree administered twice and phenolic compounds (Saklani and
after breakfast and Chandra 2012)
dinner
121. Ficus religiosa L./ Bark Two spoons of bark Phytosterols, amino acids, In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Khan et al. (2011),
Peepal/Moraceae/ juice are taken three furanocoumarins, phenolic (Pandit et al. 2010; Parikh et al. Yaseen et al.
tree times a day components, hydrocarbons, aliphatic 2014) (2015)
alcohols, volatile components (Singh
et al. 2011)
122. Ficus virens Aiton./ Leaves Five to eight fresh Phenols and flavonoids (Abdel-Hameed – Yaseen et al.
Jangli peepal/ leaves are soaked in 2009; Chen and Kang 2013) (2015)
Moraceae/tree water overnight and
half cup of this
water is drunk three
times a day
123. Morus alba Leaf, root Paste of fresh fruit Moracin, Steppogenin-4′-O-β-d- In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Shah and Khan
Bureau/Shahtoot, is used. Root is glucoside, mulberroside (Zhang et al. (Zhang et al. 2009), in vivo (2006), Husain
Toot/Moraceae/tree boiled in water and 2009; Naik et al. 2015), benzyl alcohol, antidiabetic [+] (Sarikaphuti et al. (2008),
one cup is used in ethyl benzoate, t-cinnamic acid, et al. 2013) Yaseen et al.
the morning p-hydroxyacetophenone, t-coniferyl (2015)
alcohol, and synapil alcohol (Hunyadi
et al. 2013)
124. Morus nigra L./ Fruit, Bark is used to Flavonoids (Abd et al. 2010), total In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Abd Sabeen and
Kala Toot/ leaves, and make juice. Half phenolics, flavonoids, and anthocyanins et al. 2010) Ahmad (2009),
Moraceae/tree bark cup of this juice is (Kamiloglu et al. 2013) Yaseen et al.
taken orally two (2015)
times a day. Fresh
fruit is used to make
paste and two to
three spoons are
taken two times a
day. Root is boiled
in water for
10–15 min. And one
cup is drunk daily
early in the morning
493
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
494
Botanical name
125. Moringa oleifera Fruit, Plant is cooked as Tannins, saponin, flavonoids, steroids, In vivo hypoglycemic [+] (Ara Kanwal et al.
Lam./Sohanjana/ flower, vegetable and taken terpenoids, and glycosides (Nepolean et al. 2008; Aja et al. 2015; (2011a), Yaseen
Moringaceae/tree seed twice a day. Half et al. 2009) Olayaki et al. 2015), in vivo et al. (2015)
cup of juice of antidiabetic [+] (Gupta et al.
leaves may be taken 2012b; Edoga et al. 2013;
twice a day. Seeds Al-Malki and El Rabey 2015)
are boiled in water
and extract is taken
three times
126. Musa acuminata Flower Flowers are roasted Dietary fibers, fructan, campesterol, In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Adnan et al.
Colla./Kela/ and powdered and β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and (Liyanage et al. 2015) (2014b)
Musaceae/tree one spoon is used polyphenol (Menezes et al. 2011)
daily with water
127. Eucalyptus Bark Bark extract is Phenolic compound and tannins Reduce glucose diffusion Shah and Khan
globulus Labill./ made after boiling (Boulekbache-Makhlouf et al. 2013) in vitro [+] (Gallagher et al. (2006)
Gond/Myrtaceae/ and one cup is used 2003), in vivo and in vitro
tree daily antidiabetic [+] (Jouad et al.
2004; Mahmoudzadeh-Sagheb
et al. 2010; Yen et al. 2015)
128. Psidium guajava Dried Extract is Quercetin, quercetin-3-O-α-l- In vitro and in vivo antidiabetic Ahmad et al.
L./Amrud/ leaves, administered once a arabinofuranoside, quercetin-3-O-β-d- [+] (Huang et al. 2011; Basha (2004, 2009),
Myrtaceae/shrub bark day arabinopyranoside, and Kumari 2012), in vivo Sabeen and
quercetin-3-O-β-d-glucoside, and antidiabetic and antidiarrheal Ahmad (2009),
quercetin-3-O-β-d-galactoside activities [+] (Mazumdar et al. Yaseen et al.
(Metwally et al. 2010), carotenoids, 2015) (2015)
vitamin C, and polyphenols and
triterpenoid (Barbalho et al. 2012)
129. Syzygium cumini Fresh Seed powder is Anthocyanins, glucoside, ellagic acid, In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Kumar Akhtar (1992),
Skeels/Jaman/ fruits, administered three isoquercetin, kaempferol and et al. 2008; Tripathi and Kohli Ahmad et al.
Myrtaceae/tree seeds times a day. myricetin, alkaloid, jambosine, and 2014), in vitro antidiabetic [+] (2004, 2009),
Besides, 5–15 seeds glycoside jambolin or antimellin (De Bona et al. 2014). Fatima et al.
are boiled in water (Ayyanar and Subash-Babu 2012), (2005), Sabeen
and taken three triterpenes/steroids, glycosides, and Ahmad
times a day carbohydrates, alkaloids, flavonoids, (2009), Arshad
saponins, tannins, and amino acids et al. (2011),
(Tripathi and Kohli 2014) Marwat et al.
(2011), , Adnan
et al. 2014b,
Yaseen et al.
(2015)
130. Boerhavia diffusa Leaf Leaf extract is taken Alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Pari Shah and Khan
L. Nom.cons/Itsit/ two times in a day terpenoids, reducing sugars, saponins, and Satheesh 2004; Nalamolu (2006)
Nyctaginaceae/herb tannins, cardiac glycosides, and et al. 2007; Dora et al. 2015),
anthraquinones (Apu et al. 2012) in vivo antioxidant [+] (Apu
et al. 2012)
131. Fraxinus excelsior Seed One spoon of seed Glucose, sorbitol, galactose, In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Shah and Khan
L./Sum/Oleaceae/ powder is mannotriose and stachyose, mannose, (Eddouks and Maghrani 2004; (2006)
tree administered with sucrose, mannitol and sorbitol, elenolic Maghrani et al. 2004),
water daily acid, tyrosol, homovanillic acid, hepatoprotective in diabetes
dopaol, pinoresinol and fraxetin, albeit, [+] (Gomez-Garcia et al. 2015)
esculetin, p-hydroxybenzoic acid,
4-hydroxyphenacetic acid,
3,4-hydroxybenzoic acid,
hydroxypinoresinol, medioresinol and
syringaresinol (Caligiani et al. 2013)
(continued)
495
Table 1 (continued)
496
Botanical name
132. Olea europaea Fruit Fruits are eaten Oleuropein (Al-Azzawie and In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Eidi Shah et al.
subsp. europaea L./ fresh and dried for Alhamdani 2006), phenolic compound et al. 2009; Chandak and (2013a), Yaseen
Zaitoon//Oleaceae/ winter (Pereira et al. 2007; Vogel et al. 2015), Shrangare 2010; Sangi et al. et al. (2015)
tree maslinic acid (Sánchez-González et al. 2015)
2013), oleanolic acid (Nazaruk and
Borzym-Kluczyk 2015), ursolic acids,
erythrodiol, and uvaol (Giménez et al.
2015)
133. Olea ferruginea Fruit Fruits are eaten Oleanolic acid (Sultana and Ata 2008), In vitro insulin secretagogue (Adnan et al.
(Sol.) Steud./ fresh or dried for tetrahydroxyflavanone (Hashmi et al. activity [−] (Hussain et al. (2014b), Ahmad
Zaiton, Khan, use year round. 2014), flavonoid, ursane-type 2004) et al. (2004, 2009),
Khau/Oleaceae/tree Leaves are boiled triterpene, and seco-iridoids (Hashmi Khan et al. (2015),
for few minutes and et al. 2015) Yaseen et al.
decoction is taken (2015)
at night
134. Oxalis corniculata Whole Whole plant extract Flavonoids (Mizokami et al. 2008), – Shah and Khan
L./Khatti buti, Khat plant is used daily carbohydrates and glycosides, (2006), Husain
kurla/Oxalidaceae/ phytosterols, phenolic compounds/ et al. (2008)
herb tannins, flavonoids, proteins and amino
acids, and volatile oils (Raghavendra
et al. 2006; Sakat et al. 2012)
135. Fumaria indica Whole Half cup of juice of Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Sabeen and
(Haussk) Pugsely/ plant plant material is tannins, saponins, steroids, and (Gilani et al. 2005) Ahmad (2009),
Papra/ taken daily triterpenoids (Rao et al. 2007) Abbasi et al.
Papaveraceae/herb (2010a), Yaseen
et al. (2015)
136. Papaver Fruit, seed, Flowers are soaked Papaverine, noscapine, sanguinarine, – Sabeen and
somniferum L./ flowers, in water and extract morphine, codeine, and thebaine, and Ahmad (2009),
Posht, Khas Khas, and Latex is used. Fruit and l-tyrosine (Kraml and Dicosmo 1993), Yaseen et al.
Khashkash Safeed/ seed are boiled for morphinan alkaloids (Larkin et al. (2015)
Papaveraceae/herb 15 min in water. 2007), fatty acid, tocopherol, and sterol
One cup of this (Erinç et al. 2009)
extract is taken
three times a day
137. Argyrolobium Whole Infusion is prepared Flavonoid glycoside (Gupta et al. 2005) In vitro and in vivo Shah et al.
roseum (Cambess.) plant and used twice a hypoglycemic [+] (Gupta et al. (2013a), Yaseen
Jaub. & Spach/ day 2005, 2011b), stimulation of et al. (2015)

Makhan Booti/ insulin secretion in vivo and
Papilionaceae/herb in vitro [+] (Ahmed et al.
2008)
138. Phyllanthus Fruit Fresh fruit, its jam, Cisplatin, 5-flurouracil, phyllaemblic In vivo antidiabetic [+] Husain et al.
emblica L./Amla/ and dried plant acid, phyllaemblicin A, phyllaemblicin (Krishnaveni et al. 2010) (2008), Yaseen
Phyllanthaceae/ powder are used B, phyllaemblicin C, l-malic acid et al. (2015)
shrub three times a day 2-O-gallate, mucic acid 2-O-gallate,
hydrolyzable tannins, flavonoids, and
condensed tannins (Zhang et al. 2004),
isomallotusinin (Luo et al. 2012), gallic
acid (Sawant et al. 2012),
139. Abies pindrow Leaves Leaves are soaked Pindrolactone (Tripathi et al. 1996), Insulin secretagogue activity Hussain et al.
(Royle ex D. Don) overnight and pinitol (Singh et al. 2001) [+] (Bhushan et al. 2010; (2004)
Royle/Partal/ extract is used Chawla et al. 2013)
Pinaceae/tree
140. Pinus roxburghii Resin Resin is used Flavonoids (Kaushik et al. 2015b) In vivo antihyperglycemic and Khan et al. (2015)
Sargent/Nakhtar/ antihyperlipidemic [+]
Pinaceae/tree (Kaushik et al. 2015a)
(continued)
497
Table 1 (continued)
498
Botanical name
141. Kickxia Whole One spoon of Iridoids, p-hydroxy-coumaric acid – Ahmad et al.
ramosissima (Wall) plant powder of whole methyl ester, and p-hydroxy-benzoic (2004, 2009)
Janchen/Wal/ plant is taken twice acid methyl ester (Amin et al. 2015),
Plantaginaceae/ a day tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids,
herb coumarins, cardiac glycosides,
saponins, terpenoids, and
phlobatannins (Jan and Khan 2016)
142. Picrorhiza kurroa Roots One spoon of Cucurbitacin glycosides (Stuppner and In vivo antidiabetic [+] Mahmood et al.
Royl ex Benth./ powder of roots is Moller 1993), picrosides (Upadhyay (Hurakadle et al. 2009; Husain (2012)
Kore/ taken twice per day et al. 2013; Kumar et al. 2015) et al. 2009, 2014; Naveen
Plantaginaceae/ 2010)
herb
143. Hordeum vulgare Seeds, Seeds are boiled in Hydroxycinnamic acids, ferulic acid In vivo antidiabetic [+] Marwat et al.
L./Bajara/Poaceae/ whole water till they (Verardo et al. 2008), volatile oils, (Minaiyan et al. 2014), in vivo (2011)
herb plant become soft and alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids antioxidant [+] (Yu et al. 2008)
stained and water is (Semwal et al. 2007)
drunk daily
144. Zea mays L./ Flower Flowers are soaked Flavonoids (Zhang et al. 2015) In vitro α-glucosidase Yaseen et al.
Makai/Poaceae/ in water for whole inhibitory activity [+] (Nile (2015)
herb night and half cup and Park 2014), in vivo
of extract is taken in antidiabetic [+] (Huang et al.
the morning 2015; Zhang et al. 2015)
145. Fagopyrum Leaf, seed Leaf is used as Polyphenol (Bystricka et al. 2014), Hypoglycemic (Giménez- Hussain et al.
esculentum vegetable and flour flavonoids and rutin (Bae et al. 2015). Bastida and Zieliński 2015), (2011), Yaseen
Moench./Ghiawas/ is used to make in vivo hypoglycemic [+] et al. (2015)
Polygonaceae/herb bread and eaten (Hong et al. 2011; Li et al.
twice. Besides, 2016).
powder of plant is
used three times a
day. Flour is used to
make bread taken
twice per day
146. Portulaca oleracea Leaves Leaves are cooked Polysaccharide (Li and Yu 2011), In vivo hypoglycemic [+] (Li Adnan et al.
L./Kulfa/ as vegetable and alkaloids (Xiang et al. 2005), fatty and Yu 2011; Singh and Kori (2014b)
Portulacaceae/herb taken two times acids, organic acids, and phenolic 2014; Gu et al. 2015), in vitro
compound (Oliveira et al. 2009) hypoglycemic [+] (Gu et al.
2015)
147. Adiantum Bark Bark is boiled in Isoadiantone, isoadiantol B, In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Fatima et al.
capillus-veneris L./ water and half cup 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyfilicane, (Ibraheim et al. 2011; Jiang (2005), Hamayun
Persayoshayon, of decoction is used 3,4-dihydroxyfilicane, quercetin, et al. 2011) et al. (2006),
Sumbal/ daily quercetin-3-O-glucoside, and Yaseen et al.
Pteridaceae/herb quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin) (2015)
(Ibraheim et al. 2011), steroids,
flavonoids, terpenoids, fats, tannins,
and phenolic compounds (Ranjan and
Vats 2016)
148. Adiantum incisum Fronds Fresh fronds Triterpenes (Hayat et al. 2002) – Hamayun et al.
Forssk/Sumbal/ half-cup juice is (2006), Yaseen
Pteridaceae/herb taken once in a day et al. (2015)
(continued)
499
Table 1 (continued)
500
Botanical name
149. Punica granatum Fruit, peel Fresh fruit is eaten Anthocyanin (Al-Muammar and Khan In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Khalil Awan et al.
L./Anar, Dani, daily once 2012) 2004; Parmar and Kar 2007; (2011), Saqib
Druna/Punicaceae/ Bhaskar and Kumar 2012; Das et al. (2014)
tree and Barman 2012)
150. Nigella sativa L./ Whole Seed are powdered Linoleic acid, oleic acid, eicosenoic In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Yaseen et al.
Kalongi/ plant, and half spoon is acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, (Abdelmeguid et al. 2010; (2015)
Ranunculaceae/ leaves, taken three times a myristic acid, lauric acid, arachidic Sultan et al. 2014; Kaatabi
herb seed day. Leaves are acid, palmitoleic acid, linolenic acid, et al. 2015), improves serum
boiled to get extract and thymoquinone (Bamosa 2015; level of insulin (Omar and Atia
to use. Moreover, Heshmati et al. 2015) 2012)
whole plant is
soaked at night and
extract is taken
before breakfast for
1 week
151. Ziziphus Fruit Dried fruit powder Flavonoid and phenolic compounds In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Yaseen et al.
mauritiana Lam./ is eaten early (Ashraf et al. 2015), ceanothenic acid, (Jarald et al. 2009; Bhatia and (2015)
Beri/Rhamnaceae/ morning time daily zizymauritic acids A–C, and ceanothic Mishra 2010)
tree acid (Grishko et al. 2015)
152. Ziziphus Young Leaves are eaten Alkaloid, saponins phenolic compound, In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Murad et al.
nummularia leaves, fresh. Powder of flavonoid, and tannin (Gupta et al. (Rajasekaran et al. 2013) (2013), Yaseen
(Burm. F.) Wight bark, and roots and bark 2011a; Dureja and Dhiman 2012). et al. (2015)
and Arn./Jhar beri, root (5–8 g) is taken
Karkanra/ daily. Similarly,
Rhamnaceae/tree leaves are soaked in
water at nighttime
and one cup of that
water is drunk early
in the morning
153. Ziziphus sativa Leaves Leaves extract is Jujubosides A and B (Otsuka et al. In vivo hypoglycemic [−] Khan et al. (2015)
Gaertn./Bari/Unab, used. Four to five 1978), cyclopeptide alkaloid (Shah (Anand et al. 1989), in vivo
Markhanai/ leaves may be et al. 1985), flavonoids: quercetin, antihyperglycemic [+]
Rhamnaceae/tree chewed or kaempferol, and phloretin derivatives (Hussein et al. 2006)
decoction is taken (Pawlowska et al. 2009), zizyberanalic
twice per day acid, zizyberenalic acid, and
zizyberanal acid (Grishko et al. 2015)
154. Ziziphus spinosa Leaves Leaves are soaked Triterpenoid, saponins, jujuboside B, – Yaseen et al.
(Bunge) Hu ex in water at jujuboside A: phenolic acid, ferulic (2015)
F. H. Chen/Mada nighttime. One cup acid, and flavonoid (Zeng et al. 1987)
Bera/Rhamnaceae/ of it is taken early

shrub in the morning.
155. Ziziphus vulgaris Whole Whole plant is 3-O-robinobioside, quercetin In vivo prevented serum insulin Haq et al. (2011)
Lam./Markha-nai/ plant soaked in water for 3-O-rutinoside, 3-O-α-l- decrease (Goli-malekabadi
Rhamnaceae/tree whole night and one arabinosyl-(1 → 2)-α-l-rhamnoside, et al. 2014)
cup of extract is 3-O-β-d-xylosyl-(1 → 2)-α-l-
taken in the rhamnoside, 3′,5′-di-C-β-d-
morning glucosylphloretin,
3-O-β-d-xylosyl-(1 → 2)-α-l-
rhamnoside-4′-O-α-l-rhamnoside
(Adnan et al. 2014a)
156. Ziziphus oxyphylla Leaf Extract of leaves is Alkaloids, terpenoids, and flavonoids – Choudhary et al.
Edgew/Ber Maloki/ taken in morning (Mazhar et al. 2015), flavonoid (2011), Nisar et al.
Rhamnaceae/shrub glycosides (Ahmad et al. 2016) (2007)
157. Fragaria indica Fruit, Paste, juice, or Phenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and – Yaseen et al.
Andrews/Jangli leaves, powder of whole vitamin C (Badhani et al. 2011) (2015)
booti/Rosaceae/ whole plant material is
shrub plant used two times a
day
(continued)
501
Table 1 (continued)
502
Botanical name
158. Prunus amygdalus Fruit, Leaves are soaked Anthocyanidin and procyanidin, – Yaseen et al.
stokes var. Amara leaves in clay pot flavonol glycosides, flavanone (2015)
CD./Nashpatia/ overnight and water glycosides, flavonol aglycones, and
Rosaceae/shrub extract is taken phenolic compounds (Esfahlan et al.
early in the 2010)
morning. Moreover,
paste obtained from
fresh fruit is also
used
159. Prunus persica Fruit Fresh fruit is Phenolic compounds (Survay et al. – Yaseen et al.
Stokes/Aroo/ consumed three 2010) (2015)
Rosaceae/shrub times a day
160. Pyrus malus L./ Fruit Fruit juice is used Potassium, metabisulphite, and citric – Yaseen et al.
Saeb/Rosaceae/tree three times a day acid (Muhammad et al. 2011) (2015)
161. Rosa damascena Seed 10 g seed powder is Citronellol, geraniol, and nonadecane In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Yaseen et al.
Mill./Gulab, used three times a (Mahboubi 2015) (Gholamhoseinian and Fallah (2015)
GulSurak/ day 2009)
Rosaceae/herb
162. Rubus ellipticus Fruit One cup of fresh Alkaloids (Lawrence and Gunasekaran In vivo antidiabetic [+] Yaseen et al.
Smith/Akha/ fruit juice is taken 2014) (Sharma and Kumar 2011), (2015)
Rosaceae/shrub daily inhibition of α-glucosidase
activity (Latha et al. 2015)
163. Citrus limon (L.) Fruit One glass of juice is Coumarin (Miyake et al. 1999), In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Naim Yaseen et al.
Burm. F./Lemoo/ taken three times a flavonoids (Del Rıo et al. 2004), et al. 2012; Youssef et al. (2015)
Rutaceae/tree day with black salt phenolic acid (González-Molina et al. 2013), antihyperglycemic [+]
2010), carotenoids and vitamin C (Shen et al. 2012), wound
(Khosa et al. 2011) healing in diabetic rats [+]
(Ahmad et al. 2013a)

164. Citrus medica L./ Fruit One glass of juice is Flavonoids (Menichini et al. 2011), In vitro antioxidant and Yaseen et al.
Sangtra/Rutaceae/ taken three to five carbohydrate, protein, and amino acids inhibition of α-amylase and (2015)
tree times a day with (Nagaraju et al. 2012) αglucosidase activity [+]
black salt (Menichini et al. 2011),
165. Citrus reticulata Leaves Leaves are chewed. Phenols (Jayaprakasha et al. 1997), In vivo antidiabetic [+] Mehmood et al.
Blanco Cv. Murcot and rind Essential oil of rind limonoids (Zhang et al. 2014), (Mehmood et al. 2013) (2013)
(Honey)/Malta/ is used reticulataursenoside, citrusteryl
Rutaceae/tree arachidate, and citruslanosteroside
(Khan et al. 2010a)
166. Salix babylonica Leaves Extract of leaves is Phenolics and saponins (Salem et al. – Haq et al. (2011)
Linn./Asela ola/ taken daily two 2011a), tritetracontane, octadecenoic

Salicaceae/tree times acid-1,2,3-propanetriyl ester,
hexadecanoic acid-methyl ester
(10.5%), and 1,3-dioxane-4-
(hexadecyloxy)-2-pentadecyl (Salem
et al. 2011b)
167. Dodonaea viscosa Leaves Two to three leaves Diterpenes (Ortega et al. 2001), In vivo antidiabetic [+] Ahmad et al.
(L.) Jacq./Sanatha/ are chewed daily kaempferol methyl esters (Teffo et al. (Veerapur et al. 2010a, 2010b; (2004, 2009),
Sapindaceae/shrub 2010), quercetin (Veerapur et al. Meenu et al. 2011; Yaseen et al.
2010b) Muthukumran et al. 2011) (2015)
168. Bergenia himalaica Rhizome Rhizomes are Bergenicin and bergelin (Siddiqui et al. In vivo antihyperglycemic [+] Hussain et al.
Boiss./Badmia/ boiled in water for 2014), O–H alcoholic/acid, C–H alkyl (Siddiqui et al. 2014) (2004), Yaseen
Saxifragaceae/herb 30 min and one cup and amp; aromatic ring, carbonyl, and et al. (2015)
is used three times a C–O–C groups (Mohani et al. 2014)
day
169. Bergenia ciliata Rhizome Rhizomes are Bergenin, catechin, gallicin, and gallic In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Ali et al. (2011a)
(Haw.) Stermb./ boiled in water and acid (Dhalwal et al. 2008; Dharmender (Islam et al. 2002)
Maknar path/ half cup of extract et al. 2012), steroid, flavonides, and
Saxifragaceae/herb is used daily tannins (Uddin et al. 2012)
(continued)
503
Table 1 (continued)
504
Botanical name
170. Atropa belladonna Whole Extract Atropine, hyoscyamine (Shetty 1997; – Shah and Khan
L./Cheelalubar/ plant, seed Chaubey and Pandeya 2011; Biradar (2006)
Solanaceae/herb 2015), calystegines and glycosides
(Asano et al. 2000)
171. Solanum incanum Leaves Aerial parts are Flavonoid, saponins, and oxalate (Auta In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Ahmad et al.
L./Mhokri, used as vegetable et al. 2011), steroid glycosides (Manase (Okolie et al. 2009; Wambugu (2009), Murad
Marongay/ et al. 2012), steroidal alkaloids, et al. 2014) et al. (2013),
Solanaceae/shrub glycoalkaloids, flavonoids and Yaseen et al.
chlorogenics, and saponins (Mwonjoria (2015)
et al. 2014)
172. Solanum Fruit Cooked as Polyamines (Rodriguez et al. 1999), In vitro antioxidant and Khan et al.
melongena L./ vegetable and used phenolics (Kwon et al. 2008), caffeic antihyperglycemic [+] (Kwon (2013a, 2013b)
Bangan, Bengarah/ three times a day acid (Lo Scalzo et al. 2010), caffeic et al. 2008)
Solanaceae/herb acid methyl ester (Rani and Devanand
2013)
173. Solanum nigrum Aerial Cooked as Alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, tannins, In vivo antihyperglycemic [+] Ahmad et al.
Lesch.ex Dunal/ parts vegetable and three and phenols (Sridhar et al. 2011; Gogoi (Maharana et al. 2010), in vivo (2004), Yaseen
Mako/Solanaceae/ times taken in each and Islam 2012) hypoglycemic [+] (Meonah et al. (2015)
herb meal et al. 2012), in vivo
hypoglycemic and
hypolipidemic [+]
(Sengottaiyan et al. 2012)
174. Solanum surattense Fruit Decoction of fresh Tannins and phenols, gum, and In vivo antidiabetic and Yaseen et al.
Burm.f./Maragho fruit is used. Dried mucilage (Shahiladevi et al. 2006), antioxidant [+] (Sridevi et al. (2015)
one, Kandiari/ fruit powder is β-sitosterol (Gupta et al. 2011c), 2007; Gupta et al. 2011c)
Solanaceae/herb taken three times a steroidal alkaloid saponins and
day steroidal saponins (Lu et al. 2011)
175. Withania coagulans Seeds, Water-soaked seeds Steroidal lactones (Ali et al. 2015a; In vivo hypoglycemic [+] Ahmad et al.
(L.) Dunal./Paneer/ fruit (15 g) are eaten Zhang and Timmermann 2016), (Hemalatha et al. 2004; Jaiswal (2004, 2009),
Solanaceae/shrub before breakfast. withacoagulin G, withacoagulin H, and et al. 2009; Yasir et al. 2012). Yaseen et al.
Powder of fruit and withacoagulin I (Youn et al. 2013) (2015)
seed is mixed with
wheat flour, butter
oil, and sugar and
used daily
176. Withania somnifera Leaves Decoction is used Β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol Hypoglycemic effect on human Ahmad et al.
(L.) Dunal/ and root once daily glucoside, stigmasterol glucoside, and [+] (Andallu and Radhika (2014a), Shah
Asghanh, Verian/ α + β glucose (Misra et al. 2008), 2000), in vivo hypoglycemic et al. (2013a)
Solanaceae/herb steroidal alkaloids and steroidal and hypolipidemic [+]
lactones (Verma and Kumar 2011) (Udayakumar et al. 2009)
177. Tamarix aphylla Fruit Fruit extract is Phenolics (Souliman et al. 1991), – Yaseen et al.
(L.) Karst./Rukhh/ prepared after polyphenols (Mahfoudhi et al. 2014), (2015)
Tamaraceae/tree boiling for few flavonoids (Shafaghat 2010)
minutes in water
and one cup is taken
three times a day
178. Grewia asiatica L./ Leaves Fresh fruit is eaten Polyphenols (Siddiqi et al. 2011), In vivo antihyperglycemic [+] Zia-Ul-Haq et al.
Falsa/Tiliaceae/ daily for 1 month alkaloids, carbohydrates, glycosides, (Parveen et al. 2012; Khattab (2012a, 2012b),
shrub proteins and amino acids, saponins, et al. 2015) Akhtar (1992),
steroids, acids, mucilage, fixed oils, Adnan et al.
and fats (Zia-Ul-Haq et al. 2013b), (2014b), Khan
alkaloids, tannins, anthraquinones, et al. (2015)
glycosides, saponins, flavonoids,
steroids, coumarins, and resins (Sharma
and Patni 2013)
(continued)
505
Table 1 (continued)
506
Botanical name
179. Carum carvi L./ Seeds Seeds are boiled in Carvone, limonene, β-myrcene, In vivo hypoglycemic activity Sadiq et al. (2010)
Kala Zeera/ water and extract is trans-dihydrocarvone, and trans- [+] (Eddouks et al. 2004; Eidi
Apiaceae/herb used once a day carveol (Raal et al. 2012), (R)-carvone, et al. 2010)
d-limonene, α-pinene, cis-carveol, and
β-myrcene (Agrahari and Singh 2014)
180. Lantana camara Fruit Water extract of Lantadene D (Sharma et al. 1990), In vivo antidiabetic [+] (Dash Yaseen et al.
L./Panch phulli/ fresh fruit is alkaloids, tannin, flavonoids, and et al. 2001; Kazmi et al. 2012) (2015)
Verbenaceae/shrub prepared by soaking triterpenoids (Patel et al. 2011), Ursolic
throughout the night acid stearoyl glucoside (Kazmi et al.
and taken in the 2012)
morning
181. Phyla nodiflora Seed Seeds are boiled In vivo antidiabetic,
Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannin, steroids, Ullah et al. (2014)
(L.) Greene/ and extract is used terpenoids, saponins, and hypolipidemic, and antioxidant
Bakaanrah/ daily one time anthraquinones (Priya and Ravindhran [+] (Balamurugan et al. 2011;
Verbenaceae/herb 2015) Balamurugan and Ignacimuthu
2011; Subramanian et al.
2011a)
182. Fagonia cretica Whole Plant extract is used Triterpenoid compounds: saponin I and In vitro potent dipeptidyl Murad et al.
Burm.f./Spelaghza, plant once in the morning saponin II (Saeed and Sabir 1999, peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitory (2013)
Dha mana/ daily Khalik et al. 2000) activity [+] (Saleem et al.
Zygophyllaceae/ 2014)
herb
Table 2 Herbal formulations used for treatment of diabetes mellitus in Pakistan
Sr. # Botanical name Parts used Recipe References
1. Aloe vera Nill + Fagonia indica L. + Leaf pulp of A. vera, aerial Extracts of parts of three plants in equal Ahmed et al. (2007)
Tinospora cordifolia (Thunb.) Miers. parts of F. indica, branches amount are mixed, and one teaspoon is
of T. cordifolia taken three times a day
2. Aloe vera Nill + Fagonia indica L. + Leaf pulp of A. vera, aerial Extracts of parts of three plants in equal Ahmad et al. (2004, 2009),
Tylophora hirsuta L. parts of F. indica, branches amount are mixed, and one teaspoon is Yaseen et al. (2015)
of T. hirsuta taken three times a day
3. Tylophora hirsuta (Wall.)Wight + T. hirsuta leaves, T. The equal quantity of each plant is ground Ahmad et al. (2004, 2009)
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. + foenum-graecum seeds, and made into powder. One tablespoon is
Fumaria indica (Haussk) Pugsely and aerial parts of F. indica taken twice daily
4. Rhazya stricta Decne + Withania R. stricta leaves and whole Parts of both plants are boiled, and Ahmad (2006), Hussain et al.
somnifera (L.) Dunal plant and W. somnifera decoction is used once a day (2010c), Qureshi (2012),
leaves and roots Shah et al. (2013a), Yaseen
et al. (2015)
5. Capparis spinosa L. + Rhazya stricta C. spinosa leaves, whole Extract of both plants are mixed, and two Shah et al. (2013a), Yaseen
Decne. plant of R. stricta spoons are taken twice a day et al. (2015)
6. Cajanus cajan (L.) Druce and Vigna Seed Both pulses are mixed in equal quantity, Ahmad et al. (2004, 2009)
mungo (Burm. f.) Walp. cooked, and taken two times a day.
7. Cicer arietinum L. + Daucus carota L. + Seeds Seeds are dried, and their flour is mixed in Ahmad et al. (2009)
Hordeum vulgare L. + Oryza sativa L. + equal quantity to prepare antidiabetic bread
Triticum aestivum L. at home
+ and Zea mays L.
8. Ocimum sanctum L. + Ocimum album L. Leaves 1 gram dried leaf powder is taken twice a Ahmad et al. (2004, 2009)
day
9. Melia azedarach A. Juss., Phyllanthus Dry fruit Paste of all herbs is prepared manually, Abbasi et al. (2010a)
emblica L., mixed together, and used orally daily
and Terminalia chebula Retz.
10. Syzygium cumini Skeels + Momordica Seeds of S. cumini, fruit of S. cumini (25 g), M. charantia (12 g), C. Ahmad et al. (2009)
charantia L. + Cyperus M. charantia, seeds of C. rotundus (12 g), and R. alba (12 g) are
rotundus L. + Rosa alba L. Rotundus, and seeds of made into powder for use one time daily
Rosa alba L.
507
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
508
Sr. # Botanical name Parts used Recipe References

11. Hordeum vulgare L. + Cicer arietinum L. Seeds 125 g roasted seeds of H. vulgare and 50 g Ahmad et al. (2004, 2009),
+ Elettaria cardamomum Maton seeds of each C. arietinum and E. Yaseen et al. (2015)
cardamomum are mixed, and half spoon is
prescribed three times a day
12. Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita Fruit Fresh fruit is consumed. The juice of the Khan et al. (2013a, b), Yaseen
fruit is mixed with bark powder of Berberis et al. (2015)
lycium and used three times a day
13. Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl. + B. ligulata (roots) + A. Equal weight of these plant parts are mixed Akhtar (1992)
Asteracantha longifolia (L.) Nees in Wall longifolia (seeds) + A. in powder form and used early in the
+ Argyreia speciosa (Linn. f.) Sweet + speciosa (roots) + C. morning daily
Cinnamomum cassia (Nees T. Nees) cassia (bark)
J. Presl
14. Syzygium cumini Skeels + Papaver Seeds of S. cumini and Seeds (11.66 g) of S. cumini are ground in New record
somniferous L. opium water extract the opium extract, and 32 tablets are made
and are used in the morning and evening
15. Santalum album L. + Astragalus Bark of S. album (3 All ingredients are made into powder and New record
gummifer Labill. + Lactuca sativa L. + 2.91 g), gum of A. mixed with (17. 39 g) natural aluminum
Portulaca oleracea L. + Acacia Arabica gummifer (10.63 g), seeds silicate containing iron oxide. On spoon is
Lam. + Punica granatum L. + Rhus of L. sativa (10.63 g), taken twice with water
coriaria L. + Quercus baloot Griffith seeds of P. oleracea
(10.63 g), gum of A.
arabica (17. 39 g), flower
of P. granatum (17. 39 g),
fruit of Rhus coriaria L.
(17. 39 g), fruit of Quercus
baloot Griffith (17. 39 g)
16. Tinospora cordifolia (Thunb.) Miers. + Flower of T. cordifolia The plant parts are ground and mixed with New record
(Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.) (11.66 g), whole plant of brown sugar. Two tablespoon of this powder
G. sylvestre (11.66 g)) is soaked in water whole night and stained
in the morning, and extract is taken with

pomegranate juice
17. Chlorophytum borivilianum Sant et. Roots of C. borivilianum, All the herbs are taken in equal quantity, or New record
Fernand., + Asparagus racemosus Willd. roots and stem of A. 5.82 g of each herb is ground separately and
+ Phyllanthus emblica L. + Vitis venefera racemosus Willd., fruit of mixed with 5.82 g of Salajit and 34.98 g of
L. + Pistacio lentiscus L. + Tribulus P. emblica, fruit of V. old bricks powder of a well. It is used in the
terrestris Linn. + Tinospora cordifolia vinifera, Mustagi of P. morning daily with water
(Thunb.) Miers. + Bumboosa vulgaris lentiscus, seed of T.
Schrad ex J.C. Wendl. + Coleus barbatus terrestris, leaves and
Benth. + Centella asiatica (L.) Urban branches of T. cordifolia,
Tabshir/bamboo resin of B.
vulgaris Schrad ex
J.C. Wendl., Pakhan Baid

leaves and roots of C.
barbatus, Gul mandi
flowers of C. asiatica (L.)
Urban
18. Gossypium herbaceum L. Seed 11.66 g seeds are ground to powder and New record
23.32 g of raw sugar is mixed into it.
Mixture is boiled till it becomes thick. It is
eaten once in a day
19. Cyperus rotundus L. + Boswellia glabra Roots and tubers of C. 2.91 g of each herb is dried, ground, and New record
Roxb. + P. lentiscus L. + Quercus incana rotundus L., mixed together along with 2.91 g natural
W. Bartram + Papaver somniferous L., gum of B. glabra Roxb., aluminum silicate containing iron oxide and
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad ex J.C. Wendl. fruit of P. lentiscus, fruit of brown sugar. Two tablespoons of mixture
+ Coriandrum sativum + P. Q. incana W. Bartram, are taken with water daily
granatum + Rosa seed P. somniferous L.,
damascene + Cinnamomum cassia Tabashir/bamboo resin of
B. vulgaris Schrad ex
J.C. Wendl., seeds of
coriander (C. sativum),
flower of P. granatum,
flower of Rosa damascena,
bark of C. cassia.
509
Fig. 1 Contribution of top 15 families for treatment of diabetes mellitus
Fig. 2 Growth forms of plants used for treatment of diabetes mellitus
Life Forms
The antidiabetic plant species exhibited four growth forms in which herbs (109)
were highly utilized, followed by trees (53), shrub (38), and climbers (9) as shown
in Fig. 2. The preference of herbs as antidiabetic drug may be attributed due to their
easy availability from the localities (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2005; Giday et al.
2009; Ragupathy et al. 2008; Sanz-Biset et al. 2009; Shrestha and Dhillion 2003;
Tabuti et al. 2012; Uniyal et al. 2006) and easy harvesting (Giday et al. 2003).
Besides, they may possess certain active ingredients (Giday et al. 2009; Lulekal
et al. 2013; Mesfin et al. 2009; Teklehaymanot 2009).
Fig. 3 Parts of plants used for treatment of diabetes mellitus
Fig. 4 Traditional modes of administration of plant-based recipes for DM treatment
Plant Parts and Mode of Administration
Eighteen various plant parts were exploited in treating DM by the THPs, in which
leaves were the most frequently used (78 reports), followed by fruit, seed, whole
plant, and root (Fig. 3). The high usage of leaves in the folk medicines clearly indi-
cates their easy accessibility and availability to the local communities. The harvesting
of leaves does not harm the plant growth compared to roots, rhizome, or bulb. Besides,
gathering of leaves sustainably helps conserve plant diversity. It is suggested that the
frequent use of the leaves is due to their high healing power (Mootoosamy and
Mahomoodally 2014). Moreover, leaves of antidiabetic plants like walnut possess
α-glucosidase inhibitor that reduces glucose level (Said et al. 2008).
Figure 4 represents the traditional modes of administration for recipes of DM.
The most popular mode of preparation of recipe was infusion (28.70%), followed
Fig. 5 Most frequently used plant species
by powder (26.96%), decoction (14.78%), juice/paste (9.13% each), cooking

vegetable (8.70%), chewing (1.74%), and swallowing (0.87%). Most of the study
reported decoction as the formal mode of preparation of the herbal recipe for treat-
ing diabetes (Diallo et al. 2012; Kadir et al. 2012; Nowbandegani et al. 2015).
Frequency of Citation (FC)
In all, 13 species were frequently quoted for treating diabetes as shown in Fig. 5.
Syzygium cumini had highest frequency of citation (FC = 9), followed by Allium
sativum (FC = 8); Momordica charantia and Ficus benghalensis (FC = 7 each);
Justicia adhatoda, Citrullus colocynthis, and Ziziphus sativa (FC = 6 each); and
Allium cepa, Caralluma edulis, Rhazya stricta, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Grewia
asiatica, and Olea ferruginea (FC = 5 each). The rest of the species possessed FC
in the range of 4–1 (Table 1). Of them, except C. edulis and O. ferruginea, the rest
of the 11 species are scientifically proved to have antidiabetic potential such as
S. cumini (Prince et al. 2003, 2004), A. sativum (Islam and Choi 2008; Thomson
et al. 2007), M. charantia (Ahmed et al. 2001), F. benghalensis (Achrekar et al.
1991), J. adhatoda (Gulfraz et al. 2011), C. colocynthis (Gurudeeban and
Ramanathan 2010), A. cepa (Augusti 1996; Kumari and Augusti 2002), R. stricta
(Tanira et al. 1996), T. foenum-graecum (Vats et al. 2002), and G. asiatica (Parveen
et al. 2012) as reflected in the Table 1. It is interesting to note that a large number of
species are yet to be verified through scientific endeavor and are promising candi-
dates for scientific validation based on this survey.
Conclusion
This study presents a first comprehensive review-cum-survey of antidiabetic plants

used traditionally solely or in mixture by the traditional healers of Pakistan. Through
this endeavor, efforts were undertaken to identify plant resources which may lead to
the development of indigenous and inexpensive sources of new antidiabetic medica-
ments. The frequency of citation revealed some potential species (e.g., Caralluma
edulis) as candidate which can be utilized in drug discovery program. Pharmacological
studies of 39 species and phytochemistry of 8 species used solo are not carried out
previously. Their further clinical studies are strongly recommended to evaluate
long-term efficacy and toxicity in diabetic patients to scientifically validate their use
in traditional medicines.
References
Abbasi AM, Khan M, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Jahan S, Sultana S (2010a) Ethnopharmacological

Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M (2010b) Herbal medicines used to cure various ail-
J Tradit Knowl 9:175–183
Abbasi MA, Shahzadi T, Ahmad VU (2014) New Iridoid Glucosides from Caryopteris Odorata
with Suitable Antioxidant Potential. Chem Nat Compd 50:836–841
Abd E-MA, Mohamed KM, Mostafa AM (2010) Induction of biologically active flavonoids in cell
cultures of Morus nigra and testing their hypoglycemic efficacy. Sci Pharm 79:951–961
Abdel-Hameed E-SS (2009) Total phenolic contents and free radical scavenging activity of certain
Egyptian Ficus species leaf samples. Food Chem 114:1271–1277
Abdelmeguid NE, Fakhoury R, Kamal SM, Al Wafai RJ (2010) Effects of Nigella sativa and
thymoquinone on biochemical and subcellular changes in pancreatic β-cells of streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats. J Diabetes 2:256–266
Abdel-Sattar E, Harraz FM, Ghareib SA, Elberry AA, Gabr S, Suliaman MI (2011)
Antihyperglycaemic and hypolipidaemic effects of the methanolic extract of Caralluma tuber-
culata in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Nat Prod Res 25:1171–1179
Abdel-Sattar EA, Abdallah HM, Khedr A, Abdel-Naim AB, Shehata IA (2013) Antihyperglycemic
activity of Caralluma tuberculata in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Food Chem Toxicol
59:111–117
Abo-Ellil MEA (2014) Phytochemical and biological study of some plants belonging to family
araceae. PhD thesis. Mansoura University, Mansoura
Abou-Arab AE, Abou-Arab AA, Abu-Salem MF (2010) Physico-chemical assessment of natu-
ral sweeteners steviosides produced from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni plant. Afr J Food Sci
4:269–281
Abu-Zaiton AS (2010) Anti-diabetic activity of Ferula assafoetida extract in normal and alloxan-
induced diabetic rats. Pak J Biol Sci 13:97
Achrekar S, Kaklij G, Pote M, Kelkar S (1991) Hypoglycemic activity of Eugenia jambolana and
Ficus benghalensis: mechanism of action. In Vivo 5:143
Adaramoye O, Amanlou M, Habibi-Rezaei M, Pasalar P, Ali M-M (2012) Methanolic extract of
African mistletoe (Viscum album) improves carbohydrate metabolism and hyperlipidemia in
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. APJTM 5:427–433
Aderibigbe A, Emudianughe T, Lawal B (2001) Evaluation of the antidiabetic action of Mangifera

indica in mice. Phytother Res 15:456–458
Adnan M, Bibi R, Mussarat S, Tariq A, Shinwari ZK (2014a) Ethnomedicinal and phytochemical
review of Pakistani medicinal plants used as antibacterial agents against Escherichia coli. Ann
Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 13(40):1–18
Adnan M, Ullah I, Tariq A, Murad W, Azizullah A, Khan AL, Ali N (2014b) Ethnomedicine use in
the war affected region of Northwest Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 10(16):1–16
Agarwal V, Sharma AK, Upadhyay A, Singh G, Gupta R (2012) Hypoglycemic effects of Citrullus
colocynthis roots. Acta Pol Pharm 69:75–79
Agrahari P, Singh DK (2014) A review on the pharmacological aspects of Carum carvi. J Biol
Earth Sci 4:M1–M13
Ahmad M (2006) Checklist of medicinal flora of Tehsil Isakhel, District Mianwali-Pakistan.
Ahmad M, Alamgeer ST (2009) A potential adjunct to insulin: Berberis lycium Royle. Diabetol
Croat 38:13–18
Ahmad M, Khan MA, Arshad M, Zafar M (2004) Ethnophytotherapical approaches for the treat-
ment of diabetes by the local inhabitants of district Attock (Pakistan). Ethnobot Leaflets 2004:7
Ahmad M, Zaman F, Sharif T, Ch MZ (2008) Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic effects of aqueous
methanolic extract of Acacia nilotica pods in alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits. Scand J Lab
Anim Sci 35:29–34
Ahmad M, Qureshi R, Arshad M, Khan MA, Zafar M (2009) Traditional herbal remedies used for
the treatment of diabetes from district Attock (Pakistan). Pak J Bot 41:2777–2782
Ahmad M, Ansari M, Alam A, Khan T (2013a) Oral dose of citrus peel extracts promotes wound
repair in diabetic rats. Pak J Biol Sci 16:1086
Ahmad R, Upadhyay A, Ahmad M, Pieters L (2013b) Antioxidant, antliglycation and antimicrobial
activities of Ziziphus oxyphylla and Cedrela serrata extracts. Eur J Med Plants 3(4):520–529
Ahmad S, Wariss HM, Alam K, Anjum S, Mukhtar M (2014a) Ethnobotanical studies of plant
resources of Cholistan desert, Pakistan. IJSR 3(6):1781–1788
Ahmad W, Khan I, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Subhan F, Karim N (2014b) Evaluation of antidiabetic
and antihyperlipidemic activity of Artemisia indica linn (aeriel parts) in Streptozotocin induced
diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 151(1):618–623
Ahmad R, Ahmad N, Naqvi AA, Exarchou V, Upadhyay A, Tuenter E, Foubert K, Apers S,
Hermans N, Pieters L (2016) Antioxidant and Antiglycating Constituents from Leaves of
Ziziphus oxyphylla and Cedrela serrata. Antioxid 5(1):1–9
Ahmed F, Urooj A (2009) Antioxidant activities, of various extracts of Ficus racemosa stem bark.
Nat Life Sci 6:69–74
Ahmed F, Urooj A (2010) In vitro studies on the hypoglycemic potential of Ficus racemosa stem
bark. J Sci Food Agric 90:397–401
Ahmed I, Lakhani M, Gillett M, John A, Raza H (2001) Hypotriglyceridemic and hypocholester-
olemic effects of anti-diabetic Momordica charantia (karela) fruit extract in streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 51:155–161
Ahmed M, Khan MA, Zafar M, Sultana S (2007) Treatment of common ailments by plant-
based remedies among the people of district Attock (Punjab) of northern Pakistan. Afr J Trad
Complement Alternat Med 4:112–120
Ahmed Z, Bhagat A, Gupta OP, Gupta KK, Ram G, Qazi GN (2008) Insulin secretagogue fraction
of Argyrolobium roseum. Diabetol Croat 37:3–12
Ahmed D, Kumar V, Sharma M, Verma A (2014a) Target guided isolation, in-vitro antidiabetic,
antioxidant activity and molecular docking studies of some flavonoids from Albizzia Lebbeck
Benth. bark. BMC Complement Altern Med 14:1
Ahmed D, Kumar V, Verma A, Gupta PS, Kumar H, Dhingra V, Mishra V, Sharma M (2014b)
Antidiabetic, renal/hepatic/pancreas/cardiac protective and antioxidant potential of metha-
nol/dichloromethane extract of Albizzia Lebbeck Benth. stem bark (ALEx) on streptozotocin
induced diabetic rats. BMC Complement Altern Med 14(243):1–17
Ahn J, Choi W, Kim S, Ha T (2011) Anti-diabetic effect of watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris Schrad)
on Streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Food Sci Biotechnol 20:251–254
Aissaoui A, Zizi S, Israili ZH, Lyoussi B (2011) Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of
Coriandrum sativum L. in Meriones shawi rats. J Ethnopharmacol 137:652–661
Aja P, Igwenyi I, Okechukwu PU, Orji O, Alum E (2015) Evaluation of anti-diabetic effect and
liver function indices of ethanol extracts of Moringa oleifera and Cajanus cajan leaves in
alloxan induced diabetic albino rats. Glob Vet 14:439–447
Akhtar MS (1992) Hypoglycaemic activities of some indigenous medicinal plants traditionally
used as antidiabetic drugs. J Pak Med Assoc 42:271–271
Akhtar N, Begum S (2009) Ethnopharmacological important plants of Jalala, district Mardan,
Pakistan. Pak J Sci 15:95–100
Akhtar MS, Iqbal J (1991) Evaluation of the hypoglycaemic effect of Achyranthes aspera in nor-
mal and alloxan-diabetic rabbits. J Ethnopharmacol 31:49–57
Akter R, Mahabub-Uz-Zaman M, Rahman Md S, Khatun M, Abdullah A, Ahmed N, Islam F (2013)
Comparative studies on antidiabetic effect with phytochemical screening of Azadirachta indica
and Andrographis paniculata. J Pharm Biol Sci 5:2278–3008
Akther F, Rahman A, Proma JJ, Kabir MZ, Paul PK, Rahmatullah M (2014) Methanolic extract of
Luffa cylindrica fruits show antihyperglycemic potential in Swiss albino mice. ANAS 8:62–66
Alam N, Shinwari Z, Ilyas M, Ullah Z (2011) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of
Chagharzai valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:773–780
Alarcon-Aguilara F, Roman-Ramos R, Perez-Gutierrez S, Aguilar-Contreras A, Contreras-Weber
C, Flores-Saenz J (1998) Study of the anti-hyperglycemic effect of plants used as antidiabetics.
Al-Azzawie HF, Alhamdani M-SS (2006) Hypoglycemic and antioxidant effect of oleuropein in
alloxan-diabetic rabbits. Life Sci 78:1371–1377
Ali B (1997) The effect on plasma glucose, insulin and glucagon levels of treatment of diabetic
rats with the medicinal plant Rhazya stricta and with glibenclamide, alone and in combination.
J Pharm Pharmacol 49:1003–1007
Ali N (2013) Brine shrimp cytotoxicity of crude methanol extract and antispasmodic activity of
α-amyrin acetate from Tylophora hirsuta Wall. BMC Complement Altern Med 13:135
Ali H, Sannai J, Sher H, Rashid A (2011a) Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in
Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 5:4676–4687
Ali N, Shah SW, Shah I, Ahmed G, Ghias M, Khan I (2011b) Cytotoxic and anthelmintic potential
of crude saponins isolated from Achillea Wilhelmsii C. Koch and Teucrium Stocksianum boiss.
BMC Complement Altern Med 11:106
Ali A, Maher S, Khan SA, Chaudhary MI, Musharraf SG (2015a) Sensitive quantification of six
steroidal lactones in Withania coagulans extract by UHPLC electrospray tandem mass spec-
trometry. Steroids 104:176–181
Ali H, Uddin S, Jalal S (2015b) Chemistry and biological activities of Berberis lycium Royle.
JBAPN 5:295–312
Al-Malki AL, El Rabey HA (2015) The antidiabetic effect of low doses of Moringa oleifera Lam.
seeds on streptozotocin induced diabetes and diabetic nephropathy in male rats. Biomed Res
Int 2015:1–13
Al-Muammar MN, Khan F (2012) Obesity: the preventive role of the pomegranate (Punica gra-
natum). J Nutr 28:595–604
Amin A, Cos P, Maes L, Apers S, Exarchou V, Pieters L (2015) Phytochemical and pharmacologi-
cal investigation of Kickxia ramosissima. Planta Med 81(16):YRW_04
Anand K, Singh B, Grand D, Chandan B, Gupta V (1989) Effect of Zizyphus sativa leaves on blood
glucose levels in normal and alloxan-diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 27:121–127
Andallu B, Radhika B (2000) Hypoglycemic, diuretic and hypocholesterolemic effect of winter
cherry (Withania somnifera, Dunal) root. Indian J Exp Biol 38:607–609
Andoğan BC, Baydar H, Kaya S, Demirci M, Özbaşar D, Mumcu E (2002) Antimicrobial activity
and chemical composition of some essential oils. Arch Pharm Res 25:860–864
Andrade-Cetto A, Heinrich M (2005) Mexican plants with hypoglycaemic effect used in the treat-
ment of diabetes. J Ethnopharmacol 99:325–348
Anis E, Anis I, Ahmed S, Mustafa G, Malik A, Afza N, Hai SMA, Shahzad-ul-hussan S, Choudhary
MI (2002) ALPHA.-Glucosidase Inhibitory Constituents from Cuscuta reflexa. Chem Pharm
Bull 50:112–114
Ansari N, Houlihan L, Hussain B, Pieroni A (2005) Antioxidant activity of five vegetables tra-
ditionally consumed by south-Asian migrants in Bradford, Yorkshire, UK. Phytother Res
19:907–911
Anwar MM, Kalpana MA, Bhadra B, Rahman S, Sarker S, Chowdhury MH, Rahmatullah M
(2010) Antihyperglycemic activity and brine shrimp lethality studies on methanol extract of
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. leaves and roots. Adv Nat Appl Sci 4:311–317
Apu AS, Liza MS, Jamaluddin A, Howlader MA, Saha RK, Rizwan F, Nasrin N (2012)
Phytochemical screening and in vitro bioactivities of the extracts of aerial part of Boerhavia
diffusa Linn. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2:673–678
Ara N, Rashid M, Amran MS (2008) Comparison of Moringa oleifera leaves extract with atenolol
on serum triglyceride, serum cholesterol, blood glucose, heart weight, body weight in adrena-
line induced rats. Saudi J Biol Sci 15:253–258
Arshad M, Nisar MF, Majeed A, Ismail S, Ahmad M (2011) Ethnomedicinal flora in district
Sialkot, Punjab, Pakistan. Middle-East J Sci Res 9:209–214
Asad M, Aslam M, Munir TA, Nadeem A (2011) Effect of Acacia nilotica leaves extract on hyper-
glycaemia, lipid profile and platelet aggregation in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. J Ayub
Med Coll Abbottabad 23:3–7
Asadujjaman M, Hossain M, Khan M, Anisuzzaman A, Ahmed M, Islam A (2011)
Antihyperglycemic and glycogenesis effects of different fractions of Brassica oleracea in
Alloxan induced diabetic rats. IJPSR 2:1436
Asano N, Nash RJ, Molyneux RJ, Fleet GW (2000) Sugar-mimic glycosidase inhibitors: natu-
ral occurrence, biological activity and prospects for therapeutic application. Tetrahedron
Asymmetry 11:1645–1680
Ashraf A, Sarfraz RA, Anwar F, Shahid SA, Alkharfy KM (2015) Chemical composition and bio-
logical activities of leaves of Ziziphus mauritiana L. native to Pakistan. Pak J Bot 47:367–376
Asif M (2015) Chemistry and antioxidant activity of plants containing some phenolic compounds.
Chem Int 1:35–52
Assad T, Khan RA, Feroz Z (2014) Evaluation of hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity of
methanol extract of Brassica oleracea. Chin J Nat Med 12:648–653
Atangwho I, Ebong P, Eyong E, Williams I, Eten M, Egbung G (2009) Comparative chemical
composition of leaves of some antidiabetic medicinal plants: Azadirachta indica, Vernonia
amygdalina and Gongronema latifolium. Afr J Biotechnol 8(18):4685–4689
Augusti K (1996) Therapeutic values of onion (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L.).
Indian J Exp Biol 34:634–640
Auta R, James S, Auta T, Sofa E (2011) Nutritive value and phytochemical composition of pro-
cessed Solanum incanum (Bitter garden egg). Sci World J 6:5–6
Awan MR, Iqbal Z, Shah SM, Jamal Z, Jan G, Afzal M, Majid A, Gul A (2011) Studies on tra-
ditional knowledge of economically important plants of Kaghan Valley, Mansehra District,
Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S (2005) Traditional knowledge of kani tribals in Kouthalai of Tirunelveli
hills, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol 102:246–255
Ayyanar M, Subash-Babu P (2012) Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels: A review of its phytochemical
constituents and traditional uses. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2:240–246
Azay-Milhau J, Ferrare K, Leroy J, Aubaterre J, Tournier M, Lajoix A-D, Tousch D (2013)
Antihyperglycemic effect of a natural chicoric acid extract of chicory (Cichorium intybus L.):
a comparative in vitro study with the effects of caffeic and ferulic acids. J Ethnopharmacol
150:755–760
Badgujar SB, Patel VV, Bandivdekar AH (2014) Foeniculum vulgare Mill: a review of its botany,
phytochemistry, pharmacology, contemporary application, and toxicology. Biomed Res Int
2014:32
Badhani A, Sakalani S, Mishra A (2011) Variation in Biochemical’s and antioxidant activity of

some wild edible fruits of uttarakhand. Report and Opinion 3:1–10
Badole SL, Bodhankar SL (2009) Investigation of antihyperglycemic activity of Glycine max (L.)
Merr. on serum glucose level in diabetic mice. J Complement Integr Med 6(1):1553
Badr SE, Shaaban M, Elkholy YM, Helal MH, Hamza AS, Masoud MS, El Safty MM (2011)
Chemical composition and biological activity of ripe pumpkin fruits (Cucurbita pepo L.) culti-
vated in Egyptian habitats. Nat Prod Res 25:1524–1539
Bae IY, Choi AS, Lee HG (2015) Impact of buckwheat flavonoids on in vitro starch digestibility
and noodle making property. Cereal Chem 93(3):299–305
Bafna A, Mishra S (2010) Antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity of the alkaloidal fraction
of Cissampelos pareira Linn. Sci Pharm 78:21
Bahorun T, Neergheen VS, Aruoma OI (2005) Phytochemical constituents of Cassia fistula. Afr
J Biotechnol 4(13):1530–1540
Bakkour Y, El-Achi N, Tabcheh M, El-Nakat H, El Omar F (2013) Chemical composition and anti-
oxidant activities of the essential oils from green and ripe berries of Juniperus excelsa growing
in Lebanon. Int J Pharma Life Sci 4(2):2362–2367
Balamurugan R, Ignacimuthu S (2011) Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic effect of methanol extract
of Lippia nodiflora L. in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed
1:S30–S36
Balamurugan R, Duraipandiyan V, Ignacimuthu S (2011) Antidiabetic activity of γ-sitosterol
isolated from Lippia nodiflora L. in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Eur J Pharmacol
667:410–418
Bamosa AO (2015) A review on the hypoglycemic effect of Nigella sativa and thymoquinone.
Saudi J Med Med Sci 3(1):2–3
Baquer NZ, Kumar P, Taha A, Kale R, Cowsik S, McLean P (2011) Metabolic and molecular
action of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) and trace metals in experimental diabetic
tissues. J Biosci 36:383–396
Barbalho SM, Damasceno DC, Spada APM, VSd S, Martuchi KA, Oshiiwa M, Machado F, Mendes
CG (2011) Metabolic profile of offspring from diabetic Wistar rats treated with Mentha piper-
ita (peppermint). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 11:1–6
Barbalho S, Farinazzi-Machado F, de Alvares Goulart R, Brunnati AS, Ottoboni A, Nicolau C
(2012) Psidium Guajava (Guava): a plant of multipurpose medicinal applications. Med Aromat
Plants 1:2167
Barbosa ADP (2014) Pharmacologically active saponins from the genus Albizia (Fabaceae). Int
J Pharm Pharm Sci 6(11):32–36
Barillari J, Canistro D, Paolini M, Ferroni F, Pedulli GF, Iori R, Valgimigli L (2005a) Direct anti-
oxidant activity of purified glucoerucin, the dietary secondary metabolite contained in rocket
(Eruca sativa Mill.) seeds and sprouts. J Agric Food Chem 53:2475–2482
Barillari J, Cervellati R, Paolini M, Tatibouët A, Rollin P, Iori R (2005b) Isolation of 4-methylthio-
3-butenyl glucosinolate from Raphanus sativus sprouts (Kaiware Daikon) and its redox proper-
ties. J Agric Food Chem 53:9890–9896
Barthakur N, Arnold N, Alli I (1995) The Indian laburnum (Cassia fistula L.) fruit: an analysis of
its chemical constituents. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 47:55–62
Bas AL, Demirci S, Yazihan N, Uney K, Ermis Kaya E (2012) Nerium oleander distillate improves
fat and glucose metabolism in high-fat diet-fed streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Int
J Endocrinol 2012:10
Basha SK, Kumari VS (2012) In vitro antidiabetic activity of Psidium guajava leaves extracts.
Asian Pac J Trop Dis 2:S98–S100
Basumata C (2016) Investigation on antidiabetic properties of Cissampelos pareira Linn a com-
mon medicinal plant of Assam. PhD Thesis. Gauhati University, Gauhati
Bavarva J, Narasimhacharya A (2008) Preliminary study on antihyperglycemic and antihyperli-
paemic effects of Butea monosperma in NIDDM rats. Fitoterapia 79:328–331
Bedir E, Kırmızıpekmez H, Sticher O, Çalış İ (2000) Triterpene saponins from the fruits of Hedera
helix. Phytochemistry 53:905–909
Begum HA, Hamayun M, Zaman K, Hussain A, Ruaf M (2015) Phytochemical Evaluation of

Ethnobotanically Selected Medicinal Plants of Mardan, Pakistan. J Adv Bot Zool 3:1–5
Benalla W, Bellahcen S, Bnouham M (2010) Antidiabetic medicinal plants as a source of alpha
glucosidase inhibitors. Curr Diabetes Rev 6:247–254
Bharti SK, Kumar A, Sharma NK, Prakash O, Jaiswal SK, Krishnan S, Gupta AK, Kumar A (2013)
Tocopherol from seeds of Cucurbita pepo against diabetes: Validation by in vivo experiments
supported by computational docking. J Formos Med Assoc 112:676–690
Bhaskar V, Ajay SS (2009) Evaluation of antihperglycemic activity of extracts of Calotropis proc-
era (Ait.) R. Br on streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Glob J Pharmacol 3:95–98
Bhaskar A, Kumar A (2012) Antihyperglycemic, antioxidant and hypolipidemic effect of Punica
granatum L flower extract in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed
2:S1764–S1769
Bhaskar A, Vidhya V, Ramya M (2008) Hypoglycemic effect of Mucuna pruriens seed extract on
normal and streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Fitoterapia 79:539–543
Bhaskara Rao R, Murugesan T, Sinha S, Saha B, Pal M, Mandal SC (2002) Glucose lowering
efficacy of Ficus racemosa bark extract in normal and alloxan diabetic rats. Phytother Res
16:590–592
Bhatia A, Mishra T (2010) Hypoglycemic activity of Ziziphus mauritiana aqueous ethanol seed
extract in alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Pharm Biol 48:604–610
Bhavsar C, Talele GS (2013) Potential anti-diabetic activity of Bombax ceiba. Bangladesh
J Pharmacol 8:102–106
Bhowmik A, Khan LA, Akhter M, Rokeya B (2009) Studies on the antidiabetic effects of Mangifera
indica stem-barks and leaves on nondiabetic, type 1 and type 2 diabetic model rats. Bangladesh
J Pharmacol 4:110–114
Bhuiyan MNI, Begum J, Sultana M (2009) Chemical composition of leaf and seed essential oil of
Coriandrum sativum L. from Bangladesh. Bangladesh J Pharmacol 4:150–153
Bhushan MS, Rao C, Ojha S, Vijayakumar M, Verma A (2010) An analytical review of plants for
anti diabetic activity with their phytoconstituent & mechanism of action. Int J Pharm Sci Res
1:29–46
Bhutani K, Ali M, Atal C (1984) Alkaloids from Tylophora hirsuta. Phytochemistry 23:1765–1769
Bibi Y, Nisa S, Waheed A, Zia M, Sarwar S, Ahmed S, Chaudhary MF (2010) Evaluation of
Viburnum foetens for anticancer and antibacterial potential and phytochemical analysis. Afr
J Biotechnol 9:5611
Bicchi C, Rubiolo P, Marschall H, Weyerstahl P, Laurent R (1998) Constituents of Artemisia rox-
burghiana Besser essential oil. Flavour Fragr J 13:40–46
Biradar D (2015) Medicinal plants and Phytomedicines. Ann Phytomed 4:1–5
Boulekbache-Makhlouf L, Slimani S, Madani K (2013) Total phenolic content, antioxidant and
antibacterial activities of fruits of Eucalyptus globulus cultivated in Algeria. Ind Crop Prod
41:85–89
Braca A, Siciliano T, D’Arrigo M, Germanò MP (2008) Chemical composition and antimicrobial
activity of Momordica charantia seed essential oil. Fitoterapia 79:123–125
Brandle J, Starratt A, Gijzen M (1998) Stevia rebaudiana: its agricultural, biological, and chemical
properties. Can J Plant Sci 78:527–536
Bukhari IA, Khan RA, Gilani AH, Ahmed S, Saeed SA (2010) Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-
platelet activities of the methanolic extract of Acacia modesta leaves. Inflammopharmacology
18:187–196
Bystricka J, Musilova J, Tomas J, Vollmannova A, Lachman J, Kavalcova P (2014) Changes of
Polyphenolic Substances in the Anatomical Parts of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum
Moench.) during Its Growth Phases. Foods 3:558–568
Caligiani A, Tonelli L, Palla G, Marseglia A, Rossi D, Bruni R (2013) Looking beyond sugars:
Phytochemical profiling and standardization of manna exudates from Sicilian Fraxinus excel-
sior L. Fitoterapia 90:65–72
Cao Q, Qu WJ, Niu W, Deng YX, Wang YW, Xie JJ (2005) The antihyperglycemic effect of
flavonoids from Hippophae rhamnoides L. on diabetic rats induced by streptozotocin. Acta
Nutrimenta Sinica 2:016
Cao J, Li C, Zhang P, Cao X, Huang T, Bai Y, Chen K (2012) Antidiabetic effect of burdock
(Arctium lappa L.) root ethanolic extract on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Afr
J Biotechnol 11:9079
Chan Y-S, Cheng L-N, Wu J-H, Chan E, Kwan Y-W, Lee SM-Y, Leung GP-H, Yu PH-F,
Chan S-W (2011) A review of the pharmacological effects of Arctium lappa (burdock).
Inflammopharmacology 19:245–254
Chandak R, Shrangare G (2010) Evalution of antidiabetic activity of Olea-europea in wistar albino
rats. Int J App Biol Pharma Technol 1(3):952–956
Chandrasekaran S, Rajkishore VB, Ramalingam R (2015) Vigna unguiculata-an overall review.
Res J Pharmacog Phytochem 7:219–222
Chasturvedi P, Raseroka B, Batisane B (2005) Acute effects of some organic extracts of Melia
azedarach fruit on blood glucose levels in albino rats. J Appl Zool Res 16:238–241
Chatterjee A, Chakrabortty T, Chandrasekharan S (1971) Chemical investigation of Cedrela toona.
Chaubey A, Pandeya S (2011) Pyridine: a versatile nucleuse in pharmaceutical field. Asian J Pharm
Clin Res 4:5–8
Chaudhary V, Johri S, Rana AK (2015) Evaluation of comparative efficacy of neelkanthi (Ajuga
bracteosa), tejapatra (Cinnamomum tamala) and methika beeja (Trigonella foenum graecum)
churna in the management of diabetes mellitus. Int J Ayurveda Pharma Res 3
Chawla R, Thakur P, Chowdhry A, Jaiswal S, Sharma A, Goel R, Sharma J, Priyadarshi SS, Kumar
V, Sharma RK (2013) Evidence based herbal drug standardization approach in coping with
challenges of holistic management of diabetes: a dreadful lifestyle disorder of 21st century.
J Diabetes Metabo Disord 12:1
Chen L, Kang Y-H (2013) In vitro inhibitory effect of oriental melon (Cucumis melo L. var.
makuwa Makino) seed on key enzyme linked to type 2 diabetes: Assessment of anti-diabetic
potential of functional food. J Funct Foods 5:981–986
Chianese G, Yerbanga SR, Lucantoni L, Habluetzel A, Basilico N, Taramelli D, Fattorusso E,
Taglialatela-Scafati O (2010) Antiplasmodial triterpenoids from the fruits of neem, Azadirachta
indica. J Nat Prod 73:1448–1452
Chitra M, Nithyanandhi K (2007) Radical scavenging activity of Trianthema triquetra in male
albino rats intoxicated with CCl~ 4. J Environ Biol 28:283
Choedon T, Shukla SK, Kumar V (2010) Chemopreventive and anti-cancer properties of the aque-
ous extract of flowers of Butea monosperma. J Ethnopharmacol 129:208–213
Choudhary MI, Adhikari A, Rasheed S, Marasini BP, Hussain N, Kaleem WA (2011) Cyclopeptide
alkaloids of Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgw as novel inhibitors of α-glucosidase enzyme and protein
glycation. Phytochem Lett 4:404–406
Corzo-Martínez M, Corzo N, Villamiel M (2007) Biological properties of onions and garlic.
Trends Food Sci Technol 18:609–625
Currie CJ, Poole CD, Gale E (2009) The influence of glucose-lowering therapies on cancer risk in
type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 52:1766–1777
Daradka HM, Abas MM, Mohammad MA, Jaffar MM (2014) Antidiabetic effect of Artemisia
absinthium extracts on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Comp Clin Pathol 23:1733–1742
Das S, Barman S (2012) Antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic effects of ethanolic extract of leaves
of Punica granatum in alloxan-induced non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus albino rats.
Indian J Pharm 44:219
Dash GK, Suresh P, Ganapaty S (2001) Studies on hypoglycaemic and wound healing activities of
Lantana camara Linn. J Nat Rem 1:105–110
De Bona KS, Bonfanti G, Bitencourt PE, Cargnelutti LO, da Silva PS, da Silva TP, Zanette RA,
Pigatto AS, Moretto MB (2014) Syzygium cumini is more effective in preventing the increase of
erythrocytic ADA activity than phenolic compounds under hyperglycemic conditions in vitro.
J Physiol Biochem 70:321–330
Del Rıo J, Fuster M, Gómez P, Porras I, Garcıa-Lidón A, Ortuño A (2004) Citrus limon: a source
of flavonoids of pharmaceutical interest. Food Chem 84:457–461
Delange DM, Rico CLM, Canavaciolo VLG, Pérez RS, Leyes EAR (2012) Fatty acid composition
of seed oil from Salvia coccinea grown in Cuba. Anal Chem Lett 2:114–117
Derwich E, Benziane Z, Boukir A (2010) Antibacterial activity and chemical composition of the
essential oil from flowers of Nerium oleander. Electro J Environ Agric Food Chem 9:1074–1084
Dhalwal K, Shinde V, Biradar Y, Mahadik K (2008) Simultaneous quantification of bergenin, cat-
echin, and gallic acid from Bergenia ciliata and Bergenia ligulata by using thin-layer chroma-
tography. J Food Compos Anal 21:496–500
Dharmender R, Madhavi T, Reena A, Sheetal A (2012) Simultaneous quantification of bergenin,(+)-
catechin, gallicin and gallic acid; and quantification of β-sitosterol using HPTLC from Bergenia
ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Forma ligulata Yeo (Pasanbheda). Pharm Anal Acta 1(1):1–9
Diallo A, Traore MS, Keita SM, Balde MA, Keita A, Camara M, Van Miert S, Pieters L, Balde AM
(2012) Management of diabetes in Guinean traditional medicine: an ethnobotanical investiga-
tion in the coastal lowlands. J Ethnopharmacol 144:353–361
Dob T, Benabdelkader T (2006) Chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia herba-alba
Asso grown in Algeria. J Essent Oil Res 18:685–690
Dora BB, Gupta S, Sital S, Pastore A (2015) Punarnava (Boerhavia diffusa): A promising indig-
enous herbal drug and its effect on different disease conditions. Res Rev: J Herb Sci 4:21–24
Dureja AG, Dhiman K (2012) Free radical scavenging potential and total phenolic and flavonoid
content of Ziziphus mauritiana and Ziziphus nummularia fruit extracts. Int J Green Pharm
(IJGP) 6(3):187–192
Eddouks M, Maghrani M (2004) Phlorizin-like effect of Fraxinus excelsior in normal and diabetic
rats. J Ethnopharmacol 94:149–154
Eddouks M, Lemhadri A, Michel J-B (2004) Caraway and caper: potential anti-hyperglycaemic
plants in diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 94:143–148
Eddouks M, Lemhadri A, Michel J-B (2005) Hypolipidemic activity of aqueous extract of Capparis
spinosa L. in normal and diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 98:345–350
Edoga C, Njoku O, Amadi E, Okeke J (2013) Blood sugar lowering effect of Moringa oleifera
Lam. in albino rats. Int J Sci Technol 3:88–90
Ehsani E, Akbari K, Teimouri M, Khadem A (2012) Chemical composition and antibacterial activ-
ity of two Juniperus species essential oils. Afr J Microbiol Res 6:6704–6710
Eidi A, Eidi M, Esmaeili E (2006) Antidiabetic effect of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in normal and
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Phytomedicine 13:624–629
Eidi A, Eidi M, Darzi R (2009) Antidiabetic effect of Olea europaea L. in normal and diabetic rats.
Phytother Res 23:347–350
Eidi A, Eidi M, Haeri Rohani A, Basati F (2010) Hypoglycemic effect of ethanolic extract of
Carum carvi L. seeds in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Med Plant 3:106–
113. ‫فصلنامه علمی پژوهشی گیاهان دارویی‬
El-Demerdash F, Yousef M, El-Naga NA (2005) Biochemical study on the hypoglycemic effects of
onion and garlic in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Food Chem Toxicol 43:57–63
Eldin IMT, Ahmed EM, HM AE (2010) Preliminary study of the clinical hypoglycemic effects of
Allium cepa (red onion) in type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients. Environ Health Insights 4:71
El-Missiry M, El Gindy A (2000) Amelioration of alloxan induced diabetes mellitus and oxidative
stress in rats by oil of Eruca sativa seeds. Ann Nutr Metab 44:97–100
El-Shobaki F, El-Bahay A, Esmail R, El-Megeid A, Esmail N (2010) Effect of figs fruit (Ficus
carica L.) and its leaves on hyperglycemia in alloxan diabetic rats. World J Dairy Food Sci
5:47–57
El-Soud N, El-Laithy N, El-Saeed G, Wahby M, Khalil M, Morsy F, Shaffie N (2011) Antidiabetic
activities of Foeniculum vulgare mill. Essential oil in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.
Maced J Med Sci 4:139–146
Erinç H, Tekin A, Musa Özcan M (2009) Determination of fatty acid, tocopherol and phytosterol
contents of the oils of various poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) seeds. Grasas Aceites 60:375–381
Esfahlan AJ, Jamei R, Esfahlan RJ (2010) The importance of almond (Prunus amygdalus L.) and
its by-products. Food Chem 120:349–360
Ezuruike UF, Prieto JM (2014) The use of plants in the traditional management of diabetes in
Nigeria: Pharmacological and toxicological considerations. J Ethnopharmacol 155:857–924
Facino RM, Carini M, Stefani R, Aldini G, Saibene L (1995) Anti-Elastase and Anti-Hyaluronidase
Activities of Saponins and Sapogenins from Hedera helix, Aesculus hippocastanum, and
Ruscus aculeatus: Factors contributing to their efficacy in the treatment of venous insuffi-
ciency. Arch Pharm 328:720–724
Faizi S, Zikr-ur-Rehman S, Naz A, Versiani MA, Dar A, Naqvi S (2012) Bioassay-guided stud-
ies on Bombax ceiba leaf extract: isolation of shamimoside, a new antioxidant xanthone
C-glucoside. Chem Nat Compd 48:774–779
Fatima N, Maqsood Z, Khan B (2005) Study of some micronutrients in selected medicinal plants.
Sci Iran 12:269–273
Fatima SS, Rajasekhar MD, Kumar KV, Kumar MTS, Babu KR, Rao CA (2010) Antidiabetic and
antihyperlipidemic activity of ethyl acetate: isopropanol (1: 1) fraction of Vernonia anthelmin-
tica seeds in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Food Chem Toxicol 48:495–501
Gallagher A, Flatt P, Duffy G, Abdel-Wahab Y (2003) The effects of traditional antidiabetic plants
on in vitro glucose diffusion. Nutr Res 23:413–424
Gao J, Han Y-L, Jin Z-Y, Xu X-M, Zha X-Q, Chen H-Q, Yin Y-Y (2015) Protective effect of
polysaccharides from Opuntia dillenii Haw. fruits on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.
Carbohydr Polym 124:25–34
García-Jiménez N, Péerez-Alonso MJ, Velasco-Negueruela A (2000) Chemical composition of
fennel oil, Foeniculum vulgare Miller, from Spain. J Essent Oil Res 12:159–162
Gholamhoseinian A, Fallah H (2009) Inhibitory effect of methanol extract of Rosa damascena
Mill. flowers on α-glucosidase activity and postprandial hyperglycemia in normal and diabetic
rats. Phytomedicine 16:935–941
Ghosh R, Sharatchandra K, Rita S, Thokchom I (2004) Hypoglycemic activity of Ficus hispida
(bark) in normal and diabetic albino rats. Indian J Pharm 36:222
Ghosh A, Das BK, Chatterjee SK, Chandra G (2008) Antibacterial potentiality and phytochemical
analysis of mature leaves of Polyalthia longifolia (Magnoliales: Annonaceae). The South Pac
J Nat Sci 26:68–72
Ghosh G, Kar DM, Subudhi BB, Mishra SK (2010) Antihyperglycemic and antioxidant activity of
stem bark of Polyalthia longifolia var. angustifolia. Der Pharm Lett 2:206–216
Giday M, Asfaw Z, Elmqvist T, Woldu Z (2003) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used
by the Zay people in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol 85:43–52
Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z (2009) Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopia: an
ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 124:513–521
Gilani AH, Bashir S, Janbaz KH, Khan A (2005) Pharmacological basis for the use of Fumaria
indica in constipation and diarrhea. J Ethnopharmacol 96:585–589
Giménez E, Juan ME, Calvo-Melià S, Barbosa J, Sanz-Nebot V, Planas JM (2015) Pentacyclic
triterpene in Olea europaea L: A simultaneous determination by high-performance liquid chro-
matography coupled to mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 1410:68–75
Giménez-Bastida JA, Zieliński H (2015) Buckwheat as a functional food and its effects on health.
J Agric Food Chem 63:7896–7913
Gogoi P, Islam M (2012) Phytochemical Screening of Solanum nigrum L and S. myriacanthus
Dunal from Districts of Upper Assam, India. IOSR J Pharma 2(3):455–459
Goli-malekabadi N, Asgary S, Rashidi B, Rafieian-Kopaei M, Ghannadian M, Hajian S, Sahebkar
A (2014) The protective effects of Ziziphus vulgaris L. fruits on biochemical and histological
abnormalities induced by diabetes in rats. J Complement Integr Med 11:171–177
Gomez-Garcia F, Flanagan J, García-Molina O, Vilaplana-Vivo V, García-Carrillo N, Berthon PF,
Bily A, Roller M, Ortega VV, Issaly N (2015) Preventive Effect of a Fraxinus Excelsior L
Seeds/Fruits Extract on Hepatic Steatosis in Obese Type 2 Diabetic Mice. J Diabetes Metab
6(4):1–5
González-Molina E, Domínguez-Perles R, Moreno D, García-Viguera C (2010) Natural bioactive
compounds of Citrus limon for food and health. J Pharm Biomed Anal 51:327–345
Gopinath S, Rakesh C, PATIL GA, Dayananda K (2012) Preliminary phytochemical evaluation of
leaf extracts of Euphorbia hirta, Syzygium cumini of siddarabetta, Tumkur district, Karnataka.
Int J Pharm Bio Sci 3:431–435
Gregersen S, Jeppesen PB, Holst JJ, Hermansen K (2004) Antihyperglycemic effects of stevioside
in type 2 diabetic subjects. Metabolism 53:73–76
Grishko V, Tolmacheva I, Pereslavtseva A (2015) Triterpenoids with a five-membered a-Ring:

distribution in nature, transformations, synthesis, and biological activity. Chem Nat Compd
51:1–21
Group UHS (2007) Risk of hypoglycaemia in types 1 and 2 diabetes: effects of treatment modali-
ties and their duration. Diabetologia 50:1140–1147
Gu J-F, Zheng Z-Y, Yuan J-R, Zhao B-J, Wang C-F, Zhang L, Xu Q-Y, Yin G-W, Feng L, Jia
X-B (2015) Comparison on hypoglycemic and antioxidant activities of the fresh and dried
Portulaca oleracea L. in insulin-resistant HepG2 cells and streptozotocin-induced C57BL/6J
diabetic mice. J Ethnopharmacol 161:214–223
Gulfraz M, Ahmad A, Asad MJ, Afzal U, Imran M, Anwar P, Zeenat A, Abbasi KS, Maqsood S,
Qureshi RU (2011) Antidiabetic activities of leaves and root extracts of Justicia adhatoda Linn
against alloxan induced diabetes in rats. Afr J Biotechnol 10:6101–6106
Gunjan M, Jana GK, Jha A, Mishra U (2010) Pharmacognostic and antihyperglycemic study of
Coccinia indica. Int J Phytomed 2:36–40
Gupta A, Gupta R, Lal B (2001) Effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) seeds on gly-
caemic control and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a double blind placebo con-
trolled study. J Assoc Physicians India 49:1057–1061
Gupta S, Prakash J, Srivastava S (2002) Validation of traditional claim of Tulsi, Ocimum sanctum
Linn. as a medicinal plant. Indian J Exp Biol 40:765–773
Gupta OP, Ahmed Z, Bhagat A, Gupta KK, Handa SS (2005) Method of treating diabetes using
plant Argyrolobium roseum extract, and a process for the isolation of extract from the said
plant. Google Patents
Gupta S, Sood S, Singh N, Gupta M (2008) Effect of Neelkanthi (Ajuga bracteosa) and Plakhar
(Ficus lacor) on the energy expenditure of diabetic subjects. Pantnagar J Res 6:286–290
Gupta D, Mann S, Jain I, Gupta RK (2011a) Phytochemical, nutritional and antioxidant activity
evaluation of fruits of Ziziphus nummularia burm. F Int J Pharma Bio Sci 2(4):630–638
Gupta O, Malhotra P, Kudyar S, Singh A, Gupta G (2011b) Experimental model proposed to
deduce pharmacological evidence of the beta-cell neogenesis activity of Argyrolobium roseum
vis-a-vis an evaluation of its hypoglycemic activity. Int J Appl Basic Med Res 1:97
Gupta R, Sharma AK, Dobhal M, Sharma M, Gupta R (2011c) Antidiabetic and antioxidant poten-
tial of β-sitosterol in streptozotocin-induced experimental hyperglycemia. J Diabetes 3:29–37
Gupta D, Chandrashekar K, Lobo R, Nayak Y, Gupta N (2012a) In-vitro Antidiabetic activity of
stem bark of Bauhinia purpurea Linn. Der Pharma Lett 4:614–619
Gupta R, Mathur M, Bajaj VK, Katariya P, Yadav S, Kamal R, Gupta RS (2012b) Evaluation of
antidiabetic and antioxidant activity of Moringa oleifera in experimental diabetes. J Diabetes
4:164–171
Gupta D, Kondongala SC, Pai GK (2013) In vitro Antidiabetic activity of Pentacyclic tritrpenoids
and fatty acid esters from Bauhinia Purpurea. Int J Pharma Pharma Technol 2:25–28
Gupta M, Singh A, Joshi HC (2015) Berberis Lycium multipotential medicinal application: An
overview. IJCS 3:10–13
Gurudeeban S, Ramanathan T (2010) Antidiabetic effect of Citrullus colocynthis in alloxon-
induced diabetic rats. Inventi Rapid: Ethnopharmacol 1:112
Haeri MR, Limaki HK, White CJB, White KN (2012) Non-insulin dependent anti-diabetic
activity of (2S, 3R, 4S) 4-hydroxyisoleucine of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) in
streptozotocin-induced type I diabetic rats. Phytomedicine 19:571–574
Hamayun M, Khan SA, Sohn EY, Lee I-J (2006) Folk medicinal knowledge and conservation status
of some economically valued medicinal plants of District Swat, Pakistan. Lyonia 11:101–113
Hammed A, Abdel-Azim N, Ismail S, Hammouda F (2007) Chemical investigation of some
Capparis species growing in Egypt and their antioxidant activity. Planta Med 73:380
Hannan J, Marenah L, Ali L, Rokeya B, Flatt P, Abdel-Wahab Y (2006) Ocimum sanctum leaf
extracts stimulate insulin secretion from perfused pancreas, isolated islets and clonal pancreatic
β-cells. J Endocrinol 189:127–136
Haq F, Ahmad H, Alam M (2011) Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catch-
ment (District Battagram), Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 5:39–48
Haque S, Naznine T, Ali M, Azad TT, Morshed T, Afsana NA, Ahmed I, Rahmatullah M (2013)
Antihyperglycemic activities of leaves of Brassica oleracea, Centella asiatica and Zizyphus
mauritiana: Evaluation through oral glucose tolerance tests. Adv Nat Appl Sci 7:519–526
Haridasan K (2001). Ethnobotanical studies in Arunachal Pradesh - A Status Report, In:
Ethnomedicine of North East India, NISCAIR, New Delhi, p. 54–169
Hashmi MA, Khan A, Ayub K, Farooq U (2014) Spectroscopic and density functional theory stud-
ies of 5, 7, 3′, 5′-tetrahydroxyflavanone from the leaves of Olea ferruginea. Spectrochim Acta
Part A: Mol Biomol Spectrosc 128:225–230
Hashmi MA, Shah HS, Khan A, Farooq U, Iqbal J, Ahmad VU, Perveen S (2015) Anticancer and
alkaline phosphatase inhibitory effects of compounds isolated from the leaves of Olea ferru-
ginea royle. Rec Nat Prod 9:164–168
Hatam NA, Whiting DA, Yousif NJ (1989) Cucurbitacin glycosides from Citrullus colocynthis.
Hausen B, Bröhas J, König W, Faasch H, Hahn H, Bruhn G (1987) Allergic and irritant contact
dermatitis from falcarinol and didehydrofalcarinol in common ivy (Hedera helix L.). Contact
Dermatitis 17:1–9
Hayat S, Rahman A-U, Choudhary MI, Khan KM, Latif H, Bayer E (2002) Two new triterpenes
from fern Adiantum incisum. Z Naturforsch B 57:233–238
Hayat MQ, Khan MA, Ashraf M, Jabeen S (2009) Ethnobotany of the genus Artemisia
L.(Asteraceae) in Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl 7:147–162
Hayat MM, Sarwar S, Anjum S, Uzair M, Rasheed HMF, Jabeen Q, Choudhary BA, Ashraf M
(2014) Anti-diabetic and spasmolytic potential of Farsetia hamiltonii Royle from Cholistan
desert. J Ethnopharmacol 156:347–352
Helal E, Mostafa AM, MhMood AF, Kahwash AA (2005) Hypoglycemic and hyperinsulinemic
effects of Ferula assafoetida on diabetic male albino rats. Egypt J Hosp Med 21:95–108
Hemalatha S, Wahi A, Singh P, Chansouria J (2004) Hypoglycemic activity of Withania coagulans
Dunal in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 93:261–264
Heshmati J, Namazi N, Memarzadeh M-R, Taghizadeh M, Kolahdooz F (2015) Nigella sativa oil
affects glucose metabolism and lipid concentrations in patients with type 2 diabetes: A random-
ized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Food Res Int 70:87–93
Hong Z, Gang L, Xiao Yu Z, Chun Ping H, Min K, Shan Cai T (2011) Hyperglycemic effect of
black buckwheat powder on alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Med Plant 2(40-41):44
Hua L, Li Y, Wang F, Lu D-F, Gao K (2012) Biologically active steroids from the aerial parts of
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Fitoterapia 83:1036–1041
Huang C-S, Yin M-C, Chiu L-C (2011) Antihyperglycemic and antioxidative potential of Psidium
guajava fruit in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Food Chem Toxicol 49:2189–2195
Huang B, Wang Z, Park JH, Ryu OH, Choi MK, Lee J-Y, Kang Y-H, Lim SS (2015) Anti-diabetic
effect of purple corn extract on C57BL/KsJ db/db mice. Nutr Res Pract 9:22–29
Hunyadi A, Veres K, Danko B, Kele Z, Weber E, Hetenyi A, Zupko I, Hsieh TJ (2013) In vitro
Anti-diabetic Activity and Chemical Characterization of an Apolar Fraction of Morus alba
Leaf Water Extract. Phytother Res 27:847–851
Hurakadle P, Patil M, Jalalpure S, Manvi F (2009) Effect of Picrorhiza kurroa roots on blood
glucose level on alloxan induced diabetic rats. Afr J Traditional, Complement Altern Med 6:439
Husain SZ, Malik RN, Javaid M, Bibi S (2008) Ethonobotanical properties and uses of medicinal
plants of Morgah biodiversity park, Rawalpindi. Pak J Bot 40:1897–1911
Husain GM, Singh PN, Kumar V (2009) Antidiabetic activity of standardized extract of Picrorhiza
kurroa in rat model of NIDDM. Drug Discov Ther 3:88–92
Husain GM, Rai R, Rai G, Singh HB, Thakur AK, Kumar V (2014) Potential mechanism of anti-
diabetic activity of Picrorhiza kurroa. TANG [Humanitas Medicine] 4:e27
Huseini HF, Darvishzadeh F, Heshmat R, Jafariazar Z, Raza M, Larijani B (2009) The clinical
investigation of Citrullus colocynthis (L.) schrad fruit in treatment of Type II diabetic patients:
a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Phytother Res 23:1186–1189
Huseini HF, Hasani-Rnjbar S, Nayebi N, Heshmat R, Sigaroodi FK, Ahvazi M, Alaei BA,
Kianbakht S (2013) Capparis spinosa L.(Caper) fruit extract in treatment of type 2 diabetic
patients: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Complement Ther Med
21:447–452
Hussain Z, Waheed A, Qureshi RA, Burdi DK, Verspohl EJ, Khan N, Hasan M (2004) The effect of
medicinal plants of Islamabad and Murree region of Pakistan on insulin secretion from INS-1
cells. Phytother Res 18:73–77
Hussain J, Khan AL, Rehman N, Hamayun M, Shah T, Nisar M, Bano T, Shinwari ZK, Lee I
(2009) Proximate and nutrient analysis of selected vegetable species: A case study of Karak
region, Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol 8
Hussain J, Muhammad Z, Ullah R, Khan FU, Ullah I, Khan N, Ali J, Jan S (2010a) Evaluation of
the chemical composition of Sonchus eruca and Sonchus asper. J Am Sci 6:231–235
Hussain J, Munir M, Hassan Z, Bano N, Arshad S, Ahmad VU (2010b) Tanacetamide D: a new
ceramide from Tanacetum artemisioides. Helv Chim Acta 93:350–353
Hussain J, Ullah R, Rehman N, Khan AL, Muhammad Z, Khan FU, Hussain ST, Anwar S (2010c)
Endogenous transitional metal and proximate analysis of selected medicinal plants from
Hussain K, Nisar MF, Majeed A, Nawaz K, Bhatti KH (2010d) Ethnomedicinal survey for impor-
tant plants of Jalalpur Jattan, district Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. Ethnobot Leaflets 2010:11
Hussain I, Bano A, Ullah F (2011) Traditional drug therapies from various medicinal plants of
central karakoram national park, Gilgit-Baltistan Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:79–84
Hussein HM, El-Sayed EM, Said AA (2006) Antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxi-
dant effects of Zizyphus spina christi and Zizyphus jujuba in alloxan diabetic rats. Int J Pharm
2:563–570
Ibegbulem C, Chikezie P (2013) Hypoglycemic properties of ethanolic extracts of Gongronema
latifolium, Aloe perryi, Viscum album and Allium sativum administered to alloxan-induced
diabetic albino rats (Rattus norvegicus). Phcog Commn 3:12
Ibraheim ZZ, Ahmed AS, Gouda YG (2011) Phytochemical and biological studies of Adiantum
capillus-veneris L. Saudi Pharma J 19:65–74
Ibrar M, Ilahi I, Hussain F (2004) Hypoglycemic activity of Hedera helix L. leaves and the pos-
sible mechanism of action. Pak J Bot 35:805–810
Ilango K, Maharajan G, Narasimhan S (2009) Hypoglycemic and Hypolipidemic Activities of
Momordica dioica Roxb Fruit Pulp Extracts on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Int J Health Res
2(2):195–199
Ilango K, Maharajan G, Narasimhan S (2012) Preliminary phytochemical screening and antibac-
terial activity of fruit pulp of Momordica dioica Roxb.(Cucurbitaceae). Afr J Basic Appl Sci
4:12–15
Iranshahi M, Alizadeh M (2012) Antihyperglycemic effect of Asafoetida (Ferula assafoetida
Oleo-Gum-Resin) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. World Appl Sci J 17:157–162
Iranshahy M, Iranshahi M (2011) Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of asafoe-
tida (Ferula assa-foetida oleo-gum-resin)—A review. J Ethnopharmacol 134:1–10
Iriadam M, Musa D, Gumushan H, Baba F (2006) Effects of two Turkish medicinal plants
Artemisia herba-alba and Teucrium polium on blood glucose levels and other biochemical
parameters in rabbits. J Cell Mol Biol 5:19–24
Islam MS, Choi H (2008) Comparative effects of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinale) and garlic
(Allium sativum) investigated in a type 2 diabetes model of rats. J Med Food 11:152–159
Islam M, Azhar I, Usmanghani K (2002) Bioactivity evaluation of Bergenia ciliata. Pak J Pharm
Sci 15:15–33
Islam M, Akhtar MA, Islam M, Hossain M, Alam M, Wahed M, Rahman B, Anisuzzaman A,
Shaheen S, Ahmed M (2009) Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic effects of different fractions of
Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) on normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Sci Res
1:334–344
Ismail HI, Chan KW, Mariod AA, Ismail M (2010) Phenolic content and antioxidant activity of
cantaloupe (Cucumis melo) methanolic extracts. Food Chem 119:643–647
Italo CG, Amanda HF, Diego LR (2009) Physical and chemical characterization of Melia azedar-
ach L. fruit and leaf for use as botanical insecticide. Chil J Agr Res 69(1):38–45
Jafri SA, Hasan SS, Nadeem A, Iqbal J (2011) Hypoglycemic effect of Aloe vera Extract in
alloxan-induced diabetic Albino rats. Med J Islamic World Acad Sci 19:127–130
Jain SK (1989). Medicinal Plants. National Book Trust, New Delhi

Jaiswal D, Rai PK, Kumar A, Watal G (2008) Study of glycemic profile of Cajanus cajan leaves in
experimental rats. IJCB 23:167–170
Jaiswal D, Rai PK, Watal G (2009) Antidiabetic effect of Withania coagulans in experimental rats.
Indian J Clin Biochem 24:88–93
Jaleel CA, Gopi R, Gomathinayagam M, Panneerselvam R (2009) Traditional and non-traditional
plant growth regulators alters phytochemical constituents in Catharanthus roseus. Process
Biochem 44:205–209
Jan S, Khan MR (2016) Antipyretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Kickxia ramosis-
sima. J Ethnopharmacol 182:90–100
Jarald E, Joshi S, Jain D (2009) Antidiabetic activity of extracts and fraction of Zizyphus mauri-
tiana. Pharm Biol 47:328–334
Jayaprakasha G, Singh R, Pereira J, Sakariah K (1997) Limonoids from Citrus reticulata and
their moult inhibiting activity in mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus larvae. Phytochemistry
44:843–846
Jeeva S, Johnson M, Aparna J, Irudayaraj V (2011) Preliminary phytochemical and antibacterial
studies on flowers of selected medicinal plants. Int J Med Arom Plants 1:107–114
Jeppesen PB, Gregersen S, Alstrup K, Hermansen K (2002) Stevioside induces antihyperglycae-
mic, insulinotropic and glucagonostatic effects in vivo: studies in the diabetic Goto-Kakizaki
(GK) rats. Phytomedicine 9:9–14
Jha DK, Panda L, Lavanya P, Ramaiah S, Anbarasu A (2012) Detection and confirmation of alka-
loids in leaves of Justicia adhatoda and bioinformatics approach to elicit its anti-tuberculosis
activity. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 168:980–990
Jiang TF, Lv ZH, Wang YH (2005) Separation and determination of anthraquinones in Cassia
obtusifolia (Leguminosae) by micellar electrokinetic capillary electrophoresis. J Sep Sci
28:2225–2229
Jiang M-Z, Yan H, Wen Y, Li X-M (2011) In vitro and in vivo studies of antioxidant activities of
flavonoids from Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol 5:2079–2085
Jiang C, Li X, Jiao Y, Jiang D, Zhang L, Fan B, Zhang Q (2014) Optimization for ultrasound-
assisted extraction of polysaccharides with antioxidant activity in vitro from the aerial root of
Ficus microcarpa. Carbohydr Polym 110:10–17
Jing P, Zhao S-J, Ruan S-Y, Xie Z-H, Dong Y, Yu LL (2012) Anthocyanin and glucosinolate occur-
rences in the roots of Chinese red radish (Raphanus sativus L.), and their stability to heat and
pH. Food Chem 133:1569–1576
Johnson S, Morgan ED, Peiris CN (1996) Development of the major triterpenoids and oil in the
fruit and seeds of neem (Azadirachta indica). Ann Bot 78:383–388
Joseph B, Raj SJ (2010) Phytopharmacological and phytochemical properties of three Ficus spe-
cies-an overview. Int J Pharm Bio Sci 1:246–253
Jouad H, Maghrani M, Hassani RAE, Eddouks M (2004) Hypoglycemic activity of aqueous extract
of Eucalyptus globulus in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Herbs Spices Mel
Plants 10:19–28
Juárez-Rojop IE, Díaz-Zagoya JC, Ble-Castillo JL, Miranda-Osorio PH, Castell-Rodríguez AE,
Tovilla-Zárate CA, Rodríguez-Hernández A, Aguilar-Mariscal H, Ramón-Frías T, Bermúdez-
Ocaña DY (2012) Hypoglycemic effect of Carica papaya leaves in streptozotocin-induced
diabetic rats. BMC Complement Altern Med 12:1
Kaatabi H, Bamosa AO, Badar A, Al-Elq A, Abou-Hozaifa B, Lebda F, Al-Khadra A, Al-Almaie
S (2015) Nigella sativa improves glycemic control and ameliorates oxidative stress in patients
with type 2 diabetes mellitus: placebo controlled participant blinded clinical trial. PLoS One
10:e0113486
Kadir MF, Sayeed MSB, Shams T, Mia M (2012) Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants
used by Bangladeshi traditional health practitioners in the management of diabetes mellitus.
Kalaskar MG, Surana SJ (2011) Free radical scavenging and hepatoprotective potential of Ficus
microcarpa L. fil. bark extracts. J Nat Med 65:633–640
Kalaskar MG, Surana SJ (2012) Pharmacognostic and phytochemical studies on Ficus Microcarpa
L. fil. Anc Sci Life 32:107
Kamble H, Kandhare AD, Bodhankar S, Mohan V, Thakurdesai P (2013) Effect of low molecular
weight galactomannans from fenugreek seeds on animal models of diabetes mellitus. Biomed
Aging Pathol 3:145–151
Kamiloglu S, Serali O, Unal N, Capanoglu E (2013) Antioxidant activity and polyphenol composi-
tion of black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) products. J Berry Res 3:41–51
Kanwal AMM, Shaukat S, Javed R, Ilyas R (2011a) Exploration of ethnomediciiial values of
imperative plants of District Gujrat, Pakistan. Middle-East J Sci Res 7:397–400
Kanwal S, Ullah N, Haq I, Afzal I, Mirza B (2011b) Antioxidant, antitumor activities and phy-
tochemical investigation of Hedera nepalensis K. Koch, an important medicinal plant from
Kardošová A, Ebringerova A, Alföldi J, Nosál’ová G, Fraňová S, Hřı́balová V (2003) A biologi-
cally active fructan from the roots of Arctium lappa L., var. Herkules. Int J Bio Macromolec
33:135–140
Karthiyayini T, Kumar R, Kumar K, Sahu R, Roy A (2009) Evaluation of antidiabetic and hypo-
lipidemic effect of Cucumis sativus fruit in streptozotocin-induced-diabetic rats. Biomed
Pharmacol J 2:351–355
Kataya HA, Hamza AA (2008) Red cabbage (Brassica oleracea) ameliorates diabetic nephropathy
in rats. J Evid Based Complement Altern Med 5:281–287
Kaushik D, Kaushik P, Khokra S (2015a) Evaluation of antidiabetic potential of Pinus roxburghii
bark extract in alloxan induced diabetic rats. J Pharmacog Nat Prod 1(1):2–5
Kaushik P, Singh G, Khokra SL, Kaushik D (2015b) Bioassay Guided Fractionation and
Î±-Amylase Inhibitory Activity of Flavanoid Isolated from Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Nat Prod
Chem Res 3(4):2–3
Kazmi I, Rahman M, Afzal M, Gupta G, Saleem S, Afzal O, Shaharyar MA, Nautiyal U, Ahmed
S, Anwar F (2012) Anti-diabetic potential of ursolic acid stearoyl glucoside: a new triterpenic
gycosidic ester from Lantana camara. Fitoterapia 83:142–146
Khalik SA, Miyase T, El-Ashaal HA, Melek F (2000) Triterpenoid saponins from Fagonia cretica.
Khalil EA (2004) Antidiabetic effect of an aqueous extract of Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.)
peels in normal and alloxan diabetic rats. EJHM 16:92–99
Khan SW, Khatoon S (2008) Ethnobotanical studies on some useful herbs of Haramosh and
Bugrote valleys in Gilgit, northern areas of Pakistan. Pak J Bot 40:43
Khan SA, Khan L, Hussain I, Marwat KB, Akhtar N (2008) Profile of heavy metals in selected
medicinal plants. PJWSR 14:101–110
Khan ZI, Nahar B, Jakaria A, Rahman S, Chowdhury MH, Rahmatullah M (2010) Oxid Med Cell
Longev 2015
Khan MA, Ali M, Alam P (2010a) Phytochemical investigation of the fruit peels of Citrus reticu-
lata Blanco. Nat Prod Res 24:610–620
Khan KY, Khan MA, Niamat R, Munir M, Fazal H, Mazari P, Seema N, Bashir T, Kanwal A,
Ahmed SN (2011) Element content analysis of plants of genus Ficus using atomic absorption
spectrometer. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol 5:317–321
Khan KY, Khan MA, Niamat R, Shah GM, Fazal H, Seema N, Hussain I, Ahmad I, Inayat H, Jan G
(2012a) Elemental content of some anti-diabetic ethnomedicinal species of genus Ficus Linn.
using atomic absorption spectrophotometry technique. J Med Plant Res 6:2136–2140
Khan RA, Khan MR, Sahreen S, Ahmed M (2012b) Assessment of flavonoids contents and in vitro
antioxidant activity of Launaea procumbens. Chem Central J 6:43
Khan RA, Khan MR, Sahreen S, Ahmed M (2012c) Evaluation of phenolic contents and antioxi-
dant activity of various solvent extracts of Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Chem Cent J 6:12
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Ahmad M, Harper DM (2013a) Medicinal flora
and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol
Khan SU, Khan RU, Mehmood S, Sherwani SK, Muhammad A, Bokhari TZ, Khan A, Ullah I
(2013b) Medicinally important underground fruit and leafy vegetables of frontier regions of
Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Eur Acad Res 1(7):1613–1623
Khan MA, Marwat KB, Gul B, Wahid F, Khan H, Hashim S (2014a) Pistia stratiotes L.(Araceae):
Phytochemistry, use in medicines, phytoremediation, biogas and management options. Pak
J Bot 46:851–860
Khan MF, Rawat AK, Pawar B, Gautam S, Srivastava AK, Negi DS (2014b) Bioactivity-guided
chemical analysis of Melia azedarach L.(Meliaceae), displaying antidiabetic activity.
Khan AA, Ali F, Ihsan M, Hayat K, Nabi G (2015) Ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants of
Tehsil Charbagh, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Am Eurasian Agric Environ
Sci 15:1464–1474
Khanfar MA, Sabri SS, Abu Zarga MH, Zeller K-P (2003) The chemical constituents of Capparis
spinosa of Jordanian origin. Nat Prod Res 17:9–14
Khattab HA, El-Shitany NA, Abdallah IZ, Yousef FM, Alkreathy HM (2015) Antihyperglycemic
potential of Grewia asiatica fruit extract against streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemia in rats:
anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms. J Chem Soc Pak 33(2):188–192
Khattak MI, Khattak MI (2011) Study of heavy trace metals in some medicinal–herbal plants of
Khosa MK, Hussain A, Riaz H, Aslam K, Chatha S, Zia K (2011) Spectrophotometric quantifi-
cation of antioxidant phytochemicals in juices from four different varieties of Citrus limon,
Indigenous to Pakistan. .An evaluation of antihyperglycemic and antinociceptive effects of
methanol extract of Cassia fistula l.(Fabaceae) leaves in Swiss albino mice. Adv Nat Appl Sci
4:305–311
Khushk I, Dahot M, Baloach S, Bhutto M (2010) The evaluation of soybean extracts in alloxan-
induced diabetic rabbits. World Appl Sci J 8:22–25
Kim S, Rhyu D, Yokozawa T, Park J (2007) Antioxidant Effect of Alisma plantago-aquatica var.
orientale and its main component. Korean J Pharmacogn 38(4):372–375
Kosta S, Dangi C, Shekhar C, Kaur M, Malviya S, Tiwari M, Khan SK, Kapoor S (2015) Novel
anti-diabetic formula: Recover Islet β-Cell dysfunction with the implementation of molecular
approach. Int J Adv Sci Res 1:71–79
Koti B, Biradar S, Karadi R, Taranalli A, Benade V (2009) Effect of Bauhinia variegate bark
extract on blood glucose level in normal and alloxanised diabetic rats. J Nat Remedies 9:27–34
Kraml MM, Dicosmo F (1993) A rapid high performance liquid chromatographic method for the
separation of the alkaloid precursor L-tyrosine and six tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids of
Papaver somniferum. Phytochem Anal 4:103–104
Krawinkel MB, Keding GB (2006) Bitter gourd (Momordica Charantia): a dietary approach to
hyperglycemia. Nutr Rev 64:331–337
Krishnaveni M, Mirunalini S, Karthishwaran K, Dhamodharan G (2010) Antidiabetic and anti-
hyperlipidemic properties of Phyllanthus emblica Linn.(Euphorbiaceae) on streptozotocin
induced diabetic rats. Pak J Nutr 9:43–51
Kujur R, Singh V, Ram M, Yadava HN, Singh K, Kumari S, Roy B (2010) Antidiabetic activity and
phytochemical screening of crude extract of Stevia Rebaudiana in alloxan-induced diabetiis
rats. Pharm J 2:27–32
Kumar KA, Maheshwari M, Sivashanmugam A, Devi VS, Prasanth N, Ravi T (2007) Hypoglycemic
effect of Ficus microcarpa leaves (Chinese banyan) on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Biol Sci
7:321–326
Kumar A, Ilavarasan R, Jayachandran T, Deecaraman M, Aravindan P, Padmanabhan N, Krishan
M (2008) Anti-diabetic activity of Syzygium cumini and its isolated compound against
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Med Plant Res 2:246–249
Kumar A, Shukla R, Singh P, Dubey NK (2010a) Chemical composition, antifungal and antiafla-
toxigenic activities of Ocimum sanctum L. essential oil and its safety assessment as plant based
antimicrobial. Food Chem Toxicol 48:539–543
Kumar S, Malhotra R, Kumar D (2010b) Antidiabetic and free radicals scavenging potential of
Euphorbia hirta flower extract. Indian J Pharm Sci 72:533
Kumar P, Baraiya S, Gaidhani S, Gupta M, Wanjari MM (2012) Antidiabetic activity of stem bark
of Bauhinia variegata in alloxan-induced hyperglycemic rats. J Pharmacol Pharmacother 3:64
Kumar V, Chauhan RS, Sood H, Tandon C (2015) Cost effective quantification of picrosides in
Picrorhiza kurroa by employing response surface methodology using HPLC-UV. J Plant
Biochem Biotechnol 24:376–384
Kumari K, Augusti K (2002) Antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide
isolated from onions (Allium cepa Linn) as compared to standard drugs in alloxan diabetic rats.
Indian J Exp Biol 40:1005–1009
Kumari A, Kakkar P (2008) Screening of antioxidant potential of selected barks of Indian medici-
nal plants by multiple in vitro assays. Biomed Environ Sci 21:24–29
Kupchan SM, Patel A, Fujita E (1965) Tumor inhibitors VI. Cissampareine, new cytotoxic alka-
loid from Cissampelos pareira. Cytotoxicity of bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids. J Pharm Sci
54:580–583
Kwon Y-I, Apostolidis E, Shetty K (2008) In vitro studies of eggplant (Solanum melongena) phe-
nolics as inhibitors of key enzymes relevant for type 2 diabetes and hypertension. Bioresour
Technol 99:2981–2988
Lan K, X-h J, Ren J (2004) Determination of total flavones, quercetin and isorhamnetin of
Hippophae rhamnoides sustained release capsules. West China J Pharm Sci 19:41–43
Larkin PJ, Miller JA, Allen RS, Chitty JA, Gerlach WL, Frick S, Kutchan TM, Fist AJ (2007)
Increasing morphinan alkaloid production by over-expressing codeinone reductase in trans-
genic Papaver somniferum. Plant Biotechnol J 5:26–37
Latha R, Jansy S, Sarkar T (2015) Evaluation of antimicrobial efficiency and αlpha-glucosidase
inhibition of Rubus ellipticus smith. leaf extracts and its phytochemical analysis. Asian J Pharm
Clin Res:8
Lawal OA, Oyedeji AO (2009) Chemical composition of the essential oils of Cyperus rotundus L.
from South Africa. Molecules 14:2909–2917
Lawrence T, Gunasekaran S (2014) Isolation, molecular structural estimation and character-
ized by FTIR, UV, Visible and GCMS Data of (9-Benzyl-9H-carbazole-3, 6-diyl) bis (2,
1-7ethynediyl-1, 5-cyclohexadien-1-yl-4-ylidene)-dimethanone alkaloid from Rubus ellipticus
and with Theoretical Conformational Analysis. J Chem Biol Phys Sci 4:2445
Lazreg-Aref H, Mars M, Fekih A, Aouni M, Said K (2012) Chemical composition and antibacte-
rial activity of a hexane extract of Tunisian caprifig latex from the unripe fruit of Ficus carica.
Pharm Biol 50:407–412
Lee S-H, Tanaka T, G-i N, Nishioka I (1990) Hydrolysable tannins from Euphorbia thymifolia.
Lee CK, Lee PH, Kuo YH (2001) The chemical constituents from the aril of Cassia fistula L. J
Chin Chem Soc 48:1053–1058
Lee M-S, Chen C-J, Wan L, Koizumi A, Chang W-T, Yang M-J, Lin W-H, Tsai F-J, Lin M-K
(2011) Quercetin is increased in heat-processed Cuscuta campestris seeds, which enhances
the seed’s anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activities. Process Biochem 46:2248–2254
Lee Y-J, Thiruvengadam M, Chung I-M, Nagella P (2013) Polyphenol composition and antioxi-
dant activity from the vegetable plant Artemisia absinthium L. Aust J Crop Sci 7:1921
Li F-L, Yu L (2011) Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of polysaccharides form Portulaca
oleracea L.[J]. China Food Addit 1:008
Li J, Gong F, Li F (2016) Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of flavonoids from tatary buck-
wheat in type 2 diabetic rats. Biomed Res
Lim T (2012) Monstera deliciosa. Edible medicinal and non-medicinal plants. Springer, Berlin,
pp 252–256
Liu C-T, Wong P-L, Lii C-K, Hse H, Sheen L-Y (2006) Antidiabetic effect of garlic oil but not dial-
lyl disulfide in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Food Chem Toxicol 44:1377–1384
Liu C, Zhang H, Dai Z, Liu X, Liu Y, Deng X, Chen F, Xu J (2012) Volatile chemical and carot-
enoid profiles in watermelons [Citrullus vulgaris (Thunb.) Schrad (Cucurbitaceae)] with differ-
ent flesh colors. Food Sci Biotechnol 21:531–541
Liu W, Wang J, Zhang Z, Xu J, Xie Z, Slavin M, Gao X (2014) In vitro and in vivo antioxidant
activity of a fructan from the roots of Arctium lappa L. Int J Biol Macromol 65:446–453
Liyanage R, Rizliya V, Jayathilake C, Jayawardana B, Vidanarachchi J (2015) Hypolipidemic
activity and hypoglycemic effects of banana blossom (Musa acuminate Colla) incorporated
experimental diets in Wistar rats. Cholestrol:1–6
Lo Scalzo R, Fibiani M, Mennella G, Rotino GL, Dal Sasso M, Culici M, Spallino A, Braga PC
(2010) Thermal treatment of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) increases the antioxidant con-
tent and the inhibitory effect on human neutrophil burst. J Agric Food Chem 58:3371–3379
Lu Y, Luo J, Kong L (2011) Steroidal alkaloid saponins and steroidal saponins from Solanum
surattense. Phytochemistry 72:668–673
Lulekal E, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E, Van Damme P (2013) Ethnomedicinal study of plants used for
human ailments in Ankober District, North Shewa Zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol
Ethnomed 9:1
Luo W, Wen L, Zhao M, Yang B, Ren J, Shen G, Rao G (2012) Structural identification of isomal-
lotusinin and other phenolics in Phyllanthus emblica L. fruit hull. Food Chem 132:1527–1533
Maghrani M, Zeggwagh N-A, Lemhadri A, El Amraoui M, Michel J-B, Eddouks M (2004) Study
of the hypoglycaemic activity of Fraxinus excelsior and Silybum marianum in an animal model
of type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Ethnopharmacol 91:309–316
Mahajan R, Badgujar S (2008) Phytochemical investigations of some laticiferous plants belonging
to Khandesh region of Maharashtra. Ethnobot Leaflets 2008:151
Maharana L, Pattnaik S, Kar DM, Sahu PK, Si SC (2010) Anti-hyperglycemic potential of aqueous
extract of leaves of Solanum nigrum Linn. Der Pharma Lettre 2
Mahboubi M (2015) Rosa damascena as holy ancient herb with novel applications. J Trad
Complement Med 6(1):10–16
Mahfoudhi A, Prencipe FP, Mighri Z, Pellati F (2014) Metabolite profiling of polyphenols in the
Tunisian plant Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. J Pharm Biomed Anal 99:97–105
Mahmood T, Muhammad S, Shinwari ZK (2010) Molecular and morphological characterization of
Caralluma species. Pak J Bot 42:1163–1171
Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Tabassum A (2011) Ethnomedicinal survey of plants from District
Sialkot, Pakistan. J Appl Pharmacol 2:212–220
Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 143:338–346
Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN, Shinwari ZK (2013) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal
plants from Gujranwala district, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 148:714–723
Mahmoudzadeh-Sagheb H, Heidari Z, Bokaeian M, Moudi B (2010) Antidiabetic effects of
Eucalyptus globulus on pancreatic islets: a stereological study. Folia Morphol (Warsz)
69:112–118
Mainasara M, Aliero B, Aliero A, Yakubu M (2012) Phytochemical and antibacterial properties of
root and leaf extracts of Calotropis procera. Nigerian J Basic Appl Sci 20:1–6
Maity C, Mandal B (1990) Chemical and nutritional studies on the seed oil of Acacia arabica.
J Am Oil Chem Soc 67:433–434
Majekodunmi SO, Oyagbemi AA, Umukoro S, Odeku OA (2011) Evaluation of the anti–diabetic
properties of Mucuna pruriens seed extract. Asian Pac J Trop Med 4:632–636
Manase MJ, Mitaine-Offer A-C, Pertuit D, Miyamoto T, Tanaka C, Delemasure S, Dutartre P,
Mirjolet J-F, Duchamp O, Lacaille-Dubois M-A (2012) Solanum incanum and S. heteracan-
thum as sources of biologically active steroid glycosides: Confirmation of their synonymy.
Maniyar Y, Bhixavatimath P (2012) Antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic activities of aqueous
extract of Carica papaya Linn. leaves in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Ayur Integr Med 3:70
Manvar MN, Desai T (2012) Vernonia anthelmintica Willd: an overview on phytopharmacological
properties. Inventi Rapid: Ethnopharmacol 2012(4):1–4
Marles R, Farnsworth N (1995) Antidiabetic plants and their active constituents. Phytomedicine
2:137–189
Marwat SK, Fazal-Ur-Rehman M, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Ghulam S (2011) Medicinal folk reci-
pes used as traditional phytotherapies in district Dera Ismail Khan, KPK, Pakistan. Pak J Bot
43:1453–1462
Matasyoh J, Maiyo Z, Ngure R, Chepkorir R (2009) Chemical composition and antimicrobial
activity of the essential oil of Coriandrum sativum. Food Chem 113:526–529
Mathela C, Kharkwal H, Shah G (1994) Essential oil composition of some Himalayan Artemisia
species. J Essent Oil Res 6:345–348
Matthäus B, Özcan M (2005) Glucosinolates and fatty acid, sterol, and tocopherol composition of
seed oils from Capparis spinosa Var. spinosa and Capparis ovata Desf. Var. canescens (Coss.)
Heywood. J Agric Food Chem 53:7136–7141
Mazhar F, Khanum R, Ajaib M, Jahangir M (2015) Potent AChE enzyme inhibition activity of
Zizyphus oxyphylla: A new source of antioxidant compounds. Pak J Pharm Sci 1:2053–2059
Mazumdar S, Akter R, Talukder D (2015) Antidiabetic and antidiarrhoeal effects on ethanolic
extract of Psidium guajava (L.) bat. leaves in wister rats. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 5:10–14
Meenu J, Sunil S, Manoj K (2011) Evaluation of antihyperglycemic activity of Dodonaea viscosa
leaves in normal and STZ-diabetic rats. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci 3:69–74
Mehmood F, Zaheer-ud-din K, Shahzadi P, Yaseen T, Mughal TA, Raza SH, Qasim M (2013) A
comparative study of in vitro total antioxidant, in vivo antidiabetic and antimicrobial activities
of essential oils from leaves and rind of Citrus reticulata Blanco cv. Murcot (Honey). Pak J Bot
45:1571–1576
Melchini A, Traka MH (2010) Biological profile of erucin: a new promising anticancer agent from
cruciferous vegetables. Toxins 2:593–612
Menezes EW, Tadini CC, Tribess TB, Zuleta A, Binaghi J, Pak N, Vera G, Dan MCT, Bertolini
AC, Cordenunsi BR (2011) Chemical composition and nutritional value of unripe banana flour
(Musa acuminata, var. Nanicão). Plant Foods Hum Nutr 66:231–237
Menichini F, Loizzo MR, Bonesi M, Conforti F, De Luca D, Statti GA, de Cindio B, Menichini
F, Tundis R (2011) Phytochemical profile, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hypoglycemic
potential of hydroalcoholic extracts from Citrus medica L. cv Diamante flowers, leaves and
fruits at two maturity stages. Food Chem Toxicol 49:1549–1555
Meonah SS, Palaniswamy M, Keerthy S, Rajkumar LP, Nandhini RU (2012) Pharmacognostical
and hypoglycemic activity of different parts of Solanum nigrum Linn plant. Int J Pharm Pharm
Sci 4:221–224
Mesfin F, Demissew S, Teklehaymanot T (2009) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in
Wonago Woreda, SNNPR, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 5(28):1–18
Metwally A, Omar A, Harraz F, El Sohafy S (2010) Phytochemical investigation and antimicrobial
activity of Psidium guajava L. leaves. Pharmacogn Mag 6:212
Minaiyan M, Ghannadi A, Movahedian A, Hakim-Elahi I (2014) Effect of Hordeum vulgare
L.(Barley) on blood glucose levels of normal and STZ-induced diabetic rats. Res Pharmaceut
Sci 9:173
Mishra GJ, Reddy M, Rana JS (2012) Isolation of flavonoid constituent from Launaea procumbens
Roxb. by preparative HPTLC method. IOSR J Pharm 2:5–11
Misra L, Mishra P, Pandey A, Sangwan RS, Sangwan NS, Tuli R (2008) Withanolides from
Withania somnifera roots. Phytochemistry 69:1000–1004
Miura T, Itoh C, Iwamoto N, Kato M, Kawai M, Park SR, Suzuki I (2001) Hypoglycemic activity of
the fruit of the Momordica charantia in type 2 diabetic mice. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 47:340–344
Miyake Y, Murakami A, Sugiyama Y, Isobe M, Koshimizu K, Ohigashi H (1999) Identification of
coumarins from lemon fruit (Citrus limon) as inhibitors of in vitro tumor promotion and super-
oxide and nitric oxide generation. J Agric Food Chem 47:3151–3157
Miyazawa M, Maehara T, Kurose K (2002) Composition of the essential oil from the leaves of
Eruca sativa. Fla Frag J 17:187–190
Mizokami H, Tomita-Yokotani K, Yoshitama K (2008) Flavonoids in the leaves of Oxalis cor-
niculata and sequestration of the flavonoids in the wing scales of the pale grass blue butterfly,
Pseudozizeeria maha. J Plant Res 121:133–136
Mkaddem M, Bouajila J, Ennajar M, Lebrihi A, Mathieu F, Romdhane M (2009) Chemical compo-

sition and antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Mentha (longifolia L. and viridis) essen-
tial oils. J Food Sci 74:M358–M363
Modak M, Dixit P, Londhe J, Ghaskadbi S, Devasagayam TPA (2007) Indian herbs and herbal
drugs used for the treatment of diabetes. J Clin Biochem Nutr 40:163–173
Modey WK, Mulholland DA, Mahomed H, Raynor MW (1996) Analysis of extracts from Cedrela
toona (meliaceae) by on-line and off-line supercritical fluid extraction-capillary gas chroma-
tography. J Microcol Separat 8:67–74
Mohamed A, El-Sayed MA, Hegazy ME, Helaly SE, Esmail AM, Mohamed NS (2010) Chemical
constituents and biological activities of Artemisia herba-alba. Rec Nat Prod 4:1–25
Mohani N, Ahmad M, Jahan N (2014) Evaluation of phytoconstituents of three plants Acorus cala-
mus Linn. Artemisia absinthium Linn and Bergenia himalaica boriss by FTIR spectroscopic
analysis. Pak J Pharm Sci 27(6):2251–2255
Mojab F, Kamalinejad M, Ghaderi N, Vahidipour HR (2010) Phytochemical screening of some
species of Iranian plants. Iran J Pharm Res 2:77–82
Mootoosamy A, Mahomoodally MF (2014) Ethnomedicinal application of native remedies used
against diabetes and related complications in Mauritius. J Ethnopharmacol 151:413–444
Muhammad A, Ayub M, Zeb A, Durrani Y, Ullah J, Afridi S (2011) Physicochemical analysis of
apple pulp from Mashaday variety during storage. Agric Biol J N Am 2(2):192–196
Mukherjee K, Bhattacharjee P (1987) Glut-5 (10)-en-3-one from Andrachne cordifolia.
Mukherjee K, Bhattacharjee P, Mukherjee R, Ghosh P (1986) A triterpenoid of Andrachne cordi-
folia. Phytochemistry 25:2669–2670
Mukherjee PK, Maiti K, Mukherjee K, Houghton PJ (2006) Leads from Indian medicinal plants
with hypoglycemic potentials. J Ethnopharmacol 106:1–28
Murad W, Azizullah A, Adnan M, Tariq A, Khan KU, Waheed S, Ahmad A (2013) Ethnobotanical
assessment of plant resources of Banda Daud Shah, District Karak, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol
Ethnomed 9:77
Murugan M, Reddy C (2009) Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity of leaves of Mucuna pru-
riens in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Int J Curr Res 3(6):323–327
Muruganandan S, Srinivasan K, Gupta S, Gupta P, Lal J (2005) Effect of mangiferin on hypergly-
cemia and atherogenicity in streptozotocin diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 97:497–501
Muthukumran P, Begumand VH, Kalaiarasan P (2011) Anti-diabetic activity of Dodonaea viscosa
(L) leaf extracts. Int J Pharm Tech Res 3:1
Mwonjoria JK, Ngeranwa JJ, Kariuki HN, Githinji CG, Sagini MN, Wambugu SN (2014) Ethno
medicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Solanum incanum (lin.). Int
J Pharmacol Toxicol 2:17–20
Nagao T, Tanaka R, Iwase Y, Hanazono H, Okabe H (1991) Studies on the constituents of Luffa
acutangula Roxb. I. Structures of acutosides A--G, oleanane-type triterpene saponins isolated
from the herb. Chem Pharm Bull 39:599–606
Nagaraju B, Anand S, Ahmed N, Chandra JNS, Ahmed F, Padmavathi G (2012) Antiulcer activity
of aqueous extract of Citrus medica Linn. fruit against ethanol induced ulcer in rats. Adv Biol
Res 6:24–29
Naik R, Harmalkar DS, Xu X, Jang K, Lee K (2015) Bioactive benzofuran derivatives: Moracins
A–Z in medicinal chemistry. Eur J Med Chem 90:379–393
Naim M, Amjad FM, Sultana S, Islam SN, Hossain MA, Begum R, Rashid MA, Amran MS (2012)
Comparative study of antidiabetic activity of hexane-extract of lemon peel (Limon citrus) and
glimepiride in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Bangladesh Pharmaceut J 15:131–134
Nair R, Shukla V, Chanda S (2007) Assessment of Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula for hypogly-
cemic and antihyperglycemic activity. J Clin Diagn Res 1:1–3
Najafi S, Sanadgol N, Nejad BS, Beiragi MA, Sanadgol E (2010) Phytochemical screening and
antibacterial activity of Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad against Staphylococcus aureus.
J Med Plant 4:2321–2325
Nalamolu RK, Boini KM, Nammi S (2007) Effect of chronic administration of Boerhaavia diffusa
Linn. leaf extract on experimental diabetes in rats. Trop J Pharm Res 3:305–309
Nammi S, Boini MK, Lodagala SD, Behara RBS (2003) The juice of fresh leaves of Catharanthus
roseus Linn. reduces blood glucose in normal and alloxan diabetic rabbits. BMC Complement
Altern Med 3:1
Naveen A (2010) Antidiabetic activity of polyherbal formulation in alloxan-induced diabetes mel-
litus. J Pharm Res 3:1119–1120
Nazaruk J, Borzym-Kluczyk M (2015) The role of triterpenes in the management of diabetes mel-
litus and its complications. Phytochem Rev 14:675–690
Nepolean P, Anitha J, Emilin R (2009) Isolation, analysis and identification of phytochemicals of
antimicrobial activity of Moringa oleifera Lam. Current Biotica 3:33–37
Neto L, Mário C, de Vasconcelos CF, Thijan VN, Caldas GF, Araújo AV, Costa-Silva JH, Amorim
EL, Ferreira F, de Oliveira AF (2013) Evaluation of antihyperglycaemic activity of Calotropis
procera leaves extract on streptozotocin-induced diabetes in Wistar rats. Rev Bras Farm
23:913–919
Nile SH, Park SW (2014) Antioxidant, α-Glucosidase and Xanthine Oxidase Inhibitory Activity of
Bioactive Compounds From Maize (Zea mays L.). Chem Bio Drug Des 83:119–125
Niranjan SP, Dharmendra S, Kiran P (2010) Antidiabetic activity of ethanolic extract of Dalbergis
sissoo L. Leaves in Alloxan-Induced diabetic rats. Int J Curr Pharm Res 2(2):24–27
Nirmala A, Eliza J, Rajalakshmi M, Priya E, Daisy P (2008) Effect of hexane extract of Cassia
fistula barks on blood glucose and lipid profile in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Int J Pharm
4:292–296
Nisar M, Adzu B, Inamullah K, Bashir A, Ihsan A, Gilani A (2007) Antinociceptive and antipyretic
activities of the Zizyphus oxyphylla Edgew. leaves. Phytother Res 21:693–695
Nougbodé YAEI, Agbangnan CP, Koudoro AY, Dèdjiho CA, Aïna MP, Mama D, Sohounhloué
DCK (2013) Evaluation of the Opuntia dillenii as natural coagulant in water clarification: case
of treatment of highly turbid surface water. J Water Resource Prot 5:1242
Nowbandegani AS, Kiumarcy S, Rahmani F, Dokouhaki M, Khademian S, Zarshenas MM, Faridi
P (2015) Ethnopharmacological knowledge of Shiraz and Fasa in Fars region of Iran for diabe-
tes mellitus. J Ethnopharmacol 172:281–287
Núñez Sellés AJ, Vélez Castro HT, Agüero-Agüero J, González-González J, Naddeo F, De Simone
F, Rastrelli L (2002) Isolation and quantitative analysis of phenolic antioxidants, free sugars,
and polyols from mango (Mangifera indica L.) stem bark aqueous decoction used in Cuba as a
nutritional supplement. J Agric Food Chem 50:762–766
Oguntoye S, Olatunji G, Kolawole O, Enonbun K (2008) Phytochemical screening and antibacte-
rial activity of Viscum album (Mistletoe) extracts. Plant Sci Res 1:44–46
Ojiako AO, Chidoka C, Chidoka P (2014) Comparative proximate composition and hypoglycemic
properties of three medicinal plants (Verononia amygdalina, Azadirachta indica and Moringa
oleifera). Phcog Commn 4:40
Okolie VU, Okeke EC, Ehiemere OI, Ezenduka OP (2009) Investigation of the effect of Solanum
incanum on postprandial blood glucose concentration of normoglycemic Nigerians. Pak J Nutr
8:1631–1635
Olayaki LA, Irekpita JE, Yakubu MT, Ojo OO (2015) Methanolic extract of Moringa oleifera
leaves improves glucose tolerance, glycogen synthesis and lipid metabolism in alloxan-induced
diabetic rats. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 26:585–593
Oliveira I, Valentão P, Lopes R, Andrade PB, Bento A, Pereira JA (2009) Phytochemical character-
ization and radical scavenging activity of Portulaca oleraceae L. leaves and stems. Microchem
J 92:129–134
Oliveira AP, Silva LR, Ferreres F, Guedes de Pinho P, Pc V, Silva BM, Pereira JA, Andrade PB
(2010) Chemical assessment and in vitro antioxidant capacity of Ficus carica latex. J Agric
Food Chem 58:3393–3398
Oloyede O (2005) Chemical profile of unripe pulp of Carica papaya. Pak J Nutr 4:379–381
Oluwaseun AA, Ganiyu O (2008) Antioxidant properties of methanolic extracts of mistletoes
(Viscum album) from cocoa and cashew trees in Nigeria. Afr J Biotechnol 7(17):3138–3142
Omar NM, Atia GM (2012) Effect of Nigella sativa on pancreatic β-cell damage in streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats: histological and immunohistochemical study. Egypt J Histol 35:106–116
Oputa R, Chinenye S (2012) Diabetes mellitus: a global epidemic with potential solutions. Afr
J Diabetes Med 2(2):33–35
Orhan DD, Aslan M, Sendogdu N, Ergun F, Yesilada E (2005) Evaluation of the hypoglycemic
effect and antioxidant activity of three Viscum album subspecies (European mistletoe) in
streptozotocin-diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 98:95–102
Ortega A, Garcı́a PE, Cárdenas J, Mancera C, Marquina S, del Carmen Garduño ML, Maldonado
E (2001) Methyl dodonates, a new type of diterpenes with a modified clerodane skeleton from
Dodonaea viscosa. Tetrahedron 57:2981–2989
Otsuka H, Akiyama T, Kawai K-I, Shibata S, Inoue O, Ogihara Y (1978) The structure of juju-
bosides A and B, the saponins isolated from the seeds of Zizyphus jujuba. Phytochemistry
17:1349–1352
Pa R, Mathew L (2012) Antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts of Justicia adhatoda L. in compari-
son with vasicine. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2:S1556–S1560
Pandit R, Phadke A, Jagtap A (2010) Antidiabetic effect of Ficus religiosa extract in streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 128:462–466
Panhwar AQ, Abro H (2007) Ethnobotanical studies of Mahal Kohistan (Khirthar National Park).
Pak J Bot 39:2301–2315
Papageorgiou VP, Assimopoulou AN, Couladouros EA, Hepworth D, Nicolaou K (1999) The
chemistry and biology of alkannin, shikonin, and related naphthazarin natural products. Angew
Chem Int Ed 38:270–301
Papageorgiou VP, Assimopoulou AN, Samanidou V, Papadoyannis I (2006) Recent advances
in chemistry, biology and biotechnology of alkannins and shikonins. Curr Org Chem
10:2123–2142
Papi A, Orlandi M, Bartolini G, Barillari J, Iori R, Paolini M, Ferroni F, Grazia Fumo M, Pedulli
GF, Valgimigli L (2008) Cytotoxic and antioxidant activity of 4-methylthio-3-butenyl isothio-
cyanate from Raphanus sativus L. (Kaiware Daikon) sprouts. J Agric Food Chem 56:875–883
Pari L, Satheesh MA (2004) Antidiabetic activity of Boerhaavia diffusa L.: effect on hepatic key
enzymes in experimental diabetes. J Ethnopharmacol 91:109–113
Parikh NH, Parikh PK, Kothari C (2014) Indigenous plant medicines for health care: treatment of
Diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidemia. Chin J Nat Med 12:335–344
Parmar HS, Kar A (2007) Antidiabetic potential of Citrus sinensis and Punica granatum peel
extracts in alloxan treated male mice. Biofactors 31:17–24
Parveen A, Irfan M, Mohammad F (2012) Antihyperglycemic activity in Grewia asiatica, a com-
parative investigation. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci 4:210–213
Patel VS, Chitra V, Prasanna PL, Krishnaraju V (2008) Hypoglycemic effect of aqueous extract
of Parthenium hysterophorus L. in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rats. Indian J Pharm
40(4):183–185
Patel J, Kumar G, Deviprasad S, Deepika S, Qureshi MS (2011) Phytochemical and anthelmintic
evaluation of Lantana camara (L.) Var. Aculeate leaves against pheretima posthuma. JGTPS
2:11–20
Patel CA, Divakar K, Santani D, Solanki HK, Thakkar JH (2012a) Remedial prospective of
Hippophaë rhamnoides Linn. (sea buckthorn). ISRN Pharmacol 2012:436857
Patel D, Prasad S, Kumar R, Hemalatha S (2012b) An overview on antidiabetic medicinal plants
having insulin mimetic property. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2:320–330
Patil RN, Patil RY, Ahirwar D (2010) Study of some medicinal plants for antidiabetic activity in
alloxan induced diabetes. Pharmacol Ther 1:53–60
Patil RN, Patil RY, Ahirwar B, Ahirwar D (2011) Evaluation of antidiabetic and related actions of
some Indian medicinal plants in diabetic rats. Asian Pac J Trop Med 4:20–23
Pattanayak P, Behera P, Das D, Panda SK (2010) Ocimum sanctum Linn. A reservoir plant for
therapeutic applications: An overview. Pharmacogn Rev 4:95
Pawlowska AM, Camangi F, Bader A, Braca A (2009) Flavonoids of Zizyphus jujuba L. and
Zizyphus spina-christi (L.) Willd (Rhamnaceae) fruits. Food Chem 112:858–862
Pekamwar S, Kalyankar T, Kokate S (2013) Pharmacological activities of Coccinia grandis:

Review. J Appl Pharmaceut Sci 3:114–119
Pereira AP, Ferreira IC, Marcelino F, Valentão P, Andrade PB, Seabra R, Estevinho L, Bento A,
Pereira JA (2007) Phenolic compounds and antimicrobial activity of olive (Olea europaea
L. Cv. Cobrançosa) leaves. Molecules 12:1153–1162
Persaud S, Al-Majed H, Raman A, Jones P (1999) Gymnema sylvestre stimulates insulin release
in vitro by increased membrane permeability. J Endocrinol 163:207–212
Phoboo S, Pinto MDS, Bhowmik PC, Jha PK, Shetty K (2010) Quantification of major phyto-
chemicals of Swertia chirayita, a medicinal plant from Nepal. Ecoprint 17:59–68
Phoboo S, Pinto MDS, Barbosa ACL, Sarkar D, Bhowmik PC, Jha PK, Shetty K (2013) Phenolic-
linked biochemical rationale for the anti-diabetic properties of Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex
Flem.) Karst. Phytother Res 27:227–235
Porchezhian E, Dobriyal R (2003) An overview on the advances of Gymnema sylvestre: chemistry,
pharmacology and patents. Die Pharmazie-An Int J Pharm Sci 58:5–12
Pramila D, Xavier R, Marimuthu K, Kathiresan S, Khoo M, Senthilkumar M, Sathya K,
Sreeramanan S (2012) Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial potential of methanolic leaf
extract of peppermint (Mentha piperita: Lamiaceae). J Med Plant Res 6:331–335
Prince PSM, Kamalakkannan N, Menon VP (2003) Syzygium cumini seed extracts reduce tissue
damage in diabetic rat brain. J Ethnopharmacol 84:205–209
Prince PSM, Kamalakkannan N, Menon VP (2004) Antidiabetic and antihyperlipidaemic effect of
alcoholic Syzygium cumini seeds in alloxan induced diabetic albino rats. Jl Ethnopharmacology
91:209–213
Priya SE, Ravindhran R (2015) Phytochemical Analysis and antimicrobial properties of extracts
from aerial parts of Phyla nodiflora (L) Greene. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 4:347–358
Quanico JP, Amor EC, Perez GG (2008) Analgesic and hypoglycemicactivities of Bixa orellana,
Kyllinga monocephala and Luffa acutangula. Philipp J Sci 137:69–76
Qunhua C, Weijing Q, Yunxia D, Zhicai Z, Wei N, Yifeng P (2003) Effect of flavonoids from the
seed and fruit residue of Hippophae rhamnoides L. on Glycometabolism in Mice. J Chin Med
Mater 10:020
Qureshi R (2012) Medicinal flora of Hingol National Park, Baluchistan, Pakistan. Pak J Bot
44:725–732
Pakistan. Fitoterapia 79:468–473
Qureshi R, Bhatti G (2009) Folklore uses of Amaranthaceae family from Nara desert, Pakistan.
Pak J Bot 41:1565–1572
Quyen VTL (2013) Evaluation of pharmacological activity of flavonoids in Euphorbia thymifolia
Linn. International University HCMC, Vietnam
Raal A, Arak E, Orav A (2012) The content and composition of the essential oil Found in Carum
carvi L. commercial fruits obtained from different countries. J Essent Oil Res 24:53–59
Raghavendra M, Satish S, Raveesha K (2006) Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity of
Oxalis corniculata; a known medicinal plant. Myscience 1:72–78
Ragupathy S, Steven NG, Maruthakkutti M, Velusamy B, Ul-Huda MM (2008) Consensus of the
‘Malasars’ traditional aboriginal knowledge of medicinal plants in the Velliangiri holy hills,
India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 4:8
Rahmatullah M, Sultan S, Toma T, Lucky S, Chowdhury M, Haque W, Annay E, Jahan R (2010)
Effect of Cuscuta reflexa stem and Calotropis procera leaf extracts on glucose tolerance in
glucose-induced hyperglycemic rats and mice. Afr Tradit Complement Altern Med 7(2):109–112
Rahmatullah M, Hasan S, Ali Z, Rahman S, Jahan R (2012) Antihyperglycemic and antinocicep-
tive activities of methanolic extract of Euphorbia thymifolia L. whole plants. Zhong Xi Yi Jie
He Xue Bao 10:228–232
Rai V, Iyer U, Mani U (1997) Effect of Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) leaf powder supplementation
on blood sugar levels, serum lipids and tissues lipids in diabetic rats. Plant Foods Hum Nutr
50:9–16
Raj SM, Mohammed S, Kumar SV, Debnath S (2012) Antidiabetic effect of Luffa acutangula
fruits and histology of organs in streptozotocin induced diabetic in rats. Res J Pharmacogn
Phytochem 4:64–69
Rajaram N, Janardhanan K (1991) Chemical composition and nutritional potential of the tribal
pulses Bauhinia purpurea, B. racemosa and B. vahlii. J Sci Food Agric 55:423–431
Rajasekaran S, Sivagnanam K, Subramanian S (2005) Antioxidant effect of Aloe vera gel extract
in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats. Pharmacol Rep 57:90–96
Rajasekaran S, Jaykar B, Anandan R (2013) Anti-diabetic activity of leaves of Zizyphus nummu-
laria by dexamethasone induced diabetic rat model. Int J Pharm Tech 5(2):544–551
Ramadan MF, Sharanabasappa G, Seetharam Y, Seshagiri M, Moersel J-T (2006) Characterisation
of fatty acids and bioactive compounds of kachnar (Bauhinia purpurea L.) seed oil. Food Chem
98:359–365
Ramı́rez I, Carabot A, Meléndez P, Carmona J, Jimenez M, Patel AV, Crabb TA, Blunden G, Cary
PD, Croft SL (2003) Cissampeloflavone, a chalcone-flavone dimer from Cissampelos pareira.
Ramkissoon J, Mahomoodally M, Ahmed N, Subratty A (2013) Antioxidant and anti–glycation
activities correlates with phenolic composition of tropical medicinal herbs. Asian Pac J Trop
Med 6:561–569
Rana V, Kumar V, Soni P (2012) Structural characterization of an acidic polysaccharide from
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. leaves. Carbohydr Polym 90:243–250
Rana M, Kumar S, Rana M, Dhatwalia V (2016) Role of Toona ciliata extract in diabetes against
streptozotocin–nicotinamide induced diabetic rats. J Ayu Herb Med 2:6–10
Rani PU, Devanand P (2013) Bioactivities of caffeic acid methyl ester (methyl-(E)-3-(3,
4-dihydroxyphenyl) prop-2-enoate): a hydroxycinnamic acid derivative from Solanum melon-
gena L. fruits. J Pest Sci 86:579–589
Ranjan V, Vats M (2016) Pharmacognostical and physico-chemical standardisation of whole plant
of Adiantum capillus veneris Linn. Int J Pharm Sci Res 7:773
Rao C, Verma A, Gupta P, Vijayakumar M (2007) Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activi-
ties of Fumaria indica whole plant extract in experimental animals. Acta Pharma 57:491–498
Rao GV, Mukhopadhyay T, Annamalai T, Radhakrishnan N, Sahoo M (2011) Chemical constitu-
ents and biological studies of Origanum vulgare Linn. Pharm Res 3:143
Rao VU, Viteesha V, Suma K, Nagababu P (2015) Evaluation of phytochemical constituents, anti-
bacterial and antioxidant activities of Monstera deliciosa Liebm. stem extracts. World J Pharm
Pharm Sci 4(11):1422–1433
Rashid M, Bashir S, Mushtaq MN, Khan HU, Malik MNH, Qayyum A, ur Rahaman MS (2013a)
Comparative hypoglycemic activity of different extracts of Teucrium stocksianum in diabetic
rabbits. Bangladesh J Pharm 8:186–193
Rashid S, Rather MA, Shah WA, Bhat BA (2013b) Chemical composition, antimicrobial, cyto-
toxic and antioxidant activities of the essential oil of Artemisia indica Willd. Food Chem
138:693–700
Rasineni K, Bellamkonda R, Singareddy SR, Desireddy S (2010) Antihyperglycemic activity of
Catharanthus roseus leaf powder in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Pharm Res 2:195
Rastogi S, Pandey M, Rawat A (2007) A new, convenient method for determination of mangiferin,
an anti-diabetic compound, in Mangifera indica L. J Planar Chromat 20:317–320
Rathee S, Mogla O, Sardana S, Vats M, Rathee P (2010) Antidiabetic activity of Capparis decidua
Forsk Edgew. J Pharm Res 3:231–234
Rather MA, Dar BA, Sofi SN, Bhat BA, Qurishi MA (2012) Foeniculum vulgare: a comprehen-
sive review of its traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and safety. Arab J Chem
9(2):S1574–S1583
Ratnasooriya W, Jayakody J, Hettiarachchi H (2004) Cassia fistula and hypoglycaemia. AJMH
16:8
Rauf A, Jan M, Rehman W, Muhammad N (2013) Phytochemical, phytotoxic and antioxidant pro-
file of Caralluma tuberculata NE Brown. Wudpecker J Pharm Pharmacol 2:21–25
Raut NA, Gaikwad NJ (2006) Antidiabetic activity of hydro-ethanolic extract of Cyperus rotundus
in alloxan induced diabetes in rats. Fitoterapia 77:585–588
Reddy MV, Reddy MK, Gunasekar D, Caux C, Bodo B (2003) A flavanone and a dihydrodiben-
zoxepin from Bauhinia variegata. Phytochemistry 64:879–882
Riya MP, Antu KA, Pal S, Chandrakanth KC, Anilkumar KS, Tamrakar AK, Srivastava AK,
Raghu KG (2015) Antidiabetic property of Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. is mediated by
inhibition of alpha glucosidase, protein glycation and stimulation of adipogenesis. J Diabetes
7(4):548–561
Rizwani GH, Aslam M, Ahmad M, Usmanghani K, Ahmad V (1993a) Lipid components of
Caralluma edulis (edgew.) hook. Pak J Pharm Sci 6:19–27
Rizwani GH, Usmanghani K, Ahmad M, Ahmad VU (1993b) Pregnane glycosides from Caralluma
tuberculata. Nat Prod Lett 2:97–104
Rodriguez SC, López B, Chaves AR (1999) Changes in polyamines and ethylene during the
development and ripening of eggplant fruits (Solanum melongena). J Agric Food Chem
47:1431–1434
Romeo V, Ziino M, Giuffrida D, Condurso C, Verzera A (2007) Flavour profile of capers (Capparis
spinosa L.) from the Eolian Archipelago by HS-SPME/GC–MS. Food Chem 101:1272–1278
Roy S, Sehgal R, Padhy B, Kumar V (2005) Antioxidant and protective effect of latex of Calotropis
procera against alloxan-induced diabetes in rats. J Ethnopharmacol 102:470–473
Sabeen M, Ahmad SS (2009) Exploring the folk medicinal flora of Abbotabad city, Pakistan.
Sachan NK, Kumar Y, Pushkar S, Thakur R, Gangwar SS, Kalaichelvan V (2009) Antidiabetic
potential of alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Ficus racemosa Linn. bark in normal and alloxan
induced diabetic rats. Int J Pharm Sci Drug Res 1:24–27
Sadiq S, Nagi AH, Shahzad M, Zia A (2010) The reno-protective effect of aqueous extract of
Carum carvi (black zeera) seeds in streptozotocin induced diabetic nephropathy in rodents.
Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 21:1058
Saeed MA, Sabir A (1999) Effects of Fagonia cretica L. constituents on various endocrinological
parameters in rabbits. Turk J Biol 23:187–198
Safithri M, Sari YP (2016) Inhibition of α-glucosidase activity by ethanolic extract of Melia aze-
darach L. leaves. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. IOP Publishing,
Bristol, p 012025
Sagratini G, Cristalli G, Giardinà D, Gioventù G, Maggi F, Ricciutelli M, Vittori S (2008)
Alkannin/shikonin mixture from roots of Onosma echioides (L.) L.: Extraction method study
and quantification. J Sep Sci 31:945–952
Şahin F, Güllüce M, Daferera D, Sökmen A, Sökmen M, Polissiou M, Agar G, Özer H (2004)
Biological activities of the essential oils and methanol extract of Origanum vulgare ssp. vul-
gare in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey. Food Control 15:549–557
Said O, Fulder S, Khalil K, Azaizeh H, Kassis E, Saad B (2008) Maintaining a physiological blood
glucose level with ‘glucolevel’, a combination of four anti-diabetes plants used in the tradi-
tional Arab herbal medicine. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 5:421–428
Sakat S, Tupe P, Juvekar A (2012) Gastroprotective effect of Oxalis corniculata (whole plant) on
experimentally induced gastric ulceration in Wistar rats. Indian J Pharm Sci 74:48
Saklani S, Chandra S (2012) Phytochemical Screening of Garhwal Himalaya Wild Edible Fruit
Ficus palmata. Int J Pharm Tech Res 4:1185–1191
Saleem R, Ahmad M, Hussain SA, Qazi AM, Ahmad SI, Qazi MH, Ali M, Faizi S, Akhtar S,
Husnain SN (1999) Hypotensive, hypoglycaemic and toxicological studies on the flavonol
C-glycoside shamimin from Bombax ceiba. Planta Med 65:331–334
Saleem S, Jafri L, ul Haq I, Chang LC, Calderwood D, Green BD, Mirza B (2014) Plants Fagonia
cretica L. and Hedera nepalensis K. Koch contain natural compounds with potent dipeptidyl
peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitory activity. J Ethnopharmacol 156:26–32
Salem A, Olivares M, Lopez S, Gonzalez-Ronquillo M, Rojo R, Camacho L, Cerrillo S, Mejia H
(2011a) Effect of natural extracts of Salix babylonica and Leucaena leucocephala on nutrient
digestibility and growth performance of lambs. Anim Feed Sci Technol 170:27–34
Salem A, Salem M, Gonzalez-Ronquillo M, Camacho L, Cipriano M (2011b) Major chemical con-

stituents of Leucaena leucocephala and Salix babylonica leaf extracts. J Trop Agric 49:95–98
Samarghandian S, Borji A, Hidar Tabasi S (2013) Effects of Cichorium intybus Linn on blood
glucose, lipid constituents and selected oxidative stress parameters in streptozotocin-induced
diabetic rats. Cardiovasc Haematol Disord-Drug Targets 13:231–236
Samejo M, Memon S, Bhanger M, Khan K (2012) Chemical composition of essential oils from
Alhagi maurorum. Chem Nat Compd 48:1–3
Sánchez-González M, Lozano-Mena G, Juan ME, García-Granados A, Planas JM (2013) Liquid
chromatography–mass spectrometry determination in plasma of maslinic acid, a bioactive
compound from Olea europaea L. Food Chem 141:4375–4381
Saneja A, Sharma C, Aneja K, Pahwa R (2010) Gymnema sylvestre (Gurmar): a review. Pharm
Lett 2:275–284
Sangi SMA, Sulaiman MI, El-wahab MFA, Ahmedani EI, Ali SS (2015) Antihyperglycemic effect
of thymoquinone and oleuropein, on streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus in experimental
animals. Phcog Mag 11:S251
Sanz-Biset J, Campos-de-la-Cruz J, Epiquién-Rivera MA, Cañigueral S (2009) A first survey on
the medicinal plants of the Chazuta valley (Peruvian Amazon). J Ethnopharmacol 122:333–362
Saqib Z, Mahmood A, Malik RN, Mahmood A, Syed JH, Ahmad T (2014) Indigenous knowl-
edge of medicinal plants in Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi district, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
151:820–828
Sarikaphuti A, Nararatwanchai T, Hashiguchi T, Ito T, Thaworanunta S, Kikuchi K, Oyama Y,
Maruyama I, Tancharoen S (2013) Preventive effects of Morus alba L. anthocyanins on diabe-
tes in Zucker diabetic fatty rats. Expe Ther Med 6:689–695
Sarkar S, Pranava M, MARITA AR (1996) Demonstration of the hypoglycemic action of
Momordica charantia in a validated animal model of diabetes. Pharmacol Res 33:1–4
Sasidharan S, Sumathi V, Jegathambigai NR, Latha LY (2011) Antihyperglycaemic effects of etha-
nol extracts of Carica papaya and Pandanus amaryfollius leaf in streptozotocin-induced dia-
betic mice. Nat Prod Res 25:1982–1987
Savona G, Bruno M, Paternostro M, Marco JL, Rodríguez B (1982) Salviacoccin, a neo-clerodane
diterpenoid from Salvia coccinea. Phytochemistry 21:2563–2566
Sawant L, Prabhakar B, Pandita N (2012) Quantitative HPLC analysis of ascorbic acid and gallic
acid in Phyllanthus emblica. J Anal Bioanal Tech 1(3):2–4
Sedigheh A, Jamal MS, Mahbubeh S, Somayeh K, Mahmoud R, Azadeh A, Fatemeh S (2011)
Hypoglycaemic and hypolipidemic effects of pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) on alloxan-induced
diabetic rats. Afr J Pharm and Pharmcol 5:2620–2626
Semwal D, Bamola A, Rawat U (2007) Chemical constituents from some antidiabetic plants. Univ
J Phytochem Ayur Heig 2(3):40–48
Sendl A (1995) Allium sativum and Allium ursinum: Part 1 Chemistry, analysis, history, Botany.
Phytomedicine 1:323–339
Sengottaiyan A, Praburaman L, Manoharan K, Rajinikanth R, Govarthanan M, Selvankumar T
(2012) Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity of Solanum nigrum in alloxan induced dia-
betic albino rats. Int J Pharm Sci Res 3:2841
Shabbir A, Shahzad M, Arfat Y, Ali L, Aziz RS, Murtaza G, Waqar SA (2012) Berberis lycium
Royle: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. Afr J Pharm
Pharmacol 6:2346–2353
Shad AA, Ahmad S, Ullah R, AbdEl-Salam NM, Fouad H, Rehman NU, Hussain H, Saeed W
(2014) Phytochemical and biological activities of four wild medicinal plants. Sci World
J 2014:7
Shafaghat A (2010) Phytochemical investigation of quranic fruits and plants. J Med Plants 3:61–
66. ‫فصلنامه علمی پژوهشی گیاهان دارویی‬
Shah GM, Khan MA (2006) Checklist of Medicinal Plants of Siran Valley, Mansehra, Pakistan.
Shah NA, Khan MR (2014) Antidiabetic effect of Sida cordata in alloxan induced diabetic rats.
Biomed Res Int 2014:15
Shah A, Pandey V, Eckhardt G, Tschesche R (1985) A 13-membered cyclopeptide alkaloid from

Zizyphus sativa. Phytochemistry 24:2765–2767
Shah BA, Chib R, Gupta P, Sethi VK, Koul S, Andotra SS, Nargotra A, Sharma S, Pandey A, Bani S
(2009) Saponins as novel TNF-α inhibitors: isolation of saponins and a nor-pseudoguaianolide
from Parthenium hysterophorus. Org Biomol Chem 7:3230–3235
Shah K, Patel M, Patel R, Parmar P (2010) Mangifera indica (mango). Pharmacogn Rev 4:42
Shah A, Marwat SK, Gohar F, Khan A, Bhatti KH, Amin M, Din NU, Ahmad M, Zafar M (2013a)
Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of semi-tribal area of Makerwal & Gulla Khel (lying
between Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab Provinces), Pakistan. Am J Plant Sci 2013(4):98–116
Shah NA, Khan MR, Ahmad B, Noureen F, Rashid U, Khan RA (2013b) Investigation on flavonoid
composition and anti free radical potential of Sida cordata. BMC Complement Altern Med
13:1
Shahat AA, Cuyckens F, Wang W, Abdel-Shafeek KA, Husseiny HA, Apers S, Van Miert S, Pieters
L, Vlietinck AJ, Claeys M (2005) Structural characterization of flavonol di-O-glycosides from
Farsetia aegyptia by electrospray ionization and collision-induced dissociation mass spectrom-
etry. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 19:2172–2178
Shahiladevi S, Jayanthi G, Jegadeesan M (2006) Preliminary phytochemical studies on Solanum
surattense Burm. F. Seeds. Anc Sci Life 26:59
Shahreen S, Banik J, Hafiz A, Rahman S, Zaman AT, Shoyeb A, Chowdhury MH, Rahmatullah M
(2012) Antihyperglycemic activities of leaves of three edible fruit plants (Averrhoa carambola,
Ficus hispida and Syzygium samarangense) of Bangladesh. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern
Med 9:287–291
Shahzadi T, Abbasi MA, Ur-Rehman A, Riaz T, Khan KM, Ashraf M, Afzal I, Akhtar MN, Ajaib
M (2013) Antioxidant and lipoxygenase inhibiting new iridoid glucosides from Caryopteris
odorata. Nat Prod Res 27:302–313
Shanmugasundaram E, Rajeswari G, Baskaran K, Kumar BR, Shanmugasundaram KR, Ahmath
BK (1990) Use of Gymnema sylvestre leaf extract in the control of blood glucose in insulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus. J Ethnopharmacol 30:281–294
Sharma U, Kumar A (2011) Anti-diabetic effect of Rubus ellipticus fruits extracts in alloxan-
induced diabetic rats. J Diabetol 2(4):4
Sharma N, Patni V (2013) In vivo and in vitro qualitative phytochemical screening of Grewia spe-
cies. Int J Biol Pharm Res 4:634–639
Sharma P, Singh R (2014) Effect of Momordica dioica fruit extract on antioxidant status in liver,
kidney, pancreas, and serum of diabetic rats. Pharm Res 6:73
Sharma OP, Dawra RK, Ramesh D (1990) A triterpenoid acid, lantadene D from Lantana camara
var. aculeata. Phytochemistry 29:3961–3962
Sharma B, Salunke R, Balomajumder C, Daniel S, Roy P (2010) Anti-diabetic potential of alkaloid
rich fraction from Capparis decidua on diabetic mice. J Ethnopharmacol 127:457–462
Sharma M, Siddique M, Shamim AM, Gyanesh S, Pillai K (2011) Evaluation of antidiabetic and
antioxidant effects of seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) in streptozotocin-nicotinamide
induced diabetic rats. The Open Conf Proc J 2:53–58
Sharmin R, Khan M, Akhtar MA, Alim A, Islam M, Anisuzzaman A, Ahmed M (2012)
Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of cucumber, white pumpkin and ridge gourd in
alloxan induced diabetic rats. J Sci Res 5:161–170
Shen W, Xu Y, Lu Y-H (2012) Inhibitory effects of citrus flavonoids on starch digestion and antihy-
perglycemic effects in HepG2 cells. J Agric Food Chem 60:9609–9619
Shetty K (1997) Biotechnology to harness the benefits of dietary phenolics; focus on Lamiaceae.
Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 6:162–171
Sheweita S, Mashaly S, Newairy A, Abdou H, Eweda S (2016) Changes in oxidative stress and
antioxidant enzyme activities in streptozotocin-induced Diabetes mellitus in rats: Role of
Alhagi Maurorum extracts. Oxidative Med Cell Longev 2016:5264064
Shinwari ZK, Gilani SS (2003) Sustainable harvest of medicinal plants at Bulashbar Nullah,
Astore (Northern Pakistan). J Ethnopharmacol 84:289–298
Shori AB, Baba AS (2014) Comparative antioxidant activity, proteolysis and in vitro α-amylase
and α-glucosidase inhibition of Allium sativum-yogurts made from cow and camel milk.
J Saudi Chem Soc 18:456–463
Shrestha PM, Dhillion SS (2003) Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha
district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol 86:81–96
Shukla R, Anand K, Prabhu K, Murthy PS (1994) Hypoglycaemic effect of the water extract of
Ficus benghalensis in alloxan recovered, mildly diabetic and severely diabetic rabbits. Int
J Diab Dev Ctries 14:78–81
Shukla S, Chatterji S, Mehta S, Rai PK, Singh RK, Yadav DK, Watal G (2011) Antidiabetic effect
of Raphanus sativus root juice. Pharm Biol 49:32–37
Shunying Z, Yang Y, Huaidong Y, Yue Y, Guolin Z (2005) Chemical composition and antimicrobial
activity of the essential oils of Chrysanthemum indicum. J Ethnopharmacol 96:151–158
Siddhuraju P, Vijayakumari K, Janardhanan K (1996a) Chemical composition and nutritional eval-
uation of an underexploited legume, Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Food Chem 57:385–391
Siddhuraju P, Vijayakumari K, Janardhanan K (1996b) Chemical composition and protein qual-
ity of the little-known legume, velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.). J Agric Food Chem
44:2636–2641
Siddiqi R, Naz S, Ahmad S, Sayeed SA (2011) Antimicrobial activity of the polyphenolic frac-
tions derived from Grewia asiatica, Eugenia jambolana and Carissa carandas. Int J Food Sci
Technol 46:250–256
Siddiqui S, Hafeez F, Begum S, Siddiqui BS (1988) Oleanderol, a new pentacyclic triterpene from
the leaves of Nerium oleander. J Nat Prod 51:229–233
Siddiqui BS, Afshan F, Gulzar T, Sultana R, Naqvi SN-H, Tariq RM (2003) Tetracyclic triterpe-
noids from the leaves of Azadirachta indica and their insecticidal activities. Chem Pharm Bull
51:415–417
Siddiqui BS, Hasan M, Mairaj F, Mehmood I, Hafizur RM, Hameed A, Shinwari ZK (2014) Two
new compounds from the aerial parts of Bergenia himalaica Boriss and their anti-hyperglycemic
effect in streptozotocin-nicotinamide induced diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 152:561–567
Simpson R, Morris GA (2014) The anti-diabetic potential of polysaccharides extracted from mem-
bers of the cucurbit family: A review. Bioact Carbohydr Diet Fibre 3:106–114
Sindhu RK, Arora S (2013) Phytochemical and Pharmacognostical Investigations on Aerial roots
of Ficus lacor Buch. Ham Int J Phytomed 5:267
Singh V, Kori ML (2014) Antidiabetic effect of hydroalcoholic combined plant extract of Portulaca
oleracea and Caralluma attenuata in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Indo Am J Pharm
Res 4:1391–1396
Singh K, Chandra V, Barthwal K (1975) Letter to the editor: Hypoglycaemic activity of Acacia
arabica, Acacia benthami and Acacia modesta leguminous seed diets in normal young albino
rats. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 19:167
Singh S, Majumdar D, Yadav M (1996) Chemical and pharmacological studies on fixed oil of
Ocimum sanctum. Indian J Exp Biol 34:1212–1215
Singh R, Pandey B, Tripathi M, Pandey V (2001) Anti-inflammatory effect of (+)-pinitol.
Singh G, Maurya S, De Lampasona M, Catalan C (2006a) Chemical constituents, antifungal and
antioxidative potential of Foeniculum vulgare volatile oil and its acetone extract. Food Control
17:745–752
Singh N, Mahmood U, Kaul V, Jirovetz L (2006b) A new phthalic acid ester from Ajuga bracteosa.
Nat Prod Res 20:593–597
Singh R, Singh B, Singh S, Kumar N, Kumar S, Arora S (2008) Anti-free radical activities of
kaempferol isolated from Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex. Del. Toxicol In Vitro 22:1965–1970
Singh RK, Mehta S, Jaiswal D, Rai PK, Watal G (2009) Antidiabetic effect of Ficus benghalensis
aerial roots in experimental animals. J Ethnopharmacol 123:110–114
Singh D, Singh B, Goel RK (2011) Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Ficus
religiosa: a review. J Ethnopharmacol 134:565–583
Singh R, Verma PK, Singh G (2012) Total phenolic, flavonoids and tannin contents in different
extracts of Artemisia absinthium. J Intercul Ethnopharmacol 1:101–104
Singh D, Mukhija M, Singh S, Aggarwal A, Sundriyal A (2014) Anti-diabetic effect of hydroalco-
holic extract of Ficus palmata Forsk leaves in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Int J Green
Pharm 8:276
Sinha SN, Paul D (2014) Antioxidant potentials of parthenium hysterophorus l leaf extracts. Sci
Res J India 3(2):82–86
Sivashanmugam AT, Chatterjee TK (2013) In vitro and in vivo antidiabetic activity of Polyalthia
longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. leaves. Orient Pharm Exp Med 13:289–300
Somani R, Kasture S, Singhai AK (2006) Antidiabetic potential of Butea monosperma in rats.
Song Y, Wu T, Yang Q, Chen X, Wang M, Wang Y, Peng X, Ou S (2014) Ferulic acid alleviates the
symptoms of diabetes in obese rats. J Funct Foods 9:141–147
Sonwa MM, König WA (2001) Chemical study of the essential oil of Cyperus rotundus.
Sotohy S, Sayed A, Ahmed M (1997) Effect of tannin-rich plant (Acacia nilotica) on some nutri-
tional and bacteriological parameters in goats. Deut Tierarzt Wochenschr 104:432–435
Souliman AM, Barakat HH, El-Mousallamy AM, Marzouk MS, Nawwar MA (1991) Phenolics
from the bark of Tamarix aphylla. Phytochemistry 30:3763–3766
Sreelatha S, Inbavalli R (2012) Antioxidant, Antihyperglycemic, and Antihyperlipidemic
Effects of Coriandrum sativum Leaf and Stem in Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats. J Food Sci
77:T119–T123
Sridevi M, Senthil S, Pugalendi K (2007) Antihyperglycemic effect of Solanum surattense leaf-
extract in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. J Pharmacol Toxicol 2:621–629
Sridhar T, Josthna P, Naidu C (2011) In vitro antibacterial activity and phytochemical analysis of
Solanum nigrum (Linn.)-An important antiulcer medicinal plant. J Exp Sci 2(8):24–29
Srinivasan K, Sherief SH, Khule Shahu NK, Sivakumar T (2013) An evaluation of anti-diabetic
and its biochemical properties of Sida cordata extract in experimental animal models. Indo Am
J Pharm Res 3:6103–6111
Srivastav S, Singh P, Mishra G, Jha K, Khosa R (2011) Achyranthes aspera-An important medici-
nal plant: A review. J Nat Prod Plant Resour 1:1–14
Srivastava S, Srivastava M, Misra A, Pandey G, Rawat A (2015) A review on biological and chemi-
cal diversity in Berberis (Berberidaceae). EXCLI J 14:247
Stalin C, Dineshkumar P, Nithiyananthan K (2012) Evaluation of antidiabetic activity of metha-
nolic leaf extract of Ficus carica in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Asian J Pharm Clin Res
5:85–87
Street RA, Sidana J, Prinsloo G (2013) Cichorium intybus: Traditional uses, phytochemistry, phar-
macology, and toxicology. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2013:1–13
Stuppner H, Moller E (1993) Cucurbitacins with unusual side chains from Picrorhiza kurroa.
Suba V, Murugesan T, Arunachalam G, Mandal S, Saha B (2004) Anti-diabetic potential of
Barleria lupulina extract in rats. Phytomedicine 11:202–205
Subramanian S, Priya N, Thamizhiniyan V (2011a) Biochemical evaluation of hypoglycemic,
hypolipidemic and antioxidant properties of Lippia nodiflora leaves studied in alloxan-induced
experimental diabetes in rats. Res J Pharmacol Pharmacod 3:299–304
Subramanian SP, Bhuvaneshwari S, Prasath GS (2011b) Antidiabetic and antioxidant potentials of
Euphorbia hirta leaves extract studied in streptozotocin-induced experimental diabetes in rats.
Gen Physiol Biophys 30:278–285
Sultan MT, Butt MS, Karim R, Iqbal SZ, Ahmad S, Zia-Ul-Haq M, Aliberti L, Ahmad AN, De
Feo V (2014) Effect of Nigella sativa fixed and essential oils on antioxidant status, hepatic
enzymes, and immunity in streptozotocin induced diabetes mellitus. BMC Complement Altern
Med 14:1
Sultana N, Ata A (2008) Oleanolic acid and related derivatives as medicinally important com-
pounds. J Enzyme Inhib Medl Chem 23:739–756
Sundaram R, Mitra S (2007) Antioxidant activity of ethyl acetate soluble fraction of Acacia ara-
bica bark in rats. Indian J Pharm 39:33
Sunmonu TO, Afolayan AJ (2013) Evaluation of antidiabetic activity and associated toxicity of
Artemisia afra aqueous extract in wistar rats. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2013:929074
Surendran S, Vijayalakshmi K (2011) GC-MS analysis of phytochemicals in Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba fruit and Cyperus rotundus rhizome. IJPPR 2012:4
Survay NS, Ko E, Upadhyay CP, Mi J, Park SW, Lee D, Jung Y-S, Yoon D-Y, Hong S (2010)
Hypoglycemic effects of fruits and vegetables in hyperglycemic rats for prevention of type-2
diabetes. Korean J Hortic Sci Technol 28:1–7
Swaroop A, Bagchi M, Kumar P, Preuss HG, Tiwari K, Marone PA, Bagchi D (2014) Safety,
efficacy and toxicological evaluation of a novel, patented anti-diabetic extract of Trigonella
Foenum-graecum seed extract (Fenfuro). Toxicol Mech Methods 24:495–503
Tabuti JR, Kukunda CB, Kaweesi D, Kasilo OM (2012) Herbal medicine use in the districts of
Nakapiripirit, Pallisa, Kanungu, and Mukono in Uganda. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 8:1
Takaya Y, Kondo Y, Furukawa T, Niwa M (2003) Antioxidant constituents of radish sprout
(kaiware-daikon), Raphanus sativus L. J Agric Food Chem 51:8061–8066
Tanaka M, Misawa E, Ito Y, Habara N, Nomaguchi K, Yamada M, Toida T, Hayasawa H, Takase
M, Inagaki M (2006) Identification of five phytosterols from Aloe vera gel as anti-diabetic
compounds. Biol Pharm Bull 29:1418–1422
Tang G-Y, Li X-J, Zhang H-Y (2008) Antidiabetic components contained in vegetables and
legumes. Molecules 13:1189–1194
Taniguchi H, Kobayashi-Hattori K, Tenmyo C, Kamei T, Uda Y, Sugita-Konishi Y, Oishi Y, Takita
T (2006) Effect of Japanese radish (Raphanus sativus) sprout (Kaiware-daikon) on carbohy-
drate and lipid metabolisms in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Phytother Res
20:274–278
Tanira M, Ali B, Bashir A, Chandranath I (1996) Some pharmacologic and toxicologic studies on
Rhazya stricta Decne in rats, mice and rabbits. Gen Pharmacol: Vas S 27:1261–1267
Tannin-Spitz T, Grossman S, Dovrat S, Gottlieb HE, Bergman M (2007) Growth inhibitory activity
of cucurbitacin glucosides isolated from Citrullus colocynthis on human breast cancer cells.
Biochem Pharmacol 73:56–67
Taştekin D, Atasever M, Adigüzel G, Keleş M, Taştekin A (2006) Hypoglycaemic effect of
Artemisia herba-alba in experimental hyperglycaemic rats. Bull Vet Inst Pulawy 50:235–238
Tazin TQ, Rumi JF, Rahman S, Al-Nahain A, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M (2014) Oral glucose toler-
ance and antinociceptive activity evaluation of methanolic extract of Vigna unguiculata ssp.
unguiculata beans. World J Pharm Pharm Sci 3:28–37
Teffo LS, Aderogba M, Eloff JN (2010) Antibacterial and antioxidant activities of four kaempferol
methyl ethers isolated from Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. var. angustifolia leaf extracts. S Afr J Bot
76:25–29
Teklehaymanot T (2009) Ethnobotanical study of knowledge and medicinal plants use by the peo-
ple in Dek Island in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol 124:69–78
Thakur R, Misra L, Bhattacharyya S, Sen N, Sethi K (1990) Essential oils of Indian Artemisia.
Proceedings of the 11th international congress of essential oils, fragrances and flavours.
New Delhi, India, 12–16 November, 1989 Vol. 4 Chemistry-analysis and structure. Aspect
Publishing, New York, pp 127–135
Thiruvenkatasubramaniam R, Jayakar B (2010) Anti-hyperglycemic and anti-hyperlipidaemic
activities of Bauhinia variegata L on streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Pharm Lett 2:330–334
Thomson M, Al-Amin ZM, Al-Qattan KK, Shaban LH, Ali M (2007) Anti-diabetic and hypo-
lipidaemic properties of garlic (Allium sativum) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Int
J Diabetes Metab 15:108–115
Tianaka S, Takido M (1988) Studies on the constituents of the seeds of Cassia obtusifolia L. The
structures of two naphthopyrone glycosides. Chem Pharm Bull 36:3980–3984
Topçu G, Erenler R, Çakmak O, Johansson CB, Çelik C, Chai H-B, Pezzuto JM (1999) Diterpenes
from the berries of Juniperus excelsa. Phytochemistry 50:1195–1199
Trakoon-osot W, Sotanaphun U, Phanachet P, Porasuphatana S, Udomsubpayakul U, Komindr

S (2013) Pilot study: hypoglycemic and antiglycation activities of bitter melon (Momordica
charantia L.) in type 2 diabetic patients. J Pharm Res 6:859–864
Tripathi P (2011) Diuretic activity of pistia stratiotes leaf extract in rats. Int Res J Pharm
2(3):249–251
Tripathi AK, Kohli S (2014) Pharmacognostical standardization and antidiabetic activity
of Syzygium cumini (Linn.) barks (Myrtaceae) on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.
J Complement Integra Med 11:71–81
Tripathi M, Jain L, Pandey VB, Ray AB, Rücker G (1996) Pindrolactone, a lanostane derivative
from the leaves of Abies pindrow. Phytochemistry 43:853–855
Udayakumar R, Kasthurirengan S, Mariashibu TS, Rajesh M, Anbazhagan VR, Kim SC, Ganapathi
A, Choi CW (2009) Hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic effects of Withania somnifera root
and leaf extracts on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Int J Mol Sci 10:2367–2382
Uddin G, Rauf A, Qaisar M, Latif A, Ali M (2011) Preliminary phytochemical screening and anti-
microbial activity of Hedera helix L. Middle-East J Sci Res 8:198–202
Uddin G, Rauf A, Arfan M, Ali M, Qaisar M, Saadiq M, Atif M (2012) Preliminary phytochemical
screening and antioxidant activity of Bergenia caliata. Middle-East J Sci Res 11:1140–1142
Ullah I (2012) A review of phytochemistry, bioactivities and ethno medicinal uses of Rhazya
stricta Decsne (Apocynaceae). Afr J Microbiol Res 6:1629–1641
Ullah S, Khan MR, Shah NA, Shah SA, Majid M, Farooq MA (2014) Ethnomedicinal plant use
value in the Lakki Marwat District of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 158:412–422
Uma B, Prabhakar K, Rajendran S (2009) Invitro antimicrobial activity and phytochemical analy-
sis of Ficus religiosa L. and Ficus benghalensis L. against Diarrhoeal Enterotoxigenic E. coli.
Uniyal SK, Singh K, Jamwal P, Lal B (2006) Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal
communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2:1
Upadhyay D, Dash RP, Anandjiwala S, Nivsarkar M (2013) Comparative pharmacokinetic pro-
files of picrosides I and II from kutkin, Picrorhiza kurroa extract and its formulation in rats.
Vadivel V, Kunyanga CN, Biesalski HK (2012) Antioxidant potential and type II diabetes-related
enzyme inhibition of Cassia obtusifolia L.: effect of indigenous processing methods. Food
Bioprocess Technol 5:2687–2696
Vats V, Grover J, Rathi S (2002) Evaluation of anti-hyperglycemic and hypoglycemic effect of
Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn, Ocimum sanctum Linn and Pterocarpus marsupium Linn in
normal and alloxanized diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 79:95–100
Vats V, Yadav S, Grover J (2004) Ethanolic extract of Ocimum sanctum leaves partially attenuates
streptozotocin-induced alterations in glycogen content and carbohydrate metabolism in rats.
Veerapur V, Prabhakar K, Parihar VK, Bansal P, Srinivasan K, Priyadarsini K, Unnikrishnan M
(2010a) Antidiabetic, hypolipidaemic and antioxidant activity of Dodonaea viscosa aerial parts
in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Int J Phytomed 2(1):59–70
Veerapur V, Prabhakar K, Thippeswamy B, Bansal P, Srinivasan K, Unnikrishnan M (2010b)
Antidiabetic effect of Dodonaea viscosa (L). Lacq. aerial parts in high fructose-fed insulin
resistant rats: a mechanism based study. Indian J Exp Biol 48:800
Veerapur V, Prabhakar K, Thippeswamy B, Bansal P, Srinivasan K, Unnikrishnan M (2012)
Antidiabetic effect of Ficus racemosa Linn. stem bark in high-fat diet and low-dose
streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic rats: a mechanistic study. Food Chem 132:186–193
Velayutham R, Sankaradoss N, Ahamed KN (2012) Protective effect of tannins from Ficus rac-
emosa in hypercholesterolemia and diabetes induced vascular tissue damage in rats. Asian Pac
J Trop Med 5:367–373
Venâncio T, Oliveira A, Silva L, Machado O, Fernandes K, Xavier-Filho J (2003) A protein with
amino acid sequence homology to bovine insulin is present in the legume Vigna unguiculata
(cowpea). Braz J Med Biol Res 36:1167–1173
Venkatesh S, Reddy GD, Reddy BM, Ramesh M, Rao AA (2003) Antihyperglycemic activity of
Caralluma attenuata. Fitoterapia 74:274–279
Verardo V, Bonoli M, Marconi E, Caboni MF (2008) Distribution of Bound Hydroxycinnamic Acids
and Their Glycosyl Esters in Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Air-Classified Flour: Comparative Study
between Reversed Phase-High Performance Chromatography− Mass Spectrometry (RP-HPLC/
MS) and Spectrophotometric Analysis. J Agric Food Chem 56:11900–11905
Verma SK, Kumar A (2011) Therapeutic uses of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) with a note
on withanolides and its pharmacological actions. f Asian J Pharm. Clin Res 4:1–4
Verma V, Mahmood U, Singh B (2002) Clerodane diterpenoids from Ajuga bracteosa Wall. Nat
Prod Lett 16:255–259
Verma G, Gupta R, Prakash Gupta S (2014) Development of HPLC densitometric method for
estimation of Quercetin in Bombax ceiba L. leaves. JASR 5(2):50–52
Vijayakumari K, Siddhuraju P, Janardhanan K (1997) Chemical composition, amino acid con-
tent and protein quality of the little-known legume Bauhinia purpurea L. J Sci Food Agric
73:279–286
Vogel P, Machado IK, Garavaglia J, Zani VT, de Souza D, Morelo SDB (2015) Polyphenols ben-
efits of olive leaf (Olea europaea L) to human health. Nutr Hosp 31:1427–1433
Vujicic M, Nikolic I, Kontogianni VG, Saksida T, Charisiadis P, Orescanin-Dusic Z, Blagojevic
D, Stosic-Grujicic S, Tzakos AG, Stojanovic I (2015) Methanolic extract of Origanum vulgare
ameliorates type 1 diabetes through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activity.
Br J Nutr 113:770–782
Wadood A, Wadood N, Shah S (1989) Effects of Acacia arabica and Caralluma edulis on blood
glucose levels of normal and alloxan diabetic rabbits. J Pak Med Assoc 39:208–212
Waheed A, Miana G, Ahmad S, Khan MA (2006) Clinical investigation of hypoglycemic effect of
Coriandrum sativum in type-2 (NIDDM) diabetic patients. Pak J Pharmacol 23:7–11
Wambugu SN, Sagini MN, Githinji CG, Kariuki HN, Ngeranwa JJ, Mwonjoria JK (2014)
Ethno medicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Solanum incanum (lin.). Int
J Pharmacol Toxicol 2(2):17–20
Wang H, Yang J (1992) [Studies on the chemical constituents of Arctium lappa L]. Yao xue xue
bao. Acta Pharm Sin 28:911–917
Wani H, Shah SA, Banday JA (2014) Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the leaf
essential oil of Artemisia absinthium growing wild in Kashmir, India. Aust J Pharm 3(2):90–94
Wasfi I, Bashir A, Amiri M, Abdalla A (1994) The effect of Rhazya stricta on glucose homeostasis
in normal and streptozoticin diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol 43:141–147
Weththasinghe P, Liyanage R, Vidanarachchi J, Perera O, Jayawardana B (2014)
Hypocholesterolemic and Hypoglycemic Effect of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp)
Incorporated Experimental Diets in Wistar Rats (Rattus norvegicus). Agricul Agricultur Sci
Proc 2:401–405
Whiting DR, Guariguata L, Weil C, Shaw J (2011) IDF diabetes atlas: global estimates of the
prevalence of diabetes for 2011 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 94:311–321
WHO. 2016. Diabets: Facts sheet. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs312/en/index.html
Widharna R, Soemardji A, Wirasutisna K, Kardono L (2010) Anti diabetes mellitus activity in vivo
of ethanolic extract and ethyl acetate fraction of Euphorbia hirta L. herb. IJP-Int J Pharma
6:231–240
Williams CA, Goldstone F, Greenham J (1996) Flavonoids, cinnamic acids and coumarins from
the different tissues and medicinal preparations of Taraxacum officinale. Phytochemistry
42:121–127
Wu H-E, Li Y-H, Wei Z-Y, Liang H-Y (2008) A comparative study on the chemical constituents of
volatile oil from Artemisia Indica, Artemisia Feddei and Artemisia Argyi in Guangxi Province.
China Medical Herald 5:23–26
Wu L-Y, Gao H-Z, Wang X-L, Ye J-H, Lu J-L, Liang Y-R (2010) Analysis of chemical composition
of Chrysanthemum indicum flowers by GC/MS and HPLC. J Med Plant Res 4:421–426
Xiang L, Xing D, Wang W, Wang R, Ding Y, Du L (2005) Alkaloids from Portulaca oleracea
L. Phytochemistry 66:2595–2601
Xu M-L, Henan Province X, Wang L, Xu G-F, Wang M (2011) Antidiabetes and angiotensin con-
verting enzyme inhibitory activity of Sonchus asper (L) hill extract. Korean J Pharmacogn
42(1):61–67
Xu X, Shan B, Liao C-H, Xie J-H, Wen P-W, Shi J-Y (2015) Anti-diabetic properties of Momordica
charantia L. polysaccharide in alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Int J Biol Macromol 81:538–543
Yadav S, Mukundan U (2011) In vitro antioxidant properties of Salvia coccinea Buc’hoz ex etl.
and Salvia officinalis L. Indian J Fundam Appl Life Sci 1:232–238
Yadav KS, Yadav NP, Shanker K, Thomas SC, Srivastav S, Srivastava S, Rai VK, Mishra N, Sinha
P (2013) Assessment of antidiabetic potential of Cissampelos pareira leaf extract in strepto-
zotocin–nicotinamide induced diabetic mice. J Pharm Res 6:874–878
Yang Y-C, Lim M-Y, Lee H-S (2003) Emodin isolated from Cassia obtusifolia (Leguminosae)
seed shows larvicidal activity against three mosquito species. J Agric Food Chem
51:7629–7631
Yang T, Wang C, Liu H, Chou G, Cheng X, Wang Z (2010) A new antioxidant compound from
Capparis spinosa. Pharm Biol 48:589–594
Yap VA, Loong B-J, Ting K-N, Hwei-San Loh S, Yong K-T, Low Y-Y, Kam T-S, Lim K-H
(2015) Hispidacine, an unusual 8, 4′-oxyneolignan-alkaloid with vasorelaxant activity, and
hispiloscine, an antiproliferative phenanthroindolizidine alkaloid, from Ficus hispida Linn.
Yaseen G, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Kayani S, Cetto AA, Shaheen S (2015) Traditional
management of diabetes in Pakistan: Ethnobotanical investigation from traditional health
Practitioners. J Ethnopharmacol 174:91–117
Yasir M, Jain P, Debajyoti D, Kharya M (2010) Hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effect of
different extracts of Acacia arabica lamk bark in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rats. Int
J Phytomed 2
Yasir M, Shrivastava R, Jain P, Das D (2012) Hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effects of dif-
ferent extracts and combinations of Withania coagulans Dunal and Acacia arabica Lamk in
normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Pharmacogn Commun 2:61–66
Yassin MM, Mwafy SN (2007) Protective potential of glimepiride and Nerium oleander extract
on lipid profile, body growth rate, and renal function in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.
Turk J Biol 31:95–102
Yen H-F, Hsieh C-T, Hsieh T-J, Chang F-R, Wang C-K (2015) In vitro anti-diabetic effect and
chemical component analysis of 29 essential oils products. J Food Drug Anal 23:124–129
Yi W, Wei Q, Di G, Liang J-Y, Yang-Li L (2012) Phenols and flavonoids from the aerial part of
Euphorbia hirta. Chin J Nat Med 10:40–42
Youn UJ, Chai X, Park E-J, Kondratyuk TP, Simmons CJ, Borris RP, Mirza B, Pezzuto JM, Chang
LC (2013) Biologically active withanolides from Withania coagulans. J Nat Prod 76:22–28
Youssef MKE, Youssef HM, Mousa RM (2013) Evaluation of antihyperglycaemic activity of citrus
peels powders fortified biscuits in albino induced diabetic rats. Food Public Health 3:161–167
Yu Y-M, Chang W-C, Chang C-T, Hsieh C-L, Tsai C (2002) Effects of young barley leaf extract
and antioxidative vitamins on LDL oxidation and free radical scavenging activities in type 2
diabetes. Diabete Metab 28(2):107–114
Yuwai KE, Rao KS, Kaluwin C, Jones GP, Rivett DE (1991) Chemical composition of Momordica
charantia L. fruits. J Agric Food Chem 39:1762–1763
Zang Y, Sato H, Igarashi K (2011) Anti-Diabetic Effects of a kaempferol glycoside-rich fraction
from unripe soybean (Edamame, Glycine max L. Merrill.‘Jindai’) Leaves on KK-Ay Mice.
Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 75:1677–1684
Zeng L, Zhang R-Y, Wang X (1987) Studies on the constituents of Ziziphus spinosus Hu. Acta
Pharm Sin 22:114–120
Zhang W, Guo Y-W (2006) Chemical studies on the constituents of the chinese medicinal herb
Euphorbia helioscopia L. Chem Pharm Bull 54:1037–1039
Zhang H, Timmermann BN (2016) Withanolide Structural Revisions by 13C NMR Spectroscopic
Analysis Inclusive of the γ-Gauche Effect. J Nat Prod 79(4):732–742
Zhang Y-J, Nagao T, Tanaka T, Yang C-R, Okabe H, Kouno I (2004) Antiproliferative activity of
the main constituents from Phyllanthus emblica. Biol Pharm Bull 27:251–255
Zhang M, Chen M, Zhang H-Q, Sun S, Xia B, Wu F-H (2009) In vivo hypoglycemic effects of
phenolics from the root bark of Morus alba. Fitoterapia 80:475–477
Zhang W, Zhao J, Wang J, Pang X, Zhuang X, Zhu X, Qu W (2010) Hypoglycemic effect of
aqueous extract of seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) seed residues in streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats. Phytother Res 24:228–232
Zhang Y, Sun Y, Xi W, Shen Y, Qiao L, Zhong L, Ye X, Zhou Z (2014) Phenolic compositions and
antioxidant capacities of Chinese wild mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) fruits. Food Chem
145:674–680
Zhang Y, Wu L, Ma Z, Cheng J, Liu J (2015) Anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant and anti-hyperlipidemic
activities of flavonoids from corn silk on stz-induced diabetic mice. Molecules 21:7
Zhang L, Wei G, Liu Y, Zu Y, Gai Q, Yang L (2016) Antihyperglycemic and antioxidant activities
of total alkaloids from Catharanthus roseus in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J For Res
27:167–174
Zhao M, Xu L-J, Che C-T (2008) Alisolide, alisols O and P from the rhizome of Alisma orientale.
Zhao L, Lan Q, Huang Z, Ouyang L, Zeng F (2011) Antidiabetic effect of a newly identified com-
ponent of Opuntia dillenii polysaccharides. Phytomedicine 18:661–668
Zia T, Hasnain SN, Hasan S (2001) Evaluation of the oral hypoglycaemic effect of Trigonella
foenum-graecum L.(methi) in normal mice. J Ethnopharmacol 75:191–195
Zia-Ul-Haq M, Ćavar S, Qayum M, Imran I, Vd F (2011) Compositional studies: antioxidant and
antidiabetic activities of Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. Int J Mol Sci 12:8846–8861
Zia-Ul-Haq M, Raza Shah M, Qayum M, Ercisli S (2012a) Biological screening of selected flora
of Pakistan. Biol Res 45:375–379
Zia-Ul-Haq M, Shahid SA, Muhammed S, Qayum M, Khan I, Ahmad S (2012b) Antimalarial, anti-
emetic and antidiabetic potential of Grewia asiatica L. leaves. J Med Plant Res 6:3087–3092
Zia-Ul-Haq M, Ahmad S, Amarowicz R, De Feo V (2013a) Antioxidant activity of the extracts
of some cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp.) cultivars commonly consumed in Pakistan.
Molecules 18:2005–2017
Zia-Ul-Haq M, Stanković MS, Rizwan K, Feo VD (2013b) Grewia asiatica L., a food plant with
multiple uses. Molecules 18:2663–2682
Zohura Talukder F, Ahmed Khan K, Uddin R, Jahan N, Ashraful Alam M (2012) In vitro free
radical scavenging and anti-hyperglycemic activities of Achyranthes aspera extract in alloxan-
induced diabetic mice. Drug Discov Ther 6:298–305
Ethno-ecology, Human Health and Plants
of the Thandiani Sub Forest Division,
Abbottabad, KP, Pakistan
Waqas Khan, Shujaul Mulk Khan, and Habib Ahmad
Introduction
This chapter delivers an outline to the TsFD and its main physiographic plus floristic
features with reference to present vegetation types and sampling locations. The
Himalayas mountain ranges stretch over some 2500 km across five central Asian
countries. It includes one of the earth’s supreme diverse, complex, and remarkable
biomasses which are characterized by moderately harsh climate, a solid degree of
resource seasonality, and variety of both plant species and groups (Kala and Mathur
2002; Oommen and Shanker 2005). Northwestern region of Pakistan is one of the
places having high phytogeographic and floristic importance prevailing in these
world’s largest mountain ranges. Due to their location, rocky lands, and critical
geopolitical conditions, many of the distant mountainous valleys in this area have
not yet experienced thorough floral studies. Moreover, most of the studies on vege-
tation based on qualitative data without proper quantification (Dickoré and Nüsser
2000; Ahmad et al. 2009; Signorini et al. 2009). Far less emphasis has been made to
offer quantitative accounts of the plant communities and ethno-ecologies along geo-
climatic and environmental gradients, to explain the main factors explaining local
vegetation designs (Dasti et al. 2007; Malik and Husain 2008; Wazir et al. 2008;
Saima et al. 2009).
W. Khan
Department of Botany, Post Graduate College Abbottabad, Abbottabad, Pakistan
S. M. Khan (*)
Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Islamia College University, Peshawar, Pakistan
https://www.qau.edu.pk/profile.php?id=804024
H. Ahmad
Islamia College University, Peshawar, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_13
548 W. Khan et al.
The TsFD is part of the moist temperate forests of Pakistan with a rich biodiver-
sity. It is situated in the Galis forest division of Abbottabad, bounded by Siran forest
division from the west, Muzaffarabad and Garhi Habebullah from the North,
Abbottabad sub forest division from the south, and Berangali forest range from the
east, located between 3329°–3421° north latitude and 7255°–7329° east longitude
spreading over an area of 24987 hectares in which 2484 hectares are reserve forests
and 947 hectares Guzara forests. The whole area is administratively under the
reserve forest division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, which is responsible to
preserve the valuable plant and animal species of the area (Khan et al. 2016a).
These forests are situated at 8600 ft (2600 m) above sea level. The highest point of
the area is Thandiani top with an elevation of 2626 m from sea level. Most of this
area is covered with pine forests and may be divided into three elevation ranges,
namely, high elevation range (2200–2600 m), medium elevation range (1700–
2200 m), and lower elevation range (1200–1700 m). Agriculture is the main source
of economy, contributing about 30% to the GNP and employing 55% of the labor
force. Main crops of the area include maize, wheat, potatoes, fruits and other off
season vegetables. The high elevation range exhibit very less human population
(Khan et al. 2011) while the density of population increases toward lower elevation
range. Some of the note worthy villages include Gurlania, Tarheri, Riyala, Tarnawai,
Balolia, Neelor, Kalapani, Mandroch, Bhoji, Larri, and Pahge. This is a difficult
area in terms of communication and road services. The main tribes in the surround-
ing villages are Gujjars, Jadoons, Abbasis, Karrlals, Awans, Khokhars, and Rajputs
with main local languages of Gujri, Hindko and Pothohari. Gujjars and Abbasis are
mostly concerned in the uphill and cultivate the rained slopes of the forest ecosys-
tem (Khan et al. 2017). They are usually more attentive concerning the traditional
knowledge of plants and native environment (Khan et al. 2015). Floristically, the
TsFD has been documented as a significant part of the western Himalayan province
with some vegetation topographies that are Sino-Japanese in environment due to the
effect of the rain-bearing monsoon winds (Ali and Qaiser 1986; Takhtadzhian and
Cronquist 1986).
Exploitation of trees on commercial basis has not been recommended and is also
banned through the directives of the federal as well as provincial governments. Only
the removal of dead, dry, and diseased trees is carried out but on a limited scale by
Forests Development Corporation (FDC). Plantation on roads/paths and building
construction must be part of the main developmental works so that the forests may
keep intake. Ensuring the effective protection of forests, the present status of the
blocks and beats can be maintained details of range-wise distribution of which
are as follows (Table 1).
Ethno-ecology, Human Health and Plants of the Thandiani Sub Forest Division… 549
Table 1 The distribution of TsFD in blocks and beats

S. No. Name of range Name of block Name of beat
1 Thandiani Kakul Rayala
2 MairaNamal
3 BandiPahar
4 KakulGuzara
5 Sattu Garliania
6 Larri
7 Kakul Reserve Forests
8 PogranGuzara
9 Terarri Terarri
10 Maira Patti
11 Banda Guzara
12 Lagan ban
Source: Working plan for Galis reserved forest 1987–1997
Ethno-ecological Studies of TsFD
Food biodiversity and food capes establish actual foundations of the human practice
and donate in a variety of ways to the holistic well-being of individuals. However,
biodiversity is as such in a state of decline universally. The important factors con-
tributing to this damage comprises industrialization trends, unsustainable farming,
fishing, forest practices, and a marvelous hyper-consumption of land. In addition to,
global climate change utilization of selected plant types by people is altering the
natural environment and bringing evenness in different biota. Moreover the intro-
duction of new range of products from industrial agriculture make the Human more
vulnerable in the region. In this changing scenario, conservation of biodiversity, i.e.,
the improvement of the resilience of socio-ecological organizations (Berkes and
Turner 2006), should have clear objectives globally. In the ethnobiological
approaches to food and medicinal plants, the emphasis must be not only on natural
environments but also on history, culture, and philosophy as well which are involves
behind this diversity. In a nut shell, the holistic wildlife of food socio-ecological
systems (Berkes et al. 2003) shapes what we today call Epicureanism, referring to
the 1825 definition of the French scholar Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (Brillat-
Savarin 1960; Petrini 2007). Moreover, this “dynamic” conservation policy of food
legacy allows the incessant process of evolution and coadaptation through suitable
and sound organization practices. On the other hand, folk/traditional knowledge
systems are recurring as a priority concern at the global level, as they are progres-
sively being documented as establishing not only the palpable but especially the
imperceptible heritage (UNESCO 2003) and what we may describe as unnoticeable
imitations of local communities. Local communities are losing traditional knowl-
edge/folk and their values, which go hand in hand with a decline in cultural diversity
and the dilution of a true sense of community. This process of impoverishment of
the social dimension of diversity and social unity is reproduced in the present global
550 W. Khan et al.
food system. Hinging on the idea that local small-scale agriculture must also serve
the global market that alters food plants from a mere product to a multi purpose
commodities and forces people to go for slow, organic and traditional food sys-
tems. In this situation, cultural, social, and environmental masses must be motivated
to adopt research trails meant for slow food slogans based on folk/traditional knowl-
edge and heritage, which can in turn provide locals with better health and under-
standing of their dynamic cultural wealth. Moreover, Barthel et al. (2013) introduced
the concept of bio-cultural allopatry, i.e., places retaining precise, dense, social
memories related to food security and stewardship of biodiversity. These hotspots of
food bio-cultural heritage have shaped specific landscapes, which have been main-
tained through a mosaic of management practices that have coevolved in relation to
local environmental variations. Ingenious knowledge related to breeding plants/ani-
mals, folk culinary processes and recipes, sociability’s attached to traditional feast-
ing frameworks, relics, written and oral accounts, as well as personified rituals and
art is actually the Traditional Environmental knowledge, TEK that descends through
a precise genetic and social reservoirs related to food, shelter, medicines and is
shared between scientists, farmers, gatherers, shepherds, fishermen, environmental-
ists, consumers and the society at large via sound practices.
The vegetation type is the production of the habitat and environmental condi-
tions. The data on flora help to analyse the effect of plant diversity in biological
maintenance, and ecological organization that ultimately influence valuation and
management performance of an ecosystem. It gives the foundation for prognosis of
probable future deviations (Kent and Coker 1995). The measurable environmental
trainings explore the current assembly, species diversity, and soil-plant association
and ensure facts on spatial and time-based deviation in existing nutrients. There
have continuously been needs to examine and elucidate the plant societies, on dif-
ferent coverage, and to collect firsthand evidences around the plant life of this flo-
ristically diverse region. The term conservation applies both in the vigorous and
submissive senses. In a vigorous sense, the conservation is taking the action to con-
firm that things that are valued are in position to have a chance of continuing into
the forthcoming generations. It can be closely related to rebuild the origional status
of these natural resources and spreading efforts for their maintainance above from
just trying to protect those aspects of the plant world that have significance and to
encourage their conservation values. In an acquiescent sense, the term conservation
refers to actions helpful for plant management carried out by people. There are vari-
ous characters of the world of plants that can be subjected to conservation implica-
tions, especially at species level. In brief, conservation should be endorsed as a
culture (Han et al. 2005). The plant conservation should not just be a cross field but
also an ambition in terms of how people usually respond to it. The concept of struc-
ture used in all bio-research is a complementary concept to function. This is associ-
ated to physiological manners, anatomy, and morphology of the objects under study
(Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg 1974). The investigators are concerned in verify-
ing the structure and floristic arrangement of forest environments. The combined
influence of the plant height, density, basal area, and number of species on “com-
plexity index” in the assessment of vegetation’s physiognomy and the vegetation
complex varies from season to season and year to year. The variation proposes a
response by each species population to heat, moistures and light as adapted by the
vegetation itself that is also well estimated by the traditional users. Consequently,
the exploration actions give comprehensive information to the traditional users in
relation to the biodiversity, vegetation composition, and other characteristics of
plant communities (Singh and Singh 2010).
Climate
The tract generally forms the western outskirts of the northwestern lesser Himalayan
series of mountains. Its climate represents both the subtropical and temperate zones.
The part of the tract situated west of Abbottabad at lower elevations exhibit sub-
tropical sort of climate, whereas rest of the region falls in the cold temperate zones.
January and February remain the coldest months, while March and April are cooler;
May and June are the hotter and drier months of the year (Khan et al. 2016b). The
monsoon rains tend to start from the mid or early July and continue till the end of
August or middle of September. The moisture, precipitation, and temperature con-
ditions of the region are extremely favorable for rich undergrowth. The range of
snowfall is from a few inches to 2–4 ft. during winter season in the months
of December to March.
According to Pakistan Meteorological Centre, Abbottabad, the standard monthly
rainfall statistics for the last 5 years of the Kakul Station are shown below (Figs. 1,
2, and 3).
Fig. 1 Month-wise rainfall graph of 2010–2014

552 W. Khan et al.
Fig. 2 Maximum monthly temperature recorded from years 2010 to 2014
Fig. 3 Graph shows minimum monthly temperature of 5 years from 2010 to 2014
The above data shows that the tract is considerably cold and humid in winter and
warm humid in monsoon season of the summer. Tendency toward lesser humidity is
generally noticed during the months of March–June and October–December each
year (Pakistan Meteorological Department Station Kakul, Abbottabad). The
Thandiani Sub Forest Division is situated at an altitude of 1800 m along a main

ridge between Abbottabad and Kunhar basins. Sikher (2626 m) and Sattu (2610 m)
peaks are the highest peaks in the region. In general, the area is rugged with steep
slopes. The main ridge is interrupted by lateral spurs and nallahs, creating numerous
side valleys. In Pakistan in general, and Himalayan forests in particular, ecosystem
studies of natural environment in relation to cultural diversity have not been
done widely. Champion and Khattak (1965) defined for the first time the forest
types of Pakistan, using the following broad categories: swamps, dry subtropical
forests, tropical thorn forests, subtropical pine forests, Himalayan moist temperate
forests, Himalayan dry temperate forests, subalpine forests, and alpine scrub. Beg
(1975) defined main habitat types as tropical swamps, tropical thorn forests, tropical
dry deciduous forests, subtropical semi-evergreen forests, subtropical forests, moist
temperate forests, dry temperate forests, subalpine forests, alpine vegetation, and
cold desert. All of these vegetation types, excluding the swamps, can be found in
northern part of the country (Champion and Khattak 1965; Beg 1975). The TsFD is
located on the edge of the western Himalayas and thus forms a part of the globally
established western Himalayan floristic province of the western Asiatic sub-region
of Irano-Turania. Its geographical, geomorphological, geological, climatic, and
vegetational setting give it a unique ecotonal position among the world’s three larg-
est mountain ranges i.e., the Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Karakorum ranges. This
lends specific phytogeographical diversity to the TsFD and its vegetation.
Vegetation
The vegetation of western Himalayan province is predominantly under the effect of

monsoon winds and can be classified into different vegetational zones on the basis
of temperature, humidity, and altitude (Champion and Khattak 1965; Takhtadzhian
and Cronquist 1986). A brief description of the habitat types that occur within the
TsFD and their associated vegetation are as follows:
According to Champion and Khattak (1965), the forests of Galis can mainly be
classified into the following three types of forests:
1 . Dry subtropical broad-leaved forest
2. Subtropical pine forests
3. Himalayan moist temperate forest
The Thandiani lies in the third category of Himalayan moist temperate forest which
is further divided into the following subcategories:
1 . Low-level blue pine forest
2. Western mixed conifer forest
The Thandiani and adjoining reserve and Guzara forests are typically representa-
tive of rich Himalayan mountain moist temperate ecosystem, supporting a large
number of plants and animal life.
554 W. Khan et al.
Dry Subtropical Broad-Leaved Forests
The dry subtropical broad-leaved forests occupy 6288 acres (32%) of the total area
of forests included in this plan. The bulk of the area under this sort is situated in
the lower Tanawal, and a small part has been found in the Berangali range on the
right bank of the Jhelum River. This forest extends from about 300 to 1000 m eleva-
tion merging with the subtropical pine in the upper ridges. These forests attain a
higher altitude on the relatively hotter and drier southern aspect slopes. The vegeta-
tion is mainly composed of Dodonaea viscosa, Acacia modesta, Ziziphus jujuba,
Berberis lycium, and Punica florida. Significant species which are rapidly being
eliminated are Olea ferruginea, Pistacia integerrima, and Acacia arabica. Dodonaea
viscose (Sannatha) is the dominnant species established in these firewood forests.
Its abundant seed-generating power and sprouting ability, together with the produc-
tive coppicing habit, permits the species to survive under the effects of frequent
wounding and looping. Sannatha due to its combustibility and significant fattening
values is highly important as firewood. It is also used for fencing, and is therefore,
extensively cut and twisted as an result it is never permitted to grow to higher sizes
but somewhat leftovers bushy forms. These forests consequently host stunted shrubs
which are frequently intermittent by grassy rocks or bare rocks. More valued spe-
cies like Pistacia integerrima (Kao Kanger), Olea cuspidate, and Acacia modesta
(Phulai) have been carried to the edge of extinction. The old remnant appropriately
conserved on account of spiritual affection of such species can be traced in the
graveyard, and this is adequate proof of their indigenous existence (Fig. 4).
Subtropical Pine Forests
The subtropical pine forests can be located in between the monotone temperate and
the subtropical broad leaved forests. The altitudinal range of existence of chir
pine starts from 800 m and ends at 1900 m from sea level. However the species as
happening in this area seems to have exceeded the upper altitudinal border and
accesses into the blue pine zone, perhaps under the influence of global climate
change and warming. Blue-pines forests have given way to the chir pine at shady
slopes of the mountains. Chir pine in the Bagnotor Guzara forests on the western
slopes are dominating above 1900 m altitude at sea level. The region below chir pine
is 4624 acres which is about 24% of the total region. The development of chir pine
is usual, and its restoration is properly up to the mark. In the lower limits of its
occurrence, chir has given way to brushwood and has already been wiped off from
a larger part of its habitat in Abbottabad range. The dominant associated species of
chir are Quercus incana (white oak) and other broad-leaved species for example
Celtis australis, Zanthoxylum armatum, and Cornus macrophylla. Common under-
growth consists of Berberis lycium, Skimmia laureola, Daphne muricatus, Ziziphus
jujuba, Ziziphus sativa, and Dodonaea viscosa. Herbaceous or ground flora in chir
Fig. 4 Vegetation mapping according to different environmental attributes (aspect/elevation)

556 W. Khan et al.
forests is comprised of Adiantum incisum, Ajuga bracteosa, Potentilla fruticosa,

Euphorbia wallichii and Bergenia ciliata species.
Low-Level Blue Pine Vegetation
The range occupied by low-level blue pine woodland spreads over 8682 acres which
make 44% of the studied region. A separate feature of Guzara blue pine is that they
have improved stocking than any other coniferous forest types. Blue pine Guzara on
the entire terrain exhabit adequate regeneration and seedling classes with an acute
shortage of mature and sub mature trees. The Guzara forests of Tajwal, Darwaza,
Inderseri, Sarbanna, and Dabban contain predominantly pole crops and show signs
of fair stocking (Iqbal et al. 2018). The feature of the harvest is nearly alike the
adjacent reserve forest vegetation (Khan et al. 2012). In pure blue pine there are
number of frequently occurring and rare under wood species as well. Certain spe-
cies which are noticeable only in the moist nallah beds or depression are Prunus
padus (bird cherry), Quercus incana and Quercus dilatata (oak), Diospyros lotus
(amlok) and Cornus macrophylla (Kandar). The common undergrowth plant spe-
cies in the region consist of Viburnum grandiflorum (Guch), Spirea vestita (Amrer),
Berberis lyceum (Sumbal) and Rubus fruticosus (garacha), respectively. It com-
prises mainly of Viola canescens (violet), Fragaria vesca (strawberry) and Artemisia
absinthium (choo) besides many other grasses.
Mixed Coniferous Forest Vegetation
Most of the studied region occupied by western mixed coniferous forest vegetation
is 3.44 hectares which establish about 2.1% of the whole region of the woodlands.
This forest type occurs in Phalkot-4, Lassan-8, Birangali-9, and Inderseri-1.
Composition of crops varies at different places, but the bulk of the growing stock
consists of blue pine and silver fir; the latter is confined to cooler aspect slopes.
Deodar occurs sporadically in Berangali, Inderseri, and Pichbhanna and Riala
Guzaras, but on the whole it constitutes an insignificant proportion of the total
growing stock. Fir crop is marked by an open canopy with scattered occurrence of
mature and some overmature trees. Regeneration of silver fir and its younger age
classes are either absent or deficient. The mature blue pine trees occur occasionally
and seedlings classes occur frequently (Khan et al. 2011) (Figs. 5 and 6).
Fig. 5 Pictorial view of the dense coniferous forests
Fig. 6 Uprooting of trees due to extreme wind effects

558 W. Khan et al.
Agroecology and Important Agricultural Crops
The punitive weather in TsFD is abridged to a very short summer, and due to which
agricultural practices are restricted. The whole area is mono-cropic, i.e., only one
crop (kharif) can be grown in a year during the season of summer only. Noteworthy
crops are potatoes and peas. Other crops include maize, rye, fodder, wheat, beans,
and cauliflower with less frequency and production. Fruit trees, counting pears,
plums, walnuts, and apples are also grown in the area. Lack of financial support,
poor means of communication and transport are the main difficulties to develop
extensive land growth and agriculture. The river Kunhar and its branches provide
water for irrigation in the summer, whereas natural springs and streams are the main
sources of drinking water (Qureshi 2005).
Ethnology
Several tribes comprising Sardars, Gujjars, Jadoons, Qureshi and Dhoond inhabit

the TsFD. The most significant between these are the Sardars who are renowned for
their exclusive ethos, way of life, sacraments and courage. The Sardars are focused
in the upper parts in most of the forests in TsFD where they improve rain-fed hills
and are usually more conscious of traditional knowledge about plant use and local
ecosystem (Ahmad et al. 2009). The Sardars were nominated by the British as a
martial race that were thought to be logically strong in battle and owning qualities
like courage, correctness, self-sufficiency, physical forte, discipline, and determina-
tion (Khan et al. 2013). Inhabitants of the region are very hard-working people and
easily face any ruthless situation, particularly natural hazards and climatic con-
straints. The Sardars have their own exact language called Pahari which is among
one of the most historic languages of the world. It is also measured to be the mother
tongue of the present-day Urdu and Punjabi languages (Wayne 1996). Most of the
people speak Pahari or Hindko languages in the region.
Livelihoods
Human life in the TsFD is a continuous challenging effort for survival. Usually,
people have more than one type of occupation in order to maintain a sustainable
livelihood. Generally, every household keeps cattle, the numbers and types of which
vary from a few to hundreds. In the lower and middle forests, the second most com-
mon occupation is agriculture. Most of the people adapt these two professions for
their livelihood. Having cultivable lands and a more reasonable climate, people
grow crops in the lower forests which progressively decrease along the forests
and increase in elevation and disappear at the forest upper margins. People of the
Table 2 Sources of information about the use of medicinal plants in the Thandiani forests
Interviews/
Source of Local Group semi-structured Conventional
information elders Farmers discussions Questionnaires interviews healers
Numbers 13 31 04 34 18 2 women and
1 man
upper TsFD mainly trust on nurture of livestock and collection of native plants.
Grazing livestock is dominant in the TsFD (Khan et al. 2015).
Ecosystem Services
Humans have long history of utilizing some of the plant species as food sources and
the others as curing agents for diseases and injuries. A total of 252 plant species
belonging to 97 families were recorded, out of which 47 plant species have high
medicinal value with minimum importance value index (IVI) curing different dis-
eases (Tables 2 and 3, Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). These 47 species have rare occurance
in the region while having high use values in ethnomedicines and were there-
fore, primarily focused for documentation in this chapter. Disappearance of these
species due to any reason may cause depletion of the traditional knowledge related
to these species. Conservation priority must be given to these plants based upon
their rarity in the region. The dominant families were Rosaceae with five species
followed by Ranunculaceae with three species and Moraceae, Buxaceae, and
Apiaceae having two species each, while the remaining families have one species
each.
Majority of the plant species were found in mid-altitudes (Fig. 2). The altitudinal
gradients were complex and involve many co-environmental variables such as
topography, soil, and climate (Pausas and Austin 2001). In Himalayas the number
of unique plant species are predictable from high altitude due to rapidly changing
gradient of habitats (Shrestha and Joshi 1996). Various therapeutically important
plant species flourish in the upper elevations of Thandiani forest region, reflecting
great ranks of floral variety. Study in this region necessitate practices of mod-
ern approaches to the traditional systems that can lead to some novel information of
taxa conservation as well as utilization (Palumbi 2001). Majority of the species in
this region has significant uses in traditional healthcare system with a relatively
inexpensive values, safety and sustainibility. Much care had been rewarded to
records of the Himalayan region’s medicinal plants, but no long term
planned approach has been outlined so far. The plant resources are declining rapidly
due to fragility of the natual ecosystem as well as unwise usage by the foothill
societies for therapeutic purposes (Shinwari 2010). The major factors intimidating
floral biodiversity in the region include changing climatic situations, overharvesting
and overgrazing. The individuals existing in the buffer regions nearby the core
park region mainly depend on normal resources and community facilities.
560 W. Khan et al.
Table 3 Traditional uses of medicinal plants by local communities of Thandiani forests

S. No. Botanical name Local name I.V.I Family Disorder treated
The medicinal importance of rarest species of 1st community (Khant et al., 2016b and 2017)
1 Hedera nepalensis Belrri 2.44 Araliaceae Skin disorders
2 Jacaranda Nelagul 4.33 Bignoniaceae Syphilis and vulnerary
mimosifolia
3 Clematis Churanhar 4.47 Ranunculaceae Anti-inflammatory,
amplexicaulis cytotoxic, and
antimicrobial effects
4 Cuscuta reflexa Akashbail 4.5 Cuscutaceae Eczema and scabies
5 Lonicera bicolor Foota 5.4 Caprifoliaceae Emiticocathartic, tonic,
and diuretic
6 Vitex negundo Marwand 5.8 Verbenaceae Hair color
7 Cyperus rotundus Deela 5.8 Cyperaceae stomachic, emmenagogue,
deobstruent, and emollient
8 Celtis australis Batkarar 5.9 Celastraceae Amenorrhea, lenitive,
colic, diarrhea, dysentery,
and peptic ulcers
9 Polygonum Masloonrr 6.3 Polygonaceae Infectious diseases,
amplexicaule inflammation,
gastrointestinal disorders,
and cancer
10 Buxus papillosa Angaroo 6.8 Buxaceae Joints pain, skin disorder,
and baldness
11 Senecio Ragwort 8.05 Asteraceae Antiseptic and rheumatic
chrysanthemoides pain
12 Foeniculum Sonf 9.41 Apiaceae Constipation
vulgare
The medicinal importance of rarest species of 2nd community (Khant et al., 2016b and 2017)
1 Aesculus indica Bankhorr 2.38 Hippocastanaceae Rheumatism and colic pain
2 Platanus orientalis Chinar 2.71 Platanaceae Astringent, ophthalmic,
and vulnerary
3 Rubus spp. Chal 2.85 Rosaceae Diarrhea and dysentery
4 Pistacia Kangarr 3.34 Anacardiaceae Antimicrobial, antioxidant
integerrima and analgesic,
5 Jasminum Chambeli 3.75 Oleaceae Aphrodisiac, sedative,
officinale antidepressant,
antispasmodic, and
analgesic
6 Sarcococca saligna Ladan 3.87 Buxaceae Laxative, blood purifier,
and muscular pains
7 Convolvulus Ilrra 3.87 Convolvulaceae Purgative, diuretic, and
prostrates laxative
8 Solanum nigrum Kachmach 4.04 Solanaceae Diuretic, diaphoretic,
anodyne, and expectorant
alternative
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
9 Bupleurum spp. Beichaihu 4.06 Apiaceae Common cold, bronchitis,
and pneumonia
10 Rhus punjabensis Sumac 4.25 Rosaceae Diarrhea, hemorrhoids,
leucorrhea, ophthalmia,
conjunctivitis, and diuresis
11 Buddleja asiatica Booi 4.6 Berberidaceae Abortifacient
The medicinal importance of rarest species of 3rd community (Khant et al., 2016b and 2017)
1 Rubus fruticosus Chal 3.23 Rosaceae Menstruation disorders
2 Malva neglecta Sonchal 4.06 Malvaceae Diarrhea and piles
3 Ailanthus altissima Darawa 4.08 Simaroubaceae Astringent, demulcent,
aphrodisiac, and
expectorant
4 Morus nigra Kala Toot 4.16 Moraceae Diuretic and expectorant
5 Paeonia emodi Mamekh 4.23 Paeoniaceae Joint pain
6 Papaver Poppy 4.32 Papaveraceae Sedative, analgesic, and
somniferum antitussive
7 Thalictrum Momyrun 4.49 Ranunculaceae Ophthalmia and gastritis
cultratum
8 Hedera nepalensis Belrri 4.51 Araliaceae Cathartic, diaphoretic, skin
and stimulant
9 Rosa moschata Jungligulab 4.55 Rosaceae Astringent, tonic and piles
10 Punica granatum Darunna 4.74 Punicaceae Cooling, refrigerant and
breast development
11 Morus alba Safeed toot 4.98 Moraceae Antirheumatic,
antispasmodic, diuretic,
alterative, and diaphoretic
The medicinal importance of rarest species of 4th community (Khant et al., 2016b and 2017)
1 Geranium Rattanjot 1.10 Geraniaceae Vision problem, blood
wallichianum purification, jaundice,
kidney and spleen
problems
2 Podophyllum Bankhakhrri 1.81 Podophylaceae Jaundice, liver ailment,
emodi fever, syphilis, hearing
loss, and cancer
3 Jasminum Chambeli 1.82 Oleaceae Aphrodisiac, sedative,
officinale antidepressant,
antispasmodic, and
analgesic
4 Aesculus indica Bankhorr 3.29 Hippocastanaceae Skin diseases, rheumatism,
astringent, and narcotic and
headaches
5 Buddleja crispa Booi 3.33 Berberidaceae Abortifacients
6 Zanthoxylum Timber 3.33 Rutaceae Antiseptic, disinfectant,
armatum and deodorant properties
(continued)
562 W. Khan et al.
Table 3 (continued)
7 Rhus punjabensis Sumac 3.46 Rosaceae Diarrhea, ulcer,
hemorrhoids, hemoptysis,
conjunctivitis, and diuresis
8 Clematis Churanhar 3.63 Ranunculaceae Anti-inflammatory,
amplexicaulis cytotoxic, and
antimicrobial effects
9 Berberis spp. Sumblo 3.73 Berberidaceae Stomach ache
10 Ailanthus altissima Darawa 3.84 Simaroubaceae Antidiarrheal,
antispasmodic, astringent,
and diuretic
11 Rosa moschata Chal 4.44 Rosaceae Antispasmodic and
antidiarrheal
12 Robinia Kekar 8.47 Papilionaceae Diuretic, emetic, emollient
pseudoacacia laxative, purgative, and
tonic
The medicinal importance of rarest species of 5th community (Khant et al., 2016b and 2017)
1 Acacia nilotica Kikar 1.91 Mimosoideae Searing, sweltering, and
torrid
2 Cotoneaster Bansathra 2.42 Rosaceae Antipyretic and calmative
minuta
3 Populus ciliata Safeeda 2.95 Salicaceae Anti-inflammatory and
febrifuge
4 Sorbaria Kaanhaji 3.39 Sonneratiaceae Burns and wounds
tomentosa
5 Verbescum thapsis Kutteykan 3.42 Scrophulariaceae Emollient
6 Thalictrum Momyrun 3.56 Ranunculaceae Stomach pain and gastric
cultratum trouble
7 Bupleurum spp. Beichaihu 4.15 Apiaceae Common cold, bronchitis,
and pneumonia
8 Cuscuta reflexa Akashbel 4.32 Cuscutaceae Urine problems and
constipation
9 Capsella bursa Shufrt purse 4.46 Brassicaceae Hemorrhages
pastoris
10 Arisaema flavum Adbis 4.53 Araceae Expectorant, chronic
tracheitis, bronchi ectasis,
tetanus, and epilepsy
11 Aquilegia pubiflora Koo-kuk 4.91 Ranunculaceae Skin burns and wound
healing
The anthropogenic factors and pressure on natural resources make it necessary to

develop a comprehensive and maintainable forest management strategy (Hagler
Bailly Pakistan 1999). The growing tourist traffic and activities in Abbottabad
region at high-altitude pastures may increase further the threats to indigenous flora
and would be another alarming factor in near future.
This study has numerous significant insinuations for the project and organization
of reserves and Guzara forest plots. First, it proves that TsFD within upland forest
Plate 1 Important rarely occuring medicinal plants of 1st community
Plate 2 Important rarely occuring medicinal plants of 2nd community
vegetation are certainly an appreciated reserve for the conservation of plant biodi-
versity, due to high levels of indigenous species, higher rate of productivity and a
number of infrequent species of ethnoecological importances. Plant communities in
these environments characterize distinctive mixtures of different forest species. The
moist habitats in Thandiani forests permit recognition and safety to the fragile
indicator vegetation. In fact, there is a considereable and perfect chance to preserve
varied societies as well as natural diversity in a sustainable manner using community
564 W. Khan et al.
Plate 3 Important rarely occuring medicinal plants of 3rd community
Plate 4 Important rarely occuring medicinal plants of 4th community
conservation procedures (Moral and Jones 2002). Conservation practitioners and

ecologists have frequently ignored small lands in forest vegetation perhaps due to
an absence of clear descriptions of habitat types and their respective indicators. It is
therefore, hereby emphasized that indicators for a given region even at micro-habitat
scale of forestlands play a vital role in ethnoecological understanding of that
ecosystem. The forest vegetation explained by the present work here is merely not
the documentation but also the cry of the day for maintenance of these extremely
Plate 5 Important rarely occuring medicinal plants of 5th community
important habitats. Our devised forestland types may also assist land managers to
conserve the immense natural wealth of these kinds of habitats and ecosystems
(Pyke et al. 2001). Conserving the different community types may lead to different
conservation objectives and approaches. For example, Neelor and Barriback had
lower local species richness (1.1), than other types, but the highest species richness
value was found in upper Balolia (2.48), and the index of diversity values diverge
from 11.1 to 39.44. These features make it significant to protect these micro-habitats,
rather than larger regions, and to make them a focal point in landscapes conserva-
tion priorities (Flinn et al. 2008). The regional strategies, may include all of the
varied types of TsFD vegetation, which may ultimate contribute considerably to the
maintenance of plant biodiversity in particular and other types in general.
References
Ahmad H, Khan SM, Ghafoor S, Ali N (2009) Ethnobotanical study of upper Siran. J Herbs Spices
Med Plants 15:86–97
Ali SI, Qaiser M (1986) A Phyto-geographical analysis of the Phenerogames of Pakistan and
Kashmir. Proc Roy Soc Edinb 89:89–101
Barthel S, Crumley CL, Svedin U (2013) Bioculturalrefugia: combating the erosion of diversity in
landscapes of food production. Ecol Soc 18:71
Beg AR (1975) Wildlife habitats of Pakistan. Bulletin 5
Berkes F, Turner NJ (2006) Knowledge, learning and the evolution of conservation practice for
social-ecological system resilience. Hum Ecol 34:479–494
Berkes F, Colding J, Folke C (2003) Navigating social-ecological systems: building resilience for
complexity and change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Brillat-Savarin JA (1960) The physiology of taste. Dover, New York
566 W. Khan et al.
Champion HG, & Khattak GM (1965) Forest Types of Pakistan

Dasti AA, Saima S, Athar M, Attiq-ur-Rahman, Malik SA (2007) Botanical composition and
multivariate analysis of vegetation on the Pothowar Plateau, Pakistan. J Bot Res Inst Texas
1:557–568
Dickoré WB, Nüsser M (2000) Flora of Nanga Parbat (NW Himalaya, Pakistan). An annotated
inventory of vascular plants with remarks on vegetation dynamics. Englera 19:1–253
Flinn KM, Lechowicz MJ, Waterway MJ (2008) Plant species diversity and composition of wet-
lands within an upland forest. Am J Bot 95(10):1216–1224
Hagler Bailly Pakistan (1999) Pakistan’s National Communication to the UNFCC. Report pre-
pared for the Ministry of Environment, Islamabad, Pakistan
Han L, Chunlin L, Sixiang Z, Zhilin L (2005) Polyploid induction of Cymbidium iridioides and its
biological characteristics. Acta Horticulturae Sinica 32(5):853
Iqbal M, Khan SM, Khan MA, Ahmad Z, Ahmad H, (2018) A novel approach to phytosociological
classification of weeds flora of an agroecological system through Cluster, Two Way Cluster and
Indicator Species Analyses. Ecological Indicators, 84:590–606
Kala CP, Mathur VB (2002) Patterns of plant species distribution in the trans-Himalayan region of
Ladakh, India. J Veg Sci 13:751–754
Kent M, Coker P (1995) Vegetation description and analysis: a practical approach. Wiley,
Chichester
Khan W, Ahmad H, Shah GM (2011) Phytosociology and Geographical distribution of Thandiani
Forests. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. KG, Saarbrücken. ISBN:
978-3-8465-1016-2
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper D (2012) Anthropogenic influences on the natural ecosystem
of the Naran Valley in the western Himalayas. Pak. J. Bot, 44:231–238
Khan W, Majid A, Afzal M, Islam M, Bibi F (2013) Degree of aggregation and index of similar-
ity of plant communities recorded at Thandiani Hills, District Abbottabad KPK, Pakistan. Eur
J Agricul Sci 11:68–72
Khan W, Khan SM, Ahmad H (2015) Altitudinal variation in plant species richness and diversity at
Thandiani sub forests division, Abbottabad, Pakistan. J Biol Environ Sci 7(1):46–53
Khan W, Khan SM, Ahmad H, Ahmad Z (2016a) Floral biodiversity and vegetation composition
of the Western Himalayas, Thandiani sub forests division, Abbottabad. Con Bio Pak 1(1):1–9
Khan W, Khan SM, Ahmad H, Ahmad Z, Page S (2016b) Vegetation mapping and multivariate
approach to indicator species of a forest ecosystem: a case study from the Thandiani sub forests
division (TsFD) in the western Himalayas. Ecol Indic 71(2016):336–351
Khan W, Khan SM, Ahmad H, Shakeel A, Page S (2017) Ecological gradient analyses of plant
associations in the Thandiani forests of the Western Himalayas, Pakistan. Turkish Journal of
Botany, 41(3):253–264
Malik RN, Husain SZ (2008) Linking remote sensing and ecological vegetation communities: a
multivariate approach. Pak J Bot 40:337–349
Moral RD, Jones C (2002) Vegetation development on pumice at Mount St. Helens, USA. Plant
Ecol 162:9–22
Mueller-Dombois D, Ellenberg H (1974) Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. Wiley,
New York, London
Oommen MA, Shanker K (2005) Elevational species richness patterns emerge from multiple local
mechanisms in Himalayan woody plants. Ecology 86:3039–3047
Palumbi SR (2001) The ecology of marine protected areas. Marine Commun Ecol 9:509–530
Pausas JG, Austin MP (2001) Patterns of plant species richness in relation to different environ-
ments: an appraisal. J Veg Sci 12(2):153–166
Petrini C (2007) Slow Food Nation. Why our food should be good, clean, and fair. Rizzoli,
New York
Pyke CR, Condit R, Aguilara S, Lao S (2001) Floristic composition across a climatic gradient in a
neotropical lowland forest. J Veg Sci 12:553–566
Qureshi AS (2005) Climate change and water resources management in Pakistan. Climate change
and water resources in South Asia. AA Balkema Publishers, Leiden, pp 197–230
Saima S, Dasti AA, Hussain F, Wazir SM, Malik SA (2009) Floristic compositions along an 18 km
long transect in ayubia National Park district Abbottabad, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 41:2115–2127
Shinwari ZK (2010) Medicinal plants research in Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 4(3):161–176
Shrestha TB, Joshi RM (1996) Rare, endemic and endangered plants of Nepal. WWF. WWF Nepal
Program, Kathmandu, Nepal
Signorini MA, Piredda M, Bruschi P (2009) Plants and traditional knowledge: an ethnobotanical
investigation on Monte Ortobene (Nuoro, Sardinia). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 5:6
Singh E, Singh MP (2010) Biodiversity and phytosociological analysis of plants around the munic-
ipal drains in Jaunpur. World Acad Sci Eng Technol 4:01–28
Takhtadzhian AL, Cronquist A (1986) Floristic regions of the world. University of California
Press, London
UNESCO (2003) Convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage. http://www.
unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=EN&pg=00022. Accessed 13 Apr 2015
Wayne EL (1996) Writing Gojri: linguistic and sociolinguistic constraints on a standardized
orthography for the Gujars of South Asia, Master Thesis. University of North Dakota, USA
Wazir SM, Dasti AA, Saima S, Shah J, Hussain F (2008) Multivariate analysis of vegetation of
Chapursan valley: an alpine meadow in Pakistan. Pak J Bot 40:615–626
Ethnobotanical Uses of Some Plants
of Families Apocynaceae
and Asclepiadaceae from the Northwestern
Region of Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra
Mohan B. Waman and Mahendra S. Khyade
Introduction
The importance of plants in different cultures is an unquestionable reality. They are

used for the basic needs, viz., feeding, clothing, sheltering, hunting, and nursing
(Garbi et al. 2015). However, the advent of modern technology has caused a great
loss in the indigenous traditional knowledge which was used to be transmitted
orally. However, the collection of information about natural flora, classification,
management, and use of plants by the people hold importance among the ethnobota-
nists. Besides, the researchers and local people, too, face difficulties in documenting
this knowledge (Ford 1978).
The northwest part of Ahmednagar district includes the entire Akole tehsil and a
little hilly part of Sangamner tehsil situated in the Sahyadri ranges of northern
Western Ghats. Earlier researchers including Billore and Hemadri (1969) and
Pradhan and Singh (1999) have studied the phytodiversity of the region. Moreover,
few ethnobotanical endeavor are carried out in forest villages by different workers
(Petkar et al. 2002; Wabale and Petkar 2005; Khyade et al. 2010, 2011). Despite the
vast work done by many authors on different aspects, very poor attention has still
been paid on the families, Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae regarding their use in
food and medicine. Keeping this view, the present study has been undertaken to
survey and document the plants used in food and medicine.
M. B. Waman
Dr. D.Y. Patil Arts, Commerce and Science College, Pune, Maharashtra, India
M. S. Khyade (*)
Department of Botany, S. N. Arts, D. J. M. Commerce and B. N. S. Science College,
Sangamner, Maharashtra, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_14
570 M. B. Waman and M. S. Khyade
Study Area
Ahmednagar district lies between 18.2° to 19.9° northern latitude and 73.9° to 75.5°
eastern longitude. The district comprises of 14 tehsils of which the entire Akole
tehsil and a little part of Sangamner tehsil fall in the northwestern part of the
Ahmednagar district (Fig. 1). This zone spreads along with crest of Sahyadri ranges
of northern Western Ghats, one of the global biodiversity hotspots. The hill ranges
of Adula, Baleshwar, and Harishchandragad lie in this region, and various high
peaks are found in the same region. Kalsubai, one of the highest peaks in the
Sahyadri of Maharashtra, lies in this region.
The study region is inhabited mostly by tribal population (Mahadev Koli and
Thakar Tribe) with smallholdings and is economically backward. The vegetation of
the study area is of semi-evergreen forest, moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous
forests, and ravine vegetation type (Pradhan and Singh 1999). The average rainfall
of the study area is about 4182 mm per annum. The temperature rises up to 40 °C in
midsummer and falls up to 7 °C in winter (in the month of December).
Survey and Data Collection
Survey Methodology
The frequent field visits were conducted during 2014–2016 in the major villages
and some small hamlets situated in and around the hilly areas of the study area. The
places included Baleshwar, Bhandardara, Ghatghar, Akole, Kotul, Rajur, Murshet,
Panjaare, Ratanwadi, Sambrad, and Shendi. The questionnaires were used in local
language (in Marathi) to obtain information about the utility of plants for food and
medicine with their local names, plant parts used, mode of preparation, and admin-
istration (Jain and Rao,1967). The Informants were chosen on the basis of their
indigenous knowledge of plants used for different purposes. The informants were
Fig. 1 Map of the study area

Ethnobotanical Uses of Some Plants of Families Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae… 571
requested to indicate plants in the field for identification. The photographs were
taken with the help of Canon SX50 HS camera. The collected specimens were iden-
tified by referring to various floras (Pradhan and Singh 1999; Cooke 1967; Sharma
et al. 1996; Singh and Karthikeyan 2000; Singh et al. 2001). Moreover, the recent
names of the plant species based on the International Plant Names Index (IPNI –
www.ipni.org) have been given.
Tabulation and Data Analysis
The botanical names of the plants from both families are tabulated in alphabetical
order along with vernacular names. Besides, the collected data is also tabulated in
terms of habit, plant parts used and ailments treated, mode of preparations and roots
of administration for each species (Table 2).
Use Value (UV)
The use value (UV), a quantitative method that demonstrates the relative impor-
tance of species known locally, was also calculated using the following formula:
∑U
UV =
N
where UV, the use value of a species; U, the number of citation per species; and N,
the number of informants (Upadhyay et al. 2011).
Informants Consensus Factor (ICF)
For the data analysis, informant consensus factor (ICF) was employed to indicate
how homogenous the information is. All the citations were placed into primary and
secondary categories for which the plants were claimed to be used. ICF values will
be lower (near 0) if plants are chosen randomly or if informants do not exchange
information about their use. Values will be high (near or more than 1) if there is a
well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or if information is exchanged
between informants.
The ICF is calculated as in the following formula (Gazzaneo et al. 2005):
ICF = Nur − Nt / Nur − 1
where “Nur” is the number of used citations in each category and “Nt” is the num-
ber of species used.
Literature Review
Literature review was consulted for relevant ethnobotanical information. Field stud-
ies in the state of Maharashtra and India available in scientific journal and reference
books were consulted. The literature was obtained from various international scien-
tific databases such as Web of Science, MEDLINE/PubMed, Google Scholar, and
NISCAIR Online Periodicals Repository.
Results and Discussion
Knowledge Distribution Among Informants
The demographic characteristics of the informants were recorded through face-to-

face interviews. The number of practitioners between the age groups 50 and 59 was
high when compared to the other groups. In this study, the sample size of females is
low as their responses depended on the permission of their male partner. It has
resulted into the eneven distribution of male-female ratio. Out of the 47 informants,
36 belonged to Mahadev Koli and 11 from Thakar tribe (Table 1). During the ethno-
botanical surveys carried out in different villages of the study area, a total of 31
plant species belonging to both Asclepiadaceae and Apocynaceae have been docu-
mented. For each species botanical name, family, local name, parts used, methods
of preparation, and use value were discussed in detail (Table 2).
Table 1 Sex and age character of people interviewed in the study area
Ethnic group Age group Gender No. of person Percentage
Male Female
Mahadev Koli 30–39 1 2 03 8.33
40–49 5 5 10 27.77
50–59 7 4 11 30.55
60–69 6 3 09 25.00
70–79+ 2 1 03 8.33
Total 21 15 36
Thakar 30–39 1 0 01 9.09
40–49 2 1 03 27.27
50–59 2 1 03 27.27
60–69 2 1 03 27.27
70–79+ 1 0 01 9.09
Total 08 03 11
Table 2 Enumeration of plants used for food and medicine along with their UV reports in the
study area
Botanical
name with Parts Ethnobotanical Similar reported
family Local name Habit used uses UV literature
Apocynaceae
Carissa Karwand Shrub Fruit Ripe fruits are 1.00 Waman (2005), Patil
congesta eaten as raw and Patil (2006),
Wight. Datar and Upadhye
(2016)
Also unripe fruits 0.36 Watt (1889–1893),
used to make Anonymous
pickles (1948–1976), Datar
and Upadhye (2016)
Alcoholic 0.36 Patil and Patil
beverage (wine) (2006)
is prepared
Leaves Paste of leaves in 0.14
water is applied
in skin diseases
Catharanthes Ran Herb Leaves 2–3 leaves 0.10
pusilus (Murr.) sadaphuli chewed two times
G.Don to lowers fever
Catharanthes Sadaphuli Herb Leaves Paste is applied 0.44 Shende et al. (2014)
roseus L. on skin diseases
Paste is applied 0.65
on wounds
Holarrhena Kala kuda Tree Flower Flowers are 1.00 Reddy (2012),
pubescens cocked as Patale et al. (2015),
(Buch-Ham) vegetables Datar and Upadhye
Wall.ex (2016)
G.Don.
Bark Dried powdered 0.82
extract given
internally in
kidney stone
Plumeria alba Pandhara Tree Latex Latex directly 0.57
L. chapha applied on skin
diseases
Wrightia Pandhara Tree Bark Extract given 0.27 Patil and Patil
tinctoria R.Br. Kuda internally in (2006)
snakebite
Asclepiadaceae
Calotropis Mothi Rui Shrub Latex Latex applied in 0.48 Kosalge and Fursule
gigantea (L.) skin diseases (2009), Desale et al.
Ait. Hort. (2013)
Kewed.
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Botanical
Latex applied in 0.65 Waman (2005)
wounds
Latex applied on 0.57
swellings
Calotropis Rui Shrub Latex Latex applied on 0.14 Patil and Biradar
procera (Ait.) forehead in (2011)
R.Br. headache
Caralluma Shindal Herb Stem Shoots eaten as 1.00 Vartak (1981),
adscendens makad raw Waman (2005)
(Roxb.) Haw
Also cocked as 1.00 Waman (2005),
vegetable Datar and Upadhye
(2016)
Ceropegia Kharpudi Herb Tuber Roasted tubers 0.51 Yadav and Kamble
attenuata eaten (2008)
Hook
Ceropegia Kharpudi Climber Tuber Eaten as general 0.34 Vartak (1981),
bulbosa Roxb. tonic Yadav and Kamble
(2008), Jagtap et al.
(2008a),
Anonymous
(1948–1976), Datar
and Upadhye (2016)
Ceropegia Haman Climber Tuber Roasted tubers 0.46 Waman (2005),
hirsuta Wight eaten Yadav and Kamble
& Arn (2008), Datar and
Upadhye (2016)
Ceropegia Kharpudi Herb Tuber Roasted tubers 1.00 Vartak (1981),
lawii Hook. eaten Waman (2005),
Yadav and Kamble
(2008)
Ceropegia Tilori Herb Tuber Roasted tubers 0.27 Waman (2005),
maccanii eaten Yadav and Kamble
Ansari. (2008)
Ceropegia Kharpudi Climber Tuber Roasted tubers 0.23 Yadav and Kamble
media (Huber) eaten (2008)
Ansari
Ceropegia Haman Climber Tuber Roasted tubers 0.72 Waman (2005),
oculata Hook. eaten Yadav and Kamble
(2008), Datar and
Upadhye (2016)
Ceropegia Kharpudi Climber Tuber Roasted tubers 0.51 Waman (2005),
odorata Hook. eaten Jagtap et al. (2008b)
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Botanical
Ceropegia Kharpudi Herb Tuber Roasted tubers 1.00 Waman (2005),
rollae Hamadri eaten Yadav and Kamble
(2008)
Ceropegia Kharpudi Herb Tuber Roasted tubers 1.00 Waman (2005),
sahyadrica eaten Yadav and Kamble
Ansari & (2008)
Kulkarni
Ceropegia Kharpudi Climber Tuber Roasted tubers 0.23 Waman (2005),
mahabalei eaten Yadav and Kamble
Hem & Ansari. (2008)
Cryptolepis Mothi Climber Root Half glass of root 1.00 Patil and Patil
buchanani Kavali extract is taken (2006), Jain (1991)
Roem. & orally early in the
Schult. morning till to
cure the fever
Cynanchum Kavali Climber Leaves Fresh 3–5 leave 0.14
callialatum are eaten in high
Ham, ex, fever
Wight
Frerea indica Makadshingi Herb Stem Fresh shoots 0.57 Waman (2005)
Dalz. eaten as raw
Gymnema Bedki Climber Leaves 2–3 leaves eaten 1.00 Anonymous
sylvestre two times a day (1948–1976),
(Retz) R.Br. ex in diabetes Waman (2005),
Schultes. Bhosle et al. (2009),
Kamble et al.
(2010), Gayake
et al. (2013), Shaikh
et al. (2014)
Hemidesmus Anantmul Climber Root Ground root 0.70 Vartak (1981),
indicus (L.) extract given Vaidya and Dhumal
Schult internally against (2004), Jain (1991),
snakebite Khyade et al. (2011)
Hoya Climber Leaves Externally paste 0.25
alexicaca of leaves in water
(Jacq) Moon is applied on skin
diseases
Leptadenia Hirandodi Climber Leaves Externally paste 0.53 Anonymous
reticulata of leaves in water (1948–1976)
(Retz.) Wt.et is applied on skin
Arn diseases
Sarcostema Sabar Climber Latex Externally 0.76 Tayade and Patil
viminale (L.) applied for (2005)
R.Br. wound healing
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Botanical
Tylophora Kavali Climber Root A glass of water 1.00
dalzellii Hook extract given
f. orally to fever
Tylophora Kavali Climber Root A glass of water 1.00
indica extract given
Buch-Ham. orally against
fever
Wattakaka Kavali Climber Latex Latex directly 0.57
volubilis (L.f.) applied on skin
Stapf diseases
Fig. 2 Plant species used

19%
36%
45%
Food Medicine Food & Medicine
Analysis of the Data
The traditional knowledge of two ethnic communities of the study area has a tre-
mendous importance. Among the 31 plants recorded, 14 species were used in medi-
cine (45%), 11 species in food (36%), and the remaining 6 (19%) species were used
in both food and medicine (Fig. 2). The highest number of species belonged to
Asclepiadaceae (25 species each) followed by Apocynaceae (6 species each).
Climbers are used more often (16 species), followed by herbs (9 species), shrubs (3
species), and tree (3 species) as shown in Fig. 3.
The collected plants were used for medicinal and food purposes; aerial parts and
whole plants were also used in case of small herbaceous plants. Among plant parts
tubers (35.48%) were the most frequently used part followed by the leaves (22.58),
latex (16.12), root (12.9), bark and stem (6.45), and flower and fruits (3.22), respec-
tively (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3 Growth Forms of

Plants 9.67
9.67 29.03
51.61
Herb Climber Shrub Tree
40
35.48
35
30
Percentage
25 22.58
20 16.12
15 12.9
10 6.45 6.45
5 3.22 3.22
Fig. 4 Plant parts used
Use Value (UV)
UV is calculated for all the species and the single use by the single informant is not
considered for analysis. The plant species, Carissa congesta, Holarrhena pubescens,
Caralluma adscendens, Ceropegia lawii, Ceropegia rollae (Fig. 5), Ceropegia sahy-
adrica, Cryptolepis buchanani (Fig. 6), Gymnema sylvestre, Tylophora dalzellii, and
Tylophora indica scored a high UV (1.00 each), followed by Sarcostemma viminale
(0.82), Ceropegia oculata (0.72), Hemidesmus indicus (0.70), Wattakaka volubilis,
Frerea indica, Plumeria alba (0.57 each), Leptadenia reticulata (0.53), and Ceropegia
odorata and Ceropegia attenuata (0.51 each). A plant with high UV is the indication
of its importance among the tribal communities under study as it is highly cited by
many informants (Table 3). However, low citation by the informants for particular
species does not indicate their less utility. Appearance of knowledge or unavailability
of the plants in their vicinity could be the factors behind the low citation.
Fig. 5 (a) Ceropegia oculata; (b) C. attenuata; (c) C. lawii; (d) Caralluma adscendens; (e)
Holarrhena pubescens; (f) Carissa congesta
Informants Consensus Factor (ICF)
In the ethnobotanical studies, informant consensus analysis provides a measure of

reliability for the given claim of evidence (Malla and Chhetri 2012). The applica-
tions of plant in both food and medicine are classified into 14 categories, and the
ICF values for each category are given (Table 3). ICF values obtained for the
reported categories indicate the degree of shared knowledge for the treatment of
each ailment category and utility category of food. The highest ICF scored in medi-
cine is for diabetes, headache, kidney stone, swelling, and tonic (ICF = 1) followed
by fever, wounds and snakebite (0.97), and skin disease (0.95). The highest ICF
values for food were for pickle and beverage (ICF = 1) followed by vegetable
(ICF = 98), raw (ICF = 98), and roasted food material (ICF = 96). ICF value is a
proportion between the uses of different plants by various people for a particular use
category. It suggests the level of sharing the knowledge of the use of plants among
the people. High ICF value indicates the use of some plants by many tribal people,
whereas, low value means use of different plants by many people.
Fig. 6 (a) Hemidesmus indicus; (b) Cryptolepis buchanani; (c) Sarcostemma viminale; (d)
Wrightia tinctoria
New Reports
The present surveyed information of the plants for utility in food and medicine was
compared with those gathered by earlier published reports on ethnobotanical sur-
veys of state of Maharashtra and the important literature pertaining to Indian medic-
inal plants and raw materials (Watt 1889–1893; Anonymous 1948–1976; Jain 1991;
Patil and Patil 2006). A review of literature indicated that 7 out of the 31 plant spe-
cies are reported with new medicinal uses (Table 2). The ethnobotanical claims
associated with these six species are Catharanthus pusillus, Cynanchum calliala-
tum, Tylophora indica, and Tylophora dalzellii were reported for the first time for
fever. Similarly, Hoya alexicaca and Wattakaka volubilis against Plumeria alba to
cure skin diseases have not yet been reported and thus are new claims to the ethno-
botanical knowledge (Table 2).
Table 3 Informant consensus factor (FIC) by categories of utility in food and medicine
Primary Secondary Use citation Number of plant Informant consensus
category of use category of use (Nur) taxa used (Nt) factor (ICF)
Medicine
Diabetes 47 1 1.00
Headache 07 1 1.00
Kidney stone 39 1 1.00
Swelling 27 1 1.00
Tonic 16 1 1.00
Fever 155 5 0.97
Wounds 98 3 0.97
Snakebite 46 2 0.97
Skin disease 142 7 0.95
Food
Alcoholic 13 1 1.00
beverage
Pickle 17 1 1.00
Raw 121 3 0.98
Vegetable 94 2 0.98
Roasted food 280 10 0.96
material
Rare, Endemic, and Threatened Species
Among the 31 plant species reported, some plant species come under rare, endemic,
and threatened categories and are listed in various recent scientific literatures and
red data list (Nayar and Sastry 1987–1989). Ceropegia attenuata (endemic to India
and vulnerable), Ceropegia bulbosa (endemic to India), Ceropegia lawii (endemic
to Maharashtra and endangered), Ceropegia maccanii (endemic to Maharashtra and
endangered), Ceropegia mahabalei (endemic to Maharashtra and critically endan-
gered), Ceropegia media (endemic to Maharashtra and endangered), Ceropegia
oculata (endemic to Western Ghats and vulnerable), Ceropegia odorata (endemic
and critically endangered), Ceropegia rollae (endemic to Maharashtra and critically
endangered), Ceropegia sahyadrica (endemic to Maharashtra and critically endan-
gered), Frerea indica (endemic to Maharashtra and critically endangered), etc. are
reported from the study area.
Conclusion
The present ethnobotanical study revealed that the two ethnic communities residing
in the hilly areas of the northwestern region of Ahmednagar district depend on for-
est resources to meet their requirements in the form of food and medicine. This
study has explored the utility of 31 species that belong to both Asclepiadaceae and
Apocynaceae families. In medicine category, the plants with high ICF must be
chemically investigated for the identification of bioactive compounds which can
lead to designing new drugs of therapeutic importance. The plants reported for food
category must be studied by nutraceutical point of view and could provide interest-
ing opportunity for mountain agriculture.
Acknowledgments We are thankful to the authorities of the Forest Department and Wildlife
Department, Nashik, for allowing us to carry out this study in the study area. We also would like
to thank the local people of the study for sharing their valuable cultural knowledge with me. The
author of MBW is grateful to the BCUD, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune (MS), India
(Grant No: 15SCI001248), for providing financial assistance in this project.
References
Anonymous (1948–1976) The Wealth of India. A dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial
products. Vol. 1–11. Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi
Bhosle SV, Ghule VP, Aundhe DJ, Jagtap SD (2009) Ethnomedical knowledge of plants used by
the tribal people of Purandhar in Maharashtra, India. Ethnobot Leaflets 13:1353–1361
Billore KV, Hemadri K (1969) Observation on the flora of Harishchandragarh Sahyadri range.
Maharashtra Bull Botan Surv India 11:335–346
Cooke T (1967) (Reprint). Flora of Presidency of Bombay, Vol. 1–3. Botanical Survey of India
(BSI), Calcutta
Datar MN, Upadhye AS (2016) Forests foods of Northern Region of Western Ghats. Maharashtra
Association for the Cultivation of Science (MACS) Agharkar Research Institute, Pune
Desale MK, Bhamare PB, Sawant PS, Patil SR, Kamble SY (2013) Medicinal plants used by the
rural people of Taluka Purandhar, district Pune, Maharashtra. Indian J Tradit Knowl 12:334–338
Ford RI (1978) The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany, Anthropological Papers No. 67 Museum of
Anthropol. University of Michigan, Michigan
Garbi MI, Elbadri EO, Ahmed SK (2015) Anticancer activity of Bauhinia rufescens (Lam.) leaf
extracts on MCF-7 Human Breast Cancer Cells. J Med Plants Stud 3:103–106
Gayake DN, Awasarkar UD, Sharma PP (2013) Indigenous traditional medicinal plant resources
from Ahmednagar District, Maharastra, India. Asian J Biomed Pharmaceut Sci 3:1–5
Gazzaneo L, de Lucena R, de Albuquerque U (2005) Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by
local specialists in a region of Atlantic forest in the state of Pernambuco (North-Eastern Brazil).
J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 1:1–18
Jagtap SD, Deokule SS, Bhosle SS (2008a) Ethnomedicobotanical uses of endemic and RET plants
utilised by the Korku tribe of Amravati district, Maharashtra. Indian J Tradit Knowl 7:284–287
Jagtap SD, Deokule SS, Bhosle SS (2008b) Ethnobotanical uses of endemic and RET plants by
Pawra tribe of Nandurbar district, Maharashtra. Indian J Tradit Knowl 7:311–315
Jain SK (1991) Dictionary of Indian folk medicine and ethnobotany. Deep Publication, New Delhi
Jain SK, Rao RR (1967) A handbook of field and herbarium methods. Today and Tomorrow
Printers and Publishers, New Delhi
Kamble SY, Patil SR, Sawant PS, Sawant S, Pawar SG, Singh EA (2010) Studies on plants used in
traditional medicine by Bhilla tribe of Maharashtra. Indian J Tradit Knowl 9:591–598
Khyade MS, Awsarkar UD, Deshmukh RR, Petkar AS (2010) Ethnobotanical reports about few
important diseases from Akole Tahasil of Ahmednagar District (MS), India. Asian J Exp Biol
Sci 1:393–403
Khyade MS, Takate YA, Divekar MV (2011) Plants used as an antidote against snakebite in
AkoleTaluka of Ahmednagar District (MS), India. J Nat Remed 11(2):182–192
Kosalge SB, Fursule RA (2009) Investigation of ethnomedicinal claims of some plants used by
tribals of Satpuda Hills in India. J Ethnopharmacol 121:456–461
Malla B, Chhetri RB (2012) Indigenous knowledge on medicinal non-Timber forest products
(NTFP) in Parbat district of Nepal. Indo Global J of Pharmaceutical Sci 2(2):213–225
Nayar MP, Sastry ARK (eds) (1987–1989) Red data book of Indian plants. Vol. I–III. Botanical
Survey of India (BSI), Calcutta
Patale CK, Nasare PN, Narkhede SD (2015) Ethnobotanical studies on wild edible plants of Gond,
Zhalba and Kawar tribes of Salekasa Taluka, Gondia district, Maharashtra state, India. Int Res
J Pharm 6:512–518
Patil JU, Biradar SD (2011) Folkloric medicinal plants of Hingoli district, Maharashtra. Indian
J Nat Prod Resour 2:97–101
Patil DA, Patil MV (2006) Ethnobotany of Nasik District, Maharashtra. Daya Publishing House,
Delhi
Petkar AS, Wabale AS, Shinde MC (2002) Some Ethnomedicinal plants in the tribal areas of Akole
and Sangamner talukas of Ahmednagar District (M.S.). J Ind Botan Soc 81:213–215
Pradhan SG, Singh NP (1999) Flora of Ahmednagar District (M.S.). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehradun
Reddy BM (2012) Wild edible plants of Chandrapur district, Maharashtra, India. Indian J Nat Prod
Resour 3:110–117
Shaikh RU, Dukare DD, Sarwade KP, Sarwade PP (2014) Ethnobotanical study of folk medici-
nal plants used by villagers in Nanded district of Maharashtra (India). Int J Ayur Herb Med
4:1585–1595
Sharma BD, Karthikeyan S, Singh NP (1996) Flora of Maharashtra State–onocotyledons. Botanical
Shende JJ, Rajurkar BM, Mhaiskar MN, Dalal LP (2014) Ethnobotanical studies of Samudrapur
Tahsil of Wardha District. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci 9:16–23
Singh NP, Karthikeyan S (2000) Flora of Maharashtra State–Dicotyledons, Vol. I. Botanical
Singh NP, Lakshminarasimhan P, Karthikeyan S, Prasanna PV (2001) Flora of Maharashtra State–
Dicotyledons, Vol. II. Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Calcutta
Tayade SK, Patil DA (2005) Hitherto untapped plantlore from Nandurbar district (Maharashtra).
Nat Prod Radian 4:46–50
Upadhyay B, Singh KP, Kumar A (2011) Ethno-veterinary uses and informants consensus factor of
medicinal plants of Sariska region, Rajasthan, India. J Ethnopharmacol 133:14–25
Vartak VD (1981) Observation on wild edible plants from hilly regions of Maharashtra and Goa:
Resume and Future Prospects. In: Jain SK (ed) Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. IBH, Oxford,
pp 261–271
Vaidya RR, Dhumal KN (2004) Ethnomedicinal Plant Antidotes Used by Koli Tribe. In Ghate,
V.S., Sane, Hema & Ranade, S.S. (Eds.) Focus on Sacred groves and Ethnobotany 170–173
Wabale AS, Petkar AS (2005) Ethnomedicinal plants used against Jaundice by the Tribals of Akole
Taluka (M.S.). J Phytol Res 2:259–261
Waman MB (2005) Ecological Studies of Kalsubai, Harishchandragarh, Ratangarh Forest. Thesis
in Botany. Faculty of Science, University of Pune, Pune (MS), India
Watt George (1889–1893) A Dictionary of Economic Products of India Vol. 1–6 Periodical Expert,
Shahadara, New Delhi, India.
Yadav SR, Kamble MY (2008) Threatened ceropegias of the Western Ghats and strategies for their
conservation. In: Rawat GS (ed) Special habitats and threatened plants of India. ENVIS bulle-
tin: wildlife and protected areas, Vol. 11(1). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, pp 123–134
Plants, Food, and Health: Some
Untold Truths
Ægir B. Kristiansson
Introduction
The relation between food and health is obvious, for an absence of food leads to
certain death. The caritative association named CCFD estimates 795 million per-
sonnel suffering from food deprivation. On the other side, the WHO estimates that
more than 1.9 billion adults, 18 years and older, were overweight; of these over
600 million were obese (WHO 2017b). Food quality also affects health; for exam-
ple, according to the WHO, 125,000 children under 5 years of age die every year
because of food-borne disease (WHO 2017a).
Another obvious point is that most foods rely directly or indirectly on plants. Of
course fruits, vegetables, and cereals directly come from plants. Plants also feed
animals which are used for producing meat, milk, or eggs. Fungi are cultivated on
vegetal substrate. It is actually harder to find foods that do not rely on plants; salt
and water are minerals; some edible algae, such as Ascophyllum sp., Laminaria sp.,
and Fucus sp., are actually chromists and not plants.
Once the relation between plants, food, and health has been presented, it should
be precise that food is also an important academic field. The Journal Citation
Reports includes 86 journals with the word “food” in their title (Thomson Reuters
2016). For a comparison, “health” is found in 236 titles, 67 for “plant,” 386 for
“medical/medicine,” 37 for “informatics,” or 251 for “engineering”. Food is also a
business, with some big companies, for example, Nestlé with a market capitalisa-
tion of 239 billion dollars (compared to Apple, 604 billion dollars) and an annual
revenue of 89 billion dollars (compared to Walmart, 378 billion dollars).
Food research is therefore a field with important health responsibilities and a
huge financial interest. A scientist might face a dilemma between the financial inter-
est, considering that issues with companies can be prejudicial for funding, and the
Æ. B. Kristiansson (*)
Institute of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_15
584 Æ. B. Kristiansson
transcendental quest of the truth, which the scientific rigour researchers should
seek. The aim of this chapter is not to pretend that all food companies are making
an obscure business detrimental for health, with complicity of scientists. It exists in
fair-behaving companies in food sciences, for example, Andros who is reputed in
Europe for its regulation of the practice, by suing every other company when it
performs visible frauds, and then, it has to ensure no trouble exists with its own
business, in order to avoid revenge from all the concurrences. Maybe the last sen-
tence should not have been written, as well as most of the coming chapter that will
present untold truths that no food scientist would publicly acknowledge.
Vitamins and Nutriment, an Ocean of Bias
Some parts of the population are consuming organic food for personal health rea-
son, while some other parts find their motivation in the taste (Phuong 2013). Those
two aspects seem different, but their essence is actually related. A produce is con-
sidered healthier because of its higher concentration in healthy chemicals, such as
vitamins and antioxidant, which are supposed to improve health. On the other side,
the “taste” is related to the concentration of organoleptic compounds. The untold
truth is that both are related to the same bias.
Leaving aside the organoleptic side on the problem, for instance, in order to
focus on the nutritional side, dosage of vitamins such as ascorbic acid is done as a
routine procedure in most of the laboratories studying fruits and vegetables
(Kampfenkel et al. 1995). Then results, largely shared in non-scientific network,
show that organic food are much healthier than conventionally produced vegetables.
Critical reviews of the scientific studies are not as optimistic (Williams 2002). The
untold truth is that the organic vegetables have a lower water content that conven-
tionally produced vegetables. Therefore, all vitamins, minerals, and organoleptic
compounds are in higher concentration on a fresh matter base, without having an
observable difference if computed on a dry matter base. This magnifying glass
effect is one of the more frequent biases in postharvest agronomy.
Philosophical question remains, which one is relevant? Fresh matter or dry
matter-based nutriment concentration? Obviously, when dealing with vegetable
storage, a dry matter base is advisable, for a withered vegetable will not have any
commercial value event with a higher vitamin content. On the other side, when deal-
ing with freshly harvested vegetables, eaten according to their fresh weight, the
question is open.
Gustatory quality might be seen as a related issue, if we consider only the “taste”,
but might be more complex if some physical properties, such as texture, are consid-
ered. This point should be considered, but before we should detail if chemical con-
centration should be based on fresh or dry matter, if any is relevant.
Plants, Food, and Health: Some Untold Truths 585
Fresh or Dry Bias?
The question of fresh or dry weight base is not new; indeed, the first published plant
water content (WC) experiment goes back to the early twentieth century and pro-
vided both bases (Livingston and Brown 1912). The dry-based WC is an analogy
with geology, with a mass of water smaller compared to dry weight. When dealing
with plants, mostly composed of water, a dry matter-based WC is always over 100%
and does not look legitimate. Nowadays, in review the most used is fresh wet water
content, e.g. Lamikanra and Shamaila (2005), but some scientists still use a dry
matter-based WC, e.g. Hitmi et al. (2000). The latter scientists would try to convince
you that a dry-based WC is much more informative that a fresh-based one. Even if
you told or demonstrate them both as just bijective and none is more precise than the
other is, they would not listen to you. The demonstration can be found in Box 1.
Box 1 Demonstration of Bijectivity Between Water Contents Expressed

on a Fresh or Dry Base
Noting :
WCd = Z; WCf = Y; mf − md = a et md = b.
Then:
a a
Y= and Z =
a+b b
a = Zb
Zb
Y=
Zb + b
Z
Y=
Z +1
∀Z1 ∈  + and ∀Z 2 ∈  + with Z 2 > Z1 :
Y2 − Y1
Z2 Z
= − 1
Z 2 + 1 Z1 + 1
Z 2 ( Z1 + 1) + Z1 ( Z 2 + 1)
=
( Z1 + 1)( Z 2 + 2)
Z 2 − Z1
= >0
( Z1 + 1)( Z 2 + 2)
We can then write the conversion formula:

a
Y =
a+b
Zb
Y =
Zb + b
Z
Y =
Z +1
WCd
WC f =
1 + WCd
and in a similar way:

WC f
WCd =
1 − WC f
Fig. 1 Bijective relation between water content expressed on a fresh or dry matter base
For a simple conversion, Fig. 1 presents the relation between dry matter-based
WC and fresh matter-based WC. Water content in itself can be considered as an old-
fashioned measurement, as useless as cytogenetics in a world of molecular biology.
Nevertheless, it can detect some untold issues about physiology, related to plants as
Fig. 2 Individually computed WC for single lettuces in dry condition (full black lines) or wet
condition (dashed grey lines)
food, and health. A simple experiment, performed in a second-class team special-

ised in postharvest agronomy, outlines the profound bias in a normalisation on dry
matter.
The objective was to make a kinetic of WC of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) in dif-
ferent humidity conditions over 3 days, with equal temperatures. Lettuces were
weighted several times a day, and on the fourth day, they were put in a vacuum oven
(104 °C) until stable weight. Then, considering dry matter loose through respiration
insignificant, the WC at every point can be calculated, using the weight at that time.
Results of the experiment are presented in the Fig. 2.
No one would be surprised that in dry conditions, WC decreased strongly,
whereas in wet conditions, it was kept stable. What was not expected was that the
water content at the initial point was statistically different. All the lettuces went out
the same lot and should have similar WC on the starting point. The only possibility
is that during the experiment, dry matter also changed and in a different way accord-
ing to the treatment.
Out of being an epic fail, this experiment shown that (1) dry matter loss through
respiration is not insignificant, (2) humidity influences respiration rates, and (3)
biologist should not consider to a kinetic of plants’ WC and ask their graduate
student to make one. The dry matter of the plant can be globally divided in two
groups of elements: (1) the structural elements and cell machinery and (2) the
reserve of the cells (e.g. starch). Structural elements and cell machinery can be sup-
posed as constant; on the other hand, reserves of the cells are variable. Therefore,
concentration of any compound given on a dry matter base is not exempt of bias;
measures of biologic activity depend only on cell machinery and suffer the same
bias. The untold truth is that actually there is not any reliable base to compare values
of any concentration or activity in plants.
Assessing Gustative Quality
Gustative quality of a plant can be evaluated in several ways: physical parameters

such as colour or texture can be measured in a reproducible way with adapted equip-
ments more or less reliable. On the other hand, taste could be evaluated by some
specific dosage of organoleptic compounds, depending on the species, usually
expensive and rare. Few teams work in such a way, and this approach, out of the
problem of variation of dry matter explained above, will not be detailed (consider-
ing potential confidentiality clauses author could face).
A more usual method is the sensorial approach. A jury composed of few trained
judges evaluates the quality according to a scale foreseen in advance. Regular practice
is a blind jury; evaluating alone the produces without any information on the sample,
and rating of each judge, is used for giving the quality evaluation. Unfortunately, it is
common that the “trained jury” is composed of the experimentalist, a lab technician,
and the wife of the housekeeper, who received a 30-min formation on the quality of the
produce by the experimentalist just before the rating. One who wants to blame this
experimentalist should consider that his/her hierarchy could be blamed on him/her for
taking some staff to help on such an experiment and that he/she could be forced to do
it alone. The scale should have been created in a previous observation, before the true
experiment, but in some case, the scale is created while doing the evaluation and is
adapted during the course of experiment. Any potential reviewer would say such an
approach would make the article rejected. Of course, during the redaction of any arti-
cle, it would be presented as a trained blind jury evaluation.
Partial Results Presenting and Hidden Truth
Have you ever noticed in reading articles dealing with several vegetables that the
presented results are not the same depending on the plant species authors are deal-
ing with? An example can be found in some articles dealing with vegetable misting,
e.g. Dieckmann et al. (1993). This research deals with five vegetables: field lettuce,
head lettuce, broccoli, chicory, and carrots. They present ascorbic acid dosages only
for two species, broccoli and head lettuce, and nothing about other species. For the
two presented species, the results shown a better maintenance on ascorbic acid. Isn’t
this questionable?
Looking at another research about impact of misting on vegetables may bring
some missing information. An experiment on radishes shows that misting delays
senescence (Leduc 2011). Such a device maintains colour, chlorophyll concentration,
and fresh aspect of the vegetables. Fresh aspect does not mean fresh product; indeed,
Box 2 Extract of EU Laws About Fresh Vegetables

Article 113(1)(b) and (c) of Regulation (EC) No 1234/2007 authorise the
Commission to provide marketing standards for fruit and vegetables and pro-
cessed fruit and vegetables, respectively. Pursuant to Article 113a(1) of that
Regulation, fruit and vegetables, which are intended to be sold fresh to the
consumer, may only be marketed if they are of sound, fair, and marketable
quality and if the country of origin is indicated. To harmonise the implementa-
tion of that provision, it is appropriate to set out details of and provide for a
general marketing standard for all fresh fruit and vegetables. Commission
implementing regulation (eu) no 543/2011of 7 June 2011.
if chlorophyll is maintained, oxidative stress is maintained. If oxidative stress is

maintained, ascorbic acid is oxidised and loses all its nutritional interest. The fresh-
like aspect of a vegetable, associated with a lose of nutriments, is a fraud against the
consumers, and is actually against laws in several countries, e.g. all countries of the
European Union, as shown in Box 2.
The last visible element in any research paper presented such partial results in
food science can be found in the “Acknowledgement” part of all these papers. They
are funded, at least partially, by industrials, usually the one making benefit of the
device or the process. From this observation, we can draw a few conclusions: (1) the
food scientist working on such a subject has confidentiality clauses forbidding him
to publish some results that could harm the company; (2) even in absence of such a
clause, a food scientist publishing such a paper would never find any funding for
future researches; and (3) defending the health of consumers is not a concern for (at
least some) industrials who will prefer to hide detrimental information than having
to drop a highly profitable device or process.
Those untold truths are only known by industrials and some scientists; therefore,
such processes and devices can be used for a very long time, as long as no regulation
agency will ever know the issues with them. Eventually, if the untold truth becomes
known after few decades, when such processes and devices are widely used and
consumers used to them, any action against them cannot be imagined. This is not the
only perverse effect of private funding, out of promoting unfair processes and
devices; it is detrimental for research that would improve global health, if they are
detrimental for business.
Healthy Food Are on Horizon
Horizon is a virtual line where earth meets sky, by definition; it is impossible to

reach it. Healthy foods are a prospect for optimistic food scientists, and many
approaches are possible, with a very slow progress. Better than trying in vain to give
an exhaustive list of all of them, detailed information on a case would be informa-
tive on the situation.
Table 1 Essential amino acid content of several cereals (g/100 g)

Lymegrass Maize Rye Barley Soft red wheat
Source (1) (1) (2) (2) (2)
Threonine 0.64 0.34 0.29 0.42 0.34
Valine 0.84 0.48 0.32 0.61 0.50
Methionine 0.25 0.27 0.15 0.24 0.17
Isoleucine 0.64 0.37 0.21 0.46 0.40
Leucine 1.27 1.35 0.56 0.85 0.76
Phenylalanine 1.00 0.60 0.43 0.7 0.50
Histidine 0.48 0.31 0.19 0.28 0.26
Lysine 0.62 0.20 0.29 0.46 0.31
Source: (1) Griffin and Rowlett (1981) (2) USDA (2011)
Perennial cereal is a perfect example of non-progressing field. As an illustration,

a comparison of review articles over 20 years outlines no real new information
(Wagoner 1990; Cox et al. 2002, 2006; Glover et al. 2010). Among perennial cere-
als, sea lymegrass (Leymus arenarius) is the one with the more available informa-
tion. Lymegrass presents a nutritional interest; indeed, its grains show an interesting
amount of essential amino acids (Table 1) and high concentration in oligoelements
such as iron. It is impossible, for instance, to know if such high-protein content is
specific to lymegrass or in general for all perennial grains nor to know if it is an
artefact induced by lower yield.
An indirect health effect of perennial cereals comes from its environmental pro-
tection potential. Indeed, thanks to their extensive root system, irrigation and
fertilisation needs are largely decreased. A single amendment using 500–600 Kg.
ha−1 (20% phosphorus, 20% nitrogen, and 10% potassium) is enough for lymegrass
cultivation (Wright 1994). This amendment is needed only during the first year, as
well as the use of herbicide, for it is not needed when the plantation is settled.
Considering a 5–10-year cycle, the use of pesticides is reduced accordingly. Out of
the reduction of pollution, it favours biodiversity.
From a practical point of view, during cultivation of perennial cereals, during a
5–10-year period, only one ploughing is needed, only one amendment is needed,
and only one herbicidal treatment is needed. From the second year, the only required
step is the harvest. Then, carburant cost and carbon dioxide emission are lowered.
Why would such an appealing research field keep presenting so few progresses
over time? The untold truth is that cultivation of perennial cereals only requests to
seed once every 5–10 years; seed-producing companies would not accept to fund
such a project, which will ultimately decrease their benefit. Phytosanitary compa-
nies would also suffer from profit drop if such crops were available. Private funding
is therefore excluded. Public funding relies on project evaluation by reviewer of the
field that are most of the time connected to private interest for their own projects. A
reviewer in such a situation is more likely to oppose a funding, and without any
funding the project is put aside and sometime never resumed.
Such a view of the system can seem dark, but it is actually the surface. A short
view inside the system will show elements no sane scientist would believe.
What a Scientist Should Not Say
Food scientists are gathered in some highly specialised teams. Forgive me if I use
the first person for describing untold elements I personally witnessed.
When collaborating with another research centre that had a related project with
the same funding company, I was asked to gather previous data from that team; that
is fine. I was then asked to use those data in order to validate our system; it is
potentially acceptable as long as it is internal. Unfortunately, the different method
of data acquisition made them incompatible. Then, I was asked to run the dataset
through a model I designed, in order to obtain theoretical values that I was asked to
consider as my own experimental values. That is not fine; it is both a stilling and a
faking of data. I refused and was blamed for that. Untold truth is that some teams do
not hesitate to publish imaginary results.
Another example of misbehaving scientist was a case when I sent a document to
my superior for a proofreading before sending to the company requesting the exper-
iments. Once the document was back, out of some typo and rephrasing, some exper-
imental values had been edited. It is not certain if the aim was to fraud or just a mark
of incompetence; anyway both options are not acceptable by scientists.
Facing such situation, I eventually signalled it to the scientific authorities of the
university this team belonged to. The answer I received was I was harming the repu-
tation of the university, and I should stop that. The untold truth is that a university
might prefer to cover up misbehaving of a team in order to protect its reputation. In
such cases, grad students are considered as fuses, and no one cares if in such a team,
there is a grad burnt out per year. Who would have trusted that food science could
have an effect on mental health?
Fresh Healthy Information for Fresh Healthy Diet
A good bibliography is like a wedding: it needs something new, something old,

something given, and something blue (the blue element is open to interpretation). It
is important to have something recent to prove that we are dealing with the state of
the art of current research. Old papers are important in order to prove that we are
looking at the bases and sources of information; furthermore when dealing with
ethnobotanic, some very old observations on plant uses that might have been lost
since can be precious. The given reference proves you have been discussing and
obtaining an opening and the blue reference will avoid feeling such a colour. Another
important point is that every information gets a source and the original one. Several
researchers might have observed the same phenomenon; in such case several refer-
ences should be provided including recent ones to show that it is still up to date and
old ones to show that it is something known for a long time.
Food scientist does not observe such rules. Unquoted references are common, as
an example after having written that high humidity favour wound healing of vege-
tables, information often found without any references (e.g. Gaffney et al. (1985)),
the only relevant paper (I could find) that indeed observed it was Artschwager
(1931). The reviewer has not appreciated such a quote, writing “Nothing newer on
the subject?” Several philosophical questions can be asked: Should we drop an
information accepted by many because there is no acceptable reference for it? In
such a case, bibliography is incomplete. Should we give the information without
any source? In such a case, nothing proves we are not making up information.
Should we quote the paper where we read that information? Then, we attribute to
someone an observation that is not his own. In addition, should we consider that the
technical progress made in few decades has changed the way sweet potatoes react
to humidity? Out of specific cases, such as Manns (1920), observing a microbial
decay, related to confined air, warmed up by plant physiology, there is no reason to
reject old observations as long as there is no evidence to reject them.
In such a field, all papers, out of the material and methods, should be less than
5 years old or up to 10 for very important papers. The young food scientist, who
gave me this advice while I was looking at some 20-year-old articles, had a bad
surprise a few weeks after, discovered an article on the same subject as that of his
last published one, using a not so different method on the same vegetable, which
had obtained the same results, and drew the same conclusion. The paper was a little
bit more than 10 years old, so he had not read it before someone sent it to him (Do
not forget the importance of the given reference.). Fortunately, for him, the review-
ers were also ignoring few-years-old papers.
Attributing a given work to its original author seems also facultative in food sci-
ence. In order to discover a new field, review articles and books are supposed to give
reliable information with references to the original work and references to book and
are acceptable for introductions of research articles but highly questionable for
other books or review articles. While reading a book entitled Water Activity in Foods
(Barbosa-Cánovas et al. 2007), looking for references, alert scientist will notice ref-
erences to several chapters of another book entitled Water Activity and Food (Troller
and Christian 1978), which was published 30 years earlier. Dedicated scientists
would maybe consider reading this book; unfortunately, it would be regarded as a
waste of time by his team, and availability of such a book might be an issue.
Conclusions
The examples given in this chapter are only provided in order to present some dys-
functions in the food science research and their consequences on health. Many oth-
ers could be found if the barrier of confidentiality could be crossed. They just allow
presenting a quick image of the field.
In a first instance, anyone should remind that a food company’s first aim is to
make money. The only case they will care about health is when they can use it in
order to increase sales and benefit. Whenever a produce is developed, if it has a
potential for high benefit, and some detrimental effects on health, which are known
only by the producer, he will prefer to hide or deny them.
In a second instance, anyone reading an academic paper about food science

should be aware that such an article would only present positive points.
A short reading of the Acknowledgement section of these articles will show that
producing companies are funding the research; therefore the scientists have an inter-
est conflict and cannot affirm anything that would be detrimental for the funding
providers.
In a third instance, no food scientist would break the silence about such a prac-
tice. There are several points that many scientists are aware of a some simple fact,
such as the fact that no process of storage at room temperature can maintain vitamin
level of vegetable or that maintaining the green colour of leafy vegetables at room
temperature is enhancing the degradation of antioxidant compounds. We can add
that improving the yield is usually detrimental to the quality (in terms of taste or
nutritional interest). If fraud control organisations knew these simple points, many
companies would turn out of business, and scientist would lose research projects.
In a fourth instance, a project that could be a healthy solution for agriculture is
most likely to keep unfunded. Any funding by private organisations is unthinkable,
for it would attack their business. Funding by public research fund will pass by a
reviewing process. The reviewers are likely to have interests with some concurrent
companies or to have an antagonist interest if the given research goes against his
own work.
Eventually, the advice to conclude this chapter would be a quote from Candide
of Voltaire: “we must cultivate our garden”. However, this quote is not to be taken
in the philosophical sense of the satire but really literally. Cultivating your own
crops will favour biodiversity, will guaranty short time between harvest and con-
summation (and higher antioxidant content), and will avoid the vegetables to pass
through questionable process.
References
Artschwager E (1931) Suberization and wound-periderm formation in sweet potato and gladiolus
is affected by temperature and relative humidity. J Agr Res 43:353–364
Barbosa-Cánovas GV, Fontana AJ Jr, Schmidt SJ, Labuza TP (2007) Water activity in foods:
fundamentals and applications, 1st edn. IFT Press, Blackwell Pub, Hoboken, NJ OCLC:
ocm84838771
Cox T, Bender M, Picone C, Van Tassel D, Holland J, Brummer E, Zoeller B, Paterson A, Jackson
W (2002) Breeding perennial grain crops. Crit Rev Plant Sci 21:59–92
Cox T, Glover J, Van Tassel D, Cox C, DeHaan L (2006) Prospects for developing perennial grain
crops. Bioscience 56:649–659
Dieckmann A, List D, Zache U (1993) Cold water mist humidification to preserve the quality of
fresh vegetables during retail sale. Lebensm Wiss U Technol 26:340–346
Gaffney JJ, Baird CD, Chau KV (1985) Influence of airflow rate, respiration, evaporative cooling,
and other factors affecting weight loss calculations for fruits and vegetables. ASHRAE Trans
91:690–707
Glover J, Reganold J, Bell L, Borevitz J, Brummer E, Buckler E, Cox C, Cox T, Crews T, Culman S
et al (2010) Increased food and ecosystem security via perennial grains. Science 328:1638–1639
Griffin L, Rowlett R (1981) A “lost” Viking cereal grain. J Ethnobiol 1:200–207

Hitmi A, Coudret A, Barthomeuf C, Sallanon H (2000) Role of intracellular water retention
strength in freezing tolerance of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium vis cell cultures. J Plant
Physiol 157:47–53
Kampfenkel K, Vanmontagu M, Inzé D (1995) Extraction and determination of ascorbate and
dehydroascorbate from plant tissue. Anal Biochem 225:165–167
Lamikanra O, Shamaila M (2005) Water and its relation to fresh produce. In: Produce degradation:
pathways and prevention. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, pp 267–291
Leduc B (2011) Ultrasonic misting influence on slowing senescence and improving quality reten-
tion in radish leaves during simulated retail storage (PDF download available). In: IFT Annual
Meeting & Food Expo https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232185085_Ultrasonic_mist-
ing_influence_on_slowing_senescence_and_improving_quality_retention_in_radish_leaves_
during_simulated_retail_storage Online version by editor were here: http://www.ift.org/
Meetings-and-Events/Past-Meeting-Resources/Technical%20Abstract%20Search%20Details.
aspx?id=52600
Livingston BE, Brown WH (1912) Relation of the daily march of transpiration to variations in the
water content of foliage leaves. Bot Gaz 53:309–330
Manns TF (1920) Sweet potato storage in Delaware. Del Agr Expt Sta Bull 127:1–64
Phuong NT (2013) Consumers’ perceptions of organic food in Australia and other countries: a
review. J Agric Econ Dev 2:44–54
Thomson Reuters (2016) Journals in the 2016 release of Journal Citation Reports™. http://scien-
tific.thomsonreuters.com/imgblast/JCRFullCovlist-2016.pdf
Troller JA, Christian JHB (1978) Water activity and food. Academic Press, New York OCLC:
683187598
USDA (2011) Cereal grains and pasta. In: Technical Report 20. USDA
Wagoner P (1990) Perennial grain development: past efforts and potential for the future. Crit Rev
Plant Sci 9:381–408
WHO (2017a) WHO | food safety. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs399/en/
WHO (2017b) WHO | obesity and overweight. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/
Williams CM (2002) Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green? P Nutr
Soc 61:19–24
Wright S (1994) Beach wildrye: planting guide for Alaska. Alaska Dept. of Natural Resources.
Division of Agriculture. Plant Materials Center, Palmer, AK
Potential Medicinal Plants Used
in the Hypertension in Turkey, Pakistan,
and Malaysia
Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Abdul Latiff, Samreen Shareef,

Farzana Shaheen, and M. Iqbal Choudhry
Introduction
In the industrialised nations, hypertension is recorded as the fourth contributor in

the premature deaths, but in the industrialising nations, it is number 7 in the list
(Deepa et al. 2003). The reports published by Reddy (1996) and Nissinen et al.
(1988) have fully stressed the fact that the prevalence of hypertension is rapidly
increasing in industrialising countries and is one of the leading causes of death and
disability in industrialised countries. According to Kearney et al. (2005), Pradeepa
and Mohan (2008), and Mittal and Singh (2010) in the year 2000, nearly 1 billion
adults have been recorded as suffering from hypertension. The number is predicted
to go up to 1.56 billion by 2025.
The effective richness of local traditional knowledge in the treatment of hyper-
tension has been demonstrated in many countries (Heinrich 2000; Houghton et al.
2007; Joubert et al. 2008; Eddouks and Zeggwagh 2012). The studies carried out in
these countries have provided an exhaustive list of herbals used as remedies in
hypertension. Even in vivo and in vitro pharmacological studies have confirmed the
effective hypotensive effect of herbals and the natural products derived from these
M. Ozturk (*)
V. Altay
Hatay, Turkey
A. Latiff
Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
S. Shareef · F. Shaheen · M. Iqbal Choudhry
Karachi, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_16
(Ziyyat et al. 1997; Kalus et al. 2000; Khayyal et al. 2002; Al-Qattan et al. 2003; El
Bardai et al. 2003; Eddouks et al. 2002, 2005; Tahraoui et al. 2007; Eddouks and
Zeggwagh 2012).
The traditional use of plant-derived preparations indicates a higher probability
that the traditional practitioners found the remedy to be effective (Marles and
Farnsworth 1995). In view of this, the studies on the traditional antihypertensive
plants can prove very helpful. The discovery of locally available plant-derived med-
icine to treat hypertension in developing countries can prove highly fruitful. The
commercial development of such botanical hypertensive agents and adjuncts to
antihypertensive therapy will be highly beneficial (Marles and Farnsworth 1995).
The objective in the preparation of this chapter has been to analyse the distribution
of the plants used traditionally in the treatment of hypertension in Turkey, Pakistan,
and Malaysia.
Study Areas
Turkey is located in the West Asia connecting Asia and Europe in the northern hemi-
sphere, regarded as a meeting place of different phytogeographical regions and a
meeting place for two centres of diversity and origin: the Near East and the
Mediterranean (Fig. 1). It lies in the subtropical zone between 36–42° latitudes N
and 26–45° longitude E, with an area of 783.562 km2. The topography shows sig-
nificant variations and ecological features change much over very short distances,
exhibiting great variations in plant diversity with different types of ecosystems,
occupying different habitats, and showing different vegetational characteristics
(Ozturk et al. 2006, 2012a, b 2017a, b; Adak 2017). More than 11.000 flowering
plant taxa are reported to show distribution in the country. This number is very near
to that recorded from the European continent (Güner et al. 2012). The varying geo-
morphological, topographical, and climatic characteristics are responsible for the
Fig. 1 The map showing the countries included in this study

Potential Medicinal Plants Used in the Hypertension in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia 597
varying habitats and plant diversity as well as endemism. The number of endemic
taxa is reported to lie around 3035, comprising 31.12% of the total flora and con-
fined to narrow and restricted ecological niches (Güner et al. 2012; Ozturk et al.
2016).
Pakistan has an area of 79.61 million ha. It is located at the western edge of
South Asian subcontinent. The altitudinal variations are wide ranging from sea level
to 8.000 m, and it extends about 1700 km northwards towards the great mountain
chains of Hindukush, Himalayas, and Karakorum, starting from the Arabian Sea
coast and the mouth of Indus near the Tropic of Cancer (Ahmad 2007a). The coun-
try in general experiences arid and semiarid climates with diverse plant cover rang-
ing from subtropical to temperate and alpine forests. Average annual rainfall varies
from 50 mm in arid and semiarid areas to 2.000 mm in moist forests, whereas the
temperatures vary from below freezing in northern mountains during winter to
35–50 °C during summer in central and southern plains (Ahmad 2007a). The flora
is characterised by Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan elements. The country possesses
a unique biodiversity. There are nine major ecological zones within a peculiar geo-
graphical position (Fig. 1). The variations in the geographical position, altitude,
soil, and climate are responsible for its rich floristic diversity. There are about 6000
species of higher plants, and out of these, 400 are endemic to the country (Nasir and
Ali 1970–1995; Ahmad 2007a).
Malaysia lies just in the north of equator with a total area of 329.847 km2 (Fig. 1).
It experiences a warm equatorial climate, being hot and humid all around the year.
There is no seasonality. The country is divided into two regions of similar size by
the South China Sea. Part one is Peninsular Malaysia connected to mainland Asia
on the western half. Part two covers the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island
of Borneo in the east (Saw and Chung 2015). The country is rich in biological
resources, with a unique heritage of tropical rainforests. The latter has evolved over
millions of years, possesses varying flora and fauna. There are over 14,500 species
of flowering plants belonging to nearly 1500 genera. The number of tree species
crosses the level of 2500. There are 800 species of orchids, 500 species of ferns, and
60 species of grasses and bamboos (www.fao.org).
Turkey
The studies undertaken on the use of plants in the traditional medicine have revealed
that nearly 132 taxa grouped under 39 families and 92 genera have been evaluated
in the treatment of hypertension. An alphabetical list of these taxa with their botani-
cal name, part used, and information on the preparations used has been presented
here in Appendix 1. The families represented by the largest number of taxa are
Lamiaceae (30), Rosaceae (22), Asteraceae and Apiaceae (10 each), and Fabaceae
Table 1 The parts of herbs used in three countries and the number of taxa
Part used Code Turkey Pakistan Malaysia
Leaves L 45 25 31
Aerial parts AP 40 5 1
Fruit FR 34 13 10
Flower FL 17 3 3
Root R 4 12 20
Seed SE 11 7 2
Shoot SH 4 2 2
Stem ST 2 5 2
Cones CO 2 – –
Tuber T 2 2 –
Whole plants WP 7 23 11
Bulb B 3 4 1
Branches BR 1 – –
Buds BD 1 – –
Rhizome RH – 2 –
Oil OO 1 – –
Resin RS 1 – –
Underground parts UP 3 – –
Pedicel PE 2 – –
Pith PT – – 1
Corn silk CS – – 1
and Polygonaceae (5 each), whereas the genera with highest number of taxa are
Thymus (10 taxa), Crataegus (6 taxa), and Rumex, Rubus, and Urtica (4 taxa each)
(Appendix 1). Allium sativum, Viscum album ssp. album, Urtica dioica, and Olea
europaea have been recorded as the most commonly used taxa (Appendix 1). The
leaves have been used from 45 taxa, aerial parts from 40 taxa, fruits from 34 taxa,
and flowers from 17 taxa (Table 1). The preparations used include infusion (51
taxa), followed by decoction (46 taxa), fresh (15 taxa), and raw (12 taxa).
Pakistan
In all 86 taxa from 41 families and 76 genera have been evaluated in the herbal
preparations for treating hypertension in the traditional medicine of the country. An
alphabetical list is given here together with their botanical names, parts used, ail-
ments treated, and information on the preparations used (Appendix 2). The largest
number of taxa has been recorded from the families Asteraceae (9), Fabaceae (9),
Amaranthaceae (4), and Amaryllidaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
Lamiaceae, Papaveraceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae, and Zygophyllaceae (3 each).
Allium (3 taxa) and Boerhavia, Caralluma, Erigeron, Fagonia, Fumaria, Sonchus,
Table 2 The preparations used in three countries together with the number of taxa
Preparations Code Turkey Pakistan Malaysia
Decoction DE 46 10 34
Infusion IN 51 4 3
Eaten fresh EF 15 – 6
Raw R 12 – 1
Cooked C 3 2 2
Boiled BO 4 – 3
Crushed CR – 1 –
Dried DR 3 – –
Powdered PW 2 1 –
Poultice PU 1 – –
Fried FI – 1 –
Pounded PN 3 – 3
As tea AT 1 – 6
Extract EX – 12 –
Juice JU 4 4 4
Xanthium, and Ziziphus (2 taxa each) are the genera used with highest number of
taxa (Appendix 2). Allium sativum, Cannabis sativa, Ajuga integrifolia, Caralluma
edulis, Taraxacum campylodes, Heliotropium strigosum, and Tribulus terrestris are
the most commonly used taxa (Appendix 2).
The numbers used on the basis of parts are as follows: leaves (25 taxa), whole
plants (23 taxa), fruits (13 taxa), and root (12 taxa) (Table 1), the most common
preparations being extract (12 taxa), followed by decoction (10 taxa), infusion (4
taxa), and juice (4 taxa) (Table 2).
Malaysia
A total of 61 taxa of medicinal plants belonging to 34 families and 53 genera are

evaluated for treating hypertension in the traditional medicine. These are presented
alphabetically in Appendix 3, which includes botanical name, part used, and infor-
mation on the preparations used. Acanthaceae and Phyllanthaceae (4 each) and
Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, and Oxalidaceae
(3 each) are the families used at maximum level. Phyllanthus (3 taxa) and Averrhoa,
Blumea, Hibiscus, Morinda, Rauvolfia, and Tacca (2 taxa each) are the genera with
the highest number of taxa. Andrographis paniculata, Centella asiatica, Eurycoma
longifolia, Gynura procumbens, Solanum torvum, and Tetracera indica are the com-
monly used taxa. The numbers of taxa on the basis of parts used are leaves (31 taxa),
root (20 taxa), whole plants (11 taxa), and fruits (10 taxa) (Table 1). The decoction
(34 taxa), followed by boiled (13 taxa), and fresh (6 taxa) are the most common
preparations used.
Table 3 The medicinal plant taxa used in three countries for the treatment of hypertension
Allium cepa x x
Allium sativum x x x
Avena sativa x x
Coriandrum sativum x x
Foeniculum vulgare x x
Fumaria officinalis x x
Momordica charantia x x
Ocimum basilicum x x
Phyllanthus acidus x x
Punica granatum x x
Tribulus terrestris x x
Urtica dioica x x
Ziziphus jujuba x x
Table 4 Jaccard similarity index related to hypertension in three countries

Turkey-Pakistan Pakistan-Malaysia Turkey-Malaysia
Hypertension disease group 9.17% 4.08% 2.07%
The distribution of taxa from three investigated countries shows that the number
used in Turkey is 132 taxa; it is only 86 taxa in Pakistan and 61 taxa in Malaysia.
Between Turkey-Pakistan ten taxa are used commonly, between Pakistan and
Malaysia only three taxa, and between Turkey and Malaysia only two taxa (Table 3).
A comparison reveals that in all these countries, Allium sativum is the only taxon
commonly used for treatment of hypertension (Table 3).
A perusal of the data presented above reveals that Jaccard similarity index can be
applied to calculate the similarity ratios of the herbal preparations used for hyper-
tension (Table 4) in three countries (González-Tejero et al. 2008).
Conclusions
The herbal preparations have become a potential source of therapeutic aids and are
playing a significant role in global healthcare systems for all living beings, not only
during diseased conditions but also as potential material for maintaining proper
health. A major factor acting as a barrier in the development of herb-based indus-
tries in less-developed countries seems to be the lack of information on both social
and economic benefits that could be derived from the industrial utilisation of herbal
drugs. Except for the use of herbs for local healthcare needs, not much information
is available on their market potential and trading possibilities; therefore, govern-
ments as well as entrepreneurs have not exploited the real potential of the herbal
preparations (Verma and Singh 2008).
Determination of the biological activity of herbs used in traditional medicine is

of great help to the rural populations and in informal settlements (Verma and Singh
2008). Several studies are being carried out these days to isolate the active com-
pounds by bioassay-guided fractionation from the herbs showing high biological
activity during screening. In view of this, such scientific investigations can be evalu-
ated to develop drugs for different diseases. There is a greater need for further
research to isolate the compounds responsible for the observed biological activity
(Verma and Singh 2008).
Instead of common ethnobotanical studies, a set of similar practices in the prepa-
ration, administration of the herbal preparations, or the ailments treated with plants
will enlighten the common heritage in different regions (González-Tejero et al.
2008). Our investigations constitute the first comparative study performed with eth-
nobotanical data gathered in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia.
González-Tejero et al. (2008) have prepared an exhaustive list for the species
indicating the areas where each plant was mentioned. It underlines the ethnobotani-
cal richness of the countries under question. However, there is a need for broadening
such investigations to other areas in Asia as well as other parts of the world. This
will constitute a base for future phytochemical/pharmacological investigations lead-
ing to new therapeutic products.
Acknowledgments First author of this chapter would like to express his deepest thanks to the
Rectorate of Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia, and Director of ICCBS, University of
Karachi, Pakistan, for their short-term appointments at their campuses.
ppendix 1: Herbs used for hypertension in the traditional

A
medicine in Turkey
Familia/Taxa Parts used Preparation Referencesa

Amaranthaceae
1 Beta vulgaris var. altissima T 2
Amaryllidaceae
2 Allium cepa B, L R 2, 51
3 Allium sativum B, ST C, EF, DR, R 1–8, 27, 35, 40, 49, 52–54
4 Allium scorodoprasum ssp. B EF, DR 9
rotundum
Anacardiaceae
5 Rhus coriaria L, FR DE, R, IN 2, 33, 54, 55
Apiaceae
6 Anethum graveolens AP 2
7 Coriandrum sativum FR, SE R 2, 56
8 Cuminum cyminum 25
(continued)

9 Daucus carota R 2
10 Diplotaenia cachrydifolia AP DE 57
11 Foeniculum vulgare 14
12 Oenanthe pimpinelloides AP DE 18
13 Petroselinum crispum AP R 2, 58
14 Pimpinella anisum FR IN 21
15 Prangos ferulacea ST C 38
Apocynaceae
16 Vinca herbacea AP IN 59
Arecaceae
17 Phoenix dactylifera FR DR 2
Asteraceae
18 Anthemis pseudocotula L, FL DE 1
19 Artemisia absinthium L DE 2, 27
20 Cichorium intybus AP BO, DE, IN 11, 60, 61
21 Cnicus benedictus L, FL DE 12, 13
22 Gundelia tournefortii SH 2
23 Helichrysum compactum L DE 28
24 Lactuca sativa L EF 2
25 Matricaria sp. FL DE 2
26 Scorzonera semicana AP, L R 12, 13, 41
27 Tripleurospermum oreades AP DE 38
var. oreades
Brassicaceae
28 Capsella bursa-pastoris L DE 47
29 Nasturtium officinale AP C 32, 33
30 Raphanus sativus SE 2
Cannabaceae
31 Celtis australis L DE 1
Caprifoliaceae
32 Valeriana dioscoridis FL IN 32
Convolvulaceae
33 Convolvulus betonicifolius AP IN 55
ssp. peduncularis
Cornaceae
34 Cornus mas FR DE 35
Cucurbitaceae
35 Bryonia multiflora FR R 57
Cupressaceae
36 Juniperus foetidissima CO, RS DE, PW 40, 62
Dioscoreaceae
37 Dioscorea communis AP BO 60
Elaeagnaceae
38 Elaeagnus angustifolia FL, FR 2
(continued)

Equisetaceae
39 Equisetum arvense AP IN 22, 60
Ericaceae
40 Arbutus unedo L IN 1
41 Erica manipuliflora L, FL DE 1
Fabaceae
42 Astragalus angustifolius ssp. FL IN 10
angustifolius
43 Glycyrrhiza glabra var. glabra UP PN 20, 26
44 Glycyrrhiza glabra var. UP PN 16
glandulifera
45 Phaseolus vulgaris SE 2
46 Trifolium arvense AP 2
Hypericaceae
47 Hypericum perforatum AP DE, IN 3, 63
Lamiaceae
48 Lavandula pedunculata ssp. L, FL IN 1
cariensis
49 Lavandula stoechas ssp. L, FL DE, IN 1, 2, 15, 19, 30, 35
stoechas
50 Mentha x piperita L IN 1
51 Mentha pulegium L 2
52 Ocimum basilicum L R 11
53 Origanum onites AP, L, FL DE, IN 1, 30, 60
54 Origanum vulgare AP, L DE, IN 9, 55
55 Rosmarinus officinalis AP, L, FL DE, IN 2, 19, 27
56 Salvia fruticosa L IN 2
57 Satureja hortensis L IN 55
58 Satureja spicigera L IN 54
59 Sideritis lanata AP IN 64
60 Sideritis perfoliata AP IN 42
61 Stachys cretica ssp. mersinaea AP IN 60
62 Teucrium chamaedrys AP IN 2
63 Teucrium polium AP IN 3, 65
64 Thymbra capitata 14
65 Thymus sp. AP IN 2, 3
66 Thymus cilicicus L IN 25
67 Thymus fallax AP DE, IN 9
68 Thymus migricus AP IN 9
69 Thymus kotschyanus var. AP DE, IN 9
kotschyanus
70 Thymus longicaulis AP IN 22
71 Thymus praecox ssp. AP IN 9
grossheimii
72 Thymus sipyleus AP IN 64
(continued)

73 Thymus transcaucasicus AP, WP IN 9, 43
74 Thymus zygioides AP DE 44
75 Vitex agnus-castus L 51
76 Ziziphora capitata AP DE 53
77 Ziziphora taurica ssp. taurica AP, FL IN 9, 36
Lythraceae
78 Punica granatum FR JU 2, 51
Malvaceae
79 Althea officinalis FL 2
80 Hibiscus sp. FL IN 29
81 Malva sp. L DE 31
82 Malva sylvestris AP IN 25
Myrtaceae
83 Myrtus communis ssp. L DE 1
communis
Nitrariaceae
84 Peganum harmala AP, SE DE 2, 60
Oleaceae
85 Olea europaea var. europaea BD, FR, L, DE, IN 1, 2, 14, 15, 30, 34, 36, 40,
OO, SH 51, 53, 60, 63, 65
Papaveraceae
86 Fumaria officinalis AP, WP DE, IN 1–3, 21, 22, 27, 35
87 Papaver bracteatum SE 57
Pinaceae
88 Pinus nigra ssp. pallasiana CO DE 66
Plantaginaceae
89 Plantago major ssp. major L DE, IN 11, 37, 50
Poaceae
90 Avena sativa FR 2
91 Oryza sativa FR 2
Polygonaceae
92 Rheum ribes R, SH DE, PN 2, 9
93 Rumex acetosella AP, L BO, R 54, 58
94 Rumex crispus L BO 58
95 Rumex scutatus AP, L DE 11, 38
96 Rumex tuberosus L IN, R 33, 58
Rhamnaceae
97 Ziziphus jujuba FR EF 15
Rosaceae
98 Alchemilla sintenisii L IN 1
99 Cerasus avium PE DE 2
100 Cerasus vulgaris PE DE 2
101 Crataegus spp. L, FL, FR, IN 1, 2, 15
SE
(continued)

102 Crataegus azarolus FL, FR DE, EF, IN 11, 16, 53
103 Crataegus monogyna var. L, FL, FR, DE, EF, IN 12, 17–23, 40
monogyna R
104 Crataegus orientalis ssp. FR EF 7
orientalis
105 Crataegus orientalis ssp. FR EF 24
szovitsii
106 Crataegus tanacetifolia FR AT 58
107 Cydonia oblonga L, SE IN 19, 48
108 Laurocerasus officinalis L R 54
109 Malus pumila FR EF 58
110 Mespilus germanica FR, L DE, R 1, 54
111 Prunus divaricata FR EF 35, 65
112 Prunus spinosa FR, SE DE 15, 19
113 Pyrus elaeagnifolia ssp. FR IN 67
elaeagnifolia
114 Rosa canina FR, SE EF 1, 2, 15
115 Rubus caesius FR JU 58
116 Rubus canescens FR, R, SH, DE, JU 9, 19, 25, 39, 58
UP
117 Rubus sanctus FR EF 1, 68
118 Rubus saxatilis FR JU 58
119 Sorbus aucuparia FR EF 35
Rutaceae
120 Citrus aurantium FR 2
121 Citrus limon FR EF, IN 2, 70
122 Citrus sinensis FR 2
Santalaceae
123 Viscum album ssp. abietis L IN 59, 65
124 Viscum album ssp. album BR, FR, L, DE, IN 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 15, 17, 18,
WP 21, 22, 27, 29, 37, 46
125 Viscum album ssp. austriacum L 44
Solanaceae
126 Solanum tuberosum T 2
Urticaceae
127 Urtica dioica AP, L, SE, DE, EF, IN, 1, 2, 4, 9, 11, 13, 22, 27,
WP PU, PW 31, 37, 38, 45, 51, 69
128 Urtica membranacea WP DE 1
129 Urtica pilulifera WP DE 1
130 Urtica urens WP DE 1
Vitaceae
131 Vitis vinifera L 2
Zygophyllaceae
132 Tribulus terrestris AP, FR, L, DE, IN 1, 36, 53, 55
SE
(continued)
a
References: 1: (Tuzlacı 2006); 2: (Yücecan et al. 1988); 3: (Akaydın et al. 2013); 4: (Çakılcıoğlu
et al. 2010); 5: (Çakılcıoğlu and Türkoğlu 2009); 6: (Ezer and Arısan 2006); 7: (Öztürk and Dinç
2005); 8: (Ezer and Avcı 2004); 9: (Altundag and Ozturk 2011); 10: (Ertuğ et al. 2004); 11: (Tetik
et al. 2013); 12: (Çakılcıoğlu et al. 2007); 13: (Çakilcioglu and Turkoglu 2010); 14: (Bulut and
Tuzlacı 2005); 15: (Sarı et al. 2010); 16: (Doğan and Bağcı 2011); 17: (Akan et al. 2005a); 18:
(Genç and Özhatay 2006); 19: (Everest and Ozturk 2005); 20: (Akan et al. 2005b); 21: (Baytop
1984); 22: (Şanlı 2006); 23: (Savran et al. 2009); 24: (Sarper et al. 2009); 25: (Özçelik and
Balabanlı 2005); 26: (Akan et al. 2013); 27: (Kultur 2007); 28: (Kargıoğlu et al. 2010); 29:
(Çömlekçioğlu and Karaman 2008); 30: (Gürdal and Kültür 2013); 31: (Şimşek et al. 2004); 32:
(Demirci and Özhatay 2012); 33: (Polat et al. 2012); 34: (Kıran 2006); 35: (Polat and Satıl 2012);
36: (Ertuğ 2002); 37: (Çakilcioglu et al. 2011); 38: (Özgen et al. 2012); 39: (Türkan et al. 2006);
40: (Bulut 2008); 41: (Khatun et al. 2012); 42: (Alpınar 1999); 43: (Güneş and Özhatay 2011); 44:
(Deniz et al. 2010); 45: (Akan et al. 2008); 46: (Kahraman and Tatlı 2004); 47: (Ugulu et al. 2009);
48: (Koyuncu et al. 2009); 49: (Polat et al. 2013); 50: (Toksoy et al. 2010); 51: (Ozturk et al. 2013);
52: (Han and Bulut 2015); 53: (Sağiroğlu et al. 2013); 54: (Polat et al. 2015); 55: (Hayta et al.
2014); 56: (Yeşilyurt et al. 2017); 57: (Mükemre et al. 2015); 58: (Korkmaz and Karakurt 2015);
59: (Özdemir and Alpınar 2015); 60: (Sargin et al. 2015b); 61: (Kaval et al. 2014); 62: (Sargin et al.
2015a); 63: (Bulut and Tuzlaci 2013); 64: (Şenkardeş 2014); 65: (Sargin 2015); 66: (Günbatan
et al. 2016); 67: (Arı et al. 2015); 68: (Yeşilyurt et al. 2017); 69: (Karcı et al. 2017); 70: (Akbulut
and Bayramoglu 2014)
ppendix 2: Medicinal plants used in the treatment

A
of hypertension in the traditional medicine in Pakistan

Aizoceae
1 Trianthema portulacastrum L, R EX 1, 2
Amaranthaceae
2 Achyranthes aspera WP 1, 11
3 Aerva javanica WP 12
4 Amaranthus viridis L, ST, WP C, DE 12
5 Chenopodium album WP EX 13
Amaryllidaceae
6 Allium cepa B 3
7 Allium griffithianum B 4
8 Allium sativum B, L, WP DE 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Apiaceae
9 Coriandrum sativum 14
10 Foeniculum vulgare L EX 2
11 Trachyspermum ammi SE 11
Apocynaceae
12 Caralluma edulis L, ST EX 2, 6, 15
13 Caralluma tuberculata WP 13
14 Carissa spinarum B, FR, L, R 16, 17
(continued)

Araceae
15 Colocasia esculenta 14
Asteraceae
16 Erigeron bonariensis 10
17 Erigeron canadensis WP 18
18 Lactuca serriola WP 13, 18
19 Sonchus arvensis WP 18
20 Sonchus asper AP DE, IN 10
21 Taraxacum campylodes L, R, SH DE 13, 18, 19
22 Vernonia cinerea FR 20
23 Xanthium spinosum FR, L, R 13
24 Xanthium strumarium L EX, JU 2, 16
Balsaminaceae
25 Impatiens bicolor FR, SE 11
Boraginaceae
26 Heliotropium strigosum WP EX 1, 2, 17
27 Trichodesma indicum L EX 2, 4
Brassicaceae
28 Brassica oleracea 10
Burseraceae
29 Boswellia serrata WP 19
Cannabaceae
30 Cannabis sativa FL, L JU 2, 13, 16, 17
Caprifoliaceae
31 Valeriana jatamansi R JU 21
Crassulaceae
32 Bryophyllum pinnatum L 1
Cucurbitaceae
33 Citrullus colocynthis AP DE, IN 10
34 Momordica charantia FR C, EX 22
35 Mukia maderaspatana AP DE, IN 10
Cyperaceae
36 Cyperus rotundus RH, T 1, 2, 23
Datiscaceae
37 Datisca cannabina L, R JU 24
Dioscoreaceae
38 Dioscorea deltoidea T 24
Euphorbiaceae
39 Acalypha wilkesiana 25
40 Ricinus communis L EX 17
Fabaceae
41 Albizia lebbeck L, SE 1
42 Acacia nilotica L, WP EX 17, 26
43 Alhagi maurorum WP 19
(continued)

44 Astragalus propinquus R 13
45 Crotalaria burhia WP EX 2
46 Medicago polymorpha L, SH CR, FI 5
47 Melilotus indicus 14
48 Sophora mollis R 13
49 Taverniera nummularia 14
Geraniaceae
50 Geranium wallichianum RH EX 13
Grossulariaceae
51 Ribes himalense 27
Lamiaceae
52 Ajuga integrifolia AP, L, ST, WP DE, PW 6, 7, 20, 24
53 Mentha spicata 9
54 Ocimum basilicum WP 17
Malvaceae
55 Hibiscus trionum L, FL 13
56 Sida cordata R 18
Meliaceae
57 Azadirachta indica FR, L 12
58 Melia azedarach WP 20
Myrtaceae
59 Syzygium cumini SE 12
Nyctaginaceae
60 Boerhavia diffusa WP 16
61 Boerhavia procumbens R 12
Papaveraceae
62 Fumaria indica WP 12, 17
63 Fumaria officinalis 4
64 Papaver somniferum FR, SE DE 28
Pedaliaceae
65 Pedalium murex FR 19
Phyllanthaceae
66 Bridelia retusa 25
67 Phyllanthus acidus 25
Poaceae
68 Avena sativa
69 Cynodon dactylon WP 1
70 Desmostachya bipinnata 14
Pteridaceae
71 Adiantum incisum WP 16
Ranunculaceae
72 Nigella sativa 9
73 Ranunculus muricatus 10
Rhamnaceae
(continued)

74 Ziziphus jujuba AP IN 10
75 Ziziphus oxyphylla FR, R DE 29
Rosaceae
76 Rosa indica FL DE 14, 28
Salicaceae
77 Populus tremula 14
Solanaceae
78 Atropa acuminata L, R 11
79 Solanum americanum FR, L, ST 16, 30
80 Withania somnifera WP 31
Urticaceae
81 Urtica dioica FR, L, ST 13
Xanthorrhoeaceae
82 Asphodelus tenuifolius L, SE 1
Zingiberaceae
83 Elettaria cardamomum FR 32
Zygophyllaceae
84 Fagonia cretica WP 16
85 Fagonia indica 10, 14
86 Tribulus terrestris FR, L, SE 1, 18, 19
a
References: 1: (Mahmood et al. 2011a); 2: (Mahmood et al. 2013a); 3: (Ullah et al. 2014); 4:
(Shah 2015); 5: (Badshah and Hussain 2011); 6: (Shinwari et al. 2003); 7: (Hamayun 2007); 8:
(Sher et al. 2015); 9: (Ishtiaq et al. 2015); 10: (Ahmed et al. 2014); 11: (Gilani et al. 2001); 12:
(Ahmad 2007b); 13: (Ullah et al. 2013); 14: (Ahmed et al. 2015); 15: (Zia-Ur-Rahman et al. 2004);
16: (Mahmood et al. 2011b); 17: (Mahmood and Mahmood 2012); 18: (Shinwari and Khan 2000);
19: (Shafi et al. 2001); 20: (Shah et al. 2015); 21: (Kayani et al. 2015); 22: (Hsu et al. 2013); 23:
(Hussain 2013); 24: (Mahmood et al. 2012); 25: (Khalil et al. 2014); 26: (Mahmood et al. 2013b);
27: (Shinwari et al. 2006); 28: (Bibi et al. 2014); 29: (Zada Khan et al. 2015); 30: (Ullah et al.
2013); 31: (Jabeen et al. 2010); 32: (Gilani et al. 2008)
ppendix 3: Medicinal plants used for the treatment

A
of hypertension in the traditional medicine in Malaysia
Family/Taxa Part used Preparation Referencesa

Acanthaceae
1 Acanthus ebracteatus L 1
2 Andrographis paniculata L, R, WP DE, IN, PN 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
3 Clinacanthus nutans L 1
4 Strobilanthes crispus L AT, BO 2
Amaryllidaceae
5 Allium sativum B BO, C 2
(continued)

Annonaceae
6 Annona muricata FR JU 5, 8
7 Polyalthia bullata FL, L, R PN 3
Apiaceae
8 Apium graveolens L, SE, WP BO 2
9 Centella asiatica L, WP DE 2, 5, 9, 10
Apocynaceae
10 Catharanthus roseus L, R, WP AT, DE 2, 4
11 Rauvolfia serpentina 11
12 Rauvolfia verticillata L, WP AT 2
Araceae
13 Homalomena rostrata R DE 12
14 Lasia sp. R DE 7
Araliaceae
15 Polyscias scutellaria L DE 9
Asteraceae
16 Blumea balsamifera L, WP BO 2
17 Blumea riparia L AT, BO 13
18 Gynura procumbens L, SE, WP BO, EF 1, 2, 5
Balsaminaceae
19 Impatiens balsamina WP DE 3, 5
Caricaceae
20 Carica papaya FL, L, SH C, DE, EF, IN 4, 5
Connaraceae
21 Cnestis sp. R DE 7
Cucurbitaceae
22 Momordica charantia FR JU 9
Dilleniaceae
23 Tetracera indica ST, R, L DE 3, 4, 5
Dioscoreaceae
24 Tacca sp. R DE 7
25 Tacca integrifolia L, R, WP BO 2
Euphorbiaceae
26 Macaranga pruinosa L 1
Fabaceae
27 Archidendron jiringa R DE 7
28 Parkia speciosa R DE 5, 7
29 Sindora coriacea FR DE 3
Gesneriaceae
30 Cyrtandra pendula R DE 12
Lamiaceae
31 Orthosiphon aristatus L, R AT, BO, DE 5, 13
32 Plectranthus scutellarioides L DE 3
33 Vitex pinnata L, SH EF 10
(continued)

Lythraceae
34 Punica granatum FR 2
Malvaceae
35 Durio zibethinus R DE 7
36 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis FL DE 3
37 Hibiscus sabdariffa FR, L, WP BO 2
Menispermaceae
38 Fibraurea tinctoria ST AT, BO 13
39 Tinospora crispa L, WP BO, PN 3, 10
Moraceae
40 Artocarpus altilis L BO 2
41 Ficus deltoidea L DE 5, 6
Moringaceae
42 Moringa oleifera FR, L BO 2
Musaceae
43 Musa sp. PT DE 7
Ophioglossaceae
44 Helminthostachys zeylanica R DE 12
Oxalidaceae
45 Averrhoa bilimbi L, FR DE, JU 4, 5
46 Averrhoa carambola L DE 7
47 Oxalis barrelieri R DE 6
Phyllanthaceae
48 Phyllanthus acidus L DE 5
49 Phyllanthus niruri AP DE 5, 10
50 Phyllanthus pulcher R DE 12
51 Sauropus androgynus L DE 5
Piperaceae
52 Piper sp. L R 7
Poaceae
53 Lophatherum gracile R DE 14
54 Zea mays CS DE 3
Rubiaceae
55 Morinda citrifolia FR EF, JU 4, 15
56 Morinda corneri FR EF 5
Simaroubaceae
57 Eurycoma longifolia R DE 7, 14, 16
Solanaceae
58 Physalis minima 10
59 Solanum torvum FR, R DE, EF, IN 3, 5, 6
Urticaceae
60 Leucosyke capitellata L DE 10
Zingiberaceae
61 Zingiber officinale 17
(continued)
a
References: 1: (Kassim et al. 2016); 2: (Latiff 2016); 3: (Ong and Nordiana 1999); 4: (Ong et al.
2011a); 5: (Ong et al. 2011b); 6: (Ramli et al. 2015); 7: (Azliza et al. 2012); 8: (Samuel et al. 2010);
9: (Alsarhan et al. 2012); 10: (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003); 11: (Jamal 2006); 12: (Ong et al.
2012); 13: (Kulip 2003); 14: (Mohammad et al. 2012); 15: (Lin 2005); 16: (Mitra et al. 2007); 17:
(Alsarhan et al. 2014)
References
Adak MS (2017) The importance plant genetic resources of Turkey. J Plant Genet Breed 1:e101
Ahmad Z (2007a) Country report on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Pakistan
Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad
Ahmad SS (2007b) Medicinal wild plants from Lahore-Islamabad motorway (M-2). Pak J Bot
39(2):355–375
Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK (2003) Medicinal plants of Sabah, East Malaysia-part I. Pharm Biol
41(5):340–346
Ahmed N, Mahmood A, Tahir SS, Bano A, Malik RN, Hassan S, Ashraf A (2014) Ethnomedicinal
knowledge and relative importance of indigenous medicinal plants of Cholistan desert, Punjab
Province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 155(2):1263–1275
Ahmed N, Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Sadeghi Z, Farman M (2015) Ethnopharmacological impor-
tance of medicinal flora from the district of Vehari, Punjab province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
168:66–78
Akan H, Aslan M, Balos MM (2005a) GAP yöresindeki tıbbi ve aromatik bitkiler. TUBITAK Proje
No: TBAG/Ç. SEK 22 (103-T009)
Akan H, Aslan M, Balos MM (2005b) Şanlıurfa kent merkezindeki semt pazarlarında satılan bazı
bitkiler ve kullanım amaçları. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 12(2):43–58
Akan H, Korkut MM, Balos MM (2008) Arat Dağı ve çevresinde (Birecik, Şanlıurfa) etnobotanik
bir araştırma. Fırat Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi 20(1):67–81
Akan H, Balos MM, Tel AZ (2013) The ethnobotany of some legume plants around Birecik
(Şanlıurfa). Adyutayam 1(1):31–39
Akaydın G, Şimşek I, Arıtuluk ZC, Yeşilada E (2013) An ethnobotanical survey in selected towns
of the Mediterranean subregion (Turkey). Turk J Biol 37:230–247
Ethno Med 8(1):89–100
değerlendirilmesi. TUBITAK, TBAG-1407, Turkey
Al-Qattan KK, Khan I, Alnaqeeb MA, Ali M (2003) Mechanism of garlic (Allium sativum) induced
reduction of hypertension in 2K-1C rats: a possible mediation of Na/H exchanger isoform-1.
Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 69(4):217–222
Alsarhan A, Sultana N, Kadir MRA, Aburjai T (2012) Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal
plants in Malaysia, the Kangkar Pulai region. Int J Pharmacol 8(8):679–686
Alsarhan A, Sultana N, Al-Khatib A, Kadir MRA (2014) Review on some Malaysian traditional
medicinal plants with therapeutic properties. J Basic Appl Sci 10:149–159
Arı S, Temel M, Kargıoğlu M, Konuk M (2015) Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in
Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 11(1):84
Azliza MA, Ong HC, Vikineswary S, Noorlidah A, Haron NW (2012) Ethno-medicinal resources
used by the Temuan in ulu Kuang Village. Ethno-Medicine 6(1):17–22
Badshah L, Hussain F (2011) People preferences and use of local medicinal flora in district tank,
Pakistan. J Med Plants Res 5(1):22–29
Baytop T (1984) Türkiye’de Bitkiler ile Tedavi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları No: 3255, Eczacılık
Fakültesi No: 40, Istanbul
lands of Soan Valley, salt range, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 155(1):352–361
Bulut GE (2008) Bayramiç (Çanakkale) yöresinde etnobotanik araştırmalar. Ph.D. thesis, Marmara
Üniversity, İstanbul
Bulut EG, Tuzlacı E (2005) An ethnobotanical study in Bozcaada (Çanakkale-Turkey). IVth
International Congress of Ethnobotany, ICEB 2005, pp 581–583
Bulut G, Tuzlaci E (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Turgutlu (Manisa-
Çakılcıoğlu U, Türkoğlu İ (2009) Çitli Ovası (Elazığ) ve çevresinin etnobotanik özellikleri. e-J
New World Sci Acad Ecol Life Sci 4(2):81–85
Çakilcioglu U, Turkoglu I (2010) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Sivrice (Elazıg-
Çakılcıoğlu U, Şengün MT, Türkoğlu I (2010) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants of
Yazıkonak and Yurtbaşı districts of Elazığ province, Turkey. J Med Plants Res 4(7):567–572
plants in Maden (Elazig-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 137:469–486
Çömlekçioğlu N, Karaman Ş (2008) Kahramanmaraş şehir merkezindeki aktar’larda bulunan tıbbi
Deepa R, Shanthirani CS, Pradeepa R, Mohan V (2003) Is the ‘rule of halves’ in hypertension
still valid? Evidence from the Chennai urban population study. J Assoc Physicians India
51:153–157
Demirci S, Özhatay N (2012) An ethnobotanical study in Kahramanmaraş (Turkey), wild plants
used for medicinal purpose in Andırın, Kahramanmaraş. Turk J Pharm Sci 9(1):75–92
Deniz L, Serteser A, Kargıoğlu M (2010) Uşak Üniversitesi ve yakın çevresindeki bazı bitkilerin
mahalli adları ve etnobotanik özellikleri. AKÜ Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 1:57–72
Doğan G, Bağcı E (2011) The plants benefit to public in some residential area of Elazığ (Turkey)
using traditional ecological knowledge and their ethnobotanical features. Fırat Univ Fen
Bilimleri Dergisi 23(2):77–86
Eddouks M, Zeggwagh NA (2012) Phytotherapy of hypertension in Morocco. In: Phytotherapy in
the management of diabetes and hypertension, vol 1. Bentham Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
p 193
Eddouks M, Maghrani M, Lemhadri A, Ouahidi ML, Jouad H (2002) Ethnopharmacological sur-
vey of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cardiac
diseases in the south-east region of Morocco (Tafilalet). J Ethnopharmacol 82(2–3):97–103
Eddouks M, Maghrani M, Zeggwagh NA, Haloui M, Michel JB (2005) Fraxinus excelsior L.
evokes a hypotensive action in normal and spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Ethnopharmacol
99(1):49–54
El Bardai S, Morel N, Wibo M, Fabre N, Llabres G, Lyoussi B, Quetin-Leclercq J (2003) The
vasorelaxant activity of marrubenol and marrubiin from Marrubium vulgare. Planta Med
69(1):75–77
Ertuğ F (2002) Bodrum yöresinde halk tıbbında yararlanılan bitkiler. 14. Bitkisel ilaç hammad-
deleri toplantısı. 29–31 Mayıs 2002, Eskişehir
provinces (Turkey). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed:1–6
Ezer N, Arısan OM (2006) Folk medicines in Merzifon (Amasya, Turkey). Turk J Bot 30:223–230
Ezer N, Avcı K (2004) Çerkeş (Çankırı) yöresinde kullanılan halk ilaçları. Hacettepe Üniversitesi
Eczacılık Fakültesi Dergisi 24(2):67–80
Genç GE, Özhatay N (2006) An ethnobotanıcal study in Çatalca (European part of Istanbul)
II. Turk J Pharm Sci 3(2):73–89
Gilani SA, Qureshi RA, Farooq U (2001) Ethnobotanical studies of Ayubia national park district
Abbottabad, Pakistan. J Biol Sci 1(4):284–286
Gilani AH, Jabeen Q, Khan AU, Shah AJ (2008) Gut modulatory, blood pressure lowering, diuretic
and sedative activities of cardamom. J Ethnopharmacol 115(3):463–472
Günbatan T, Gürbüz İ, Özkan AMG (2016) The current status of ethnopharmacobotanical knowl-
edge in Çamlıdere (Ankara, Turkey). Turk J Bot 40(3):241–249
Güneş F, Özhatay N (2011) An ethnobotanical study from Kars (eastern) Turkey. Biol Diversity
Conserv 4(1):30–41
Gürdal B, Kültür Ş (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Marmaris (Mugla,
Hamayun M (2007) Traditional uses of some medicinal plants of Swat Valley, Pakistan. Indian
J Tradit Knowl 6(4):636–641
Han Mİ, Bulut G (2015) The folk-medicinal plants of Kadişehri (Yozgat-Turkey). Acta Soc Bot
Pol 84(2):237–248
Hayta S, Polat R, Selvi S (2014) Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Elazığ (Turkey).
Heinrich M (2000) Ethnobotany and its role in drug development. Phytother Res 14(7):479–488
Houghton PJ, Howes MJ, Lee CC, Steventon G (2007) Uses and abuses of in vitro tests in ethno-
pharmacology: visualizing an elephant. J Ethnopharmacol 110(3):391–400
Hsu CL, Fang SC, Liu CW, Chen YF (2013) Inhibitory effects of new varieties of bitter melon
on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inflammatory response in RAW 264.7 cells. J Funct Foods
5(4):1829–1837
Hussain MI (2013) Studies on plant biodiversity conservation and sustainable utilization of
medicinally important plant species of Johi & Gorakh Hill. Ph.D. thesis, University of Karachi,
Karachi, Pakistan
Ishtiaq M, Mahmood A, Maqbool M (2015) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from
Sudhanoti district (AJK), Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 168:201–207
Jabeen S, Shah MT, Khan S, Hayat MQ (2010) Determination of major and trace elements in ten
important folk therapeutic plants of Haripur basin, Pakistan. J Med Plants Res 4(7):559–566
Jamal JA (2006) Malay traditional medicine. Tech Monitor (Special Feature: traditional Medicine:
S & T Advancement). pp 37–49
Joubert E, Gelderblom WCA, Louw A, de Beer D (2008) South African herbal teas: Aspalathus
linearis, Cyclopia spp. and Athrixia phylicoides - a review. J Ethnopharmacol 119(39):376–412
Kahraman A, Tatlı A (2004) Umarbaba dağı (Eşme-Uşak) ve çevresindeki bazı bitkilerin mahalli
adları ve etnobotanik özellikleri. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 11(2):147–154
Kalus U, Pindur G, Jung F, Mayer B, Radtke H, Bachmann K, Mrowietz C, Koscielny J, Kiesewetter
H (2000) Influence of the onion as an essential ingredient of the Mediterranean diet on arterial
blood pressure and blood fluidity. Arzneimittelforschung 50(9):795–801
Karcı E, Gürbüz İ, Akaydın G, Günbatan T (2017) Folk medicines of Bafra (Samsun-Turkey). Turk
J Biochem 42(4):381–399
Kargıoğlu M, Cenkci S, Serteser A, Konuk M, Vural G (2010) Traditional uses of wild plants in the
middle Aegean region of Turkey. Hum Ecol 38:429–450
Kassim DHA, Raduan SZ, Aziz MA, Chelum A, Morni AAM, Wahab RA (2016) Indigenous
knowledge of medicinal plants used and its ımplication towards health-seeking behavior
among the Melanau in Pulau bruit, Sarawak, Malaysia. J Adv Res Soc Behav Sci 4(2):136–145
Kayani S, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Shinwari ZK, Zafar M, Yaseen G et al (2015) Ethnobotany
of medicinal plants among the communities of alpine and sub-alpine regions of Pakistan.
Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J (2005) Global burden of
hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet 365:217–223
Khalil AT, Shinwari ZK, Qaiser M, Marwat KB (2014) Phyto-therapeutic claims about euphor-
beaceous plants belonging to Pakistan; an ethnomedicinal review. Pak J Bot 46(3):1137–1144
Khatun S, Parlak KU, Polat R, Cakilcioglu U (2012) The endemic and rare plants of Maden
(Elazig) and their uses in traditional medicine. J Herb Med 2:68–75
Khayyal MT, el-Ghazaly MA, Abdallah DM, Nassar NN, Okpanyi SN, Kreuter MH (2002) Blood
pressure lowering effect of an olive leaf extract (Olea europaea) in L-NAME induced hyper-
tension in rats. Arzneimittelforschung 52(11):797–802
Kıran Ö (2006) Kozan yöresi florasındaki tıbbi bitkiler ve bunların halk tıbbında kullanılışı. M.sc.
thesis, Çukurova University, Adana
Korkmaz M, Karakurt E (2015) An ethnobotanical ınvestigation to determine plants used as folk
medicine in Kelkit (Gümüşhane/Turkey) district. Biol Diversity Conserv 8(3):290–303
Koyuncu O, Yaylacı ÖK, Tokur S (2009) Geyve (Sakarya) ve çevresinin etnobotanik açıdan ince-
lenmesi. Ot Sistematik Botanik Dergisi 16(1):123–142
Kulip J (2003) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah,
Malaysia. Telopea 10(1):81–98
Kultur Ş (2007) Medicinal plants used in Kırklareli Province (Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol
111:341–364
Latiff A (2016) Antihypertensive plants of Malaysia. Unpublished personal report, Malaysia
Lin K (2005) Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Jah hut peoples in Malaysia.
Indian J Med Sci 59(4):156
Mahmood A, Mahmood A (2012) Indigenous wild medicinal plants used by local people of
Dudial area, District Mirpur, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Afr J Microbiol Res
6(17):3898–3903
Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Shaheen H, Qureshi RA, Sangi Y, Gilani SA (2011a) Ethno medicinal
survey of plants from district Bhimber Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Med Plants Res
5(11):2348–2360
Mahmood A, Qureshi RA, Mahmood A, Sangi Y, Shaheen H, Ahmad I, Nawaz Z (2011b)
Ethnobotanical survey of common medicinal plants used by people of district Mirpur, AJK,
Pakistan. J Med Plants Res 5(18):4493–4498
Mahmood A, Mahmood A, Malik RN, Shinwari ZK (2013a) Indigenous knowledge of medicinal
plants from Gujranwala district, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 148(2):714–723
Mahmood A, Rashid S, Malik RN (2013b) Determination of toxic heavy metals in indigenous
medicinal plants used in Rawalpindi and Islamabad cities, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
148(1):158–164
Marles RJ, Farnsworth NR (1995) Antidiabetic plants and their active constituents 1. Phytomedicine
2(2):137–189
Mitra R, Orbell J, Muralitharan MS (2007) Agriculture-medicinal plants of Malaysia. Asia-Pacific
Biotech News 11(02):105–110
Mittal BV, Singh AK (2010) Hypertension in the developing world: challenges and opportunities.
Am J Kidney Dis 55(3):590–598
Mohammad NS, Milow P, Ong HC (2012) Traditional medicinal plants used by the Kensiu tribe of
Lubuk ulu Legong, Kedah, Malaysia. Ethno-Medicine 6(3):149–153
Mükemre M, Behçet L, Çakılcıoğlu U (2015) Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in villages
of Çatak (van-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 166:361–374
Nasir E, Ali SI (1970–1995) Flora of Pakistan. National Herbarium/NARC and Department of
Botany, University of Karachi, Islamabad and Karachi
Nissinen A, Bothig S, Granroth H, Lopez AD (1988) Hypertension in developing countries. World
Health Stat Q 41:141–154
Ong HC, Nordiana M (1999) Malay ethno-medico botany in Machang, Kelantan, Malaysia.
Ong HC, Ruzalila BN, Milow P (2011a) Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants among the
Malay villagers in Kampung Tanjung Sabtu, Terengganu, Malaysia. Indian J Tradit Knowl
10(3):460–465
Ong HC, Zuki RM, Milow P (2011b) Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants among the Malay
villagers in Kampung Mak Kemas, Terengganu, Malaysia. Ethno-Medicine 5(3):175–185
Ong HC, Faezah AW, Milow P (2012) Medicinal plants used by the Jah hut orang Asli at Kampung
Pos Penderas, Pahang, Malaysia. Ethno-Medicine 6(1):11–15
Özçelik H, Balabanlı C (2005) Burdur İlinin Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkileri. I. Burdur Sempozyumu,
Burdur/Turkiye. pp 1127–1136
Özdemir E, Alpınar K (2015) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in western part of cen-
tral Taurus Mountains: Aladaglar (Nigde–Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 166:53–65
Özgen U, Kaya Y, Houghton P (2012) Folk medicines in the villages of Ilıca District (Erzurum,
Turkey). Turk J Biol 36:93–106
Öztürk M, Dinç M (2005) Nizip (Aksaray) bölgesinin etnobotanik özellikleri. Ot Sistematik
Botanik Dergisi 12(1):93–102
Ozturk M, Guvensen A, Aksoy A, Beyazgul M (2006) An overview of the soils and sustain-
able land use in Turkiye. Proceedings of the Fifth International GAP Engineering Congress,
Sanlıurfa, pp 1548–1555
Ozturk M, Altundağ E, Gücel S (2012a) Medicinal and aromatic plants (Turkey).
Ethnopharmacology, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). http://www.eolss.net/
sample-chapters/c03/e6-79-48.pdf
Ozturk M, Gucel S, Altundag E, Mert T, Gork C, Gork G, Akcicek E (2012b) Chapter 7: An
overview of the medicinal plants of Turkey. In: Singh R (ed) Genetic resources, chromosome
engineering and crop improvement: medicinal plants. CRC Press, LLC, Taylor & Francis, Boca
Raton, FL, pp 181–206
Ozturk M, Uysal I, Gucel S, Altundag E, Dogan Y, Baslar S (2013) Medicinal uses of natural dye-
yielding plants in Turkey. Res J Text Appar 17(2):69–80
relation to climate change. In: Conservation and Sustainable use of genepool of plant World
in Eurasia at the present stage International Scientific Conference within Day of Kazakhstan.
Ozturk M, Altay V, Gücel S, Altundağ E (2017a) Plant diversity of the drylands in southeast
biodiversity: monitoring, assessment and conservation. CABI, UK, pp 83–124
Ozturk M, Altay V, Gonenç TM (2017b) Chapter 24: Herbal from High Mountains in the East
Mediterranean. In: Bhojraj S et al (eds) Drug discovery from herbs – approaches and applica-
tions centre for scinece & technology of the non-aligned and other developing countries (NAM
S & T Centre). DAYA Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 327–367
Polat R, Satıl F (2012) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Edremit Gulf (Balıkesir-
Polat R, Selvi S, Çakılcıoğlu U, Açar M (2012) Investigations of ethnobotanical aspect of wild
plants sold in Bingöl (Turkey) local markets. Biol Diversity Conserv J 5(3):155–161
Polat R, Cakılcıoğlu U, Satıl F (2013) Traditional uses of medicinal plant in Solhan (Bingöl-
Pradeepa R, Mohan V (2008) Hypertension & pre-hypertension in developing countries. Indian
J Med Res 128(12):688–690
Ramli MR, Milow P, Chooi OH (2015) Traditional knowledge of a practitioner in medicinal plants
of masjid Ijok village, Perak, Malaysia. Ethno-Medicine 9(1):59–66
Reddy KS (1996) Hypertension control in developing countries. Genetic issues. J Hum Hypertens
10:S33–S38
Sağiroğlu M, Topuz T, Ceylan K, Turna M (2013) An ethnobotanical survey from Yahyalı (Kayseri)
and tarsus (Mersin). SAÜ Fen Edebiyat Dergisi 2:13–37
Samuel AJSJ, Kalusalingam A, Chellappan DK, Gopinath R, Radhamani S, Husain HA et al
(2010) Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the orang Asli in Kampung Bawong, Perak,
West Malaysia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 6(1):5
Şanlı BZ (2006) Bursa ve çevresinden toplanan ve ticareti yapılan bazı ekonomik bitkiler. M.sc.
thesis. Uludağ University, Bursa
Sargin SA, Selvi S, Büyükcengiz M (2015a) Ethnomedicinal plants of Aydincik District of Mersin,
Sargin SA, Selvi S, López V (2015b) Ethnomedicinal plants of Sarigöl district (Manisa), Turkey.
Sarı AO, Oğuz B, Güvensen A, Bilgiç A, Şenol SG, Tort N (2010) Ege ve Güney Marmara bölgel-
erinde halk ilacı olarak kullanılan bitkiler. Anadolu J AARI 20(2):1–21
Sarper F, Akaydın G, Şimşek I, Yeşilada E (2009) An ethnobotanical field survey in the Haymana
District of Ankara Province in Turkey. Turk J Biol 33:79–88
Savran A, Bağcı Y, Kargıoğlu M (2009) Gemerek (Sivas) ve çevresindeki bazı bitkilerin yerel adları
ve etnobotanik özellikleri. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 8(1):313–321
Şenkardeş I (2014) Nevşehir’in güney ilçelerinde (Acıgöl, Derinkuyu, Gülşehir, Nevşehir-merkez,
Ürgüp) etnobotanik araştırmalar. Ph.D. thesis, Marmara University, Istanbul
Shafi MS, Ashraf MY, Sarwar G (2001) Wild medicinal plants of Cholistan area of Pakistan. Pak
J Biol Sci 4(1):112–116
Shah AH (2015) Cultural drivers of plant biodiversity of district tor Ghar. Ph.D. thesis, Hazara
among Basikhel tribe of district tor Ghar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 47:23–41
Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, de Boer HJ (2015) Indigenous knowledge of folk medicines among tribal
Shinwari MI, Khan MA (2000) Folk use of medicinal herbs of Margalla hills national park,
Islamabad. J Ethnopharmacol 69(1):45–56
Pakistan. WWF, Pakistan, p 68
Shinwari ZK, Watanabe T, Rehman M, Youshikawa T (2006) A pictorial guide to medicinal plants
of Pakistan. KUST, Kohat
Şimşek I, Aytekin F, Yesilada E, Yıldırımlı Ş (2004) An ethnobotanical survey of the Beypazarı,
Ayas ansd Güdül District towns of Ankara Province (Turkey). Econ Bot 58(4):705–720
Tahraoui A, El-Hilaly J, Israili ZH, Lyoussi B (2007) Ethnopharmacological survey of plants used
in the traditional treatment of hypertension and diabetes in South-Eastern Morocco (Errachidia
province). J Ethnopharmacol 110(1):105–117
Tetik F, Civelek S, Cakilcioglu U (2013) Traditional uses of some medicinal plants in Malatya
(Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 146:331–346
Toksoy D, Bayramoglu M, Hacisalihoglu S (2010) Usage and the economic potential of the medic-
inal plants in Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey. J Environ Biol 31(5):623–628
Türkan Ş, Malyer H, Aydın SÖ, Tümen G (2006) Ordu ili ve çevresinde yetişen bazı bitkile-
rin etnobotanik özellikleri. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi
10(2):162–166
Tuzlacı E (2006) Şifa Niyetine Türkiye’nin Bitkisel Halk İlaçları. Alfa Yayınları, Istanbul
Ugulu I, Baslar S, Yorek N, Dogan Y (2009) The investigation and quantitative ethnobotanical eval-
uation of medicinal plants used around Izmir province, Turkey. J Med Plants Res 3(5):345–367
Ullah S, Khan MR, Shah NA, Shah SA, Majid M, Farooq MA (2014) Ethnomedicinal plant use
value in the Lakki Marwat District of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 158:412–422
Verma S, Singh SP (2008) Current and future status of herbal medicines. Vet World 1(11):347–350
www.fao.org
Yeşilyurt EB, Şimşek I, Akaydin G, Yeşilada E (2017) An ethnobotanical survey in selected dis-
tricts of the Black Sea region (Turkey). Turk J Bot 41(1):47–62
Yücecan S, Akgün B, Çiftçi N, Aksoy C, Tayfur M, Taşçı N (1988) Plants used in the treatment of
hypertension in the East Southeast Anatolia. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eczacılık Fakültesi Dergisi
8(1):23–31
Zada Khan MP, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Sultana S, Ali MI, Sun H (2015) Ethnomedicinal uses of
edible wild fruits (EWFs) in Swat Valley, Northern Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 173:191–203
Zia-Ur-Rahman LA, Begum S, Ishfaq M, Shinwari ZH (2004) Folk uses medicinal plants of
Babuzai village in Sakra Mountain range (district Mardan). International symposium medici-
nal plants: linkages beyond national boundaries, September 7–9, 2004, pp 95–104
Ziyyat A, Legssyer A, Mekhfi H, Dassouli A, Serhrouchni M, Benjelloun W (1997) Phytotherapy
of hypertension and diabetes in oriental Morocco. J Ethnopharmacol 58(1):45–54
Epimedium elatum (Morr & Decne):
A Therapeutic Medicinal Plant
from Northwestern Himalayas of India
Sajad Ahmad Lone, Ajai Prakash Gupta, Malik Muzafar Manzoor,

Pooja Goyal, Qazi Pervaiz Hassan, and Suphla Gupta
Epimedium Species: An Introduction
The genus Epimedium of the family Berberidaceae comprises more than 65 accepted
deciduous and hardy perennial species (The Plant List 2013). They are character-
ised by heart-shaped leaves commonly referred to as three branches–nine leaves
grass. Majority of them have four-parted ‘spider-like’ flowers (bishop’s hat) bloom-
ing in spring season (Ma et al. 2011). Epimedium is predominantly found in North
temperate Zone of Northern Hemisphere. Most of the Epimedium species are
endemic to China (48), Japan and Korea, while some are found in European and
African countries (Ma et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2016). They are known by common
English names like rowdy lamb herb, barrenwort, bishop’s hat, fairy wings and
horny goat weed (Ma et al. 2011).
Several species of Epimedium plants are used as ground cover during spring
season due to their tough and evergreen herbage (Ma et al. 2011). Extracts of
Epimedium species have been widely used as a tonic, aphrodisiac and anti-rheumatic
S. A. Lone · S. Gupta (*) · P. Goyal

Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi, India
A. P. Gupta
Quality Control and Quality Assurance Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative
Medicine, Jammu, India
M. M. Manzoor
Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, India
Q. P. Hassan
Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Srinagar, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_17
620 S. A. Lone et al.
OCH3
OCH3
Glc-O O
Glc-O O
O-Rha2Glc
O-Rha2Xyl
OH O
OH O
Epimedin A Epimedin B
m/z = 839; t1 = 9.6 m/z = 809; t2 = 11.6
OCH3 OCH3
Glc-O O Glc-O O
O-Rha2Rha O-Rha
OH O OH O
Epimedin C Icariin
m/z = 823; t3 = 12.5 m/z = 677; t4 = 14.2
Fig. 1 Chemical structures of four major chemotaxonomic markers in Epimedium
preparations in China, Japan and Korea for more than 2000 years (Ma et al. 2011).
Dried aerial parts of some Epimedium species are used for the preparation of Herba
Epimedii, a well-known botanical supplement in Chinese pharmacology. Currently,
more than 15 Epimedium species are used extensively in traditional Chinese medi-
cine, but only 5 (E. brevicornum, E. sagittatum, E. koreanum, E. pubescens and E.
wushanense) are recorded as the official source of Herba Epimedii (Pei et al. 2007;
Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission 2010).
Phytochemical characterisation of Epimedium species has led to the isolation of
more than 260 chemical compounds (Ma et al. 2011); however, epimedin A, epime-
din B, epimedin C and icariin (Fig. 1) are regarded as the major chemotaxonomic
markers (Wu et al. 2003; Pei et al. 2007; Wang et al. 2007; Xu et al. 2013a, b; Chen
et al. 2015a, b). Of these molecules, icariin is a well-known phosphodiesterase-5
(PDE-5) inhibitor, an enzyme known to cause erectile dysfunction in humans (Ma
et al. 2011). Epimedium species have widely been used in the treatment of impo-
tence, spermatorrhoea, women sterility, amenorrhoea, rheumatic arthritis, chronic
bronchitis, etc. (Wu et al. 2003; Chen et al. 2015a, b). Besides, a wide range of
pharmacological actions are attributed to phytochemical compounds in Epimedium
species, including improving cardiovascular and cerebrovascular functions, modu-
lating immunological function as well as having anti-osteoporosis, anti-oxidation,
antitumour, antiviral and anti-ageing effects (Ma et al. 2011; Chen et al. 2015a, b).
These activities have been compiled in under the section Pharmacological
Importance of Epimedium species. Literature reveals that among the 65 accepted
species, only 5 species (E. brevicornum, E. sagittatum, E. koreanum, E. pubescens
and E. wushanense) have been studied extensively.
Epimedium elatum (Morr & Decne): A Therapeutic Medicinal Plant… 621
Epimedium elatum
Epimedium elatum (Morren & Decne) of Berberidaceae family has not been inves-
tigated much as evident in published literature. However, recent research efforts
have tried to explore its medicinal potential. This medicinal plant species was first
reported from Indian Himalayas in 1834 by European botanists (Morren and
Decaisne 1834; Decne 1844; Stewart 1972). According to some reports, E. elatum
is the only species in Epimedium genus, endemic to shady high-altitude coniferous
forests of Northwestern Himalayas in India and Pakistan (www.gbif.org; Nasir and
Ali 1980–2005; Perveen and Qaiser 2010; Tantry et al. 2012; Naseer et al. 2015;
Arief et al. 2015, 2016). It is known by several local names like Saul sumbal and
Chhal kambli. Commonly, it is also known as ‘mosquito herb’ as the extract of this
species is sprayed as repellent for mosquitoes in some Himalayan communities
(Arief et al. 2015). Phytochemically, E. elatum has been shown to contain high
concentration of epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C and icariin (Sofi et al. 2014;
Naseer et al. 2015; Arief et al. 2015, 2016). The chemical structure of four quality-
determining bioactive glycoside flavonoids is given in Fig. 1.
The wild resources of medicinal Epimedium species have been dramatically
reduced due to years of overharvesting and habitat destruction since the 1990s in
China; as a consequence of it, some of the Epimedium species have even become
endangered (Ward 2004; Xu et al. 2008). Several medicinal plants have also become
threatened in Northwestern Himalayas due to anthropogenic threats (Tali et al.
2015). Like several other plants of Northwestern Himalayas, E. elatum too can
become threatened in near future if timely conservation measures are not taken.
Botanical Description
Epimediums are usually low-growing, deciduous, perennial plants with leathery

leaves and they spread by underground stems. The leaves are scale-like, alternate,
long petiolated and alternately divided twice. The leaflets are ovate, acuminate, cor-
date, and up to 2.5–13.5 cm long and 1.5–7.5 cm wide, with setose margins (Ma
et al. 2011). E. elatum is a sparsely branched, low-growing, deciduous perennial,
glabrous herb (Fig. 2). The plant reaches a height of about 100 cm in shady habitats.
The plant has characteristic ‘three branches and nine leaves’ pattern which is a char-
acteristic morphological character of almost all Epimedium species (Ma et al.
2011). It has a thick spreading rhizome under the soil. The scale-like leaves are
alternate and cordate with long petioles. Leaflets are usually ovate, acuminate and
cordate with serrated margins. Flowers are hermaphrodite, pale yellowish or yel-
lowish white, usually pollinated by bees. Panicle is irregularly branched, glabrous
to glandular-hairy. The flowers of this plant resemble a bishop’s hat (pendant
shaped), having long spurs with varying colours in different habitats. They are
1–2 in. wide and linear to lanceolate in shape. The flower has eight pieces of sepals;
Fig. 2 Epimedium elatum

growing in wild
outer four sepals are unequal and the inner four sepals are petaloid, reflexing at
flowering time. Sepals are ovate to lanceolate with acute margins. Petals are
lanceolate-elliptic with innermost being shorter, shoe shaped and honey bearing.
The flower has four stamens, present opposite to petals, and one ovary with several
ovules. Anthers are linear with long filaments, opening by two up-curved valves,
usually crowded together. Capsules usually contain 2–3 biseriate, reniform, black
seeds (indiabiodiversity.org; Stearn et al. 2002).
Distribution of Epimedium Species
Epimedium species are distributed mainly in China, which is also the centre of
diversity and origin for this genus. About 80% species (48) of Epimedium are found
in different regions of China (Zhang et al. 2016). They are also reported from other
regions of Asia, Caucasian mountains, European Alps and North Africa (Zhang
et al. 2007a; Zeng-li 2012; www.gbif.org). E. alpinum is found in the Alps and other
mountain ranges of the Balkan Peninsula. E. perralderianum is found in Algeria
whereas E. pubigerum is found along the north coast of Turkey. E. pinnatum is
found in the Caucasus region (Zhang et al. 2007a). In China, about 15 Epimedium
species are circulated in the crude drug markets for use as Ying Yang Huo (Ma et al.
2011). Among these 15, only 5 are regarded as the official source of Herba Epimedii.
The distribution pattern of Epimedium species is summarised in Table 1.
Table 1 Distribution of Epimedium plants in the north temperate world

Distribution Name of Epimedium species
China E. davidii, E. baojingense, E. dolichostemon, E. koreanum, E. fargesii, E.
elongatum, E. acuminatum, E. simplicifolium, E. brachyrrhizum, E. multiflorum,
E. enshiense, E. fangii, E. reticulatum, E. sagittatum var. glabratum, E. hunanense,
E. latisepalum, E. ogisui, E. chlorandrum, E. platypetalum, E. franchetii, E.
truncatum, E. borealiguizhouense, E. leptorrhizum, E. rhizomatosum, E.
pubescens, E. sagittatum, E. sagittatum var. sagittatum, E. pauciflorum, E.
lishihchenii, E. shuichengense, E. sutchuenense, E. myrianthum, E. flavum, E.
wushanense, E. ecalcaratum, E. glandulosopilosum, E. parvifolium, E.
stellulatum, E. brevicornum, E. ilicifolium, E. mikinorii, E. zhushanense, E.
epsteinii, E. jinchengshanense, E. baiealiguizhouense, E. circinatocucullatum, E.
dewuense, E. leptorrhizum
Japan E. cremeum, E. diphyllum, E. grandiflorum, E. trifoliatobinatum, E. setosum, E.
grandiflorum var. thunbergianum, E. kitamuranum, E. macranthum, E.
grandiflorum var. higoense, E. grandiflorum var. coelestre, E. sempervirens, E.
sempervirens var. multifoliolatum
Europe E. alpinum, E. pubigerum, E. pinnatum, E. pinnatum subsp colchium, E.
canrabrigensis, E. perralderianum
North E. perralderianum, E. pinnatum
Africa
India E. elatum
Korea E. koreanum
Those highlighted in bold are the official source of Herba Epimedii in traditional Chinese medicine
The distribution of E. elatum is poorly documented. As per the local floras on

Kashmir Himalaya, E. elatum has been reported from Pahalgam, Gulmarg and
Harwan, forest ecozones of the Kashmir valley (Singh and Kachroo 1987; Sharma
and Jamwal 1988). Recently, geographic distribution of E. elatum was pioneered
and reported from 20 wild habitats of Kashmir Himalayas, by Lone et al. (2017) for
the first time.
Among other countries of Asia, in Pakistan its distribution is scanty and has been
observed in the Pallas valley in Kohistan district and Kaghan Valley (Mansehra),
North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan (Rafiq 1995; Jamal 2009; www.gbif.org).
Recently it was reported from Utror and Gabral valleys, which are situated in the
remote northwestern part of Pakistan (Jan et al. 2015; www.gbif.org).
Habitat Characteristics
Habitat of Epimedium species is generally cool shade of moist coniferous forests

and also under cool shade of thickets. They are usually found near streams and wet
land while some prefer to grow on cliffs near rock crevices. They prefer acidic soils
and direct sunlight induces dwarf character in them and therefore, during dry and
hot seasons, they must be watered to protect the major constituents within the plant
(Ma et al. 2011). Lone et al. (2017) studied the habitat characteristics of E. elatum
and it was shown to prefer moist shady habitats under coniferous forests in
Northwestern Himalayas of India. According to this study, E. elatum accessions
growing in cool and shady environment, under natural protection, were found to be
comparatively taller under the cool shade of other plant species, ranging from tall
pine trees and shrubs to grasses. The plants growing in subalpine regions were
shown to display better growth characteristics than those growing near foothills and
open sunny conditions. The populations growing under direct sunlight or subjected
to anthropogenic disturbances like grazing were observed to be shorter in height.
The study concluded that E. elatum has a very dwindling population status in
Kashmir Himalayas. It is poorly distributed across most of the surveyed habitats due
to habitat shrinkage. Kashmir Himalayas has recently witnessed depletion of medic-
inal flora due to excessive harvesting and anthropogenic pressures (Tali et al. 2015).
In this regard, further studies are needed for the assessment of threat status as far as
its conservation is concerned in Northwestern Himalayas in India (Lone et al. 2017).
Propagation of Epimedium Species
Epimediums are commonly propagated by rhizome to preserve cultivar identity and

overcome low seed viability (Lubell and Brand 2005). Not much work has been
published on the habitat characteristics and propagation of Epimedium species in
general and E. elatum in particular. Propagation strategy of E. elatum at high-
attitude medicinal gardens would be an important project for germplasm conserva-
tion especially in Himalayan mountain range.
Pharmacological Importance of Epimedium Species
Ethno-pharmacological Use
Epimedium species have a long history of ethno-pharmacological use in traditional

Chinese medicine (TCM). The medicinal usage (Table 1) of Herba Epimedii was
first recorded in Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, the oldest book of Materia Medica in
China, and it was considered as a ‘middle-grade’ herb in Ben Cao Gang Mu, another
famous Chinese medicinal document (Ma et al. 2011). According to ancient TCM
documents, the aphrodisiac property of Epimedium species was discovered by a
Chinese goat herder who noticed more sexual activity in his goats on eating these
plants (Ma et al. 2011). This is the reason that Epimedium plants are known as
horny goat weeds. Dried leaves of more than 15 Epimedium species are being used
as botanical supplement ‘Herba Epimedii’, widely used as a tonic, aphrodisiac and
anti-rheumatic preparations in China, Japan and Korea for more than 2000 years
(Ma et al. 2011). Herba Epimedii has the effects of reinforcing the kidney yang;
strengthening the tendons and bones; relieving rheumatic conditions; weakening of

the limbs, rheumatoid arthralgia with numbness and muscle contracture; and cli-
macteric hypertension (Pharmacopoeia Commission of PRC 2010).
There are numerous commercial products containing Herba Epimedii which are
sold as health supplements. Epimedium species like E. sagittatum and E. grandiflo-
rum have been traditionally used to treat impotence, prospermia, hyperdiuresis,
osteoporosis, menopause syndrome, rheumatic arthritis, hypertension and chronic
tracheitis in China and Japan (Ma et al. 2011). In Korea, E. koreanum has been tra-
ditionally used for impotence, spermatorrhoea and forgetfulness (Liu and Xu 1984).
The aerial parts of some Epimedium species such as E. myrianthum, E. acuminatum
and E. leptorrhizum are also used by certain localities in China (Xie et al. 2010)
while underground parts of Epimedium plants are widely used as anti-rheumatic
medicine in ancient Chinese folk medicines (China Herb Compilation 1975). E.
pinnatum and E. alpinium have also been used in folk medicines by some forest
communities in some European and Asian countries (Ma et al. 2011) (Table 2).
E. elatum has been traditionally used to treat cold, cough, running nose, tooth-
ache, tooth decay and diseases of bones and joints in Northwestern Himalayan
region of India (Arief et al. 2015). Literature cites Arief et al. (2015) confirming the
ethnomedicinal usage of E. elatum for the first time from Northwestern Himalayan
region. However, more ethnobotanical surveys are needed to explore ethnomedici-
nal uses prevalent among tribal forest communities living in Himalayas. The time-
tested traditional medicinal uses in modern confirmatory experiments can boost its
chances of becoming a potent medicinal plant in coming decades. However, for that,
much research efforts are needed from all stakeholders.
Aphrodisiac Activity
Epimedium species have been used traditionally in various Asian medicines for a
long time, to enhance erectile dysfunction and other impotence conditions in human
beings. This has been demonstrated experimentally in various animal modelling
studies. In several studies, Epimedium flavonoids increased sexual activity by
enhancing sexual arousal, increasing vitality and improving sperm counts in vitro
and in vivo (Ma et al. 2011; Chen et al. 2015a; Li et al. 2015; Shin et al. 2015). Total
flavonoids from E. brevicornum were shown to promote male reproductive sys-
tem and reproductive endocrine activities, thus possessing testosterone-like effects
(Wang et al. 2001; She et al. 2003: Zhang and Yang 2006). The aqueous extracts
of E. brevicornum have been shown to protect the structure and function of sperm
membranes by improving their superoxide dismutase (SOD) vitality and inter-
vening in lipid peroxidation (Yang et al. 2007). Epimedium flavonoids have also
been shown to increase testicular weight, sperm counts and sperm motility (Yuan
et al. 2014). Pharmacological studies have shown that aqueous extract decreases
the corpus cavernosum smooth muscles by increasing the amount of cyclic guano-
sine monophosphate (cGMP), consequently inhibiting the phosphodiesterase type
Table 2 Reported biological action and bioactivity of Epimedium extract

Biological action(s) or
S. No. pharmacological activity Extract or constituent used References
1. Aphrodisiac Extracts of Epimedium sp. Chen (2009)
PDE-5 inhibitor Icariin
Enhancer of testosterone Decoction of Epimedium sp. Wang et al. (2001)
secretion and kidney tonic
2. Effect on bone metabolism Total flavonoids and icariin https://doi.
Anti-osteoporosis Water extract org/10.1016/j.
Total flavonoids jep.2018.04.035
Proliferation of primary Total flavonoids, polysaccharides Zhang et al.
osteoblasts and main chemical constituents (2008)
of Epimedium sp.
Apoptotic inducer of osteoclast Total flavonoids of Epimedium Zhang et al.
cells sp. (2008)
Anti-rheumatoid arthritis Ikarisoside A Choi et al. (2010)
Proliferation of bone marrow- Icariin Wu et al. (2009)
derived stroma cells (BMSCs)
Promoter of cartilage growth Crude extract of Epimedium Li et al. (2012b)
brevicornum
3. Effect on immune system Methanolic extract( roots and
Thymus activator rhizomes) of E. alpinium
Macrophage activator Total flavonoids of Epimedium Zhang and Yu
sp. (1999)
NK and LAK cell enhancer(s) Total flavonoids and Meng et al. (1996)
polysaccharides of Epimedium
sp.
Enhancer of antibody response Extract of aerial parts and Liang et al.
epimedin C (1997a, b)
4. Effect on cardiovascular system Icariin Song et al. (2011)
inhibitor of cerebral ischaemia
and hypoxia
Anti-myocardial ischaemia Water extract of Epimedium sp.
Anti-hypersensitive activity Aqueous extracts of Epimedium Mahboubi et al.
sp. (2013)
Total flavonoids of Epimedium
sp.
Anti-arrhythmia Crude water extract
Angiogenesis enhancer Leaf and stem extract Wang et al. (2007)
5. Anticancer activity Icariin Wang et al. (2007)
Inhibition of tumour cell
proliferation
Inhibition of tumour cell Icariin Cheng et al.
proliferation (2007)
6. Apoptosis inducer Icariin Ikeda et al. (2017)
8. Anti-ageing Aqueous extracts Wu et al. (2003a)
Total flavonoids Ikeda et al. (2017)
Total flavonoids Meng et al. (1996)
9. Anti-fatigue Total flavonoids Ma et al. (2009)
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Biological action(s) or
S. No. pharmacological activity Extract or constituent used References
10. Anti-hypoxia Total flavonoids Zhang et al.
(2009)
11. Antibacterial Icariin Yan and Qiu
(2005)
12. Antiviral Total flavonoids Fang et al. (2003)
13. Anti-inflammatory Total flavonoids Diaz et al. (2012)
14. Anti-hepatotoxic Icariside II Cho et al. (1995)
Icariin
5 enzyme (Chiu et al. 2006). According to the modern pharmacological studies,
phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5) is the target protein for inhibition to treat erectile
dysfunction. Studies have demonstrated that flavonoid glycosides, icariin and epi-
medin C, have been shown to possess an inhibiting effect on PDE-5 (Chen 2009).
Modification of icariin by addition of two hydroxyethyl ethers moieties enhanced
the PDE-5 inhibitory activity by 80-fold in one of the studies (Dell’Agli et al.
2008). Icariin and its synthetic analogues were shown to have a strong phosphodi-
esterase-5 (PDE-5) inhibitory activity and hence they were thought to cure erectile
dysfunction in human beings (Dell’Agli et al. 2008). Epimedium herbs are popular
testosterone adjuncts and could be used in future to treat hypogonadism in modern
clinical circles (Jiang et al. 2016). Overall, Epimedium herbs have a strong poten-
tial in treating various problems related to sexual dysfunction disorders in human
beings. E. elatum also contains the major flavonoid glycosides reported to have the
above bioactivity (Zhengzheng et al. 2010). The species can be exploited for this
activity and thus can become a potent aphrodisiac medicinal species from India in
years to come.
Anti-osteoporosis Activity
Experimental studies have confirmed that Epimedium and its metabolites have a
profound effect on bone metabolism, such as preventing calcium loss, stimulating
the proliferation of osteoblasts, inhibiting bone resorption and promoting bone for-
mation (Ma et al. 2011). Extracts from the dried aerial parts of Epimedium have
long been used for bone health. Epimedium flavonoids are known to enhance bone
growth by increasing the differentiation of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs)
into osteoblasts and also by increasing the proliferation and maturation of osteo-
blasts (Liu et al. 2005). The water extract of Epimedium flavonoids has been shown
to inhibit the proliferation, differentiation and bone resorption of osteoclasts by
inducing G2/M arrest and apoptosis (Zhang et al. 2012). Icariin is known to induce
the BMSCs into osteoblasts by up-regulating the expression of some
osteoblast-related cytokines, such as transforming growth factor, bone fibroblast

growth factor, insulin-like growth factor 1, osterix and Runx-2 (Liu et al. 2006a; Wu
et al. 2010; Zhai et al. 2010). In addition, it has been shown to improve the secretion
of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), colony-forming unit-fibroblast, osteocalcin and col-
lagen I in BMSCs (Liu et al. 2006a; Zhai et al. 2010; Bian et al. 2011). Besides, it
remarkably promoted the proliferation and maturation of osteoblasts (Hsieh et al.
2010; Ming et al. 2013) and modulated bone formation mainly via BMP-2/Smad4
signalling pathway (Hsieh et al. 2010; Liang et al. 2012a). Icariin was also shown to
inhibit the formation and activity of osteoclasts by promoting osteoclastic apopto-
sis, inducing G2/M cell cycle arrest (Zhang et al. 2012; Ming et al. 2013), and
decreasing the activity of osteoclast differentiation marker (Hsieh et al. 2011). It
was shown to deter osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption by inhibiting
interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase type 2
(COX-2) expression (Hsieh et al. 2011).
Some of the recent studies have explained the oestrogen-like mechanism of
Epimedium in preventing and treating osteoporosis (Xu et al. 2016; Chen et al.
2016a; Wang et al. 2016). Nine prenylflavonoid compounds from Epimedium spe-
cies have been reported to target oestrogen signalling and other bone morphogene-
sis pathways in mesenchymal stem cell, osteoblast and osteoclast cell lineages
(Indran et al. 2016). Recent clinical trials have reported positive effects of these
medicinal plants on bone health, suggesting that compounds or extracts from them
have the potential to be developed as agents, alone or in combination with other
drugs, to prevent or delay the onset of osteoporosis and reduce the risk of hip frac-
tures (Indran et al. 2016). Experimental evidence has proved that Epimedium spe-
cies have a promising role to play in treating osteoporosis in coming decades. This
raises expectation and interest in Epimedium plants for having valuable role in
treating bone-related disorders in human beings.
Anticancer Activity
Modern pharmacology is slowly and surely discovering important bioactivities of

epimedin flavonoids. According to recent pharmacological studies, icariin, icaritin,
icariside II and its derivatives have strong anti-proliferative activities against various
cancer cell lines (Tan et al. 2016) such as prostate carcinoma PC-3 cells (Huang
et al. 2007a), hepatica carcinoma SMMC-7721 and HepG2 cells (Li et al. 2010a),
gastric cancer BGC-823 cells (Wang et al. 2010), Leydig tumour MLTC-1 cells
(Wang et al. 2011), gallbladder carcinoma GBC-SD and SGC-996 cells (Zhang
et al. 2013a). Several studies have shown that the compound icaritin inhibits the
proliferation of a variety of cancer cell lines, such as chronic myeloid leukaemia
K562 cells (Feng Zhu et al. 2011); endometrial cancer Hec1A cells (Tong et al.
2011); breast cancer MCF7 cells (Guo et al. 2011); human acute myeloid leukaemia
NB4, HL60 and U937 cells (Li et al. 2013); hepatica carcinoma HepG2 cells (He
et al. 2010a; Sun et al. 2015); and osteosarcoma SaOS2 cells (Wang and Wang
2014). Baohuoside I, another key flavonoid glycoside in Epimedium species, has

been shown to possess anti-proliferative properties against melanoma B16 (Wu
et al. 2013) and A375 cells (Wu et al. 2012a), lung cancer A549 cells (Song et al.
2012), acute myeloid leukaemia U937 cells (Kang et al. 2012) and multiple
myeloma U266 cells (Kim et al. 2011).
In recent years, there has been great interest in scientific investigation of the
reported anticancer properties of icariin and its derivatives. Data reported from
in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated significant anticancer activity of epimedin
compounds against a wide range of cancer cells which occurs through various
mechanisms such as apoptosis, cell cycle modulation, anti-angiogenesis, anti-
metastasis and immune modulation (Tan et al. 2016). According to pharmacological
studies, epimedin C has been shown to enhance the immune system by improving
the response of spleen antibody-forming cells to near-normal, up-regulating lym-
phocyte proliferation, and promoting the recovery of IL-2 production (Liang et al.
1997a). In addition, it shows anti-cancer effects by inducing G0/G1-phase cell cycle
block via the increase in expression of p21Cip1, and p27Kip1, and decrease in
c-Fos expression (Liu et al. 2006b). All the four major markers of Epimedium spe-
cies, viz. epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C and icariin, have shown a strong
anticancer activity in another study conducted on E. koreanum (Yasukawa et al.
2016). Thus, the Epimedium herbs may be useful in cancer prevention. All the parts
of E. elatum are rich source of flavonoid glycoside compounds. This species needs
to be bio-prospected for future use.
Neuroprotective Activity
Epimedium extracts and their purified compounds have demonstrated promising

neuroprotective activities (Ma et al. 2011). Epimedium flavonoids have protective
effect on ‘neural synaptic structure and function’ by promoting the expression of
synapse-related proteins, such as synaptophysin and postsynaptic dense material 95
(Chu et al. 2008). They also promote proliferation and differentiation of hippocam-
pal neural stem cells (Yao et al. 2010). Icariin, one of the main flavonoids of
Epimediums, enhances the protein expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor
and tyrosine kinase tropomyosin receptor kinase B by increasing SOD activity and
decreasing malondialdehyde (MDA) content in the hippocampus (Luo et al. 2007;
Li et al. 2010b). The molecule showed inhibitory effects on age-related cognitive
degeneration by increasing the expression of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine enabling
polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecules to activate quiescent neural stem cells
(Wu et al. 2012b). The apoptosis of neural stem cells is also inhibited by icariin by
ameliorating mitochondrial membrane potential and blocking the activation of p38
(Liu et al. 2011). The molecule also improves the learning and memory abilities by
increasing the levels of acetylcholine and choline acetyltransferase in the cerebral
cortex (Gao et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2014a). In addition, icariin has been shown to
protect the induced neurotoxicity and cognitive degeneration by decreasing the
TNF-α and COX-2 expression (Guo et al. 2010; Zhang et al. 2015), increasing the
monoamine levels, decreasing the acetylcholinesterase activity and inhibiting oxi-
dative damage (He et al. 2010b).
Some of the studies have indicated the neuroprotective properties of icariin and
icariside II in mice, and according to a study by Chen et al. (2016a, b) both might
become a promising multi-target drug in the protection against Alzheimer’s disease
(Chen et al. 2016b). These recent activities of major flavonoid glycosides indicate
that Epimedium plants have good potential in treating neurodegenerative diseases.
Studies in this direction will help in understanding the underlying mechanism of
neurodegenerative diseases and in discovering the ways for their treatment.
Preventing Cardiovascular Diseases
The extracts from the Epimedium species have shown to affect the blood pressure,
blood rheology, arrhythmia, myocardial ischaemia, coronary blood flow and heart
rate (Ma et al. 2011). Epimedium flavonoids have shown to prevent myocardial
infarction by enhancing the level of serum creatine phosphokinase, lactate dehy-
drogenase and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and decreasing the content of malo-
ndialdehyde (MDA) (Huang et al. 2006). Icariin induces the cardiomyocyte
differentiation of murine embryonic stem cells through various mechanisms
involving up-regulated expression of p38, extracellular signal-regulated protein
kinases (ERK), activator protein-1 and transcription factors ‘c-jun’ and ‘c-fos’
(Wo et al. 2008). Also, it has been known to enhance the calsequestrin and
sodium–calcium exchanger (Ding et al. 2008; Sun et al. 2011). It stimulates
angiogenesis by activating MEK-/ERK-dependent and phosphatidylinositol
3-kinase/Akt/endothelial nitric oxide synthase-dependent signalling pathways
(Chung et al. 2008; Jin et al. 2010). Furthermore, icariin ameliorates left ventricu-
lar dysfunction and cardiac re-modelling by down-regulating matrix metallopro-
teinase 2 (MMP-2), matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) and myocardial
apoptosis in rats with congestive heart failure (Song et al. 2011). Recent studies
have indicated cardiac ischaemia and reperfusion injury can be alleviated by icar-
iin treatment (Zhai et al. 2015). The modern lifestyle has triggered growth in
lifestyle-related diseases including heart. Many clinical studies have indicated
usefulness of Epimedium plant-based flavonoid glycosides in preventing these
ailments. However, more studies are required in this direction but definitely
Epimedium plant can be exploited in this course.
Anti-inflammatory Activity
Epimedium flavonoids, particularly icariin, have shown to possess potent anti-

inflammatory activities (Ma et al. 2011). Icariin significantly alleviated the patho-
logical changes of colitis by suppressing the phosphorylation of signal transducers
and activating transcriptions 1 (p-STAT1) and 3 (p-STAT3) in CD4þT cells (Tao

et al. 2013). It has been shown to attenuate acute lung inflammation by inhibiting
the expressions of TNF-IL-6, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (Wu et al. 2009;
Xu et al. 2010). Studies have shown that icaritin interferes with T-cell activation by
inhibiting the proliferation of CD4+T cells, down-regulating CD25, IL-2 and inter-
feron expression (Li et al. 2012a). In vivo studies have demonstrated that icariin
attenuates the chronic airway inflammation through the mediation of Th17/Treg
function (Wei et al. 2015).
Anti-ageing, Anti-fatigue and Anti-hypoxia Activities
Excellent reviews by Ma et al. (2011) and Chen et al. (2015a) on Epimedium plants
have highlighted that epimedin flavonoids possess anti-ageing, anti-fatigue and
anti-hypoxia activities. These flavonoids were shown to affect ageing by regulating
the immune and endocrine systems, thus improving metabolism and organ function
(Ma et al. 2011). They have been shown to delay natural senescence in animals in
cell denucleation and cell fusion experiments (Meng et al. 1996). Epimedium was
known to protect the mitochondrial DNA from oxidative damage in aged rats (Wang
et al. 1996). One study has demonstrated that polysaccharides from E. wushanense
have pronounced the effect on the production of superoxide dismutase (SOD)
enzyme complex and glutathione peroxidase activity (Zeng et al. 1997), thereby
playing a role in anti-ageing. The flavonoids from Epimedium possess anti-hypoxia
activity by (a) prolonging the survival time of the normobaric hypoxic mice, (b)
lessening encephaledema and pneumonedema and (c) raising the contents of hae-
moglobin and leukocytes (Zhang et al. 2009). Total flavonoids of Epimedium dis-
play anti-fatigue activity. This was demonstrated by prolonged swimming in mice,
accompanied by increase in blood glucose level, haemoglobin and glycogen levels
(Ma et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2014a).
Antimicrobial and Antiviral Activities
Epimedium flavonoids have significant antimicrobial and antiviral activities (Ma

et al. 2011). They have strong inhibitory effects on a variety of microbes (Ma et al.
2011). Icariin has been shown to inhibit the activities of food-pollutant bacteria
(Yan and Qiu. 2005). These flavonoids inhibit growth of several microorganisms
including Micrococcus pyogenes var. albus, Staphylococcus aureus, Diplococcus
pharyngis communis, Micrococcus catarrhalis and Haemophilus influenzae (Ma
et al. 2011). Epimedium flavonoids showed positive effect on asthma in young chil-
dren caused by viral infections in one of the studies conducted by Fang et al. (2003).
The antimicrobial activity of chemical compounds isolated from E. elatum has been
reported on six microbial strains, viz. Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Shigella
dysenteriae, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Tantry et al.

2012). Epimedin C possesses specific antimicrobial activity against S. aureus
whereas quercetin was shown to have a broad antimicrobial activity against all the
tested microbial strains with the exception of S. aureus. Elatoside A and Elatoside
B [two unusual acylated flavonol glycosides found in E. elatum] showed antimicro-
bial activity against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa (Tantry et al. 2012). Epimedium
polysaccharides possess synergistical antiviral action in chicken (Fan et al. 2011).
Phytochemicals from E. koreanum have recently been known to display a strong
antiviral activity against porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV)-related diseases
in pigs (Cho et al. 2012). In another study conducted by Cho et al. (2015), total
aqueous extracts from E. koreanum showed a wide array of antiviral actions against
a number of viruses both under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Thus, the use of E.
koreanum as an orally antiviral agent has the potential to be an effective herbal rem-
edy for prophylaxis and therapeutic applications in both humans and livestock (Cho
et al. 2015). Further, more species of this genera may be assessed for their antimi-
crobial and antiviral activities.
PPAR-γ Ligand-Binding Activity
Wide ranges of natural products from medicinal plants have been screened for their
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) activating potential (Wang et al.
2014b). PPARs belong to a subfamily of the nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-
inducible transcription factors and to date three PPAR isotypes encoded by separate
genes have been identified, viz. PPAR-α, PPAR-β/δ and PPAR-γ (Wang et al.
2014b). PPAR-γ ligand-binding activity of chemical compounds isolated from E.
elatum was reported by Tantry et al. (2012). The most potent PPAR-γ ligand-binding
activity was found with icariin, epimedin B, epimedin C, icariside II, icaritin and
ikarisoside A. Studies on the activity of these PPAR-γ activators imply that the com-
pounds having prenyl units are necessary for the appearance of the potent activity
(Tantry et al. 2012). This was the first report wherein isolated chemical compounds
from any Epimedium species have been evaluated for their peroxisome proliferator-
activated receptor gamma ligand-binding activity. These findings encourage bio-
prospection and bio-evaluation of E. elatum that might provide interesting ligands
in the future which might be useful in treating diabetes myelitis and related
diseases.
Phenotypic Plasticity
Phenotypic plasticity in plants is defined as the ability of a single genotype to

develop multiple phenotypes under different eco-edaphic environmental conditions
(Palacio-López et al. 2015). These plastic responses to the environment can include
changes not only in morphology but also in physiology, behaviour, life history,
growth and demography of plant species (Miner et al. 2005). They can occur within
the lifespan of an individual or across generations (Miner et al. 2005). High-altitude
medicinal plants in Northwestern Himalayas are known to show a significant phe-
notypic plasticity in different habitats and under different environments (Badola and
Aitken 2003). For example, Podophyllum hexandrum and Sinopodophyllum hexan-
drum, the highly prized medicinal plants in India and China, have been known to
show a marked morphological variation in leaf polymorphism (Badola and Aitken
2003; Alam et al. 2008; Sultan et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2014). Picrorhiza kurroa,
another high-altitude medicinal plant found in Indian Himalayas, has been known
to produce variations in leaf morphology in different eco-edaphic environments of
Northwestern Himalayas of India (Nautiyal et al. 2001). The narrow leaf variants in
P. hexandrum and P. kurroa grow commonly in open pastures and along springs
whereas the broad-leaf variants are found in shady habitats under shrub and scrub
canopies (Badola and Aitken 2003; Sultan et al. 2010). Interestingly, only broad-
leaf varieties in both medicinal species are considered pharmaceutically beneficial
(Badola and Aitken 2003), which indicates the importance of studying morphologi-
cal and genetic traits in identifying superior germplasm in the pursuit of either in
situ or ex situ conservation (Badola 2002). Literature cites meagre information on
phenotypic plasticity in Epimedium species but now there is renewed interest in
documenting the habitat and morphology in both wild and cultivated Epimedium
species. Studied phenotypic plasticity of 17 Epimedium species collected from
Korea (9), Japan (7) and China (1) using six morphological characteristics. All the
species were shown to exhibit a high level of morphological variation. Ming Feng
(2008) was able to observe continuous morphological variation in 18 Epimedium
species collected from different geographical regions of China, revealing several
difficulties in their taxonomic identification. Yong et al. (2010) investigated the
morphological variation in three Epimedium species, viz. E. brevicornum, E. sagit-
tatum and E. pubescens, all showing significant phenotypic variability. The study
showed that resource allocation to different plant parts under different environmen-
tal conditions was variable. The highest proportion of biomass was allocated to
rhizomes and leaves and then to stems and roots. Among the three Epimedium spe-
cies that he studied, E. pubescens was shown to produce highest phenotypic plastic-
ity in different habitats and was thus better adapted for transplantation and cultivation
trials (Yong et al. 2010). Quan et al. (2011) investigated the comparative phenotypic
plasticity in two species of wild and cultivated Epimedium: E. pubescens and E.
wushanense. Both the medicinal species were shown to be differing in their mor-
phological characters. The leaf area and branch height per plant were remarkably
higher in wild E. pubescens and E. wushanense than the cultivated species of the
two, while the leaf number and branches per plant in these species were shown to be
higher under cultivated conditions. The root, stem and leaf biomass per plant were
observed to be higher in cultivated species than the wild plants of E. wushanense.
The morphology of both the Epimedium species showed dwarfness under cultivated
under high light intensities. They had more branches and leaves in cultivation than
in wild habitats. The plants under shade were shown to produce larger leaves than
the plants grown under open sunny conditions, which confirm the shade-loving
habitat (Lone et al. 2017) of Epimedium species. Also, shady conditions have been
known to enhance the content of bioactive components (epimedin ABC and icariin)
in Epimedium species (Liang et al. 2012b).
Horie et al. (2012) investigated phenotypic plasticity in many populations of E.
diphyllum and E. sempervirens species inhabited in different habitats of Japan. Both
species were shown to be morphologically diverse in all habitats and showed fre-
quent hybrid formation among them. All of the hybrids were shown to have a con-
siderable morphological variation in their floral characteristics. The results of this
study confirmed natural course of hybridization in Epimedium species in confirma-
tion with earlier report of Sheng et al. (2011). Liang et al. (2013) reported signifi-
cant morphological diversity in natural populations of E. sagittatum found in China.
The morphological characters were shown to persist in the above species even in the
common garden experiments, indicating the available diversity of different pheno-
types in Epimedium species. Similarly, LanYing et al. (2014) investigated the mor-
phological variation in three transplanted Epimedium species, viz. E. wushanense,
E. pubescens and E. acuminatum, and all three species produced significant pheno-
typic plasticity in plant height and leaf morphology, under cultivation. They showed
varying degrees of adaptability to the growing environment under various environ-
mental conditions. Similar to this study, Zhou et al. (2014) studied morphological
characteristics in the growth cycle of E. acuminatum. The study showed that proper
habitat and good nutrition conditions were ideal for shortening the growth cycle and
producing maximum herbage for medicinal purposes.
Xu et al. (2014) reported continuous morphological variations in different popu-
lations of E. sagittatum species complex. Xu et al. (2013b) had earlier reported
variation in their non-glandular hairs. The study by Chen et al. (2015b) on the varia-
tions in morphological characteristics of E. sagittatum confirmed the variability in
the plants growing in different geographical regions, particularly in the leaves and
flowers. A difference in plant morphology of E. pseudowushanense has been docu-
mented recently by Pan and Guo (2016). In this study, seedlings of the species were
shown to produce phenotypic plasticity under different light intensities. In shady
areas, it had larger leaves than in open sunny conditions, thus confirming Epimedium
species as shade-loving medicinal species as mentioned earlier. Xuemei et al. (2016)
reported the impact of simulated warming on growth and floral characteristics of E.
wushanense and E. acuminatum. Plant height, leaf growth and floral quantitative
characters were shown to vary significantly under the influence of different warm-
ing temperatures in both the Epimedium species and they were shown to respond
differently to temperature changes under cultivation, thereby displaying wide phe-
notypic plasticity. All of these investigations revealed that Epimedium species
change their phenotypes under different environmental conditions, which also indi-
cates the existence of different genotypes in Epimedium species. These studies on
different species under different environmental conditions would throw light on the
habitat characteristics and growth conditions of this less explored medicinal spe-
cies. It would subsequently aid in the identification of its pristine habitats and their
subsequent conservation from further exploitation.
Taxonomic Classification of Epimedium Species
The traditional methods of species identification in Epimedium systematics are

inadequate due to complex taxonomical procedure and difficulties in identification
of specimens based on their floral and leaf morphometry (Zhang et al. 2016). Earlier,
leaves borne on the peduncle and corolla dimensions (floral character) were used for
taxonomical identification of Epimedium species (Sun et al. 2005). Extensive mor-
phological variation and frequent hybrid formation impeded their taxonomic identi-
fication (Sheng et al. 2011; Horie et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2016). Biochemical
markers have been used previously for understanding the molecular characterisa-
tion of Epimedium species (Xu et al. 2007; Zeng et al. 2010). Xu et al. (2007)
investigated the genetic variability and population genetic structure of 11 natural
populations of three Epimedium species, E. pubescens, E. sagittatum and E. wusha-
nense, using allozymes as biochemical markers. Based on the study, they concluded
E. pubescens to be more closely related to E. sagittatum than to E. wushanense in
UPGMA-based cluster analysis, which was in agreement with the morphological
characters and the recent phylogenetic analysis of these species. Further, the study
proposed various factors responsible for the genetic variation in population struc-
ture of Epimedium species. Some of the significant factors were (1) mixed breeding
system, (2) long-lived perennial life form, (3) ancient evolutionary history and (4)
seed dispersal by ants (Xu et al. 2007). This was the only study where allozymes
had been used for understanding population genetic structure of three medicinal
Epimedium species from Hubei province in China. However, biochemical markers
are not used frequently for genetic diversity analysis due to several disadvantages
and hence are not preferred. The biochemistry of the plant is influenced by expres-
sion of genes which are dependent on environment and developmental stages and
are under the influence of epistatic and pleiotropic interactions (Sarwat et al. 2012).
The most recent and updated system of classification was proposed by Stearn
et al. (2002), in which Epimedium genus was classified into two subgenera, four
sections and four series predominantly based on geographical distribution, leaf and
flower morphology (Table 3).
Molecular markers and molecular taxonomical approaches have been barely
used for understanding the phylogenetic relationship of different Epimedium spe-
cies in general and E. elatum in particular. Literature cites very few studies where
molecular markers have been employed to comprehend the phylogeny of E. elatum.
Zhang et al. (2007a) reconstructed the phylogeny of 38 Epimedium species using
ITS and atpB-rbcL spacer sequences as molecular markers. In this study, almost all
sections recognised in the most recent classification of the genus Epimedium were
found to be monophyletic, but subgenus Epimedium was found to be paraphyletic
in relation to subgenus Rhizophyllum. E. elatum (western Himalaya) was shown to
form a distinct lineage in all phylogenetic dendrograms, thereby indicating
distinctness.
De Smet et al. (2012) recently gave additional evidence for origin and divergence
of Chinese Epimedium species in section Diphyllon by using AFLP molecular
markers in addition to nuclear and chloroplast genomic markers. According to their
Table 3 Stearn’s (2002) classification of 54 Epimedium species, recognized up to 2002

I. Subgenus Epimedium 28. E. zhushanense K. F. Wu and S. X. Qian
i. Section Diphyllon (Kom.) Stearn 29. E. baojingense Q. L. Chen and B. M. Yang
A. Series Campanulatae Stearn 30. E. gladulosopilosum H. R. Liang
1. E. campanulatum M. Ogisu D. Series Brachycerae Stearn
2. E. platypetalum K. Meyer 31. E. pubescens Maxim
3. E. ecalcaratum G. Y. Zhong 32. E. brevicornu Maxim
4. E. shuichengense S. Z. He 33. E. reticulatum C. Y. Wu
B. Series Davidianae Stearn 34. E. sagittatum (Sieb. and Zucc.) Maxim
5. E. davidii Franch 35. E. myrianthum Stearn
6. E. fangii Stearn 36. E. stellulatum Stearn
7. E. hunanense (Hand.-Mazz.) Hand.-Mazz. 37. E. dolichostemon Stearn
8. E. flavum Stearn 38. E. fargesii Franch
9. E. ilicifolium Stearn 39. E. elachyphyllum
10. E. epsteinii Stearn 40. E. truncatum H. R. Liang
11. E. latisepalum Stearn 41. E. coactum H. R. Liang and W. M. Yan
12. E. ogisui Stearn 42. E. boreali-guizhouense Yang
13. E. pauciflorum K. C. Yen 43. E. lobophyllum L. H. Liu and B. G. Li
14. E. mikinorii Stearn ii. Section Macroceras C. Morren & Decne
C. Series Dolichocerae Stearn 44. E. grandiflorum C. Morren
15. E. elongatum Kom 45. E. sempervirens Nakai ex F. Maek
16. E. membranaceum K. Meyer 46. E. koreanum Nakai
17. E. rhizomatosum Stearn 47. E. macrosepalum Stearn
18. E. lishihchenii Stearn 48. E. trifoliolatobinatum (Koidz.) Koidz.
19. E. acuminatum Franch 49. E. diphyllum Lodd.
20. E. franchetii Stearn iii. Section Polyphyllon (Kom.) Stearn
21. E. enshiense B. L. Guo and Hsiao 50. E. elatum Morr. & Decne.
22. E. sutchuenense Franch iv. Section Epimedium
23. E. chlorandrum Stearn 51. E. alpinum L.
24. E. wushanense T. S. Ying 52. E. pubigerum Morr. & Decne.
25. E. leptorrhizum Stearn II. Subgenus Rhizophyllum (Stearn)
26. E. brachyrrhizum Stearn 53. E. pinnatum Fisch.
27. E. simplicifolium T. S. Ying 54. E. perralderianum Coss
study, all Epimedium species in section Diphyllon were shown to exhibit a high
level of genetic diversity, and were proposed to be still in the process of differentia-
tion in China. They also described four types of leaflet pubescence for the first time
as a new taxonomic tool towards a modern interpretation of Epimedium taxonomy.
They investigated the taxonomic position of E. elatum but it was shown to be incon-
sistent in phylogenetic trees (dendrograms) and so its taxonomy remained unre-
solved till date. In the Bayesian analysis, E. elatum was shown as a sister species to
a clade congruent with Stearn’s (2002) section Diphyllon, whereas in the maximum
likelihood bootstrap (ML-BS) method it was shown as a sister species to the rest of
Epimedium genus (De Smet et al. 2012). Different markers complicated its phylo-
genetic relationship, which was also depicted in the dendrograms. According to
chloroplast data of De Smet et al. (2012), E. elatum was found as a sister to section
Macroceras whereas nuclear data classified it in a clade in section Epimedium and
subgenus Rhizophyllum, respectively. Currently, E. elatum is a single species in
section Polyphyllon, but it needs further assessment to elucidate its origin and
evolution in Northwestern Himalayas of India. Studies are therefore needed to
determine its evolutionary relationship with the rest of the Epimedium genus.
Zhang et al. (2014b) utilised the AFLP fingerprinting technique for resolving
taxonomic problems in Epimedium species. In the study, about 144 accessions from
58 Epimedium species and 1 accession of Vancouveria hexandra were selected for
the study. The study proved highly significant in reconstructing the phylogenetic
relationship of almost all Epimedium species. In the above report, the two subgen-
era and four sections of Epimedium were shown to be monophyletic based on den-
drogram topology. The Chinese section Diphyllon was divided into five
well-supported clades, which was shown to be related to flower characteristics
(Zhang et al. 2014b). Section Diphyllon, containing all Chinese species, was first
shown to cluster with E. elatum (section Polyphyllon), but later it was shown to
form a trichotomy with section Macroceras and section Epimedium. The above
research effort by Zhang et al. (2014b) was proposed to have a great implication in
facilitating the utilisation of natural germplasm of Epimedium, especially for fur-
ther development of new cultivars for ornamental and medicinal purposes.
Epimedium genus thus needs more effective molecular markers to investigate the
relationships between different species and their origin, evolution, migration and
dispersal of the genus (Zhang et al. 2016).
DNA barcoding of Epimedium species is poorly known and there are only few
reports where nuclear 5S rDNA intergenic spacer region was used for the authenti-
cation of Epimedium species (Sun et al. 2004, 2005). Later on, Yu et al. (2011) were
able to successfully distinguish 37 specimens belonging to ten species of Epimedium
using the psbA-trnH region. The authors suggested psbA-trnH sequence as the
potential DNA barcode for whole Epimedium genus. Currently, more than 7390
nucleotide sequences of Epimedium species have been submitted in the Genbank
(2017) and a rich identification database has been established.
E. elatum has usually been regarded as a single species in Northwestern
Himalayas in India and DNA barcoding was needed to confirm this notion at molec-
ular level. More efforts are required for authentication and conformity for this spe-
cies from different parts of Himalayas where it has been reported to be growing.
Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is the consequence of genetic differences between individuals and

is manifested as a change in the morphological, biochemical, physiological and DNA
sequence characteristics. Genetic diversity can be thought of as reflecting the balance
between appearance and disappearance of alleles (genetic variants). New alleles can
appear at each generation by spontaneous mutation due to DNA replication errors or
mutagen-induced DNA damage or recombination events (Ellegren and Galtier 2016).

There are various factors such as selection (both artificial and natural), genetic drift
and gene flow that act on alleles in different populations to cause variations.
Ecogeographical factors such as climatic, edaphic and biotic factors including spe-
cies-specific factors like ploidy level, breeding systems and population size have a
definite role to play in determining the genetic diversity available within a species
(Ellegren and Galtier 2016). With more variation, it is more likely that some individu-
als in a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the environ-
ment giving advantage to individuals as they are more likely to survive to produce
offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more generations
because of the success of these individuals (Frankham 2005).
Cataloguing of germplasm and information on genetic diversity are essential in
formulating germplasm conservation programmes, whether in situ or ex situ. Thus
assessment and characterisation of genetic diversity is an essential prerequisite for
systematic documentation of plant species. In this context, molecular markers are
vital in the assessment of genetic diversity, from gene and allele frequencies (geno-
type information) to nucleotide level like SNPs (Sarwat et al. 2012).
Non PCR and PCR-based molecular markers like RAPD, ISSR and EST-SSRs
have been used previously for determining the genetic diversity in Epimedium
species (Table 4). Nakai et al. (1996) analysed the genetic characterisation of 8
Epimedium species using a combination of RAPD and RFLP markers. In this study,
all the investigated Epimedium species were shown be genetically different from
each other, based on the unique RAPD and RFLP fingerprints. The study could
identify E. sagittatum and E. koreanum easily based on their molecular banding
patterns. Phylogenetic dendrogram analogy showed E. sagittatum to be a totally
different species in comparison to other eight Epimedium species. RAPD and RFLP
markers were proposed to aid in chemotaxonomical classification of Epimedium
species. Utilised RAPD primers for investigating the genetic diversity of 17
Epimedium species collected from Korea (9), Japan (7) and China (1). Phylogenetic
dendrograms and genetic distance results characterised all species at the genetic
level. All species were shown to exhibit high level of genetic diversity. Ming Feng
Table 4 DNA fingerprinting status of Epimedium

Epimedium species Fingerprinting markers References
8 Epimedium sp. RAPD and RFLP Nakai et al. (1996)
17 Epimedium sp. RAPD
18 Epimedium sp. RAPD and RFLP Ming Feng (2008)
18 Epimedium sp. RAPD Li et al. (2011a, b)
53 Epimedium sp. AFLP De Smet et al. (2012)
E. acuminatum ISSR Mu-Dan et al. (2009)
7 Epimedium sp. ISSR Yan-Ying (2012)
E. brevicornum SSR Xu et al. (2008)
52 Epimedium sp. EST-SSR Zeng et al. (2010)
13 Epimedium sp. EST-SSR Yousaf et al. (2015)
(2008) investigated the genetic diversity of 18 Epimedium species employing

RAPD and RFLP markers. The study established unique RAPD and RFLP finger-
prints in all Epimedium species and showed them to have a good genetic diversity.
Genetic diversity was correlated with their geographic distribution in China. Both
the markers were proposed to aid in understanding the phylogenetic relationship in
Epimedium species in combination with morphological markers.
In another study, RAPD based genetic diversity was studied by Li et al. (2011a,
b) and Lim et al. (2000) in 18 Epimedium species. Genetic diversity was found to
correlate with the geographical distribution of all Epimedium species and they were
further classified into large-flowered and small-flowered species. Similarly, Ming-
Jun (2011) investigated the genetic diversity of 17 Epimedium species using RAPD
fingerprinting. Here, PCR technique could display a very high polymorphism
(98.5%). They also reported amplification of some unique bands in some species
and accessions, which were subsequently proposed to aid in the identification of
Epimedium species.
Slowly with the advent of more reliable and reproducible techniques, ISSR was
preferred over RAPD. ISSR technique offers several advantages over RAPD in
being reproducible and easy to do and with no pre-sequence knowledge required.
ISSR primers were used for the optimisation of PCR amplification in one of the
studies conducted by Mu-Dan et al. (2009) in E. acuminatum. The authors, how-
ever, did not report its genetic diversity using the same marker system. Chen et al.
(2012) investigated the genetic diversity in 12 populations of 7 Epimedium species
using ISSR molecular markers. His study revealed a high genetic diversity among
them (87.11%). The genetic diversity of 20 accessions of E. elatum has been
reported by Lone et al. (2017), wherein 20 ISSR markers were utilised for generat-
ing unique DNA fingerprints. The study reported high genetic polymorphism
(91.1%) in 20 populations of E. elatum. The unique bands amplified in some acces-
sions were proposed to aid in its easy identification in future molecular fingerprint-
ing studies (Lone et al. 2017). However, research is needed to utilise highly efficient
markers like SSRs and EST-SSRs to correlate characters with genetic sequence for
the complete genetic polymorphism in the different populations of E. elatum.
De Smet et al. (2012) analysed the genetic diversity and evolutionary relation-
ship of 53 Epimedium species based on their AFLP fingerprinting revealing signifi-
cant level of morphological and genetic variation in the collection. Liang et al.
(2013) also utilised AFLP markers to demonstrate the genetic diversity in natural
populations of E. sagittatum correlating morphological diversity with AFLP finger-
print data. Considering the drawbacks associated with AFLP fingerprinting, other
molecular markers should be explored for their capacity to delimit E. elatum (Xu
et al. 2008). These molecular insights can then be combined with clearly defined
morphological characters in order to generate useful species descriptions in the
above species.
Xu et al. (2008) investigated the genetic diversity of 38 accessions of E. brevicor-
num, utilising 17 pairs of SSR primers. The medicinal plant showed genetic poly-
morphism with number of alleles per locus. He could detect two to eight alleles with
an average of 4.86, the expected heterozygosity (HE) ranging from 0.03 to 0.81, and
the observed heterozygosity (HO) from 0.05 to 0.81. Moreover, SSR primers gener-
ated in the study were also investigated for their cross-species amplification in four
Epimedium species, namely E. koreanum, E. brevicornum, E. pubescens and E.
wushanense. Polymorphic microsatellite loci developed in this species using SSR
technique were proposed to aid in the assessment of genetic diversity and genetic
structure of E. brevicornum for its further evaluation and exploration in China.
Zeng et al. (2010) utilised EST-SSR marker system for analysis of genetic diver-
sity of 52 Epimedium species in China displaying a high level of genetic diversity
in these plants. They also studied cross-genus amplification of markers and used
them for reconstructing Epimedium phylogeny for the first time. They proposed the
use of EST-SSR markers in combination with other types of molecular markers for
resolving the phylogeny of Epimedium species. Recently, Yousaf et al. (2015) also
used EST-SSR markers for assessment of genetic diversity in 13 Epimedium
species. They observed a high level of genetic variation in the investigated species
and proposed the marker system in combination with morphological markers for
effective resolution of the existing taxonomic problems in Epimedium species.
A retrotransposon-based marker system coined as internal primer binding site
(iPBS) was used by Chen et al. (2015b) to assess the genetic diversity in E. sagit-
tatum populations. Ten iPBS primers yielded 46 highly reproducible polymorphic
markers. However, this marker system could not show significant genetic variation
in E. sagittatum. The dendrogram showed no correspondence between chemotype
and genotype of E. sagittatum populations. However, genetic clustering was shown
to coincide with its geographical distributions in China.
Phytochemical Characterisation of Epimedium Species
Phytochemical characterisation of Epimedium species was first reported by Akai

(1935) and since then more than 260 chemical moieties have been identified (Ma
et al. 2011). Majority of the literature cites epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C
and icariin as the dominant and characteristic markers in Epimedium species (Wu
et al. 2003; Pei et al. 2007; Wang et al. 2007; Xu et al. 2013a; Chen et al. 2015a).
Besides lignans, ionones, phenol glycosides, phenylethanoid glycosides, sesquiter-
penes, essential oils, fatty acids and phytosterols are also being reported from dif-
ferent Epimedium species (Chen et al. 2015a). The summary of the phytochemical
characterisation of Epimedium species done so far has been listed in Table 5.
Epimedium species are known to accumulate different concentrations of ABCI
markers and only those Epimedium species which meet the quality standards are
generally regarded as the potential medicinal plants for Herba Epimedii (Chen et al.
2015a). Several studies on phytochemical quantification of epimedin ABC and icar-
iin have demonstrated that their concentration varies in different accessions of the
same Epimedium species collected from different localities and also among the
species (Liu et al. 2006c; Chen et al. 2007; Islam et al. 2008; Wu et al. 2008; Zhang
Table 5 Summary of systematic phytochemical characterisation of Epimedium species using

HPLC and LCMS fingerprinting techniques
Name of the Marker
species quantified References
E. elatum Epimedin Sofi et al. (2014), Naseer et al. (2015)
ABC and
icariin
E. elatum Icariin, Arief et al. (2015, 2016)
icariside I
Herba Icariin Sheng et al. (2008), Pei and Pei-Gen (2008)
Epimedii
Herba Epimedin C Sun and Liang (2011), Peng et al. (2007)
Epimedii and icariin
Herba Epimedin C Wang et al. (2003)
Epimedii
Herba Epimedin Guo et al. (1996), Shen et al. (2007), Pei et al. (2007), Zhang
Epimedii ABC and et al. (2007b), Huang et al. (2007b), Chen et al. (2008a), Islam
icariin et al. (2008), Nurul et al. (2009), Yu et al. (2010), Han and Lee
(2017), Jin et al. (2009), Xie and Sun (2010), Xu et al. (2013a),
Chen et al. (2007), Chen et al. (2008b), Wu et al. (2008),
Bo et al. (2013)
Herba Breviflavone Hong et al. (2009)
Epimedii A and B
E. koreanum Flavonoids Chen et al. (1996)
E. koreanum Epimedin Dong et al. (2010), Jia et al. (2010)
ABCI
E. Epimedin B–C Liang et al. (1997b), Yao et al. (2012), Xia et al. (2009)
brevicornum and icariin
E. Icariin Quan et al. (2010)
brevicornum
E. Epimedin C Lin et al. (2010)
acuminatum and icariin
E. Epimedin C Xie et al. (2007b)
wushanense and icariin
E. Epimedin Xie et al. (2011), Li et al. (2011b), Zhou et al. (2013)
wushanense ABC and
icariin
E. sagittatum Epimedin Liang et al. (2012b), Chen et al. (2015a)
ABC and
icariin
et al. 2008; Sheng et al. 2008). Quan et al. (2011) reported the HPLC quantification
of the flavonoid and icariin contents in aerial (leaf, stem) and underground parts of
Epimedium species. The comparative study on contents of icariin and total flavo-
noid of E. acuminatum in different habitats and parts (leaf, root, stem and rhizome)
was also reported by Zhou et al. (2012). According to this study, highest icariin
content was found in leaf > root > stem > rhizome and the highest total flavonoid
content was found in leaf (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 MRM chromatogram of standard mixture of epimedin A, B and C and icariin
Large variation in ABCI contents has been reported among species. Chen et al.
(2007) reported that ABCI multiglycoside concentration in four Epimedium species
by HPLC and icariin content was shown to vary from 0.83 to 14.71 mg/g. Epimedin
A varied from 0.35 to 3.31 mg/g, and epimedin B varied from 0.32 to 7.74 mg/g.
Similarly, epimedin C was shown to vary from 1.22 to 27.63 mg/g whereas
Baohuoside I content varied from 0.09 to 2.57 mg/g. In the above study, epimedin
C was shown to be the dominant marker corroborating with earlier results of Pei
et al. (2007), Guo et al. (1996) and Xie et al. (2007a).
Liang et al. (2012b) quantified icariin content in different populations of E. sagit-
tatum and all were shown to produce a significant variation in ABCI multiglyco-
sides under cultivation condition. The range of variation identified in different
chemotypes of E. sagittatum spectrum of medicinal components could provide a
valuable source material for selection and breeding of its novel varieties and also for
its large-scale cultivation (Liang et al. 2012b). Xu et al. (2013a) reported an exten-
sive variation in ABCI flavanoid glycosides in ten populations of E. brevicornum
collected from different ecogeographical zones in China. In the study, epimedin B
concentration ranged from 6.67 to 55.7 mg/g, while the concentration of epimedin
C ranged from 5.39 to 23.0 mg/g in some of the chemotypes. The total flavonoids
(ABCI) varied from 29.1 to 123 mg/g in ten populations. According to the Chinese
standard for Epimedium species, almost all populations studied by Xu et al. (2013a)
were medicinally rich in ABCI multiglycosides. Wang et al. (2013) studied the con-
tent of icariin and flavonoids in different accessions (plant parts) of E. koreanum.
Icariin content in leaves and stem was reported to be lower than the Chinese stan-
dards of 0.5% (5 mg/g). However, the content of total flavonoids (ABCI) was
reported to be higher in leaves (66.8–88.5 mg/g). Chen et al. (2015b) recently stud-
ied the phytochemical variation of 4 flavonoid glycosides (ABCI multiglycosides)
in 11 wild populations of E. sagittatum. The study identified five elite chemotypes
which showed differences in accumulation of these chemical markers under varying

environments. This chemotype variation was shown to have a genetic basis in com-
mon garden experiment. The average concentrations of four markers among differ-
ent populations were shown to vary from 7.80 to 26.90 mg/g for epimedin A,
8.73–20.89 mg/g for epimedin B, 11.18–55.71 mg/g for epimedin C and 3.45–
20.68 mg/g for icariin. Epimedin C was found as the dominant flavonoid glycoside
in E. sagittatum with concentration ranging from 49.77 to 56.54 mg/g in some elite
chemotypes. The importance of these bioactive constituent quality and quantity
reports in other Epimedium species is required to highlight the medicinal potential
of E. elatum.
hemoprofiling Studies of Epimedium elatum from Kashmir

C
Himalayas
In the very first bio-prospection study of E. elatum from Northwestern Himalayas,

ethanolic extract from the whole plant led to the isolation of 23 known natural prod-
ucts and 2 new acylated flavonol glycosides, i.e. elatoside and elatoside A (Tantry
et al. 2012). Sofi et al. (2014) later collected this species from three ecogeographical
regions in Kashmir Himalayas and reported the isolation, identification and quanti-
fication of ABCI multiglycosides in their aerial and underground parts. The concen-
tration of epimedoside A ranged from 3 to 18 mg/g and it was reported to be
abundant in underground parts. The concentration of icariin in aerial parts was
13 mg/g, much higher than underground parts. The concentration of epimedin A
was shown to vary from 25.3 to 39.5 mg/g, higher than Zhang et al. (2008), who had
reported ABCI variation in 20 Epimedium species. Both epimedin B and C were
found as the major chemical markers in E. elatum. Epimedin C was found to be the
most predominant flavonoid in E. elatum with a maximum value of 64.2 mg/g in
aerial part (Sofi et al. 2014). The content of total ‘ABCI multiglycosides’ ranged
between 16.9 and 105.5 mg/g as compared to the rest of Epimedium species. Based
on their study, the optimal season for collecting Epimedium species was proposed
to be from end of summer to beginning of the autumn season (Zhang et al. 1995).
But Sofi et al. (2014) reported post-flowering season as the best harvesting time for
E. elatum in Kashmir Himalayas. According to him, this season was found to be the
ideal for production of ‘ABCI multiglycosides’ in E. elatum due to maximum herb-
age. This study confirmed E. elatum as a potential and promising medicinal plant as
it matched standards set by Chinese Pharmacopeia Commission (2010) for
Epimedium species.
In another study on chemo-biological standardisation of E. elatum, ABCI multi-
glycosides were isolated and simultaneously quantified by Naseer et al. (2015). The
study found the concentration of different markers to be lower in root (icariin 5 mg/g,
epimedin A 6.2 mg/g, epimedin B 5.2 mg/g and epimedin C 3.7 mg/g) than shoot
where their concentration varied among 62.7 mg/g in epimedin C, 32.4 mg/g in epi-
medin A and 1.8 mg/g in epimedin B. Also, icariin was found in lower quantities in
the aerial parts. Limitation in all of these studies was small sample size. This was
taken care by another investigation where 20 accessions of E. elatum were studied
for their phytochemical variation (Lone et al. 2017). The LCMS-based fingerprinting
revealed significant variation among four investigated prenylated flavonoids (epime-
din ABC and icariin) in different plant parts. The content of epimedin A was shown
to vary between 0.89 and 10 mg/g, while epimedin B and C contents ranged between
0.95 and 20.5 mg/g, respectively. Icariin was shown to vary from 5.27 to 0.14 mg/g.
In contrast to several earlier studies, rhizome was shown to accumulate higher con-
tent of icariin (2.69 mg/g) as compared to leaves (1.73 mg/g). Overall, aerial parts of
E. elatum were reported to be rich in epimedin B and epimedin C, while underground
parts were reported to be rich in icariin contents. Epimedin C was reported as major
prenylated flavonoid glycoside in confirmation with other species like E. sagittatum,
E. pubescens, E. wushanense, E. acuminatum and E. myrianthum (Pei et al. 2007;
Guo et al. 1996; Xie et al. 2007a, b; Xu et al. 2013a, b). In this study, the average
concentration of four prenylated flavonoid glycosides in leaves was shown to vary
among 6.9 mg/g in epimedin C, 6.82 mg/g in epimedin B, 3.13 mg/g in epimedin A
and 1.7 mg/g in icariin. However, further screening of several habitats to collect its
elite chemotype from Northwestern Himalayas would give a comprehensive picture
of E. elatum growing naturally in temperate and alpine regions of Himalayas.
ntioxidant and Biochemical (Total Flavanoid and Phenolic)

A
Analysis
Reactive free radicals are the by-products in uncoupled electron flow in respiration
and they rapidly attack molecules in nearby cells and damage lipids in cell mem-
branes, proteins in tissues and DNA (Zhang et al. 2013b). Generation of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) is related to the ageing process and degenerative diseases
such as cancer and heart diseases (Pietta 2000; Chen et al. 2005). Since ancient
times, the herbal medicines have been widely used as functional foods or pharma-
ceuticals all over the world. Interest in functional foods has been growing fast over
the last few decades, leading to the discovery of new functional components or
products that may help to retard ageing or prevent diseases (Zhang et al. 2014c). In
nature, antioxidative enzymes (endogenous) such as superoxide dismutase have
evolved to prevent the accumulation of free radicals by metabolising them. However,
this protection is not sufficient under the prevalent stress conditions. Antioxidant
herbal sources such as flavonoids and phenolics can provide additional power to
enhance the ability in combating free radicals formed in the body. Multiple studies
have focused on the antioxidant activities by in vitro assays and among the antioxi-
dant compounds flavonoids and phenolics have been shown to possess antioxidant
activities (Amico et al. 2008).
Flavonoids in Epimedium plants are well known to be the powerful antioxidants
(Sze et al. 2010; Zhang et al. 2013b; Zhang et al. 2014c). The antioxidant activity is
due to the scavenging or quenching of free radicals by chelating metal ions, or by

inhibiting the enzymatic systems responsible for producing free radicals (Bláha et al.
2004; Dias et al. 2005). The aerial parts of Epimedium species especially leaves have
high contents of total phenolic and total flavonoids which have been thought to be
agents responsible for antioxidant activities (Zhang et al. 2013b; Zhang et al. 2014c).
The study conducted by Lee et al. (2016) investigated the total phenol compounds
(TPC) and total flavonoid compounds (TFC) in different plant parts of E. koreanum
(root, stem, leaf) and among them root part was shown to exhibit highest TPC and
TFC values. They also assessed the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric
reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2’-azino- bis-
3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-
sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activities in the above medicinal plant and
showed that leaf possessed the strongest radical scavenging activities.
Recently, Lone et al. (2017) in their study on E elatum demonstrated that TFC in
leaves vary from minimum of 8.36 mg/g to maximum of 17.23 mg/g. In rhizomes,
its value was found to vary from 7.20 to 25.73 mg/g. The flavonoid content of some
elite accessions of E. elatum was found to be at par with the published reports of
Zhang et al. (2014c) but was found to be lower than the contents reported by
Mahboubi et al. (2013) in E. pinnatum and Zhang et al. (2013b) in Herba Epimedii.
The total phenolic content in leaf, on the other hand, was shown to vary between a
minimum of 1.19 mg/g and a maximum of 2.56 mg/g, while in rhizomes it varied
from 1.56 to 3.67 mg/g. Since all accessions were collected from different ecogeo-
graphical habitats of Kashmir Himalayas, the considerable differences in flavonoid
and phenolic contents in E. elatum could be due to the developmental stage, harvest
season, drying processes and environmental factors in comparison to the published
reports. The study presented the first report on the comparison of TFC and TPC in
underground rhizome and aerial part (leaves) in E. elatum (Lone et al. 2017).
Antioxidant activities (using DPPH and FRAP assay) of E. elatum in leaves and
rhizomes of different accessions were also reported for the first time by the same
authors. Almost all accessions were shown to have a significant antioxidant activity.
DPPH scavenging activity was shown to vary from 5.93 to 90.30 in leaves while in
rhizomes it ranged from 48.2 to 98.76, respectively. FRAP values in leaves were
shown to vary from 17.18 to 76.55, while in the rhizome it was reported to be in the
range from 98.16 to 116.12, respectively. This study reported the good antioxidant
potential in rhizomes of E. elatum. The accumulation of higher antioxidants in
underground parts of this species needs to be worked out for its future medicinal
efficacy. Earlier reports have shown Epimedium leaves to be a good source of anti-
oxidant molecules (Zhang et al. 2014c; Zhang et al. 2013b).
Herba Epimedii is used as a nutraceutical ingredient in many Asian countries
particularly China, Japan and Korea and recent findings have also confirmed that
their constituents can be used in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as
Alzheimer’s disease (Jan et al. 2015). Therefore, more studies are needed to assess
the antioxidant characterisation of rare medicinal plant, which will not only bring
the plant under captive cultivation but also help in its conservation and
commercialisation.
References
Akai S (1935) Constituents of Epimedium macranthum Morr and Decne I. Chemical constitution
of a new glucoside of Epimedium macranthum Morr and Decne I. J Pharm Soc Jpn 55:537–599
Alam A, Naik PK, Gulati P, Gulati AK, Mishra GP (2008) Characterization of genetic structure
of Podophyllum hexandrum populations, an endangered medicinal herb of Northwestern
Himalaya, using ISSR-PCR markers and its relatedness with podophyllotoxin content. Afr
J Biotechnol 7:8
Amico V, Chillemi R, Mangiafico S, Spatafora C, Tringali C (2008) Polyphenol-enriched fractions
from Sicilian grape pomace: HPLC–DAD analysis and antioxidant activity. Bioresour Technol
99(13):5960–5966
Arief ZM, Munshi AH, Shawl AS (2015) Evaluation of medicinal value of Epimedium elatum on
the basis of pharmacologically active constituents, Icariin and Icariside-II. Pak J Pharm Sci
28:5
Arief ZM, Shawl AS, Munshi AH (2016) Altitudinal variation in pharmacologically active com-
pounds of wild and cultivated populations of Epimedium elatum. J Appl Res Med Aromat
Plants 3(2):48–51
Badola HK (2002) Endangered medicinal plant species-priorities and action. Theme Paper,
International Workshop, Endangered Medicinal Plant Species in Himachal Pradesh, GBPIHED,
Mohal-Kullu, India (18–19 March, 2002). p. 11
Badola HK, Aitken S (2003) The Himalayas of India: a treasury of medicinal plants under siege.
Biodiversity 4(3):3–13
Bian Q, Huang JH, Liu SF, Ning Y, Yang Z, Zhao YJ, Shen ZY, Wang YJ (2011) Different molecu-
lar targets of Icariin on bMSCs in CORT and OVX-rats. Front Biosci 4:1224–1236
Bláha L, Kopp R, Šimková K, Mareš J (2004) Oxidative stress biomarkers are modulated in sil-
ver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Val.) exposed to microcystin-producing cyanobacterial
water bloom. Acta Vet Brno 73(4):477–482
Bo LY, Kipletting TE, Jing J, Jun ZY (2013) Quantitative determination of multiple components in
Herba Epimedii using a single reference standard: a comparison of two methods. Anal Methods
5(15):3741–3746
Chen CY (2009) Computational screening and design of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to
block phosphodiesterase-5. J Molec Graph Model 28(3):261–269
Chen C, Sha M, Yang S (1996) Quantitative changes of flavonoids in Epimedium koreanum Nakai
in different collecting periods. China J Chin Mater Med 21(2):86
Chen H, Zhang M, Xie B (2005) Components and antioxidant activity of polysaccharide conjugate
from green tea. Food Chem 90(1):17–21
Chen XJ, Guo BL, Li SP, Zhang QW, Tu PF, Wang YT (2007) Simultaneous determination of
15 flavonoids in Epimedium using pressurized liquid extraction and high-performance liquid
chromatography. J Chromatogr A 1163(1):96–104
Chen Y, Zhao Y, Jia X, Ding A (2008a) Simultaneous determination of five main flavonoids in
Herba Epimedii from different species by RP-HPLC. China Pharm 19(6):431
Chen XJ, Ji H, Zhang QW, Tu PF, Wang YT, Guo BL, Li SP (2008b) A rapid method for simul-
taneous determination of 15 flavonoids in Epimedium using pressurized liquid extraction and
ultra-performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Biomed Anal 46(2):226–235
Chen J, Xu Y, Wei G, Liao S, Zhang Y, Huang W, Yuan L, Wang Y (2015a) Chemotypic and
genetic diversity in Epimedium sagittatum from different geographical regions of China.
Chen XJ, Tang ZH, Li XW, Xie CX, Lu JJ, Wang YT (2015b) Chemical constituents, quality con-
trol, and bioactivity of epimedii folium (Yinyanghuo). Am J Chin Med 43(05):783–834
Chen YJ, Zheng HY, Huang XX, Han SX, Zhang DS, Ni JZ, He XY (2016a) Neuroprotective
effects of Icariin on brain metabolism, mitochondrial functions, and cognition in triple-
transgenic Alzheimer’s disease mice. CNS Neurosci Therap 22(1):63–73
Chen SH, Wang XL, Zheng LZ, Dai Y, Zhang JY, Guo BL, Yang ZJ, Yao XS, Qin L (2016b)
Comparative study of two types of herbal capsules with different Epimedium species for the
prevention of ovariectomised-induced osteoporosis in rats. J Orthop Transl 4:14–27
Chiu JH, Chen KK, Chien TM, Chiou WF, Chen CC, Wang JY, Lui WY, Wu CW (2006) Epimedium
brevicornum Maxim extract relaxes rabbit corpus cavernosum through multitargets on nitric
oxide/cyclic guanosine monophosphate signaling pathway. Int J Impot Res 18(4):335–342
Cho NJ, Sung SH, Lee HS et al (1995) Anti-hepatotoxic activity of icariside II, a constituent of
Epimedium koreanum. Arch Pharm Res 18:289. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02976415
Cho WK, Kim H, Choi YJ, Yim NH, Yang HJ, Ma JY (2012) Epimedium koreanum Nakai water
extract exhibits antiviral activity against porcine epidermic diarrhea virus in vitro and in vivo.
Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 29:2012
Cho WK, Weeratunga P, Lee BH, Park JS, Kim CJ, Ma JY, Lee JS (2015) Epimedium koreanum
Nakai displays broad spectrum of antiviral activity in vitro and in vivo by inducing cellular
antiviral state. Viruses 7(1):352–377
Choi HJ, Eun JS, Park YR, Kim DK, Li R, Moon WS, Park JM, Kim HS, Cho NP, Cho SD, Soh
Y (2010) Ikarisoside A inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase in lipopolysaccharide-stimu-
lated RAW 264.7 cells via p38 kinase and nuclear factor-kappaB signaling pathways. Eur J
Pharmacol 601(1-3):171–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.09.032
Chu J, Zhang L, Ye CF, Zhao L, Ya BL, Li L (2008) Effects of Epimedium flavonoids on synapse
related protein in brains of dementia transgenic mice. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 88(1):31–35
Chung BH, Kim JD, Kim CK, Kim JH, Won MH, Lee HS, Dong MS, Ha KS, Kwon YG, Kim
YM (2008) Icariin stimulates angiogenesis by activating the MEK/ERK-and PI3K/Akt/
eNOS-dependent signal pathways in human endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun
376(2):404–408
Compilation CH. China herb compilation People’s medical publishing house. 1975.
De Smet Y, Goetghebeur P, Wanke S, Asselman P, Samain MS (2012) Additional evidence for
recent divergence of Chinese Epimedium (Berberidaceae) derived from AFLP, chloroplast
and nuclear data supplemented with characterisation of leaflet pubescence. Plant Ecol Evolut
145(1):73–87
Decne (1844) In Jacquem. Voy Bot Himal 9:8
Dell’Agli M, Galli GV, Dal Cero E, Belluti F, Matera R, Zironi E, Pagliuca G, Bosisio E
(2008) Potent inhibition of human phosphodiesterase-5 by icariin derivatives. J Nat Prod
71(9):1513–1517
Dias AS, Porawski M, Alonso M, Marroni N, Collado PS, González-Gallego J (2005) Quercetin
decreases oxidative stress, NF-κB activation, and iNOS overexpression in liver of streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats. J Nutr 135(10):2299–2304
Diaz P, Jeong SC, Lee S, Khoo C, Koyyalamudi SR (2012) Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
activities of selected medicinal plants and fungi containing phenolic and flavonoid compounds.
Chin Med 7(1):26
Ding L, Liang XG, Hu Y, Zhu DY, Lou YJ (2008) Involvement of p38MAPK and reactive oxy-
gen species in icariin-induced cardiomyocyte differentiation of murine embryonic stem cells
in vitro. Stem Cells Dev 17(4):751–760
Dong ZY, Peng Y, Huang Y, Li X, Zhao LY, Zhang W (2010) Determination of contents of
four components in the extract of Epimedium koreanum Nakai by RP-HPLC. J Shenyang
Pharmaceut Univ 8:015
Ellegren H, Galtier N (2016) Determinants of genetic diversity. Nat Rev Genet 17(7):422–433
Fan Y, Liu J, Wang D, Hu Y, Yang S, Wang J, Guo L, Zhao X, Wang H, Jiang Y (2011) Epimedium
polysaccharide and propolis flavone can synergistically inhibit the cellular infectivity of NDV
and improve the curative effect of ND in chicken. Int J Biol Macromol 48(3):439–444
Fang F, Xu MY, Jiang JJ, Xu YL, Wei HX (2003) Clinical and empirical research of “Chuan Ke
Zhi” in treating childhood respiratory viral infection. Shanghai J Trad Chin Med 37:36–37
Feng Zhu J, Jian Li Z, Sen Zhang G, Meng K, Yong Kuang W, Li J, Fu Zhou X, Juan Li R, Ling
Peng H, Wen Dai C, Shen JK (2011) Icaritin shows potent anti-leukemia activity on chronic
myeloid leukemia in vitro and in vivo by regulating MAPK/ERK/JNK and JAK2/STAT3/AKT

signalings. PLoS One 6(8):e23720
Frankham R (2005) Genetics and extinction. Biol Conserv 126(2):131–140
Gao L, Tang Q, He X, Bi M (2012) Effect of icariin on learning and memory abilities and activ-
ity of cholinergic system of senescence-accelerated mice SAMP10. China J Chin Mater Med
37(14):2117–2121
Guo BL, Wang CL, Chen JM, Xiao PG (1996) Determination of 9 Flavonoidsin 5 species of
Epimedium recorded in Chinese Pharmacopoeiaby HPLC [J]. Acta Pharm Sin:4
Guo J, Li F, Wu Q, Gong Q, Lu Y, Shi J (2010) Protective effects of icariin on brain dysfunction
induced by lipopolysaccharide in rats. Phytomedicine 17(12):950–955
Guo Y, Zhang X, Meng J, Wang ZY (2011) An anticancer agent icaritin induces sustained activa-
tion of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway and inhibits growth of breast
cancer cells. Eur J Pharmacol 658(2):114–122
Han F, Lee IS (2017) A new flavonol glycoside from the aerial parts of Epimedium koreanum
Nakai. Nat Prod Res 31(3):320–325
Han S, Xie YY, Wang YM, Liang QL, Luo GA (2012) Comparative study on chemical quality of
main species of Epimedium. Acta Pharm Sin 47(4):502–507
He J, Wang Y, Duan F, Jiang H, Chen MF, Tang SY (2010a) Icaritin induces apoptosis of HepG2
cells via the JNK1 signaling pathway independent of the estrogen receptor. Planta Med
76(16):1834–1839
He XL, Zhou WQ, Bi MG, Du GH (2010b) Neuroprotective effects of icariin on memory impair-
ment and neurochemical deficits in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mice.
Brain Res 1334:73–83
Hong X, Wang X, Yong EL, Gong Y (2009) Determination of breviflavone A and B in Epimedium
herbs with liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal
49(3):853–857
Horie S, Suzuki K, Maki M (2012) Quantitative morphological analysis of populations in a hybrid
zone of Epimedium diphyllum and E. sempervirens var. rugosum (Berberidaceae). Plant Ecol
Evol 145(1):88–95
Hsieh TP, Sheu SY, Sun JS, Chen MH, Liu MH (2010) Icariin isolated from Epimedium pube-
scens regulates osteoblasts anabolism through BMP-2, SMAD4, and Cbfa1 expression.
Hsieh TP, Sheu SY, Sun JS, Chen MH (2011) Icariin inhibits osteoclast differentiation and
bone resorption by suppression of MAPKs/NF-κB regulated HIF-1α and PGE 2 synthesis.
Huang XL, Wang W, Zhou YW (2006) Protective effect of Epimedium flavonoids injection on
experimental myocardial infarction rats. Chin J Integr Tradition West Med 26(1):68–71
Huang X, Zhu D, Lou Y (2007a) A novel anticancer agent, icaritin, induced cell growth inhibition,
G 1 arrest and mitochondrial transmembrane potential drop in human prostate carcinoma PC-3
cells. Eur J Pharmacol 564(1):26–36
Huang H, Liang M, Zhang X, Zhang C, Shen Z, Zhang W (2007b) Simultaneous determination
of nine flavonoids and qualitative evaluation of Herba Epimedii by high performance liquid
chromatography with ultraviolet detection. J Sep Sci 30(18):3207–3213
Ikeda M, Ishima Y, VTG C, Ikeda T, Kinoshita R, Watanabe H, Ishida T, Otagiri M, Maruyama T
(2017) Apoptosis induction of poly-S-nitrosated human serum albumin in resistant solid tumor
under hypoxia can be restored by phosphodiesterase 5 inhibition. Nitric Oxide 69:28–34
Indran IR, Liang RL, Min TE, Yong EL (2016) Preclinical studies and clinical evaluation of com-
pounds from the genus Epimedium for osteoporosis and bone health. Pharmacol Therapeut
162:188–205
Islam NM, Yoo HH, Lee MW, Dong MS, Park YI, Jeong HS, Kim DH (2008) Simultaneous quan-
titation of five flavonoid glycosides in herba Epimedii by high-performance liquid chromatog-
raphy–tandem mass spectrometry. Phytochem Anal 19(1):71–77
Jamal Z (2009) Biodiversity, ethnobotany and conservation status of the flora of Kaghan Valley
Mansehra, NWFP Pakistan. Doctoral dissertation, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad
Jan S, Hamayun M, Khan SA, Ahmad N, Ahmad I, Wali S (2015) Plant diversity of Hindu Kush
mountain region of Utror and Gabral, Northern Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res 21(2):247–271
Jia XB, Jin XY, Wang JJ, Shao ZZ, Lan XL (2010) Comparison of the content of main com-
ponent in Epimedium koreanum decoction pieces from different manufactories. Chin Pharm
21:1006–1008
Jiang J, Zhao BJ, Song J, Jia XB (2016) Pharmacology and clinical application of plants in
Epimedium L. Chin Herb Med 8(1):12–23
Jin X, Jia X, Sun E, Wang J, Chen Y, Cai B (2009) Research on variation regularity of five main
flavonoids contents in Epimedium and processed Epimedium. China J Chin Mater Med
34(21):2738–2742
Jin MS, Shi S, Zhang Y, Yan Y, Sun XD, Liu W, Liu HW (2010) Icariin-mediated differentiation
of mouse adipose-derived stem cells into cardiomyocytes. Mol Cell Biochem 344(1-2):1–9
Kang SH, Jeong SJ, Kim SH, Kim JH, Jung JH, Koh W, Kim JH, Kim DK, Chen CY, Kim SH
(2012) Icariside II induces apoptosis in U937 acute myeloid leukemia cells: role of inactivation
of STAT3-related signaling. PLoS One 7(4):e28706
Kim SH, Ahn KS, Jeong SJ, Kwon TR, Jung JH, Yun SM, Han I, Lee SG, Kim DK, Kang M, Chen
CY (2011) Janus activated kinase 2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 path-
way mediates icariside II-induced apoptosis in U266 multiple myeloma cells. Eur J Pharmacol
654(1):10–16
LanYing C, YunXiang L, YiFan Q, QiuMei Q (2014) A comparative research of plant morphology,
the relative content of chlorophy II (SPAD value) and stomatal conductance of three trans-
planted barrenwort species. J South China Agricul Univ 35(2):110–114
Lee S et al (2016) Antioxidative effects of extracts from different parts of Epimedium koreanum
Nakai. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr 45(2):188–193
Li S, Dong P, Wang J, Zhang J, Gu J, Wu X, Quan Z (2010a) Icariin, a natural flavonol glycoside,
induces apoptosis in human hepatoma SMMC-7721 cells via a ROS/JNK-dependent mito-
chondrial pathway. Cancer Lett 298(2):222–230
Li F, Gong QH, Wu Q, Lu YF, Shi JS (2010b) Icariin isolated from Epimedium brevicornum
Maxim attenuates learning and memory deficits induced by d-galactose in rats. Pharmacol
Biochem Behav 96(3):301–305
Li MJ, Du MF, Chen QF (2011a) Study on RAPD genetic diversity of Genus Epimedium L. Seed
6:014
Li HF, Guan XY, Ye M, Xiang C, Lin CH, Sun C, Guo DA (2011b) Qualitative and quantita-
tive analyses of Epimedium wushanense by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled
with diode array detection and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci
34(12):1437–1446
Li X, Hu Y, He L, Wang S, Zhou H, Liu S (2012a) Icaritin inhibits T cell activation and prolongs
skin allograft survival in mice. Int Immunopharmacol 13(1):1–7
Li D, Yuan T, Zhang X, Xiao Y, Wang R, Fan Y, Zhang X (2012b) Icariin: a potential promoting
compound for cartilage tissue engineering. Osteoarthr Cartil 20(12):1647–1656
Li Q, Huai L, Zhang C, Wang C, Jia Y, Chen Y, Wang J (2013) Icaritin induces AML cell apoptosis
via the MAPK/ERK and PI3K/AKT signal pathways. Int J Hematol 97(5):617–623
Li C, Li Q, Mei Q, Lu T (2015) Pharmacological effects and pharmacokinetic properties of icariin,
the major bioactive component in Herba Epimedii. Life Sci 126:57–68
Liang HR, Vuorela P, Vuorela H, Hiltunen R (1997a) Isolation and immunomodulating effect of
flavonol glycosides from Epimedium hunanense. Planta Med 63(04):316–319
Liang HR, Siren H, Reikkola ML, Vuorela P, Vuorela H, Hiltunen R (1997b) Characterization of
flavonoids in extracts from four species of Epimedium by micellarelectrokineticcapillary chro-
matography with diode-array detection. J Chromatogr Sci 35(3):117–125
Liang W, Lin M, Li X, Li C, Gao B, Gan H, Yang Z, Lin X, Liao L, Yang M (2012a) Icariin pro-
motes bone formation via the BMP-2/Smad4 signal transduction pathway in the hFOB 1.19
human osteoblastic cell line. Int J Mol Med 30(4):889–895
Liang Q, Wei G, Chen J, Wang Y, Huang H (2012b) Variation of medicinal components in a unique
geographical accession of horny goat weed Epimedium sagittatum Maxim (Berberidaceae).
Molecules 17(11):13345–13356
Liang Q, Zhang YJ, Xu YQ, Huang HW, Wang Y (2013) Morphological variations and genetic
diversity of Epimedium sagittatum populations. Plant Sci J 31:422–427
Lim JD, Seong ES, Choi KJ, Kim SK, Chung IM, Heo K, Yu CY (2000) Morphological character-
istics and RAPD analysis of Epimedium spp. Korean J Med Crop Sci 8(2):102–108
Lin Y, Zhang MS, Wu Q, Fang ZQ, Teng MD (2010) Content determination of icariin and
Epimedin C in whole plant of Epimedium wushanense and Epimedium acuminatum Franch
from Guizhou by RP-HPLC. Shenyang Pharmaceut Univ 27:453–456
Liu CR, Xu LX (1984) Analysis of active ingredients of traditional Chinese herbal drug. Assay of
icariin in Epimedium. Chin J Pharm Anal 4:81–84
Liu Y, Zang H, Zhang H, Chen J (2005) Effect of Herba Epimedii Flavone on expression of OPG
and RANKL in rat osteoblasts. J Chin Med Mater 28(12):1076–1078
Liu HJ, Wang XP, Lin J, Yu YC, Jiang XQ, Zhang XL, Zhou ZT, Zhang WD (2006a) The effect of
icariin and astragalosid I on the proliferation and differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells.
J Chin Med Mater 29(10):1062–1065
Liu TZ, Chen CY, Yiin SJ, Chen CH, Cheng JT, Shih MK, Wang YS, Chern CL (2006b) Molecular
mechanism of cell cycle blockage of hepatoma SK-Hep-1 cells by Epimedin C through sup-
pression of mitogen-activated protein kinase activation and increased expression of CDK
inhibitors p21 Cip1 and p27 Kip1. Food Chem Toxicol 44(2):227–235
Liu JJ, Li SP, Wang YT (2006c) Optimization for quantitative determination of four flavonoids in
Epimedium by capillary zone electrophoresis coupled with diode array detection using central
composite design. J Chromatogr A 1103(2):344–349
Liu B, Zhang H, Xu C, Yang G, Tao J, Huang J, Wu J, Duan X, Cao Y, Dong J (2011) Neuroprotective
effects of icariin on corticosterone-induced apoptosis in primary cultured rat hippocampal neu-
rons. Brain Res 1375:59–67
Liu W, Yin D, Liu J, Li N (2014) Genetic diversity and structure of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum
(Royle) Ying in the Qinling Mountains, China. PLoS One 9(10):e110500
Lone SA, Kushwaha M, Wani A, Kumar A, Gupta AP, Hassan QP, Chandra S, Gupta S (2017)
Genetic diversity, LCMS based chemical fingerprinting and antioxidant activity of Epimedium
elatum Morr & Decne. J Appl Res Med Aromat Plants 5:72–81
Lubell JD, Brand MH (2005) Division size and timing influence propagation of four species of
Epimedium L. Hortic Sci 40(5):1444–1447
Luo Y, Nie J, Gong QH, Lu YF, Wu Q, Shi JS (2007) Protective effects of icariin against learning
and memory deficits induced by aluminium in rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 34(8):792–795
Ma JQ, Ma XQ, Zhang XY (2009) Mechanism of resisting exercise fatigue by Epimedium fla-
vones in mice. Chin J New Drugs 18:553–555
Ma H, He X, Yang Y, Li M, Hao D, Jia Z (2011) The genus Epimedium: an ethnopharmacological
and phytochemical review. J Ethnopharmacol 134(3):519–541
Mahboubi M, Kazempour N, Hosseini H, Mahboubi M (2013) Antimicrobial and antioxidant
activity of Epimedium pinnatum. Herba Polonica 59(2):24–34. https://doi.org/10.2478/
hepo-2013-0009
Meng X, Zeng N, Zhang Y, Lan X, Ren C, Cheng L (1996) Studies on effect of active constituents
of Herba Epimedii on hypothalamic monoamines neurotransmitter and other brain functions in
aging rats. China J Chin Mater Med 21(11):683–685
Miner BG, Sultan SE, Morgan SG, Padilla DK, Relyea RA (2005) Ecological consequences of
phenotypic plasticity. Trends Ecol Evol 20(12):685–692
Ming Feng DU (2008) DNA genetic diversity of genus Epimedium L. and its phylogeny, Master
Thesis. Guizhou Normal University, China.[In Chinese]
Ming LG, Chen KM, Xian CJ (2013) Functions and action mechanisms of flavonoids genistein and
icariin in regulating bone remodeling. J Cell Physiol 228(3):513–521
Ming-Jun LI (2011) Establishment of DNA fingerprints on Epimedium L. J Anhui Agricul Sci
18:037
Morren C, Decaisne J (1834) Observations sur la Xore du Japon suivies de la monographie du
genre Epimedium. Anal Sci Nature Botaniq 2:347–361
Mu-Dan LI, Xu SH, Zhang YJ, Ping GU (2009) Optimization of ISSR-PCR system in Epimedium
acuminatum Franch. J Mount Agricul Biol 6:008
Nakai R, Shoyama Y, Shiraishi S (1996) Genetic characterization of Epimedium species using ran-
dom amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism
(RFLP) diagnosis. Biol Pharm Bull 19(1):67–70
Naseer S, Lone SH, Lone JA, Khuroo MA, Bhat KA (2015) LC–MS guided isolation, quantifica-
tion and antioxidant evaluation of bioactive principles from Epimedium elatum. J Chromatogr
B 989:62–70
Nasir, E., Ali, S.I., Fl. Pakistan. Ther Ber 87, 1-31 1980–2005University of Karachi, Karachi
Nautiyal BP, Prakash V, Chauhan RS, Purohit H, Nautiyal MC (2001) Assessment of germinabil-
ity, productivity and cost benefit analysis of Picrorhiza kurrooa cultivated at lower altitudes.
Curr Sci 81(5):579–585
Nurul I, Lee SK, Jeong SY, Kim DH, Jin CB, Yoo HH (2009) Quantitative and pattern recogni-
tion analyses for the quality evaluation of Herba Epimedii by HPLC. Bull Kor Chem Soc
30(1):137–144
Palacio-López K, Beckage B, Scheiner S, Molofsky J (2015) The ubiquity of phenotypic plasticity
in plants: a synthesis. Ecol Evol 5(16):3389–3400
Pan J, Guo B (2016) Effects of light intensity on the growth, photosynthetic characteristics, and
flavonoid content of Epimedium pseudowushanense BL Guo. Molecules 21(11):1475
Pei BLGLK, Pei-Gen XIAO (2008) Further research on taxonomic significance of flavonoids in
Epimedium (Berberidaceae). J Syst Evol 46(6):874–885
Pei LK, Huang WH, He TG, Guo BL (2007) Systematic studies on quality of main species of
Herba epimedii. China J Chin Mater Med 32(21):2217–2222
Peng YD, Huang WH, Guo BL (2007) Research on quality of Epimedium extract in market. China
J Chin Mater Med 32(18):1858–1861
Perveen A, Qaiser M (2010) Pollen flora of Pakistan–LXV. Berberidaceae. Pak J Bot 42(1):1–6
Pharmacopoeia Commission of P. R. China (2010) Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of
China, vol I. China Medico-Pharmaceutical Science & Technology Publishing House, Beijing,
p 306
Pietta PG (2000) Flavonoids as antioxidants. J Nat Prod 63(7):1035–1042
Quan QM, Wu W, Li YX, Cai QR (2010) Variation in icariin and flavonoid contents of Barrenwort
species. J Med Plant Res 4(6):471–476
Quan QM, Fang ZL, Wu W, Li YX (2011) Comparative analysis of morphological characteristics
and effective composition content of wild and cultivated Epimedium pubescens and Epimedium
wushanense (Berberidaceae). J Med Plant Res 5(29):6523–6527
Rafiq RA (1992–1995) The flora of Palas valley and plant conservation priorities. Report on the
botanical studies in Palas valley. Report prepared for Himalayan Jungle Project, Palas Valley,
Kohistan
Sarwat M, Nabi G, Das S, Srivastava PS (2012) Molecular markers in medicinal plant biotechnol-
ogy: past and present. Crit Rev Biotechnol 32(1):74–92
Sharma BM, Jamwal PS (1988) Flora of upper liddar valley of Kashmir Himalaya. J Econ Taxon
Bot 1
She BR, Qin DN, Wang Z, She Y (2003) Effects of flavonoids from herba epimedii on the repro-
ductive system in male rats. Chin J Androl 9:294–296
Shen P, Guo BL, Gong Y, Hong DY, Hong Y, Yong EL (2007) Taxonomic, genetic, chemical and
estrogenic characteristics of Epimedium species. Phytochemistry 68(10):1448–1458
Sheng MY, Chen QF, Yang QX (2008) Variation in icariin and flavonoid contents of barrenwort
accessions native to Guizhou, China. Biochem Syst Ecol 36(9):719–723
Sheng M, Chen Q, Wang L, Tian X (2011) Hybridization among Epimedium (Berberidaceae) spe-
cies native to China. Sci Hortic 128(3):342–351
Shin YS, Zhao C, Zhang LT, Park JK (2015) Current status and clinical studies of oriental herbs in
sexual medicine in Korea. World J Men’s Health 33(2):62–72
Singh G, Kachroo P (1987) Forest flora of Srinagar and plants of neighbourhood. Delhi: Periodical
Expert Book Agency x, 278p.-illus., map. En Plant records Geog, 6
Sofi SN, Shakeel-u-Rehman QPH, Lone SH, Bhat HM, Bhat KA (2014) Isolation, identification,
and simultaneous quantification of five major flavonoids in Epimedium elatum by high perfor-
mance liquid chromatography. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol 37(8):1104–1113
Song YH, Cai H, Gu N, Qian CF, Cao SP, Zhao ZM (2011) Icariin attenuates cardiac remod-
elling through down-regulating myocardial apoptosis and matrix metalloproteinase activ-
ity in rats with congestive heart failure. J Pharm Pharmacol 63(4):541–549. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.2042-7158.2010.01241.x
Song J, Shu L, Zhang Z, Tan X, Sun E, Jin X, Chen Y, Jia X (2012) Reactive oxygen species-
mediated mitochondrial pathway is involved in Baohuoside I-induced apoptosis in human non-
small cell lung cancer. Chemico-Biol Interact 199(1):9–17
Stearn WT, Shaw J, Green PS, Mathew B (2002) Genus Epimedium and other herbaceous
Berberidaceae. Timber Press, Oregon
Stewart RR (1972) Ann. Cat. Vas. Pl. West Pakistan and Kashmir. p 281
Sultan P, Shawl AS, Rehman S, Ahmed SF, Ramteke PW (2010) Molecular characterization
and marker based chemotaxonomic studies of Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. Fitoterapia
81(4):243–247
Sun C, Liang GY (2011) HPLC simultaneous determination of epimedin C and icariin in 21 spe-
cies of Epimedium. Chin J Pharmaceut Anal 5:931–934
Sun Y, Fung KP, Leung PC, Shi D, Shaw PC (2004) Characterization of medicinal Epimedium
species by 5S rRNA gene spacer sequencing. Planta Med 70(03):287–288
Sun Y, Fung KP, Leung PC, Shaw PC (2005) A phylogenetic analysis of Epimedium (Berberidaceae)
based on nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol 35(1):287–291
Sun X, Sun X, Jin X, Zhang X, Liu C, Lei L, Jin L, Liu H (2011) Icariin induces mouse embry-
onic stem cell differentiation into beating functional cardiomyocytes. Mol Cell Biochem
349(1–2):117–123
Sun L, Peng Q, Qu L, Gong L, Si J (2015) Anticancer agent icaritin induces apoptosis through
caspase-dependent pathways in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Mol Med Rep
11(4):3094–3100
Sze SC, Tong Y, Ng TB, Cheng CL, Cheung HP (2010) Herba Epimedii: anti-oxidative properties
and its medical implications. Molecules 15(11):7861–7870
Tali BA, Ganie AH, Nawchoo IA, Wani AA, Reshi ZA (2015) Assessment of threat status of
selected endemic medicinal plants using IUCN regional guidelines: a case study from Kashmir
Himalaya. J Nat Conserv 23:80–89
Tan HL, Chan KG, Pusparajah P, Saokaew S, Duangjai A, Lee LH, Goh BH (2016) Anti-cancer
properties of the naturally occurring aphrodisiacs: icariin and its derivatives. Front Pharmacol 7
Tantry MA, Dar JA, Idris A, Akbar S, Shawl AS (2012) Acylated flavonol glycosides from
Epimedium elatum, a plant endemic to the Western Himalayas. Fitoterapia 83(4):665–670
Tao F, Qian C, Guo W, Luo Q, Xu Q, Sun Y (2013) Inhibition of Th1/Th17 responses via suppres-
sion of STAT1 and STAT3 activation contributes to the amelioration of murine experimental
colitis by a natural flavonoid glucoside icariin. Biochem Pharmacol 85(6):798–807
The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/ Accessed
1 Jan 2013.
Tong JS, Zhang QH, Huang X, Fu XQ, Qi ST, Wang YP, Hou Y, Sheng J, Sun QY (2011) Icaritin
causes sustained ERK1/2 activation and induces apoptosis in human endometrial cancer cells.
PLoS One 6(3):e16781
Wang XF, Wang J (2014) Icaritin suppresses the proliferation of human osteosarcoma cells in vitro
by increasing apoptosis and decreasing MMP expression. Acta Pharmacol Sin 35(4):531–539
Wang XM, Fu H, Liu GX (1996) Effect of Herba Epimedii and Fructus Lyciionmito- chondrial
DNA deletion, activity of respiratory chain enzyme complexes and ATP synthesis in aged rats.
J Peking Univ Health Sci 21:683–685
Wang F, Zheng Y, Xiao HB, Zhou M, Liu YX, Li GQ (2001) Effect of administration of herba
Epimedium at the optimal time levels on sexual hormones. J Tradit Chin Med 42:619–621
Wang MQ, Bi ZM, Li P, Ji H, Cheng FL (2003) Determination of epimedin C and icariin in Herba
Epimedii by HPLC. China J Chin Mater Med 28(11):1025–1027
Wang GJ, Tsai TH, Lin LC (2007) Prenylflavonol, acylated flavonol glycosides and related com-
pounds from Epimedium sagittatum. Phytochemistry 68(19):2455–2464
Wang Y, Dong H, Zhu M, Ou Y, Zhang J, Luo H, Luo R, Wu J, Mao M, Liu X, Zhang J (2010)
Icariin exterts negative effects on human gastric cancer cell invasion and migration by
vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein via Rac1 pathway. Eur J Pharmacol 635(1):40–48
Wang Q, Hao J, Pu J, Zhao L, Lü Z, Hu J, Yu Q, Wang Y, Xie Y, Li G (2011) Icariin induces apop-
tosis in mouse MLTC-10 Leydig tumor cells through activation of the mitochondrial pathway
and down-regulation of the expression of piwil4. Int J Oncol 39(4):973
Wang J, He L, Lu J (2013) Active component determination of Epimedium koreanum from differ-
ent growing areas of Liaoning Province [J]. Liaoning Forestry. Sci Technol 2:004
Wang B, Yan F, Cai L (2014a) Anti-fatigue properties of icariin from Epimedium brevicornum.
Biomed Res 25(3):297–302
Wang L, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Blunder M, Liu X, Malainer C, Blazevic T,
Schwaiger S, Rollinger JM, Heiss EH, Schuster D (2014b) Natural product agonists of per-
oxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ): a review. Biochem Pharmacol
92(1):73–89
Wang L, Li Y, Guo Y, Ma R, Fu M, Niu J, Gao S, Zhang D (2016) Herba Epimedii: an ancient
Chinese herbal medicine in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Curr Pharmaceut
Design 22(3):328–349
Ward BJ (2004) The plant Hunter’s garden: the new explorers and their discoveries. Timber Press,
Oregon, p 134
Wei Y, Liu B, Sun J, Lv Y, Luo Q, Liu F, Dong J (2015) Regulation of Th17/Treg function contrib-
utes to the attenuation of chronic airway inflammation by icariin in ovalbumin-induced murine
asthma model. Immunobiology 220(6):789–797
Wo Y, Zhu D, Yu Y, Lou Y (2008) Involvement of NF-κB and AP-1 activation in icariin promoted
cardiac differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells. Eur J Pharmacol 586(1):59–66
Wu H, Lien EJ, Lien LL (2003) Chemical and pharmacological investigations of Epimedium spe-
cies: a survey. In progress in drug research. Birkhäuser, Basel, pp 1–57
Wu CS, Guo BL, Sheng YX, Zhang JL (2008) Simultaneous determination of seven flavonoids in
Epimedium by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method. Chin Chem Lett
19(3):329–332
Wu JF, Dong JC, Xu CQ (2009) Effects of icariin on inflammation model stimulated by lipopoly-
saccharide in vitro and in vivo. Chin J Integr Trad West Med 29(4):330–334
Wu H, Zha ZG, Yao P (2010) Experimental study of icariin in inducing bone marrow mesenchymal
stem cell differentiation. Chin J Integr Tradit West Med 30(4):410–415
Wu J, Guan M, Wong PF, Yu H, Dong J, Xu J (2012a) Icariside II potentiates paclitaxel-induced
apoptosis in human melanoma A375 cells by inhibiting TLR4 signaling pathway. Food Chem
Toxicol 50(9):3019–3024
Wu B, Chen Y, Huang J, Ning Y, Bian Q, Shan Y, Cai W, Zhang X, Shen Z (2012b) Icariin improves
cognitive deficits and activates quiescent neural stem cells in aging rats. J Ethnopharmacol
142(3):746–753
Wu J, Xu J, Eksioglu EA, Chen X, Zhou J, Fortenbery N, Wei S, Dong J (2013) Icariside II induces
apoptosis of melanoma cells through the downregulation of survival pathways. Nutr Cancer
65(1):110–117
Xia AJ, Huang HZ, Gao G, Zhang H, Zhu ZY, Chai YF (2009) Simultaneous determination of five
flavone constituents in Epimedium Brevicornum by HPLC [J]. J Pharm Pract 4:014
Xie J, Sun W (2010) Separation and simultaneous quantification of seven prenyl flavones from
organs of different epimedii using gradient reverse-phase HPLC. Nat Prod Res Dev 22:820–825
Xie JP, Wang ZD, Sun WJ (2007a) The investigation of epimedin C and icariin in the leaves of 9
species of Epimedium. Chin Tradit Herb Drug 38:613–614
Xie JP, Xu DB, Sun WJ (2007b) RP-HPLC determination four components in E. wushanense TS
Ying. Chin J Pharmaceut Anal 27(3):437
Xie PS, Yan YZ, Guo BL, Lam CW, Chui SH, Yu QX (2010) Chemical pattern-aided classification
to simplify the intricacy of morphological taxonomy of Epimedium species using chromato-
graphic fingerprinting. J Pharm Biomed Anal 52(4):452–460
Xie JP, Xiang JM, Wang HD (2011) Effects of different processed products on the main ingredient
of epimedin C and icariin of Epimedium wushanense [J]. Chin J Pharmaceut Anal 4:016
Xu Y, Li Z, Wang Y, Huang H (2007) Allozyme diversity and population genetic structure of three
medicinal Epimedium species from Hubei. J Genet Genom 34(1):56–71
Xu Y, Huang H, Li Z, Wang Y (2008) Development of 12 novel microsatellite loci in a traditional
Chinese medicinal plant, Epimedium brevicornum and cross-amplification in other related
taxa. Conserv Genet 9(4):949–952
Xu CQ, Liu BJ, Wu JF, Xu YC, Duan XH, Cao YX, Dong JC (2010) Icariin attenuates LPS-
induced acute inflammatory responses: involvement of PI3K/Akt and NF-κB signaling path-
way. Eur J Pharmacol 642(1):146–153
Xu Y, Li Z, Yuan L, Zhang X, Lu D, Huang H, Wang Y (2013a) Variation of epimedins A–C and
icariin in ten representative populations of Epimedium brevicornu Maxim., and implications
for utilization. Chem Biodivers 10(4):711–721
Xu YQ, Cai WZ, Hu SF, Huang XH, Ge F, Wang Y (2013b) Morphological variation of non-
glandular hairs in cultivated Epimedium sagittatum (Berberidaceae) populations and implica-
tions for taxonomy. Biodivers Sci 21:185–196
Xu YQ, Xu Y, Shi HJ, Hu SF, Ge F (2014) Taxonomic research on Epimedium sagittatum species
complex and discussion. Chin Trad Herb Drug 22:029
Xu F, Ding Y, Guo Y, Liu B, Kou Z, Xiao W, Zhu J (2016) Anti-osteoporosis effect of Epimedium
via an estrogen-like mechanism based on a system-level approach. J Ethnopharmacol
177:148–160
Xuemei Z, Zengli F, Qiumei Q (2016) Impact of simulated warming on growthand floral character-
istics of two varieties of medicinal Epimedium. Braz Arch Biol Technol 59(SPE)
Yan ZK, Qiu H (2005) Antimicrobial tests of Icariin. China Food Additives 4:65–68
Yan-Ying C, Yun-Xiang L, Qiu-Mei Q et al (2012) Genetic diversity and relationship among 7 spe-
cies of genus epimedium in Sichuan revealed by ISSR Analysis[J]. Bull Bot Res 32(2):208–212
Yang X, Zhang YH, Ding CF, Yan ZZ, Du J (2007) Extract from Epimedium brevi-cornum Maxim.
against injury to function of human sperm membrane in vitro. Chin J Clin Pharmacol Therapeut
12:663–667
Yao R, Zhang L, Li X, Li L (2010) Effects of Epimedium flavonoids on proliferation and differen-
tiation of neural stem cells in vitro. Neurol Res 32(7):736–742
Yao HM, Dong YH, Wu ZJ, Jiang RP (2012) An RP-HPLC determination of epimedin A, B, C and
icraiin in self-emulsifying soft capsules of Epimedium brevicornum extracts [J]. Chin J New
Drug 6:028
Yasukawa K, Ko SK, Whang WK (2016) Inhibitory effects of the aerial parts of Epimedium kore-
anum on TPA-induced inflammation and tumour promotion in two-stage carcinogenesis in
mouse skin. J Pharm Nutr Sci 6(2):35–42
Yong NIE, Li Y-X, Ma Y-H, Quan Q-M (2010) Comparison of morphological characteristics and
biomass allocation of module in medicinal plants of Epimedium from Sichuan [J]. Bull Botan
Res 4
Yousaf Z, Hu WE, Zhang YA, Zeng S, Wang Y (2015) Systematic validation of medicinally impor-
tant genus Epimedium species based on microsatellite markers. Pak J Bot 44(2):477–484
Yu J, Ding C-b, Zhang L, Yang R, Zhou Y, Tang L (2011) Identification of the genus Epimedium
with DNA barcodes. J Med Plant Res 5(28):6413–6417
Yu X, Song J, Xiong Z, Li F (2010) Simultaneous assay of epimedin A epimedin B, epimedin C
and icariin in herba epimedii by QAMS. China J Chin Mater Med 35(24):3310–3313
Yuan D, Wang H, He H, Jia L, He Y, Wang T, Zeng X, Li Y, Li S, Zhang C (2014) Protective

effects of total flavonoids from Epimedium on the male mouse reproductive system against
cyclophosphamide-induced oxidative injury by up-regulating the expressions of SOD3 and
GPX1. Phytother Res 28(1):88–97
Zeng N, Meng X, Zhang Y, Lai X, Zheng J, Chen L, Ren C (1997) Antioxidative effect of constitu-
ents of herba Epimedii (ESPS). China J Chin Mater Med 22(1):46–48
Zeng S, Xiao G, Guo J, Fei Z, Xu Y, Roe BA, Wang Y (2010) Development of a EST dataset and
characterization of EST-SSRs in a traditional Chinese medicinal plant, Epimedium sagittatum
(Sieb. Et Zucc.) Maxim. BMC Genomics 11(1):1
Zeng-li FA (2012) Research advances in the pharmacological effects of HERBA EPIMEDII [J].
J Anhui Agricul Sci 17:029
Zhai Y, Ge B, Ma H, Ming L, Li Z, Cheng G, Zhou J, Chen K (2010) Icariin promotes osteo-
genic differentiation of rat bone marrow stromal cells in vitro. China J Chin Mater Med
35(23):3219–3222
Zhai M, He L, Ju X, Shao L, Li G, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Zhao H (2015) Icariin acts as a potential agent
for preventing cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury. Cell Biochem Biophys 72(2):589–597
Zhang ZB, Yang QT (2006) The testosterone mimetic properties of icariin. Asian J Androl
8(5):601–605
Zhang Y, Xiao CH, Meng XL (1995) Flavonoids contents determined and resources utilized of 8
species for sale native to Sichuan. Chin J Chin Mater Med 20:201–202
Zhang ML, Uhink CH, Kadereit JW (2007a) Phylogeny and biogeography of Epimedium/
Vancouveria (Berberidaceae): Western North American-East Asian disjunctions, the origin of
European mountain plant taxa, and East Asian species diversity. Syst Bot 32(1):81–92
Zhang H, Gao X, Lu DY, Wang Y (2007b) Simultaneous determination of epimedin A, B, C and
icariin in herba epimedii by high performance liquid chromatography. J Instrum Anal 26(2):198
Zhang HF, Yang TS, Li ZZ, Wang Y (2008) Simultaneous extraction of epimedin a, B, C and
icariin from Herba Epimedii by ultrasonic technique. Ultrason Sonochem 15(4):376–385
Zhang RX, Jia ZP, Li FS, Li MX, Qiu JG (2009) Antihypoxic effect of total flavonoids of Herba
Epimedii on hypoxia model mice. J Chin Med Mat 32:1736–1738
Zhang D, Zhang J, Fong C, Yao X, Yang M (2012) Herba epimedii flavonoids suppress osteo-
clastic differentiation and bone resorption by inducing G2/M arrest and apoptosis. Biochimie
94(12):2514–2522
Zhang DC, Liu JL, Ding YB, Xia JG, Chen GY (2013a) Icariin potentiates the antitumor activity of
gemcitabine in gallbladder cancer by suppressing NF-κB. Acta Pharmacol Sin 34(2):301–308
Zhang W, Chen H, Wang Z, Lan G, Zhang L (2013b) Comparative studies on antioxidant activities
of extracts and fractions from the leaves and stem of Epimedium koreanum Nakai. J Food Sci
Technol 50(6):1122–1129
Zhang L, Shen C, Chu J, Zhang R, Li Y, Li L (2014a) Icariin decreases the expression of APP and
BACE-1 and reduces the β-amyloid burden in an APP transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s
disease. Int J Biol Sci 10(2):181–191
Zhang Y, Yang L, Chen J, Sun W, Wang Y (2014b) Taxonomic and phylogenetic analysis of
Epimedium L. based on amplified fragment length polymorphisms. Sci Hortic 170:284–292
Zhang L, Zhang Z, Luo Q, Lu H, Liang Y (2014c) Evaluation and prediction of the antioxidant
activity of Epimedium from multi-wavelength chromatographic fingerprints and chemomet-
rics. Analyt Method 6(4):1036–1043
Zhang D, Wang Z, Sheng C, Peng W, Hui S, Gong W, Chen S (2015) Icariin prevents amyloid
Beta-induced apoptosis via the PI3K/Akt pathway in PC-12 cells. Evid Based Complement
Alternat Med 2015:235265
Zhang Y, Du L, Liu A, Chen J, Wu L, Hu W, Zhang W, Kim K, Lee SC, Yang TJ, Wang Y (2016)
The complete chloroplast genome sequences of five Epimedium species: lights into phyloge-
netic and taxonomic analyses. Front Plant Sci 7:306
ZhengZheng Z, JianGuang L, BaoLin G, LingYi K (2010) Analysis of bioactive flavonoids and
resources research of main Herba Epimedii species from different origins. J China Pharmaceut
Univ 41(2):146–150
Zhou T, Zhang X, Guo L, Lin G, Jiang W, Ai Q, Zhang C (2012) Variation of icariin and total
flavonoid of Epimedium acuminatum in different parts and habitats. China J Chin Mater Med
37(13):1917–1921
Zhou YX, Zhang HR, Fan DD (2013) HPLC analysis of different parts in Epimedium wushanense
from different regions. Chem Eng 2:6–8
Zhou T, Xiong HX, Lin G, Jiang WK, Guo LP, Lei M, Chen CY, Zhang XB (2014) Morphological
character of growth cycle for Epimedium acuminatim and icariin content analysis. China
J Chin Mater Med 39(1):48–51
Indian Herbal Drug Industry: Challenges
and Future Prospects
Musadiq H. Bhat, Ashok K. Jain, and Mufida Fayaz
Introduction
Natural plant products are a source of new chemical diversity and are the choice
of today’s world. There have been increasing trends in the trade of natural plant
products and their extraction at industrial level, particularly that of non-wood
natural plant products. Increasing trade in natural plant products has supported
economic growth and has helped in reducing poverty in a number of emerging
countries. There is strong evidence that natural plant products play a significant
role in the livelihoods of the world’s rural poor. Natural plant products are the
main source of income for the forest-dwelling population in many countries. A
high trade status of natural plant products at global, national level as well as
regional level can improve the economy of that particular country. Natural plant
products consist of goods of biological origin other than wood, derived from
plant. They have been used by forest dwellers for their welfare or livelihood
commodity since long and are traditional sources of food, fibre, medicine, etc.
The forest dwellers mainly belong to tribal communities. It is estimated that 25%
of people of most of the countries depend on the plant’s resources for their liveli-
hood, and many of them living in or near dense forest depend highly on them for
their livelihood (Killman 2003). Some 80% of the people living in developing
countries depend on non-wood natural plant products, such as fruits and herbs,
for their primary health and nutritional needs. The most used categories of non-
wood natural plant products are medicines and edibles (Bouri and Mukharjee
2013). The therapeutic potential of plant products can be traced back to over
5000 years as there is evidence of its use in the treatment of diseases and for
M. H. Bhat (*) · M. Fayaz

School of Studies in Botany, Jiwaji University Gwalior, Gwalior, MP, India
A. K. Jain
Institute of ethnobiology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, MP, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_18
658 M. H. Bhat et al.
revitalizing body systems in Indian and other civilizations (Mahesh and Satish
2008). India is one of the mega-diversity hot spots with rich heritage of tradi-
tional knowledge of medicines. India has about 4.5 million plant species, and
among them only 250,000–500,000 plant species have been investigated phyto-
chemically for biological or pharmacological activity. Still a large number of
higher plants as a source for new therapeutics are to be explored. The potential
for developing phytomedicine into various health-care products appears reward-
ing, both from the perspective of economy and safety. Many plant extracts are
quite effective than the synthetic ones with no or least side effects, and very little
scientific research on their biological activity has been worked out (Friedman
et al. 2007). The non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play an important role in
the livelihoods of millions of rural and urban people across the globe. It is well
established that NTFPs fulfil multiple roles in supporting human well-being. The
NTFPs provide the products for food, shelter, medicines, fibres, energy and cul-
tural artefacts for many of the world’s poorest population and a significant num-
ber of the less poor. The contribution of these resources to livelihoods typically
ranges from 10 to 60% of total household income. The products also provide
many households with a means of income generation, either as supplementary
income to other livelihood activities or as the primary means of cash generation
(Shackleton et al. 2015; Malhotra and Bhattacharya 2010; Pandey et al. 2011;
Hegde and Enters 2000; Kaimowitz 2003; Saxena 2003a; Vantomme 2003; Saha
and Sundriyal 2012; Asfaw et al. 2013; Babulo et al. 2009; Areki and Cunningham
2010; Mahapatra et al. 2005; Marshall et al. 2006; Shackleton et al. 2008).
Despite attractive economic growth in some countries in South Asia, poverty
remains a major development challenge, particularly in the Hindu Kush–
Himalaya (HKH) region, for several biophysical and socioeconomic reasons
(Hunzai et al. 2011). Earning a livelihood in mountain areas is considerably more
complex and difficult because of inaccessibility, fragility and vulnerability aris-
ing from topographical complexity, altitudinal gradient and poor physical and
socioeconomic facilities (Jodha 2005; Rasul and Kollmair 2010). Rural moun-
tain people in developing countries seem to be prone to poverty (Wymann von
Dach et al. 2006). Of the 210 million people in the HKH region, 66 million live
in poverty and are highly vulnerable to climate and other global changes (Hunzai
et al. 2011). An overwhelming majority of the poor in the HKH live in rural areas
and depend heavily on nature-based goods and services, including forests and
non-timber forest products (NTFPs). In India alone, 270 million people depend
directly or indirectly on NTFPs, including medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs),
for their livelihoods (Mahapatra et al. 2005). Thus, the livelihood security of
rural people living near forests depends greatly on the status and condition of the
natural resources available in the forests and their optimum utilization through
enterprise development (Rasul et al. 2008; Tiwari and Campbell 1997;
Saxena 2003b).
Indian Herbal Drug Industry: Challenges and Future Prospects 659
ontribution of Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs) to Rural

C
Economy
Non-timber forest products have attracted great global attention in recent years due
to increase in recognition of their contribution to domestic economies. NTFPs can
provide important needs for rural livelihood and regional economies. Several mil-
lion households all around the world depend a lot on NTFPs for both sustenance and
usual income. Even though individually NTFPs make a small contribution, collec-
tively they represent larger proportion of the rural economy and can add signifi-
cantly to export revenues. India is an agriculture-driven country where 70% of the
population lives in rural areas. It is a fact that most tribals live in forest regions and
their livelihood is either partly or fully derived from collection from forests. In
Southeast Asian countries, which are active in trade of NTFPs, India has a leading
role with maximum number of persons and villages involved with sale of $199710.20
(Table 1).
Forest gatherers include tribals, forest dwellers, women and other marginalized
groups. Most of the botanicals are sourced from nearby forests, shrubby areas,
waste lands and fields. Forest-based small-scale activity provides an opportunity for
employment for rural, tribal and marginalized groups which are based mainly upon
the collection and processing of these non-timber forest products.
Importance of Medicinal Plants
In India, of the 17,000 species of higher plants, 7500 are known for medicinal
uses. This proportion of medicinal plants is the highest proportion of plants
known for their medical purposes in any country of the world for the existing
flora of that respective country. Medicinal plants form a large group of economi-
cally important plants which provide basic raw materials for medicines. These
plants and their products not only serve as valuable source of income for small
holders and entrepreneurs but also help the country to earn valuable foreign
exchange through export. Medicinal plants are rich in secondary metabolites and
Table 1 Southeast Asia: NTFPs trade

Number of Number of persons Number of Sales
Country enterprises involved villages (USD)
India 27 2232 370 199710.20
Indonesia 29 1452 58 109796.84
Philippines 64 1946 68 97237.48
Cambodia 38 1649 81 97156.53
Total 163 7400 600 448913.55
(Source: NTFP’s Annual Report 2011) (NTFP-Exchange Programme for South and Southeast
Asia 2011)
act as possible source of drugs. These secondary metabolites include alkaloids,

glycosides, flavonoids, steroids, etc. India is one of the richest countries where
almost all the known medicinal plants can be found. Some plants are having
great demand in the country and abroad as well like opium poppy, tropane alka-
loid-bearing plants, sapogenin-bearing yams, senna, cinchona, etc. The ancient
Indian system of medicine is mainly plant-based making use of most of our local
plants. The Indian System of Medicine offers the most appropriate therapy
against many diseases like jaundice, asthma, diabetes, gastric disorders, etc.
Ayurveda, the oldest medicinal system in India, has reported about 2000 medici-
nal plant species, followed by Siddha and Unani. The Charaka Samhita (written
document on herbal therapy) had reported the production of 340 herbal drugs
along with their uses. Presently, about 25% of drugs are plant derived, and many
others are synthetic analogues built on model compounds isolated from plant
species in modern pharmacopoeia. India is already a major exporter of medicinal
plants to various developed nations of the world. It is estimated that ₹860 billion
worth of raw materials and drugs obtained from medicinal plants are exported
from India. In developing countries like China, Nepal and India, medicinal
plants are important revenue-generating resources and provide income to eco-
nomically marginalized and indigenous people particularly people living in or
around forests. Medicinal plants can meet the basic needs of the poor people
living in rural areas. Most important Indian medicinal plants have been identified
on the basis of their medicinal importance, commercial value and potential for
research (Table 2).
Table 2 Priority species of S. no. Plant Common name

medicinal plants based on
1. Plantago ovata Isabgol
commercial value
2. Bacopa manner Brahmi
3. Centella asiatica Mandukaparni
4. Withania somnifera Ashwagandha
5. Andrographis paniculata Kalmegh
6. Swertia chirata Chirata
7. Tinospora cordifolia Guduchi
8. Emblica officinalis Amla
9. Commiphora wightii Guggul
10. Phyllanthus amarus Bhumyamalaki
11. Podophyllum Papra
12. Asparagus racemosus Shatavari
13. Picrorhiza kurroa Kutki
14. Streblus asper Shakhotaka
Source: Exim Bank 1997 (Export Import Bank of
India 1997)
Emerging Markets
Growing interest by multinational pharmaceutical companies and domestic manu-

facturers of herbal-based medicines is contributing significant economic growth of
the global medicinal plant sector. In 1997, 3500 tons of the bark of Prunus africana
($220 million) used in the treatment of prostate disease was exported from Africa.
The global market value of Aloe vera used to treat burns and added to skin creams
and cosmetics has tremendously increased. In the three Himalayan countries of
Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh, several thousand tons of medicinal plants are col-
lected from forests providing earnings of millions of dollars each year. India, which
is the hub of the regional trade, is at the national level of up to 40% of the state
forest-based economy, and 70% of forest export revenues come from medicinal and
aromatic plants (MAPs) and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), mostly in unpro-
cessed and raw forms. Medicinal and aromatic plants worth US$ 18–20 million are
exported with maximum quantity to India in raw form. India is expected to be
among the top five countries in the world with respect to the absolute growth in
terms of revenue. The Indian pharmaceutical markets show a huge growth of over
200% from a USD 6bn market in 2005 to a USD 20bn market in 2015 (Table 3).
Emerging markets, which mainly consists Russia, Brazil, China and Mexico as
well as countries like South Africa, Turkey and Indonesia, are growing at a faster
rate as compared to developed markets. According to IMS, a well-known industry
research firm, these emerging markets will increase their global share from 16% in
2009 to 24% in 2014 (Fig. 1). This 50% rise in market share makes it an attractive
market for many pharmaceutical companies operating the global arena. Thus,
Table 3 Ranking of countries according to percent growth in pharmaceutical markets

Market in USD bn
Rank Country 2005 2015 Absolute growth % Growth
1 USA 248 444 196 79
2 China 13 38 25 192
3 Japan 68 82 14 21
4 France 32 46 14 44
5 India 6 20 14 233
6 UK 19 32 13 68
7 Canada 13 25 12 92
8 Spain 14 25 11 79
9 Brazil 9 20 11 122
10 Mexico 10 19 9 90
11 Turkey 7 15 8 114
12 Germany 31 38 7 23
13 South Korea 8 15 7 88
14 Italy 20 25 5 25
Source: IMS World Review, Mckinsey Pharma Model (Indian Pharmaceuticals 2015; IMS Health
Information and Consulting Services India Pvt. Ltd n.d.)
a
Pharma Market Share 2009
6%
8% US
37% EUS
Japan
16% Canada
South Korea
Pharma emerging countries
1%
2% 11% Rest of Europe
19% Rest of World
b
Pharma Market Share 2014
6%
7%
US
33% EUS
Japan
Canada
24%
South Korea
Pharma emerging countries
Rest of Europe
Rest of World
16%
2% 10%
2%
Fig. 1 Pharmaceutical market share of various nations (a) 2009, (b) 2014 (IMS Health Information
and Consulting Services India Pvt. Ltd n.d.). Global market of medicines has doubled from 2000
to 2010, i.e. 30 USD bn to 60 USD bn, and it is expected to touch 500 USD bn in 2050 (Fig. 2)
Global market trend (USD bn)

500
500
450
400
Trade in USD bn
350
300
250
200
150
100
60
12.5 30
50
0
1994 2000 2010 2050
Year
Fig. 2 Global market trend of medicinal plants
emerging markets are the next big thing for the drug fraternity. The sales in emerg-
ing markets have shown growth nearly at 100% from US $100bn in 2010 to a huge
US $ 200 bn in 2015.
Trade of Medicinal Plants: Indian Scenario
India, as described earlier, is one of the richest regions as far as the diversity of plant
species is concerned. India is the largest exporter, next to China, accounting for
about 13% of the global exports. The USA is the principal market for Indian medici-
nal plants, accounting for 50% of exports. According to EXIM study, there are 880
medicinal plants species involved in national trade. Out of these, 48 species are
exported and about 42 species are imported. Another survey conducted by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, reveals that there are
over 8000 species of medicinal plants grown in the country, 70% of which are found
in the tropical forests in the Western and Eastern Ghats. The Export-Import Bank of
India, in its report for the year 1997, puts medicinal plant-related trade in India at
$.5.5 billion which is growing enormously.
The World Bank in its recent report on the potential of Indian forests to generate
income has praised efforts of two states, viz. Madhya Pradesh and Assam, in mar-
keting medicinal plants. However, the report also states that the country’s natural
resources are not being fully exploited. The market for medicinal plants in most
states of the country is weak and focuses mainly on local trade. Over the past
10 years, there has been a considerable increase in interest in the use of herbal
edicines in the world. Tuticorin region of Tamil Nadu state at present exports
m
medicinal plants and herbal extracts worth Rs.40 crore annually. Psyllium husk
(Isobgul husk) emerged as the largest item of exports registering a record growth of
162.80%. The export of jajoba seed, which happened to be the largest item of export
in the year 2003–2004, declined drastically in 2004–2005 by reaching a low level of
₹8.53 crore as against ₹89.07 crore in 2003–2004, registering thereby a steep
decline by 90.42%. In spite of considerable rate of growth in the medicinal plant and
product market, India’s share in world market of medicinal plant products is very
low, i.e. 2.5% only. The export market is increasing faster than the domestic market.
However, the export is being carried out in form of plants or their parts but not as
value-added products. Countries that import plant and plant parts are poor in biodi-
versity but are technologically sophisticated which show a higher potential to
develop value-added products from the imported materials. The exporters of Indian
subcontinent face major problems while exporting medicinal plants and related
products. The cyclical nature of medicinal plant market makes it difficult for them
to maintain demand and supply in the global markets. Competition from synthetic
substitutes, poor quality control, inadequate information on market trends and the
use of poor technology along with other factors creates the problem of export of
medicinal plants or their products from India (Table 4).
It is worrying that India has negligible patents on plant-based formulations,
extracts and products. Regarding the export of medicinal plants, India’s contribution
to the international market is comparatively very low. Utilizing our plant diversity
and proper planning, Indian products can enter the more and more overseas mar-
kets. This can be achieved only through proper development of medicinal plants,
standardization of the extracts and keeping the quality. As per India Brand Equity
Foundation (IBEF) reports, the domestic Indian pharmaceutical industry is esti-
mated to be $26 billion in 2014 growing at nearly 20% and is expected to reach
nearly $50 billion in 2020. There are about 200 companies which manufacture med-
icines for the largest population in the world. The scenario of generic drug market
of the world shows how India is acting as a key player of the global pharmaceutical
market. This drug market is expected to grow at about 60% by the year 2016–2017
and contribute nearly 36% of the total global market (Table 5). The contribution of
the generic drug market to the world was expected to increase from 28.5% in 2012–
2013 to 36% in 2016–2017.
Indian medicinal exports mainly comprise of bulk drugs, formulations and herbal
products to the developed nations. Formulations contribute to 72% of the total
Indian drug exports, which is nearly $11 bn as per statistics available from
Pharmexcil for 2013–2014.
The growth rates of the Indian formulation exports in 2010–2011 over the period
of 2009–2010 have been nearly 30%. This rate has managed to sustain this growth
rate in the time period of 2011–2012 to 27% over the period of 2010–2011. The
growth rate of Indian drug formulations has been nearly 20% in the financial year
(FY) 2012–2013. Indian bulk drugs and herbal drugs have witnessed a decline in
growth rate since the FY 2012–2013 on account of market factors and emerging
competition from other Asian nations (Fig. 3).
Table 4 Important plants with reference to trade (Sharma et al. 2008)

Common Estimated consumption
S. No. Plant name name Plant part (Tones)
1. Aconitum heterophyllum Atis Root 20
2. Acorus calamus Vacha Rhizome 150
3. Aloe vera Aloes Leaf 200
4. Anacyclas pyrethrum Akkarkara Fruit 50
5. Andrographis paniculata Kalmegh Aerial part 250
6. Asparagus recemosus Satavatri Root 500
7. Berberis Aristata Daru haldi Root 500
8. Cedrus deodara Deodar Heart Wood 203
9. Chlorophytum Safed musli Root 25
borivilianum
10. Cinnamomum Dalchini Bark 200–300
zeylanicum
11. Commipphora wrightii Guggul Gum resin 500
12. Crocus sativus Keasr Stigma 5
13. Cyprus rotundus Nagar motha Rhizome 150
14. Eclipta alba Bhringraj Aerial part 500
15. Elettaria cardamomum CAedamon Seed 60
16. Embelia ribes burm Vidanga Fruit 200
17. Glycyrrhiza glabra Milathi Root 5000
18. Hedychum spicatum Kapurkachri Rhizome 400
19. Hemidesmus indicus Anantmool Root 200
20. Holarrhena pubescens Kurchi Bark 150
21. Justicia adhatoda Vasaka Leaf 500
22. Mucuna pruriens Kaunch beej Seed 200
23. Myristica fragrans Jaiphal Fruit 500
24. Nardostachy gradiflora Jatamansi Root 200
25. Embelica offtcinalis Amla Fruit 10,000
26. Picrorhiza kurroa Kutki Root 200
27. Piper cubeba Cubeb Fruit 150
28. Piper longum Pipramul Fruit 200
29. Piper nigrum Black pepper Fruit 150
30. Plumbago zeylanica Chitrak Root 500
31. Pueraria tuberose Vidarikanda Root 200
32. Saraca indica Ashoka Bark 1200
33. Senna Alexandrian Senna Leaf & pod 1000
34. Strychnos nux vomica Luchia Seed 1000
35. Swertia chirayta Chirayita Whole plant 500
36. Syzygium aromaticum Clove Flower bud 150
37. Syzygium cumini Jaman beej Seed 300
38. Trachyspermum ammi Ajwain Fruit 200
39. Terminalia bellrica Bahera Fruit 500
(continued)
Table 4 (continued)
Common Estimated consumption
S. No. Plant name name Plant part (Tones)
40. Termmatia chebula Harar Fruit 500
41. Tinospora cardifolia Guduchi Stem 1000
42. Valeriana jatamansi Tagar Root & 150
Rhizome
43. Withania somnifera Ashwgandha Root 500
44. Zingiber officinalis Ginger Rhizome 500
Table 5 Scenario of generic drug market

2012–2013 2016–2017 % Growth
Global pharma market (in $ bn) 962 1200 24.7
Global generic market (in $ bn) 274 432 57.7
Indian pharma generic drug exports (in $ bn) 15 25 66.7
Source: Report by Rashmi Pant January 6, 2016, Business standard
Trends in Indian Pharmaceutical exports

16
14
Export size (USD bn)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Year
Fig. 3 Trends in Indian pharmaceutical exports (Source: Pharmexil)
Indian pharmaceutical market increased at a CAGR (compound annual growth

rate) of 17.46% during 2015–2016 and is expected to increase at a CAGR of 15.92%
to US$ 55 billion by 2020 (Fig. 4). About 20% of the global generic medicine mar-
ket exports in terms of volume is supplied by India making it the largest supplier of
generic medicines in the world (Fig. 5).
The current domestic trade of AYUSH industry is about Rs. 80–90 billion. The
Indian medicinal plants and their products account for exports of about Rs. 10 bil-
lion. An increasing trend is observed in the export and import of AYUSH-related
items in India. The export of AYUSH items has increased in 2011–2012 and 2012–
2013 with an annual growth rate of 30%; however, it has decreased in 2013–2014
with a decline of 36%. Similarly, the import of AYUSH products increased by 23%
annually in 2011–2012 and 2012–2013 and has further increased in 2013–2014
with an annual growth rate of 25% (Fig. 6) (Department of AYUSH n.d.).
55
(US$ bn) 36.7

30
12
6
2005 2013 2015 2016 2020e
Fig. 4 Revenue of Indian pharmaceutical sector. Source: Department of Pharmaceuticals, PwC,

McKinsey, TechSci Research
9%
Generic drugs
21%
Over The Counter
medicines
Patented drugs
70%
Fig. 5 Revenue share of Indian pharmaceutical subsegments in 2015. Source: Business Monitor
International, FCCI Indian Pharma summit 2014–2015, TechSci Research
24741.22 Export
Import
19069.39
15717.23
504.06 708.64 888.7
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
Fig. 6 Export and import of AYUSH items (in crores)

edicinal Plants as a Source of Income in Madhya Pradesh:

M
A Phytodiversity-Rich State of India
Madhya Pradesh, situated in the central region of the country, is one of the largest
states of India. Due to vast diversity of topographical features, soil and climatic
factors, diverse natural vegetation is available. The state is having varied types of
forests ranging from dry thorny forests to tropical moist forests. A number of
minor forest products including medicinal are found in the natural forests. Minor
forest produces have tremendous potential and make significant contribution in
terms of income and employment in rural areas of nearby forests. It is estimated
that Baiga tribes of this state collect maximum minor forest products among for-
est dwellers in the world. A large proportion of population in MP is tribal who
largely dwell in forests and manage to survive on forest products. Some important
minor forest produces have been nationalized recognizing their importance in
generation of employment and economy of rural population, as well as their eco-
nomic role in industries. These plant products often provide income to local popu-
lation such as tribes and marginalized sections with low income and limited
employment opportunities (Fig. 7).
Since a large quantity of these forest-based products are sold in an unofficial
way, little information is available about exact prices and demand and supply pat-
tern. These have the potential to become sustainable sources of economy for tribes
and weaker sections of the forests. These economic benefits derived from these
NTFPs have been identified as a major opportunity for Community Forestry Projects
(CFP) and Joint Forest Management (JFM). The primary tribal markets are gener-
ally informal, and it is difficult for the rural people to have access to information
1000
886 Ton/Year
900
800
700
596
600 522
500
400 365
300 248
209
200 142 111 110 104
100
0
Fig. 7 Top traded herbs in MP state (Ghate and Dube 2014)

about potential markets and to have any control over the prices. NTFPs play an
important role in both regional and national economies.
Opportunities in Developing the Medicinal Plants Sector
For developing the herbal industries, India possesses a rich diversity of medicinal
plant species across the various forest types along an altitudinal gradient. Such a
high diversity of medicinal plants would be helpful for further scientific research on
exploring their medical efficacies. India has already established a reputation as a
low-cost manufacturer of high-quality generic drugs in the global market. This fact
can be used as an important tool for the marketing of herbal products. It is expected
that India’s aim to build a golden triangle between traditional medicine, modern
medicine and modern science will be an advantage for developing the traditional
herbal medicine and the medicinal plants sector.
Challenges in Medicinal Plants Sector
The continuous increase in human population in developing nations like India is one
of the main causes for concern in meeting the daily needs of food and medicine as
the economy and livelihood of societies primarily depend on forest products. This
phenomenon leads to continuous erosion of forests and the forest products, thus
making it tough to meet the requirements as well as to conserve useful natural
resources. Although more and more species are being gradually added in the
Materia Medica, the standard of their purity and authentic identification do not keep
pace with the process of growth. The market prices for medicinal plant products
provide only a limited insight into the exact status of the market, and not on the
precise information of profits, supply and demand. Collectors and traders face prob-
lems in finding favourable markets due to price factors, quality and quantity consid-
erations. Inadequate knowledge and incomplete information on products, markets
and prices on the part of collectors and lack of standardization and consistency in
quality for international marketing also create problems in the trade of medicinal
plant products.
Demand for Medicinal Plants
The World Health Organization has estimated that the present demand for medicinal
plants is approximately US $14 billion per year. The demand for medicinal plant-
based raw materials is enormously growing at the rate of 15–25% annually, and
according to an estimate of the WHO, the demand for medicinal plants is likely to
increase to more than US $5 trillion in 2050. The demand for medicinal plants in
India to meet both domestic and global markets was projected to increase at about
15–16% annually, between 2002 and 2005. If properly organized, the cultivation
and management of medicinal plants becomes highly remunerative in economic
perspectives for the small-scale growers. The estimated annual demand of some of
the important herbal crude drugs used in preparation of Indian system of medicines
is Tinospora cordifolia (10,000 T), Pulchea racemosa (3000 T), Emblica officinalis
(2750 T), Withania somnifera (2500 T), Asparagus racemosus (2500 T), Centella
asiatica (1500 T) and Commiphora wightii, Cassia angustifolia, Terminalia cheb-
ula, Andrographis paniculata and Aloe vera 1000 tons each.
The revenue from the major Indian systems of medicine, i.e. Ayurveda, Unani
and Siddha, is estimated at more than half a billion dollars annually. In 2000, the
gap between demand and supply of medicinal and aromatic plants was estimated to
be about 40,000–200,000 tons; by 2005 the gap was expected to increase to 400,000
tons. Medicine-based industries create employment opportunities in poor, job-
starved states, thereby increasing the cash earnings of local people. In India, the
medicinal plant-related trade is estimated to be approximately US $1 billion per
year. According to an estimate, the quantity of export of Ayurvedic products in India
has increased thrice in recent years. The projected escalating demand of medicinal
plants has led to the overexploitation of many plants from wild, which subsequently
results in the loss of these plant species. For example, the large quantity of Taxus
baccata has been gathered from the wild sources since its extract, Taxol, was estab-
lished as a use in the treatment of ovarian cancer. Aconitum heterophyllum,
Nardostachys grandiflora, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Polygonatum verticillatum,
Gloriosa superba and Arnebia benthamii are other examples of North Indian medic-
inal plants which have been overexploited for therapeutic uses. About 95% of the
400 plant species used in medicine preparation by various industries are harvested
from wild populations in India. Harvesting medicinal plants for commercial use,
coupled with the destructive harvest of underground parts of slow-reproducing,
slow-growing and habitat-specific species, is the crucial factor to meet the goal of
sustainability. Furthermore, rising demand with collapsing habitats may lead to the
local extinction of many medicinal plant species (Table 6).
Existing Policies
In the National Five-Year Plans of India, the medicinal plants sector has been identi-
fied as an integral part of the Indian System of Medicine. In 1983, the National
Health Policy recognized that the large stock of health manpower in Ayurveda,
Siddha, Unani, homoeopathy and naturopathy had not been adequately utilized;
therefore, steps need to be taken to move towards a meaningful integration of the
indigenous and modern systems of medicine. The Planning Commission and the
National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) of the Government of India have framed
Table 6 Annual demand for important Indian medicinal plants

Demand (tonnes)
S. No. Plant 2001–2002 2003–2004 Annual growth rate (%)
1 Amla 22,730 41,783 22.5
2 Ashwagandha 7029 9128 3.1
3 Liquorice root 873 1360 15.9
4 Rauwolfia 424 589 11.6
5 Sandal wood 635 1073 19.1
6 Senna 6463 11,677 21.8
7 Andrographis 2005 2197 3.1
8 Bacopa 3823 6622 2101
9 Black nightshade 2078 2192 1.8
10 Guggul 1505 2549 19.2
11 Jatamansi 675 867 8.7
12 Picrorhiza 220 317 12.9
13 Indian aconite 322 3427 30
14 Long pepper 3993 6280 16.3
a policy on the commercial aspects of the medicinal plants sector. NMPB has
prioritized 32, and the Planning Commission has enlisted 24 medicinal plant spe-
cies for development in order to meet the desired aim of the medicinal plant sector.
The Biodiversity Act 2002 has framed many rules for sustainable utilization of
medicinal plants.
Suggestions
The export subsidy for the medicinal plants should be hiked to increase production
and supply. The awareness campaign should be connected to the collectors living in
rural areas every year. Funds should be allocated for conducting research and devel-
opment to improve varieties of medicinal plants and enhance their availability. Set
up export promotion zones exclusively for medicinal plants and herbal products in
potential states. Harvesting, drying and storage of medicinal plants must ensure the
safety against microbial contamination and quality deterioration. There should be a
proper connectivity between growers and pharmaceutical companies to ensure mar-
ketability of raw drugs. The study emphasizes upon the need for assessment of
demand and supply studies, so that resource management strategies and policy
interventions could be properly customized. The Government should propagate and
encourage the use of modern chemical fertilizers for the cultivation of medicinal
plants. At the same time, there must be immediate efforts to ensure the conservation
of diverse biological resources and the preservation and application of local and
cultural knowledge on the use of these resources.
Conclusion
Medicinal plants constitute a vast, undocumented and overexploited economic

resource, and they are the principal health-care resources for the majority of the
people. Demand for medicinal plant produce is increasing in both developing and
developed countries, and the bulk of the material trade is still from wild-harvested
sources. The expanding trade in medicinal plants has serious implications on the
survival of several plant species, with many under serious threats to become extinct.
As India’s share is less than 1% in the $62 billion market, which is growing 7–12%
per annum, efforts should be made to adopt a package of best practices encompass-
ing conservation, cultivation, quality control and standardization and research and
development for medicinal and herbals for improving its marketing performance
efficiently.
Acknowledgments The authors are highly thankful to Jiwaji University, Gwalior, for providing
financial support in the form of Research Scholar Fellowship.
References
Areki F, Cunningham AB (2010) Fiji: commerce, carving and customary tenure. In: Laird SA, RJ
ML, Wynberg RP (eds) Wild product governance: finding policies that work for non-timber
forest products. Earthscan, London, pp 229–242
Asfaw A, Lemenih M, Kassa H, Ewnetu Z (2013) Importance, determinants and gender dimen-
sions of forest income in Eastern highlands of Ethiopia: the case of communities around Jelo
Afromontane forest. For Policy Econ 28:1–7
Babulo B, Muys B, Nega F, Tollens E, Nyssen J, Deckers J, Mathijs E (2009) The economic con-
tribution of forest resource use to rural livelihoods in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. For. Policy
Econ. 11:109–117
Bouri T, Mukharjee A (2013) Documentation of traditional knowledge and Indigenous use of non-
timber forest products in Durgapur forest range of Burdwan district, West Bengal. In: Paper
presented in National Seminar on Ecology, Environment & Development 25–27 January, 2013,
organized by Department of Environmental Sciences. Sambalpur University, Sambalpur
Department of AYUSH (n.d.) Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.
Available from http://www.indianmedicine.nic.in
Export Import Bank of India (1997) Indian medicinal plants: a sector study (Mumbai: Export
Import Bank of India, Occasional Paper No 54)
Friedman M et al (2007) J Food Sci 72:M207–M213
Ghate U, Dube P (2014) Medicinal Plants Study in Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) State (Trade, Farming
& Livelihoods) for biodiversity friendly development planning, Final Report of the supported
by the M. P. State Biodiversity Board, Bhopal
Hegde R, Enters T (2000) Forest products and household economy: a case study from Mudumalai
Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern India. Environ Conserv 27:250–259
Hunzai K, Gerlitz JY, Hoermann B (2011) Understanding mountain poverty in the Hindu Kush–
Himalayas: regional report for Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar,
Nepal, and Pakistan. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu,
Nepal
IMS Health Information and Consulting Services India Pvt. Ltd (n.d.)
Indian Pharmaceuticals 2015, A Mckinsey & Company Report

Jodha NS (2005) Economic globalization and its repercussions for fragile mountains and com-
munities. In: Huber UM, Reasoner MA, HKM B (eds) Global change and mountain regions.
Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp 583–591
Kaimowitz D (2003) Not by bread alone: forest and rural livelihood in Sub-Saharan Africa. In:
Oksanen T, Pajar B, Tuomasjukka I (eds) Forest in poverty reduction strategies. European
Forest Institute, Joensuu., ISBN: 952-9844-96-4, pp 45–64
Killman W (2003) “Non-wood News”, March 2003, p. 1
Mahapatra AK, Albers HJ, Robinson EJZ (2005) The impact of NTFP sales on rural households’
cash income in India’s dry deciduous forest. Environ Manag 35:258–265
Mahesh B, Satish S (2008) Antimicrobial activity of some important medicinal plant against plant
and human pathogens. World J Agric Sci 4(Suppl. 1):839–843
Malhotra KC, Bhattacharya P (2010) Forest and livelihood. CESS Publisher, Hyderabad, p 246
Marshall E, Schreckenberg K, Newton AC (2006) Commercialization of non-timber forest prod-
ucts: Factors influencing success: lessons learned from Mexico and Bolivia and policy implica-
tions for decision-makers. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge http://
www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/3769.pdf
NTFP-Exchange Programme for South and Southeast Asia (2011). Annual report. p 11
Pandey AK, Bhargava P, Negi MS (2011) Sustainable management of non-timber forest produce
through joint forest management. Indian Forester 137:105–113
Rasul G, Karki M, Sah R (2008) The role of non-timber forest products in poverty reduction in
India: prospects and problems. Dev Pract 18(6):779–788
Rasul G, Kollmair M (2010) Sustainable livelihood promotion through agricultural development
in the hills of South Asia. In: Fonseka H (ed) Hill agriculture in SAARC countries, constraints
and opportunities. SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka, pp 167–182
Saha D, Sundriyal RC (2012) Utilization of non-timber forest products in humid tropics:
Implications for management and livelihood. For. Policy Econ. 14:28–40
Saxena NC (2003a) Livelihood diversification and non-timber forest products in Orissa: wider
lessons on the scope for policy change? ODI Working Paper No. 223, Overseas Development
Institute, London
Saxena NC (2003b) Livelihood diversification and non-timber forest products in Orissa: wider
lessons on the scope of policy change. Livelihood Strategy Paper. Department for International
Development and Overseas Development Institute, London
Shackleton CM, Pandey AK, Ticktin T (2015) Ecological sustainability for non-timber forest prod-
ucts: dynamics and case studies of harvesting. Routledge, London., ISBN-13: 978–04157285
91, p 294
Shackleton S, Campbell B, Lotz-Sisitka H, Shackleton C (2008) Links between the local trade
in natural products, livelihoods and poverty alleviation in a semi-arid region of South Africa.
World Dev 36:505–526
Sharma A, Shanker C, Tyagi LK, Singh M, Rao CV (2008) Herbal medicine for market potential
in India: an overview. Acad J Plant Sci 1(2):26–36
Tiwari DD, Campbell JY (1997) Economics of non-timber forest products. In: Kerr JM, Marothia
DK, Singh SK, Ramaswamy C, Bentley WB (eds) Natural resource economics: theory and
application. India Book House, New Delhi
Vantomme P (2003) Forest products division. Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture
Organization, Rome
Wymann von Dach S, Ott C, Klaey A, Stillhardt B (2006) Will international pursuit of the millen-
nium development goals alleviate poverty in mountains? Mt Res Dev 26(1):4–8
Ethno-ecology of the Healing Forests
of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, Pakistan:
An Economic and Medicinal Appraisal
Farhana Ijaz, Inayat Ur Rahman, Zafar Iqbal, Jane Alam, Niaz Ali,

and Shujaul Mulk Khan
Introduction
Study Area
Abbottabad city is located in the Hazara division of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Pakistan. The city can be located in the beautiful valley at 34°09′N latitude and
73°13′E longitude at an elevation of 4120 ft (1260 m) and 110 km north of the
country’s Capital Islamabad, and 150 km northeast of Peshawar the province’s capi-
tal. Kashmir lies to east of the city. The total area of Abbottabad district is 179,653.5
(KfW). The city is well known throughout Pakistan for its pleasant weather, high-
standards’ educational institutions, and military establishments. It remains a popu-
lar hill station fascinating hundreds of tourists each year.
Geography of the Region
The city is bordered on four sides by the Sarban Hills, from which inhabitants and
visitors can see amazing view of the area and city (Fig. 1). The scene of the city and
the hills allows Abbottabad to pleasurable weather in the summer and cold winters.
The Dor stream (a small river) South of Abbottabad passes through the town of
Harnoi and reaching Tarbela Dam, positioned West of Abbottabad.
F. Ijaz · I. U. Rahman · Z. Iqbal · J. Alam · N. Ali

Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan
S. M. Khan (*)
Email: https://www.qau.edu.pk/profile.php?id=804024

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_19
676 F. Ijaz et al.
Fig. 1 Map of the study area. (a) Abbottabad, (b) the Sarban Hills, (c) and (d). View of
Abbottabad city from the Sarban Hills (Ijaz et al. 2016)
Population of the area
In 1901, the population of the town was 7764, while in 1911 it reached 11,506. The
population has been raised between 1951 and 1998 tremendously, ranging from
319,000 to 881,666. Annual report show growth rate of 3.75% (MSU 2000:11).
Soil
Soil of Abbottabad district is rocky type and rich in minerals, comprising deposits

of granite, limestone, phyllite, schist, slate, soapstone and quartz.
Climate
Abbottabad has a humid subtropical sort of climate with mild to warm temperature
during the spring and autumn months, hot in the months of June and July, and cool to
mild during the winter season. Temperature can rise as high as 38 °C (100 °F) during
the mid-summer months and drops below −5 °C (23 °F) during December to February.
Ethno-ecology of the Healing Forests of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, Pakistan… 677
Snowfall occurs occasionally in the months of December and January, while heavy
rainfall occurs during the monsoon season from July to September.
Languages
Hindko, Gujri Pahari and Pashto are the predominant local languages of the district.

According to a survey conducted in 1998, major portion of the population com-
prises of Hindko speakers.
Economy and Tourism
Its economy is mostly based on tourism. The area is renowned for its shady gardens,
churches, and wide streets in the old cantonment area, which was established during
the British rule. Abbottabad has been attracting tourists to the city since the colonial
era, as it is a major transit point to all major tourist regions of Pakistan like Nathia
Gali, Ayubia, Naran, etc.
Like the northern areas of the country, tourism is one of the important sources of
livelihood for the natives. In the summer when temperature rises to around 45 °C in
Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, a large number of tourists travel to Abbottabad.
The Karakoram, Himalayas, and Hindu Kush ranges can be approached from
Abbottabad, and it continues to be a passage city for tourists, serving as a base for
visiting numerous nearby places, such as Hunza, Gilgit, Skardu, and Indus Kohistan
of the Karakoram Range. Some popular tourist destinations are Dor River Valley
(Harnol/Harnoi), Nathia Gali, Bara Gali, Dunga Gali, Thandiani, Ilyasi Mosque,
Khaira Gali, and Shimla Hill.
Education
Abbottabad has one of the country’s highest literacy rates with 67% in 2007, rank-
ing first in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and ninth overall in Pakistan. The city also has a
young demographic (ages 15–30) due to a large number of students who have come
across the country for studies in different institutes like PIPS, Army Burn Hall
College, Army Public College, and Abbottabad Public School. The city has a wide
variety of postsecondary institutions, such as Ayub Medical College and COMSATS
University of Engineering and Technology.
Agriculture
About 4.82% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. The cool, temperate cli-
mate is suited for fruit production. Abbottabad district produces 5537 tons of fruit
annually. Forest of Abbottabad covers an area of 36,394.6 ha, which is 21.4% of the
678 F. Ijaz et al.
total area, while official figures show that the forest area is higher than 36,441 ha.
Three main forests of the Abbottabad are Himalayan moist temperate forest, sub-
tropical pine forest, and subtropical broad-leaved scrub forest (Agriculture Statistic
1999–2000). Biodiversity of Abbottabad is very unique and is rich due to difference
in vegetation zones and various environments having varied sort of habitat types.
Further, some 1300 different plant species are reported in Abbottabad. Nasir and Ali
(1982) reported 80 endemic species from Hazara division; of these, 50 species are
also found in Abbottabad.
Livestock
Animal rearing is the oldest practice in Abbottabad. Most of the people have cow,
buffaloes, and goats used for source of milk, butter, and “ghee”. Besides that mules
are also reared for the purpose of loading materials on the upper hilly areas where
transport system is not available.
Socioeconomic Status
Most of the people have government jobs, some in the education sector and the oth-
ers in field of construction but majority of the people are abroad for job and
other purposes. A small proportion of the populations are related to the field of agri-
culture, growing vegetables and fruits to fulfill their needs (IUCN 2004).
Biodiversity
In 1985, Walter G. Rosen defined the biodiversity as life on earth. He includes all
ecosystems and life forms that are parts of biodiversity (Rahman et al. 2016a, b;
Khan et al. 2012a, b). Many raw materials such as fertilizers, food, shelter, medi-
cines, and fibers for clothing materials as well as source energy in the form of animal
traction all are assertion of biodiversity. For the survival of human and maintain-
ing balanced environment plant biodiversity play an important role.
Ethnobotany in its historical perspective
Ethnobotany is the study of plants and people that demonstrates how people
use plants and for what purpose. Significant uses of plants either medicinally or else
and their occurrence in the confined environment depend upon the notion of the
people. Records found in Babylon (1770 BC) and in ancient Egypt (1550 BC) indi-
cate that the usage of medicinal plants started from very ancient times. The prehis-
toric people of Egypt believed that medicinal plants are very valuable for their
Pharaohs (Egyptian King) and believed that medicinal plants were even effective in
the afterlife of their Pharaohs, which is evident from the plants found in Giza
pyramids.
A question arises in everyone’s mind: how people use plants and what are the
reasons they use them? To solve this problem, ethnobotanists collect information
from the existing peoples. In this way an appreciative result found is not only of the
current uses of plants but also of the significance of plants for construction, food,
and medicine in their ancient actuality. It also provides an idea of people’s old-style
natural knowledge specially related to plants and the effect of this knowledge on the
research and methods used in ethnobotany. Ethnobotany is the field of study, which
is based on knowledge coming through generations from primitive and aboriginal
people. It gives original ideas and informations of plant in relation to the day today
lives, civilizations, religion, beliefs and everyday applied concerns of the people. It
also explains how they use the plants around them for traditional purposes that
is food, treatments and other cultural uses.
Jones described the future rebirth of ethnobotany by pointing out that ethnobot-
any is entirely revolves around the interrelation of human and plants. Ethnobiology
has been further explained by ethnobiologists whom also suggested some strategies
for investigators and interviewers. These recommendations contain plant documen-
tation, comparative richness and accessibility of the plants, local names of the
plants, purposes of use, season of collection, whether or not the plant is inherent to
the area, the commercial importance, species not used in the region, and importance
of the plant in the economy or the culture.
Later on, Jones’ definition was reformed by Ford to accommodate the develop-
ment of the field and established that “Ethnobotany is the study of direct inter-
relations between humans and plants.” Accumulation of the term “direct” actually
encompases persistent interaction with plants, allowing them to organize in their
way and to produce traditional rules for influencing the plants and their confined
environments. Omission of the word “primitive” certified the extension of the
ground study. Ethnobotany at this point was concerned with the traditional facts of
predominantly non-western people. Ethnobotany sustains a multidisciplinary char-
acter: botanically, focus on the plant and plant uses, although ecological patterns,
plant distributions, resources consumption, and agricultural and cultivated designs
have become popular paths of the study among ethnobotanists.
Anthropologically, ethnobotanists focus on realizing human collaborations with
plants through original symbols, folklore, ceremonies, and plant categorizations
among non-western peoples. Archeologically, ethnobotanists focus on agronomic
origins and ancient plant uses and relied on plant and coprolite remains, fossilized
pollen, and old food stores to regulate primitive plant uses and associations. Recently
ethnobotanists developed a holistic methodology habitually relying on several con-
cepts in order to conduct their investigation, comprising data from botany, musicol-
680 F. Ijaz et al.
ogy, architecture, linguistics, pharmacology, anthropology, conservation biology,

and many others, depending on the questions being asked in the study.
Ethnobotanists through close interaction with plants of an area are capable to
relay local and specific plant nomenclatures and to study all the physical assets of
the plants. They pay courtesy to traditionally related conceptual and representative
properties of the plants in an area. Ecological associations within the plant commu-
nity are essential to these studies as well as the more plant-human relationship in
relation to community economics. Here, anthropological economic theory plays an
important role in that it helps the ethnobotanists measure and calculate human
necessities and their influence on a confined environment.
Traditional Medicines
Traditional medicine is defined as “the sum total of all the awareness and practices,
whether rational or not, used in analysis, anticipation and rejection of corporeal,
psychological or collective inequity and have faith completely on applied practice
and opinion tendered down from generation to generation, whether orally or in
text”.
Traditional medicine or more properly old system of health precaution has been
resumed in the past 20 years. Every area had a form of traditional medicine or a
traditional system of health care. Arabic, African, Chinese, and other traditional
medicines are extremely surrounded in a specific sociocultural background which
fluctuates between societies. This difference between societies gives traditional
medicine its assorted and pluralist nature. The devotion formerly given by govern-
ments to extensive health-care submission has given a new motion to research,
asset, and project of programs in this field in some rising countries in Africa and
elsewhere.
Medicinal Plants
For thousands of years, to cure different diseases, plants are used by humans.
According to the World Health Organization, most populations still depend on tra-
ditional medicines for their mental and corporeal health desires, since they cannot
afford the products of Western medicinal industries, together with their side effects
and lack of health-care services. Rural areas of many emerging countries still
depend on old herbal system of medicines and have found a place in daily life.
These drugs are comparatively harmless and inexpensive than artificial or new
medicine (Ahmad et al., 2009). People living in rural areas from their personal skill
know that these traditional medicines are valuable source of natural products to
sustain human health, but they may not realize the science behind these drugs, but
knew that some medicinal plants are highly effective only when used at beneficial
quantities (Pieroni and Quave, 2014).
There is a huge demand of herbal medicines in both developed and developing

countries as a foundation of most important health care owing to their aspects hav-
ing wide natural and medicinal activities, high safety limitations, and minor expen-
ditures. Herbal fragments are safe and would overcome the conflict created by the
pathogens, as they exist in a collective form or in a pooled form of more than one
fragment in the protoplasm of the plant cell. Even with the arrival of new or allo-
pathic medicine, it has been noted that a number of important modern medi-
cines were derived from plants used by ethnic people. Traditional use of medicine is
familiar as a way to learn about prospective future remedies. Scientists have identi-
fied a number of combinations used in typical medicine, which were derived from
“ethnomedical” plant sources. Plants are used therapeutically in different countries
and are a source of many strong and influential drugs.
Ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants
Ethnoveterinary medicines lead to the modern approaches of animal health mainte-

nance that is primarily based on the knowledge, abilities, techniques, practices, and
beliefs about animal health care found among indigenous communities. Such
knowledge vary not only in section to section but also within different societies. It
has been established through experiments and error and thoughtful investigations.
Therefore, it is less organized, less formalized and not comprehensively docu-
mented as an effective method of disease control in animals. There are the records
of original knowledge in many countries; it has been transferred across generations
by a verbal tradition and therefore is in danger of destruction. Local healers have
less insight to deal with treatment and control of prevalent and rare infectious dis-
eases like foot and mouth disease, anthrax, septicemia, acute life-threatening bacte-
rial diseases, and render pest, they can manage with a reasonable range of mutual
diseases such as wounds, colds, diarrhea, worms, coccidiosis, and generative
syndromes.
Ethnobotanical knowledge is more commonly known in livestock owners,
which has formed the foundation for transmission of plant materials as possible
sources of medical remedies. About 60 diseases of animals are identified by the
herders of the Turkana and Samburu communities in Kenya, and they identify
them as curable and non-curable by using local medicines. Some how 35 of these
diseases were curable, including cough, streptothricosis, and diarrhea. Scientific
explorations and research on farmers in Trinidad and Tobago found that adding
preparations from plants such as Momordica charantia to drinking water develops
the yield and viability of broilers. Paw-paw latex (Carica papaya) has been used
effectively as an anthelmintic remedy in goats. Despite such achievements, very
little of this old knowledge has been recognized in emerging countries, and eth-
noveterinary awareness has had no place in ordinary veterinary medicine. In cur-
rent years, increasing attention has been paid to ethnoveterinary knowledge and
local veterinary practices. There is a growing approval that some of these practices
682 F. Ijaz et al.
have therapeutic value and that they should be documented before this knowledge
is misplaced.
35,000 to 70,000 plant species are used in traditional medicines to treat different
diseases (Mehmood et al. 2015). About 70–80% of the world inhabitants still use
traditional medicine. Ali (2008) and Ali and Qaiser (1986) reported that 1572 gen-
era and 5521 species have been found in Pakistan, generally restricted to the hilly
regions.
In Pakistan, the field of ethnobotany is nascent as compared to other countries,
but in recent years, a lot of work has been done in this field by many researchers in
different areas of Pakistan (Haq and Hussain 1993; Abbasi et al. 2013; Abbas et al.
2016; Bibi et al. 2016), but no information and documentation are available espe-
cially on Sarban Hills, Abbottabad.
So this research is an effort to document and preserve this folk asset, to
explore the cultural knowledge of the study area, to enlist the indigenous medic-
inal plants used by local people for common day ailments, to create the aware-
ness among the local community about the protection of native medicinal flora,
and to collect medicinal plants of the area for proper identification and future
references.
Present study was carried out February to September 2013. During this time the
research area was visited twice a month for collection of data relevant to ethno-
ecologically important plant species, and conservation of the area. Every study trip
was well planned and performed effectively.
The research was completed in three stages:
• Field trips for data collection
• Literature collection
• Documentation of data obtained from research study area
Field Trips and Field Work
Fieldwork was carried out in order to investigate the traditional plants and biodiver-
sity of various parts of Sarban Hills in different seasons. Timings for the fieldwork
were selected according to the growth and collection season of the plants. The field-
work includes interviews, observations, and collection of various plant species and
their photography present in the investigated area. All the plants during flowering
and fruiting stage were collected and photographed. Collection numbers were given
to the specimens and field data including scientific names, vernacular name, family
names, habit, habitat, locality, parts used, economic importance, and other relevant
information which was noted in the field notebook. The plant specimens were
serially tagged and properly pressed for drying placed between blotting papers
(Khan et al. 2012a, b, 2013a, b, c, Ijaz et al. 2015, 2016; Rahman et al. 2016a, b;
Ahmad et al. 2016).
Collection of Plant Materials
The plant materials will be collected aseptically with gloves into sterile polyethyl-
ene pouches. The taxonomic features and medicinal use of botanicals will be noted.
The data regarding collection and storage of botanicals on local shops will also be
obtained.
Questionnaires
During fieldwork interviews were conducted with the local inhabitants, selected
informers, the herbalists “Hakims” (local physicians of the eastern system of medi-
cine), and pansaries (medicinal plant sellers in the local markets). Questions con-
cerning the utility of different plants, quantity of plants used, plant part used,
economic or market value and fuel wood, fodders, and head loads had been asked.
Herbarium Work
Plants in the presser are kept for about 2 weeks at room temperature. After each
48 hours, the blotting papers were changed. The specimens were poisoned using
mercuric chloride and absolute alcohol (2 g mercuric chloride dissolved in 100 mL
of absolute alcohol) and mounted on the standard-sized herbarium sheets. The data
noted in the field notebook during field survey was transferred to the labeling slip
pasted on the herbarium sheets on the right side at the bottom of herbarium sheets.
Plants Identification
The plants were identified with the help of taxonomic literature (Stewart 1972: Ali
and Qaiser 1986, Parker 1918, Frazer-Jenkins 1991: Khan et al. 2015). Previous
published literature was also searched upon to evaluate the conservation status of
various species in the field (Hamayun 2005: Ahmad et al. 2015). Important plant
species were also photographed. Voucher specimens were deposited in the herbar-
ium of Hazara University, Mansehra. For the authenticity of identification, herbar-
ium of Hazara University, Mansehra, was consulted.
684 F. Ijaz et al.
Market Assessments
Economic, commercial, and medicinal value of indigenous plants utilized in the

study area have acquired the due place in local markets of Abbottabad and Mansehra.
In this regard a questionnaire has been adopted to interview the local plant collectors
and medicinal plant sellers in the local markets. Marketing chain for the economic
plant collectors and people involved in medicinal plant trade was investigated. A list
of economic plants was prepared with emphasis on plant market availability status,
collection methods, and local prices of these plants. The available literature on the
market survey was also collected and reviewed, comparing it with present findings.
Documentation of Research Data
In the last phase, data collected during fieldwork was documented. The economic
plant collected data during field observation was checked and also compared with
the available literature. The economical inventory includes botanical names, ver-
nacular names, families, habit, habitat, plant diversity, medicinal plants, and other
economic importance.
Results
Plant-diversity of the Sarban Hills
Sarban Hills are unique and rich in biodiversity. Villages like Khota Qabar, Barra
morre, Salhad, Nogakhi, Khrella, Khayal and Khunj are situated in the Sarban hill
slopes. About 147 plant species were collected from the area which are being used
for different purposes, viz., medicinal, fodder, and fuel.
These 147 plant species belong to angiosperms, gymnosperms, pteridophytes.
Pteridophyte contains (2) species of family Adiantaceae, and angiosperms contain
(142) species belonging to 56 families in which 6 are monocot and 50 are dicot
families. Three species are of gymnosperm (Pinus roxburghii, Cedrus deodara, and
Cupressus sempervirens). Pinus roxburghii and Cupressus sempervirens were col-
lected, while single spp. Cedrus deodara is present on top of the hill which shows
the presence of Cedrus deodara vegetation in the history. On the basis of plant
habit, 147 plant species are divided into 4 growth forms: herbs 58.2%, shrubs
30.8%, trees 19.8%, and climbers 5.4% (Fig. 2).
Angiosperm consists of 56 families in which 6 families are monocot Alliaceae,
Araliaceae, Commelinaceae, Liliaceae and Poaceae. Dicot families are Acanthaceae,
Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Berberidaceae, Bignoniaceae, Brassicaceae,
Caesalpiniaceae, Cannabaceae, Cappridaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Caryophyllaceae,
Celastraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Commelinaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
Fig. 2 Plants on the basis

of habit
Ebenaceae, Eurphorbiaceae, Fumariaceae, Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae, Lythraceae,

Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Menispermaceae, Mimosaceae, Moraceae, Myrsinaceae,
Myrtaceae, Oleaceae, Onagraceae, Oxalidaceae, Papilionaceae, Plantaginaceae,
Polygonaceae, Portulacaceae, Primulaceae, Punicaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rhamnaceae,
Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Spindaceae, Solanaceae, Urticaceae,
Verbenaceae, and Violaceae. Gymnosperm families are Pinaceae and Cupressaceae.
Asteraceae family leads by having the maximum number of plant species which are
19, Lamiaceae having 15, and Papilionaceae family having 13 species. Other important
families are Brassicaceae, Amaranthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Poaceae, and Acanthaceae.
The flora of Sarban is in danger due to decreases of plant species day by day due to
cutting of shrubs and trees for the purpose of fuel wood, construction, and fodder and
also due to overgrazing. Many of these families are near to be extinct from the area.
In present plant collection from Sarban Hill area, 147 plant species were col-
lected which were then pressed, dried, poisoned, and mount on the standard-sized
herbarium sheet. After that plants are identified by flora of Pakistan and also with
the help of taxonomist of the Botany Department of Hazara University. There
were 2 or more than 2 specimens of the same species collected in some cases,
e.g., 3 specimens of Oenothera rosea, 2 specimens of Rydingia limbata, and 2
specimens of Berberis lycium were collected, so after identification of all col-
lected plant specimens, 147 different species related to different families were
found. These plants were further divided on the basis of their life form, viz.,
herbs, shrubs, and trees.
Ethno-ecology of the Sarban Hills
Medicinal Plants
Local people of the Sarban Hills use 107 plants as medicinal source (73.2% of plants
are used medicinally in total plant collection). These plants belong to families
Mimosaceae (1), Chenopodiaceae (3), Amaranthaceae (6), Papilionaceae (13),
Spindaceae (1), Asteraceae (19), Urticaceae (2), Lamiaceae (15), Acanthaceae (4),
Adiantaceae (1), Ebenaceae (1), Rosaceae (3), Berberidaceae (3), Myrtaceae (3),
686 F. Ijaz et al.
Solanaceae (4), Moraceae (3), Brassicaceae (8), Fumariaceae (1), Apocynaceae (2),
Apiaceae (1), Rubiaceae (2), Cannabaceae (1), Ranunculaceae (3), Geraniaceae (2),
Convolvulaceae (3), Tiliaceae (1), Menispermaceae (1), Tiliaceae (1), Commelinaceae
(1), Araliaceae (1), Bignoniaceae (10, Oleaceae (4), Verbenaceae (2), Caprifoliaceae
(1), Nyctaginaceae (1), Malvaceae (5), Celastraceae (2), Euphorbiaceae (4),
Myrsinaceae (1), Oxalidaceae (1), Portulacaceae (1), Plantaginaceae (2),
Anacardiaceae (1), Lythraceae (1), Scrophulariaceae (3), and Rhamnaceae.
Plants used medicinally on large scale in the study area are Acacia modesta,
Zanthoxylum armatum, Berberis lycium, Dalbergia sissoo, Mentha arvensis, Punica
granatum, Ajuga bracteosa, Bauhinia variegata, Solanum xanthocarpum, Olea fer-
ruginea, Mallotus philippensis, Artemisia absinthium, Amaranthus viridis,
Foeniculum vulgare, Rumex hastatus, etc. Plants are considered as the main source
of medicines throughout the history. By the earliest information, 80% of the people
in the world still depend on medicinal remedies. Similarly the local society of study
area still depends on plants as the source of medicines. They use plants by different
procedures to cure diseases and prefer the herbal medicines on artificial pharmaceu-
tical medicines. Peoples of the area use plants to treat headache pain to kidney
infections. They use roots of Berberis lycium as blood purifier agents. Rydingia
limbata whole plant is use to cure throat problems. Ziziphus nummularia is use for
hair growth. Adiantum capillus-veneris (fronds) is used in cough syrups. Extracts of
Fumaria indica are used by diabetic patients. Similarly other plants from the area
are used to cure different diseases, viz., liver, fever, cough, mouth problems, gum
problems, eye diseases, constipation, hair growth, diuretic, stomach diseases, and
abdominal diseases, many plants were used in condition of diarrhea/dysentery, and
some are used for ulcers (Fig. 3). Many plants perform dual functions, viz., Fumaria
indica is used by diabetic patients and it also helps to purify the blood. Similarly,
Acacia modesta gum is used for back pain, and it is also used to treat dysentery
(Table 1). Twelve plant parts were used to cure various diseases (Fig. 4).
Collection of Medicinal Plants
Medicinal plants are usually collected by the poor society of the area, which earns
their living by collecting medicinal herbs and selling them to the local healers. The
collectors are mostly man and women. They collect the herbal plants and then clean,
wash, dry, and pack it. In the process of collection, they also destroy a large number
of medicinal plants due to unawareness. Like medicinal plants this area is also rich
with fodder for livestocks, wood for fuel, and function. Plant collection is further
divided on the basis of their uses:
• Medicinal plants
• Fodder plants
• Fuel plants
• Ornamental plants
• Poisonous plants
• Insect repellant plants
Fig. 3 Plants used for curing various diseases
Table 1 Medicinal plants collected from the Sarban Hills

Botanical name Local name Family Part used Medicinal uses
Acacia modesta wall. Phulahi Mimosaceae Gum Tonic use for back
pain, dysentery
Achyranthes aspera L. Kutri Amaranthaceae Whole Cough and asthma,
plant kidney problem
Adiantum capillus- Fern Adiantaceae Fronds Bronchial disorder
veneris L.
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich Koori buti Labiate Whole Eye pain, ear pain and
ex. Benth plant throat pain
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Siris Fabaceae Wood Abdominal caner
Benth. bark
Allium griffithianum Jangle piaz Alliaceae Whole Colic, vomiting
Boiss. plant
Amaranthus viridis L. Ganihar Amaranthaceae Leaf Eye sight problems,
diuretic
Anagallis arvensis L. Bili buti Primulaceae Whole Anti-inflammatory
plant
Artemisia absinthium L. Chaw Asteraceae Leaves Carminative, cold,
fever
Aesculus indica (Wall ex. Ban khor Hippocastanaceae Leaves For cleaning teeth
Camb)
Baccharoides Kalijeeri Asteraceae Seeds Headache, ear and teeth
anthelmintica (L.) pain, falling hairs
Moench
Bauhinia variegata L. Sumbal Berberidaceae Root bark Roots and fruits blood
purifier
Berberis lycium Royle Kachnar, Fabaceae Root Roots use to prevent
Kalyar fatness
(continued)
688 F. Ijaz et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Brugmansia suaveolens Bel buti Solanaceae Leaves Dry powder of leaves
(Humb. & Bonpl. ex with oil, reduce pain
Willd.) Bercht. & J. Presl
Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Leave Indigestion, liver,
stomach inflammation
Capsella bursa pastoris Gule Brassicaceae Leaves, Curing diarrhea,
(L.) Medic pancha seed diuretic
Carissa spinarum L. Granda Apocynaceae Leaves Hormonal disorder
Cedrus deodara Deodara Cupressaceae Wood, Neurological, fever,
leaves asthma
Chenopodium Baljawain Chenopodiaceae Seeds Abdominal diseases,
ambrosioides L. headache
Cichorium intybus L. Kashni Asteraceae Leaves, Typhoid, constipation
roots
Cissampelos pareira L. Ghore sumi Menispermaceae Leaves Antidiabetic
Clematis grata Wall. Granda Ranunculaceae Roots Boils
Commelina benghalensis Angalara Commelinaceae Paste of Diuretic, laxative,
L. leaves swelling of skin
Convolvulus arvensis L. Liali Convolvulaceae Whole Constipation
plant
Conyza Canadensis less. Mirche buti Asteraceae Flower Rheumatism
Cotoneaster Lounri Rosaceae Fruit Stomachache
microphyllus Wall. ex
Lindl.
Cupressus sempervirens Pencil pine Pinaceae Stem Heal wounds, toxin
removal
Cyperus rotundus L. Muther Cyperaceae Leaves, Respiratory infection
seeds
Dalbergia sissoo DC. Tahli Papilionaceae Leaves, Dandruff, expectorant,
wood timber
Daphne mucronata Rutti lal Amaranthaceae Leaves, Fruit purgative, roots
Royle fruit gastro intestinal, wood
gun powder
Debregeasia saeneb Chengal Urticaceae Fruit Jaundice, antifungal,
(Forssk.) Hepper & diarrhea
J.R.I. Wood
Dicliptera bupleuroides Acanthaceae Arial part Used as tonic
Nees
Diospyros kaki L.f. Bara Ebenaceae Ripe fruit Laxative
amlook
Dodonaea viscosa L. Sanatha Spindaceae Bark Joint swelling
Duchesnea indica Jangle Rosaceae Fruit Nerve tonic, laxative,
(jacks.) Focke strawberry diarrhea
Eucalyptus globulus Gond Myrtaceae Leaves, Kill germs in wounds,
Labill trunks fuel
Ficus carica L. Anjeer Moraceae Fruit Foot-ache, laxative
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Ficus sarmentosa Doda bail Moraceae Stem Tonic for blood
Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.
Foeniculum vulgare mill Saunf Apiaceae Seeds, Abdominal diseases,
fruit cough
Fumaria indica Papra Fumariaceae Whole Antiemetic, blood
(Hausskn.) Pugsley plant purifier, constipation
Galinsoga parviflora Chota Asteraceae Extract of Leaves use as salad in
Cav. phool leaves some cases, leave
extract given in fever
Galium aparine L. Rubiaceae Whole Diuretic, use in
plant complains of kidney
and bladder
Geranium mascatense Bhanda Geraniaceae Whole Diuretic
Boiss. plant
Glandularia canadensis Neeli buti Asteraceae Flower Eye diseases
(L.) small
Grewia optiva Tambar Tiliaceae Fruit Increase blood level
J.R.Drumm. ex Burret
Hedera nepalensis Arbam bal Araliaceae Leaves Diabetes, rheumatism,
K. Koch fever
Himalaiella heteromalla Gajar mula Asteraceae Root Powder use for ulcer
(D.Don) Raab-Straube
Incarvillea emodi (Royle Kaur Bignoniaceae Whole Plant is febrifuge
ex. Lindl.) Chatterjee plant
Indigofera heterantha Kainthi Papilionaceae Root, Scabies, stomach
Brandis leaves, problems
branches
Ipomoea hederaceae Kala dana Convolvulaceae Seeds Purgative, use as tonic,
Jacq. diuretic and expel
intestinal worms
Jasminum humile L. Peli Oleaceae Flower, Ornamental, flowers
chambeli root juice tonic for heart, root
juice to remove ring
worms
Jasminum sambac (L.) White Oleaceae Whole Ornamental, diuretic,
Aiton chambeli plant flowers in headache,
skin diseases
Justicia adhatoda L. Bahker Acanthaceae Whole Leaves and roots in
plant cough, asthma
indigestion
Lamium amplexicaule L. Bushka Lamiaceae Leaves Fever reducing,
laxative
Lantana camara L. Panch phul Verbenaceae Whole Diaphoretic,
plant carminative, antiseptic
Lathyrus aphaca L. Kukar Papilionaceae Seed Wound healing
bhang
Lepidium virginicum L. Halun Brassicaceae Seeds Abdominal pain
(continued)
690 F. Ijaz et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Lonicera caprifolium L. Phut Caprifoliaceae Seeds Diuretic
Mallotus philippensis Kimila Euphorbiaceae Fruit Powder for ulcer,
(Lam.) Muell constipation, kill
intestinal worms.
Malva parviflora L. Sonchal Malvaceae Leaves Constipation, bronchial
disorder
Malva sylvestris L. Saunchal Malvaceae Whole Plant is cooling,
plant emollient
Malvastrum Peli buti Malvaceae Leaves, Jaundice,
coromandelianum (L.) roots anti-inflammatory
Garcke
Maytenus royleanus Garanda Celastraceae Bark Bark decoction use for
(Wall. ex Lawson) wounds
cufodontis
Medicago sativa L. Singi Papilionaceae Leaves Women problems,
digestion
Melia azedarach L. Dreik Meliaceae Whole Anti-lice, blood
plant purifier, gas trouble in
cattle’s
Mentha longifolia (L.) Jangli Lamiaceae Whole Carminative, colic
Huds podina plant
Micromeria biflora Shamokai Lamiaceae Whole Carminative, stimulant,
(Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) plant headache
Benth.
Mirabilis jalapa L. Gul-e- Nyctaginaceae Roots, Roots purgative,
abbas leaves poultice for
inflammation, leaves
juice is useful in urine
discharge
Myrsine africana L. Khukan Myrsinaceae Leaves, Intestinal worms,
fruit purify blood, colic
Nerium oleander L. Kanair Apocynaceae Whole Poisonous, antidiabetic
plant
Olea ferruginea Royle Kahu Oleaceae Leaves Throat pain, mouth,
toothache, cough
Origanum vulgare L. Ban ajwain Lamiaceae Whole Used as tonic,
plant carminative, colic, and
antispasmodic and for
stomachache
Oxalis corniculata L. Kati buti Oxalidaceae Whole Mouth taste,
plant indigestion, bladder
inflammation
Persicaria capitata Polygonaceae Arial part Fever, diarrhea, urinary
(Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) tract infection
H.Gross
Phaseolus lunatus L. Bean Papilionaceae Seeds and Boil pods are diuretic,
pods seeds control blood
control
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Phaseolus vulgaris L. Phali Papilionaceae Seeds Edible
Pimpinella stewartii Patli saunf Apiaceae Seeds Carminative
Nasir
Pinus roxburghii Chir pine Pinaceae Stem, Wound healing,
needle diuretic
Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Chirr Pinaceae Bark, Anti-inflammatory,
extract analgesic
Pistacia khinjuk stocks Kangar Anacardiaceae Dry leaves Religious ceremony
Plantago lanceolata L. Aspagol Plantaginaceae Powder Laxative
Polygonum plebeium Rani phal Polygonaceae Whole Use for cough
R.Br. plant
Portulaca oleracea L. Lunak Portulacaceae Leaves Kidney treatment
Pterospermum Kana Malvaceae Leaves, Stop bleeding, insect
acerifolium (L.) Willd Champa flowers repelling
wild
Punica granatum L. Daruna Lythraceae Fruit, Heart palpitation
tonic
Pyrus pashia Buch.- Batang Rosaceae Fruit Laxative
Ham. ex D.Don
Randia tetrasperma Khukhri Rubiaceae Fruit Anthelmintic
(Roxb.) Benth. and
Hook.f
Ricinus communis L. Arand Euphorbiaceae Seed Constipation, dandruff,
purgative
Rumex dentatus L. Holla Polygonaceae Leaves Edible
Rumex hastatus D.Don Khatimar Polygonaceae Roots Bone fracture
Rydingia limbata Koi booi Labiatae Whole Mouth gums and throat
(Benth.) Scheen & plant problems
V.A. Albert
Salvia moorcroftiana Kaljari Labiatae Leaves Cough and diarrhea
Wall. ex Benth
Silybum marianum (L.) Kandyara Asteraceae Seeds Liver diseases
Gaertn.
Sisymbrium irio L. Khub kalan Brassicaceae Whole Expectorant
plant
Solanum nigrum L. Kachmach Solanaceae Black fruit Frackles, skin diseases,
liver disorder
Solanum xanthocarpum Morian Solanaceae Leaves, Typhoid
L. fruits
extract
Sonchus asper (L.) hill Dodak Asteraceae Shoot Wound healing
Tagetes minuta L. Satbarga Asteraceae Leaves Kill germs in wounds,
cough, stomach
problems
Taraxacum officinale Dohdal Asteraceae Leaves, Jaundice
Weber. roots
(continued)
692 F. Ijaz et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Tagetes erecta L. Gutta Asteraceae Seeds Women problems
Trifolium repens L. Shaftal Papilionaceae Whole Infusion of plant is
plant used to treat fever
Urtica pilulifera L. Bicho booti Urticaceae Roots Antidiabetic
Verbascum thapsus L. Gider Scrophulariaceae Leaves Diarrhea, antiseptic
Tabaco
Vitex negundo L. Marwani Verbenaceae Leaves, Gas trouble and
seeds cholera, rheumatism
Xanthium strumarium L. Katula Asteraceae Leaves Malarial fever,
carminative
Zanthoxylum armatum Timber Rutaceae Stem, fruit Toothache, gums
DC. problems, cholera,
indigestion
Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Shingle Rhamnaceae Fruit Laxative
Ziziphus nummularia Bair Rhamnaceae Leaves Scabies, carminative,
(Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. sedative
Fig. 4 Parts of plants used

Fig. 5 Division of plant species recorded from Sarban Hills
Medicinal plants collected from Sarban area were 107 in number, fodder 20, fuel
17, ornamental 10, poisonous 3, and insect repellant 3 (number of plant species),
respectively (Fig. 5).
Traditional Medicines
Our results revealed that 107 plant species are being utilized to cure different dis-
eases. Its collection by the local people has also been described. It is evident that they
waste plants during collection and/or preservation due to lack of awareness
and proper training. Plants are used in various ways including making their extrac-
tions, infusions, decoctions, poultices, syrups, and direct utilization (Fig. 6).
• Infusion: Infusion is a liquid preparation made by dipping one or more herbs in
hot water for a small period of time, and then this liquid is stained.
694 F. Ijaz et al.
Fig. 6 Route of administration or medicinal plants
• Plant parts are boiled in water about half an hour and then strained. Infusion is
made fresh every day.
• Extraction: Pure plant juice is filtered from the plant parts without adding any-
thing and with all chemical constituents present.
• Decoction: Decoction is made by adding fresh or dry herbs in cold water; then
this water is boiled for 15 min and again cooled and stained.
• Poultice: It is made by boiling fresh plant in water for 5 min and then creased and
spread over the wound area to treat.
• Syrup: It is made by adding sugar in the infusion. This is used to treat cough.
Fodder Plants
The residents of Sarban Hill areas are mostly poor and depend on keeping livestock
for milk and other requirements. They also get a considerable amount of money
from the sale of different products they attained from these livestock. To nourish
their livestock, they are dependent on fodder that is obtained from grasses growing
on hills. They also collect green fodder from the surrounding forests for their live-
stock. Animal rearing is the old tradition of inhabitants. Fodders play an important
role for animals from which they get energy and strength for them to fight with with
cold seasons. In winter season, people from the area rush to the forest trees for fod-
der purposes to increase the dried fodder. Fodder obtained from the area is used
directly in the fresh form. The people prefer fresh grasses and herbs as compared to
dried fodder because they are more nutritious and also increase milk capacity of the
cattle. The people prefer shrubs and grasses than fodder (Table 2). Some important
fodder plants used to feed livestock in the research area are Amaranthus caudatus,
Bromus diandrus, Bromus sterilis, Cardamine pratensis, Carex spp., Cyperus
niveus, Lathyrus sativa, Lespedeza juncea, Melilotus indicus, Oenothera rosea,
Parthenium hysterophorus, Ranunculus muricatus, Ranunculus arvensis, Vicia
angustifolia, and Veronica arvensis.
Table 2 Fodder plants collected from the Sarban Hills

Botanical names Vernacular names Family
Amaranths caudatus L. Ghaner Amaranthaceae
Arundo donax L. Naar Poaceae
Bromus diandrus Roth. Grass Poaceae
Bromus sterilis L. Grass Poaceae
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) vent Jangle toot Moraceae
Cardamine pretense L. Brassicaceae
Carex spp. Grass Cyperaceae
Coronopus didymus (L.) sm Jangle haloon Brassicaceae
Cyperus niveus Retz. Grass Cyperaceae
Lathyrus sativa L. Jangle matar Papilionaceae
Lespedeza juncea Papilionaceae
Maytenus royleanus Garanda Celastraceae
Melilotus indica Sinji Papilionaceae
Oenothera rosea Buti Onagraceae
Parthenium hysterophorus Chandni Asteraceae
Ranunculus arvensis L. Chechampa Ranunculaceae
Ranunculus muricatus L. Barea Ranunculaceae
Veronica arvensis L. Plantaginaceae
Vicia angustifolia Papilionaceae
Timber and fuelwood plants
Many plants of Sarban are used as a source of timber and fuel. On the upper areas
of Sarban Hills, people still depend on plants as a source of fuel wood, but the inves-
tigation shows that 20 plant species of the area were used as a source of fuel. The
residents of the area are living in the forests and have an easy access to wood; that’s
why they prefer wood as source of energy. They extensively cut the trees increasing
pressure on natural resources. Best-quality furniture is also made from the wood of
Dalbergia sissoo; it is also used as a source of fuel by the local community. Pinus
roxburghii is also used as timber wood for construction and also as a source of fuel
(Table 3). Cupressus sempervirens is used in making door and windows of houses.
In summer season people of the area stock woods in their houses for cold/winter
season to use as fuel source (Figs. 7 and 8).
Discussion
Plant-diversity
Biodiversity is a gift from nature for us and our future generation. Humans continu-
ously depend on plants to fulfill their needs, e.g., food, fiber, shelter, and herbal
medicines. Flora of Pakistan is very rich due to the different climatic conditions and
696 F. Ijaz et al.
Table 3 List of fuel wood of Sarban Hills

Botanical names Vernacular names Family
Acacia modesta Phulai Papilionaceae
Arundo donax Naar Poaceae
Aesculus indica Ban khor Hippocastanaceae
Berberis lycium Sumbal Berberidaceae
Broussonetia papyrifera Jangle toot Moraceae
Callistemon citrinus Bottle brush Myrtaceae
Dalbergia sissoo Tahli Papilionaceae
Dodonaea viscosa Sanatha Spindaceae
Eucalyptus globulus Gond Myrtaceae
Ficus carica Phugwara Moraceae
Grewia optiva Tamber Tiliaceae
Melia azedarach Daeik Meliaceae
Morus alba Safaid toot Moraceae
Morus nigra Kala toot Moraceae
Pinus roxburghii Chirr Pinaceae
Punica granatum Daruna Lythraceae
Rydingia limbata Kooibui Lamiaceae
different soil textures. Roundabout 6000 flowering plant species are present in
Pakistan. The number of dicot species is 4492, monocot 1140, gymnosperm 23, and
pteridophyte 128. Further, 214 families are published in the flora of Pakistan which
is near in completing process (Ali and Qaiser 1986). Asteraceae and Rosaceae fami-
lies are still to be published in Flora of Pakistan. There are about 6 phytogeographic
regions present in the flora of Pakistan like Mediterranean, Saharo-Sindian, Euro-
Siberian, Irano-Turanian, Sino-Japanese, and Indian region. Asteraceae 649 spe-
cies, Papilionaceae 439, Poaceae 597, Cyperaceae in the lower plants 202, and
Brassicaceae 250 are the families containing the larger number of species. 189 pte-
ridophytes are included in the lower plants.
Sarban Hills are one of the important hills due to its biodiversity and are still
unexplored. It is clearly shown in the study of the flora of Pakistan. In the studies
147 plant species were collected from the area and submitted in the herbarium of
Hazara University. From the moist temperate forest of Pakistan, the larger number
of collections has been done which is preserved in the biggest herbariums of
Pakistan, e.g., Karachi University Herbarium, Quaid-i-Azam University Herbarium,
and National Herbarium NARC (S.I Ali, Yasin Nasir, Mir Ajab Khan, A.R. Beg and
Saddique) have done huge number of plant collections from moist temperate region
of Pakistan.
In Pakistan, larger numbers of medicinal plants are present which is about 400–
600 in number. Larger numbers of papers are published in the Giliyat and Muree.
Other papers on such topics are by Parker (1918), Stewart (1972), Hedge and
Wendelbo (1978), Dhar and Kachroo (1984), Biswas (1987), and Blatter (1928–
1929). On the pteridophyte of Pakistan, work is done by Frazer-Jenkins (1991).
Fig. 7 Grazing view of the Sarban Hills
15 genera and 43 species along with their English names, local names, collection
time, and place of collection are published in the Flora of Rawalpindi District and
West Pakistan.
In the research, 147 plant species were collected, identified, pressed, and poi-
soned mounted along with their vernacular names, botanical names, habit, habitat,
flower color, traditional uses, and recipes which are mentioned and submitted in the
herbarium of Hazara University. A similar study was conducted by Kazim and
698 F. Ijaz et al.
Fig. 8 View of cutting trees for fuel and timber
Siddiqui (1953) in the upper Guraiz and Astore valley. They identified 87 medicinal
plants and also enlisted their local names, distribution, elevation, and traditional
uses. Zaman and Khan (1970) reported 100 medicinal plants of West Pakistan with
their botanical name, family name, distribution, description, constituents, and tradi-
tional uses. A field survey in Mansehra was conducted in which 53 wild and 17
cultivated medicinal plants were collected by Haq (1993), and these plants were
enlisted with botanical names, local or vernacular names, family, parts used, habit,
habitat, distribution, constituents, and medicinal and traditional uses.
In this study, 2 species of pteridophyte, 3 species of gymnosperm, and 142 spe-

cies of angiosperm were related to 56 families in which 50 families of dicot and 6
families of monocot were collected from the research area. A larger number of
plants are related to Asteraceae family which has 19 species, Labiatae family which
has 15 species, Papilionaceae family which has 13 species, and Brassicaceae family
which has 8 species. In a similar research study conducted in the Palas valley, 600
plant species were collected in which there are 114 monocots, 456 dicots, 11 gym-
nosperms, and 19 pteridophytes. Later on study trip is arranged in the area to meet
the local people of the area and know about the use of plants and their traditional
recipes which they use in their daily life.
The species diversity present in the Sarban area is very important. Plants like
Justicia adhatoda, Vernonia anthelmintica, Taraxacum officinale, Sonchus asper,
Rydingia limbata, Adiantum capillus-veneris, Verbena Canadensis, Verbascum
thapsus, and Eucalyptus camaldulensis are present in large amount in the study
area. Ahmad (2003) discussed 31 (aromatic and medicinal) plant species were cul-
tivated in 3 different locations. The groundwork results show that Aconitum hetero-
phyllum, Aconitum violaceum, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Colchicum luteum, Ginkgo
biloba, Crocus sativus, Matricaria chamomile, Viola odorata, Podophyllum hexan-
drum, and Valeriana jatamansi can be cultivated effectively.
The knowledge obtained from the field trip is collected from the indigenous peo-
ple of the area, who know the uses of these plants and traditional recipes used in
their everyday life and also know the ethnobotanical importance of these plants of
the Sarban Hill areas. They use 107 plants as medicinal out of 147 plants related to
59 families. Similarly a field study was conducted in northern Chitral by Khan and
Fevre (1996). The purpose of this study was indigenous knowledge of plant species
for medicinal uses in Chitral. They revealed that 85 plant species from 39 families
were used by local inhabitants for medicinal requirements.
In the study area before this, there is no work done with respect to biodiversity.
Lot of work is needed to be done because this is a diversity-rich area. Three types
of forests, alpine forest, subtropical thorn forest, and subtropical broad-leave for-
est, are present in the area. From the area 147 plants are collected in which 107
are used as medicinal and are related to 57 families. Similarly Ahmad and
Sirajuddin (1996) divided the seven types of forests like alpine forest, subtropical
chir forest, moist temperate forest, subtropical dry deciduous forest, and subtropi-
cal broad-leave forest in the swat district; from the area of research they found
135 families in which 1541 species of plants and 48 species of medicinal plants
are found.
Many historic people create the methods to conserve the animals, plants, ecosys-
tem resources, local knowledge, and cultural traditions. To know about the tradi-
tional knowledge of local people in relation to biodiversity resources, first of all it is
necessary to develop the mountainous region. It plays an important role to increase
the value of natural plant resources.
700 F. Ijaz et al.
Ethno-ecology and Traditional Knowledge
Ethnobotany of the area is very important since large amounts of medicinal plants
are present in the area. So to know the traditional knowledge of the plants and
ethno-ecology of the area a field survey should be conducted in such potential
areas. Questionnaires must be precised that could cover all the traditional knowl-
edge of the local community. Such knowledge can also be documented by inter-
viewing the local pansaries and hakims and saved in the written form. Also they
provided the traditional recipes of some medicinal plants. Similarly, Singh and
Pandey (1980) reported 125 medicinal plant species lore of the tribes of eastern
Rajasthan belonging to 104 genera and 54 families. They gathered the information
about these plants from local peoples of the tribal areas including hakims, vaids,
herbalists, and forest officials. Some medicinal folk recipes regarding these plants
were also documented. Also a field survey was conducted in Khairpur District,
Sindh Pakistan. They provided information on 35 plant species belonging to 23
families possessing high medicinal properties. All these plant species are widely
spread in the whole district. All the provided information about plants (medicinal
values and traditional uses) was collected during survey from local people, Hakims,
of the area and concerned literature.
Ethnobotany is directly related to the common man with their society, tradi-
tions, and religion. Ethnobotanist creates and publishes a lot of books in which
they show the importance of plants in different aspects of life. Plants used as medi-
cine for different diseases, used for healing wounds, used in religious ceremonies,
used as fodder and fuel, used for making instruments, used in construction, and
used as a source of energy, all these aspects are highlighted in ethnobotany. In
earlier years too much work are done on ethnobotany in western countries. More
knowledge is explored. Much work is done on ethno-narcotic (Lewin 1964), inves-
tigation of traditional veterinary phytomedicines, ethnoveterinary medicines, and
ethnopediatrics, all work accompanied.
Medicinal Plants
In this research project, 147 plant species were collected in which the people of
Sarban Hill used 107 plants as medicine to cure different diseases, 20 plant spe-
cies were used as fodder, and 17 plants were used as a source of fuel. Plants are
the major source of medicine all over the world throughout the history. Similarly,
an ethnobotanical survey was conducted in Kaghan Valley and Mansehra District,
KP, Pakistan. They explored the traditional knowledge regarding usage of medici-
nal plants in particular area. They found 48 plant species in the valley in which
only 26 plant species were used by local people for the treatment of various dis-
eases. The local people also use 21 indigenous plant species as shelter and food
and more than 3 species as fodder. Different types of effective chemicals are
present in the plants which are used in the medicine industry and insecticides and
food industry and as a source of medicines as old as life on the earth. Hamilton
(2004) pointed out that plants are used as medicines on a large scale in the future.
The aboriginal people of the Sarban Hills know different plant species used as
medicine. The method and techniques about the use of plants for medicinal reme-
dies are still alive. They know the uses of hundreds of species in medicines. They
also know about the use, parts used either in the form of extraction, decoction, tonic,
infusion or poultice. No one knows the exact number of plants which are used daily
in the medicines but estimatedly 20% of the global vascular plants that is
about 50,000 species are used as traditional medicines (Baillie et al. 2004). Large no
of medicinal plants are used in traditional recipes. In the Sarban Hill areas, the
medicinal use of plant is different as compared to the traditional recipes of other
areas. Some plants are taken directly and some are used in different recipes, as use
by the historic culture of the area. WHO (2002) reported that majority of the world
population currently depends on traditional medicine for their primary health and
needs. Medicinal plants are widely used as household remedies and by practitioners
of traditional systems of medicines, particularly in the developing world where pub-
lic health-care services may be limited. At the same time, interest in traditional and
modern and alternative medicine in industrialized countries has grown rapidly.
Marketing of Medicinal Plants
By investigating the study area and market, it was found that many of the plant spe-
cies which was used locally also have value in the market. Local people collect
plants and sell these in the market to get some cash money. Different parts of plants
are sold depending on their usage. Like the fruit and stem of Zanthoxylum armatum
(timber) is sold. Fruit and roots of Berberis lycium, dry leave powder of Cannabis
sativa. Similarly (Shinwari and Khan 1998) in the present studies, it is found that 26
species of medicinal plants collected from the Margalla Hills National Park
Islamabad are sold in the market. Besides that, it is stated 5000 tons of medicinal
plants related to 500 families are reported from the swat district (Chaudhry et al.
2000). Local people of Utror and Gabral valley collect 42 medicinal plants species
in which they sell 15 species to the Madyan, Mingora, and Kalam and exported 27
species to the international markets (Hamayun 2005).
From the study area of Sarban Hill, it is found that most of the collection of
medicinal plants is done by the women of local area (75%), but from the upper
areas, medicinal plants are collected by man (25%), and then plants are sold in the
local markets from where it is exported to the other parts of the country. Some of
the plants or plant parts are stored by people in dried, preserved, stored and
packed form and utilize it while the prices in local market higher. Schippmann
(2001) studied that gathering of medicinal plants can provide source of income for
local people.
702 F. Ijaz et al.
In the study it is found that medicinal plants are widely grown in the Sarban Hill
areas, in which this has great value in the national and international markets. If the
government takes steps to develop the medicinal plant trade in other countries, the
people of the Sarban areas can get more benefit from herbs. Important example of
such extracts are Forskolin remedy and artemisins etc which commonly used in Indian
herbal products and clinical herb for numbers of different purposes (Lange 1998).
Medicinal plants are used all over the world to cure diseases and via local
knowledge and traditional recipes which have sometimes very high prices. In
the world market the worth of medicinal plants and its products is about 60 bil-
lion US dollor (WHO 2002). Locally, 71 wild medicinal plants are imported
from swat by which 24 medicinal plants species are transported to the big
herbal markets of Pakistan and 40 in the local market of swat (Sher 2002).
Fodder Availability for Livestock
Due to its rich biodiversity, Sarban Hills play an important role for the availability
of fodder for livestock. Literature survey of the region shows that many of the plants
are used as fodder through which animals get mineral and nutrients and people of
the area in return earn money by selling good quality milk, butter and fats. It was
found that on the hill slopes wild grasses are widely grown naturally and cut for
their livestock’s fodder by the local farmers. About 20 plant species from the Sarban
Hill area were identified which are used for livestock’s feed. Animal rearing is the
old tradition of these areas. A huge number of animals are reared like goat, sheep,
and cattle from which they get milk, butter, and animal fats. Shrubs and tree are
good source of fodder for the livestock. Similarly, investigated that local people of
Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, depends on the indigenous plant resources
for shelter, food, fodder, and medicines.
Fuel and Timber Woods
About 17 plants in the collections are used as fuel wood. The local community of
the upper areas of Sarban still depends on wood as a source of fuel. For this purpose
they regularly cut down trees, and this has decreased the number of trees and shrubs.
Mostly for the winter season, people store huge amounts of wood in the summer by
cutting down trees and shrubs and destroying the diversity of plants. Martin (1995)
proposed that main threats to the shrubs and trees are basically the fuel deficiency
in Sulaiman Range Mountains. In severe and long winter season, a massive quantity
of wood for fuel purpose is used, and about 13,000 people span their life on selling
Pinus gerardiana plant seeds in a good yielding year. Ethnobiologists investigated
that in Hindu-Himalayas biodiversity was badly affected by the deficiencies of fuel.
Different solutions were recommended for the harmful impact of fuel insufficiency
by applying certain strategies at state, regional, and local level. Exploration of dif-
ferent other fuel sources, plantation of rapid-growing trees, and endangered plant
species conservation were also recommended.
About 20 plant species collected from the Sarban Hill are used as source of tim-
ber wood which is used in making furniture, instruments, doors, and windows and
used in constructions as beam in the houses. Many plants perform two functions at
a time, for example, Acacia modesta (wood used as fuel and gum used for back pain
and weak bones) and Zanthoxylum armatum (fruits used for stomachache, stem
used as miswak, and dry wood used as a source of fuel). Similarly (Hamayun and
Khan 2003) an ethnobotanical survey was conducted to study shrubs and trees of
Buner District as the area has diverse flora and high ethnobotanical potential. It was
found that 94 different plant species are used for medicinal, timber, fuel wood, fod-
der, ornamental, agricultural tool, thatching, fencing, naming (folk lore), and fruit-
yielding purposes. Bulk of plant species show multiple uses like Juglans regia:
wood is used for making furniture, gun woody parts, and carving and as fuel; root
bark (Dandasa) is used for cleaning and sparkling teeth; leaves are used in women
folk for coloring lips (make up); and nuts are edible and are traded to other parts of
the country. Shinwari and Khan (1998) studied 24 species of shrubs and 27 species
of trees used by the locals of Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, as food,
shelter, fodder, cultural purposes, and local medication.
Ethnoveterinary Importance of the Region
In the earliest study, there are many plant species found in the area that are used for
ethnoveterinary purposes. Many plants of this area were used from the ancient times
to cure the diseases of animals. A significant part of Sarban Hill population still
depends on the livestock to fulfill their basic needs. So for this purpose, the health
of livestock is also very important. Many of the diseases, which are common in
animals, are colic, fever, and foot and mouth diseases which are very common. To
cure these diseases, people of the area use different plants like Zanthoxylum arma-
tum, Salvia moorcroftiana, Vitex negundo, Aesculus indica, and Cissampelos pareira
which are important medicinal ethnoveterinary plants. The seeds of Zanthoxylum
armatum are used to cure the foot and mouth diseases of animals; Salvia moorcrofti-
ana is used in case of fever in animals. The seeds of Aesculus indica are used to cure
the colic in donkeys. Medicinal plants are used from historical times as ethnoveteri-
nary product. But due to lack of knowledge, people couldn’t rescue and/or develope
the ethnoveterinary plants in written form. Similarly, from the Samahni valley dis-
trict Shimber, Azad Kashmir, found treatments for veterinary by using traditional
plant remedies. Sudarsanum et al. (1995) stated that 106 plants were used to cure
animal diseases in Andhra Pradesh. Cousins (1995) checked the antiviral, antibacte-
rial, and antifungal activities of plants which are used in human and veterinary med-
icines and also in crop protection. Inhabitants of coastal region use the fresh and
dried seaweeds in large amounts.
704 F. Ijaz et al.
Conservation of the Sarban Plant Resources
Pakistan is rich in natural resources due to its diverse environment and soil condi-
tions; about 6000 flowering plant species are reported in Pakistan in which majority
of species are found in the northern areas. Sarban Hills are rich in floral diversity.
People of the area are relatively low educated and don’t have awareness about the
uses of plants. Due to this, majority of diversity is destroyed. Although three types
of forests are present in the area and there are a lot of plant species, which are
important as medicinal resources, due to their unawareness, these resources are at
the verge of destruction (Ijaz 2014). Present attempt was made to introduce the area
nationally as well as internationally and to help the native people in terms of educa-
tion and awareness about the uses of plant and selling in national and international
markets.
References
Abbas Z, Khan SM, Abbassi AM, Pieroni A, Ullah Z, Iqbal M, Ahmad Z (2016) Ethnobotany of
the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakorum range, Baltistan, Pakistan. J Ethnob Ethnomed
12:38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0114-y
Abbasi AM, Khan SM, Ahmad M, Khan MA, Quave CL, Pieroni A (2013) Botanical ethnoveteri-
nary therapies in three districts of the Lesser Himalayas of Pakistan. J Ethnob Ethnomed 9:84.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-84
Ahmad H (2003) Cultivation and sustainable harvesting of medicinal and aromatic plants through
community involvement. Intern, workshop on conservation and sustainable use of medicinal
and aromatic plants in Pakistan, WWF, MINFAL and Qarshi industries Pvt. Ltd. p 1
Ahmad H, Sirajuddin (1996) Ethnobotanical profile of Swat. In: Shinwari ZK, Khan BA, Khan AA
(eds) Proceedings of the first training workshop on ethnobotany and its application to conserva-
tion, National Herbarium. PARC, Islamabad, pp 113–118
Ahmad H, Khan SM, Ghafoor S, Ali N (2009) Ethnobotanical study of upper Siran. J Herbs Spices
Med Plants 15:86–97
Ahmad H, Turk MO, Ahmad W, Khan SM (2015) Status of natural resources in the Uplands of
the Swat Valley, Pakistan. In: Ozturk M, Hakeem KR, Faridah-Hanum I, Efe R (eds) Climate
change impacts on high-altitude ecosystems. Springer, New york, p 647 http://www.springer.
com/us/book/9783319128580
Ahmad Z, Khan SM, Ali S, Rahman IU, Ara H, Noreen I, Khan A (2016) Indicator species analy-
ses of weed communities of maize crop in district Mardan, Pakistan. Pak J Weed Sci Res
22(2):227–238
Ali SI (2008) Significance of Flora with special reference to Pakistan. Pak J Bot 40(3):967–971
Ali SI, Qaiser M (1986) A photographic analysis of the Phanerogams of Pakistan and Kashmir.
Proc R Soc Edinburgh 89B:89–101
Baillie JEM, Hilton-Taylor C, Stuart SN (2004) 2004 IUCN red list of threatened species: global
species assessment. IUCN, Switzerland and Cambridge
Bibi F, Ahmad H, Qureshi RA, Shaheen N, Khan SM, Shaheen S, Shaheen G (2016) Ethno medici-
nal attributes and antioxidant screening of some selected plant species of Tanawal area. Pak Int
J Bios 9(1):237–254
Biswas AK (1987) Environmental concerns in Pakistan with special reference to water and forests.
Environ Conserv 14:4
Blatter E (1928–1929) Beautiful flowers of Kashmir, vol 2. Jhon Bale and Danielsson, London
Chaudhry M, Ahmad S, Ali A, Sher H, Malik S (2000) Technical report. Market study of medicinal
herbs in Malakand, Peshawar, Lahore and Karachi. SDC-Intercorporation, Peshawar, p 7
Cousins DJ (1995) Plants with antimicrobial properties (antiviral, antifungal and antimicrobial).
International. pp 116–134
Dhar U, Kachroo P (1984) Alpine flora of Kashmir. In: Its photographic assessment. Printing
Press, Jodhpur
Frazer-Jenkins CR (1991) The ferns and allies of far west Himalaya. Pakistan Syst 5(1–2):85–120
Hamayun M (2005) Studies on Ethnobotany, Conservation and plant diversity of Utror and Gabral
Valleys District Swat, Pakistan. Ph.D. thesis Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam
University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Hamayun M, Khan MA (2003) Common medicinal folk recipes of District Buner, NWFP, Pakistan.
J Ethnobot Leaflets 17(7):2003–2007
Hamilton AC (2004) Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodivers Conserv
13:1477–1517
Haq I (1993) Medicinal plants of Mansehra District, NWFP, Pakistan. Hamdard Med 34(3):51–86
Haq I, Hussain M (1993) Medicinal plants of Mansehra. Hamdard Med XXXVI(3):63–100
Hedge IC, Wendelbo P (1978) Patterns of distribution and endemism in Iran. Notes from Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh 36:441–464
IUCN (2004) IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, Version 3.1. IUCN Species Survival
Commission. IUCN, Gland
Ijaz F (2014) Biodiversity and traditional uses of plants of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad. M. Phil.
Thesis, Hazara University Mansehra, KP, Pakistan
Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Alam J, Khan SM, Afzal A, Rahman IU, Afzal M, Islam M, Sohail M (2015) Ethno
medicinal study upon folk recipes against various human diseases in Sarban Hills, Abbottabad,
Pakistan. World J Zool 10(1):41–46
Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Rahman IU, Khan SM, Shah GM, Khan K, Afzal A (2016) Investigation of tradi-
tional medicinal floral knowledge of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, KP, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
179:208–233
Kazim MA, Siddiqui IA (1953) The drug plants of Kalat state. Pak J Forest: 217–237
Khan SM, Ahmad H (2014) Role of indigenous Arqiyat distillery in conservation of Rosa species.
Int J Phytoremediation 6(2):162–164
Khan SM, Ahmad H (2015) Species diversity and use patterns of the alpine flora with special refer-
ence to climate change in the Naran, Pakistan. In: Ozturk M, Hakeem KR, Faridah-Hanum I,
Efe R (eds) Climate change impacts on high-altitude ecosystems, Springer, New York, p 647.
ISBN:978-3-319-12858-0, http://www.springer.com/us/book/9783319128580
Khan AA, Fevre JL (1996) Indigenous knowledge of plants: a case study in Chitral. Proc. First
Train. Workshop Ethnob. Appl. Conser., PARC, Islamabad, pp 136–151
Khan SM, Harper DM, Page S, Ahmad H (2011) Residual Value Analyses of the medicinal flora of
the western Himalaya; The Naran Valley Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43(SI):97–104
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper DM (2012a) Anthropogenic influences on the natural ecosys-
tem of the Naran valley in the Western Himalayas. Pak J Bot 44(SI):231–238
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Harper DM (2012b) Vegetation dynamics in the Western
Himalayas, diversity indices and climate change. Sci Tech Dev 31(3):232–243
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Shaheen H, Zahidullah MA, Harper DM (2013a) Medicinal flora
and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ethnob
Ethnomed 9:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-4
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper DM (2013b) Identifying plant species and communities
across environmental gradients in the western Himalayas: method development and conserva-
tion use. J Ecol Inf 14:99–103
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper DM (2013c) Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant
biodiversity in montane ecosystems; using the western Himalayas as a case study. Ann Bot
112(3):479–501
706 F. Ijaz et al.
Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H, Harper DM (2014) Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiver-
sity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species; a case study of the
Naran Valley in the northern Pakistan. J Ecol Ind 37(Part A):175–185
Khan KU, Shah M, Ahmad H, Ashraf M, Rahman IU, Iqbal Z, Khan SM, Majid A (2015)
Investigation of traditional veterinary phytomedicines used in Deosai plateau, Pakistan. Glob
Vet 15(4):381–388
Lange D (1998) Europe’s medicinal and aromatic plants: their use, trade and conservation.
TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, p 77., 2 appendices
Lewin L (1964) Phantastica: narcotics and stimulating drugs. their uses and abuses. Dutton,
New York
Martin GJ (1995) Ethnobotany, a people and plants conservation manual. Chapman and Hall,
London
Mehmood A, Khan SM, Shah AH, Shah AH, Ahmad H (2015) First floristic exploration of District
Torghar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 47(SI):57–70
Multi-Donor Support Unit (MSU) (2000) District population profile: Operationalising and inter-
preting population census data for planning (NWFP) Islamabad GoP
Nasir E, Ali SI (1982) Flora of Pakistan. Pan Graphics Ltd, Islamabad
Parker RN (1918. (Reprinted 1973) A Forest Flora of Punjab with Hazara and Delhi. Govt. Printing
Press, Lahore
Pieroni A, Quave CL (eds) (2014) Ethnobotany and biocultural diversities in the Balkans: perspec-
tives on sustainable rural development and reconciliation. Springer, Berlin
Rahman IU, Ijaz F, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ali N, Khan SM (2016a) Contributions to the phytotherapies
of digestive disorders; traditional knowledge and cultural drivers of Manoor Valley, northern
Rahman A, Khan SM, Hussain A, Rahman IU, Iqbal Z, Ijaz F (2016b) Ecological assessment of
plant communities and associated edaphic and topographic variables of the Peochar Valley
district swat of the Hindu Kush Mountains. Mount Res Devel 36(3):332–341
Schippmann U (2001) Medicinal plants significant trade. CITES Project S-109, Plants committee
document PC9 9.1.3. (rev.). BFN Skripten-39, Bundesamt fur Naturschutz, Bonn
Sher H (2002) Some medicinal and economic plants of Mahodand, Utror, Gabral valleys (district
Sawat), Gabur, Brgusht valleys (district Chitral), Feb 2002. Report for Pak, mount, Areas con-
serv, Proj. IUCN, NWFP-Chitral
Shinwari MI, Khan MA (1998) Ethnobotany of Margalla Hills, National Park of Islamabad.
Department of Biological Sciences Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad
Singh V, Pandey RP (1980) Medicinal plants-lore of the tribals of eastern Rajasthan. India J Econ
Bot 1:137–148
Stewart RR (1972) An annotated catalogue to the vascular plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir.
Fakhri Printing Press, Karachi
Sudarsanum G, Reddy MB, Nagaru N (1995) Veterinary crude drugs in Rayalaseema, Andhra
Pradesh, India. Int J Pharm 33(1):52–60
WHO (2002) World Health Organization traditional medicine strategy 2002–2005, Geneva
Zaman MB, Khan MS (1970) Hundred drug plants of West Pakistan. Medicinal plants branch. PFI,
Peshawar, pp 5–8
Exploring the Therapeutic Characteristics
of Plant Species in the Chichawatni
Irrigated Plantation Pakistan
Muhammad Arif, Waseem Razzaq Khan, Muhammad Khurram Shahzad,

Amna Hussain, and Cao Yukun
Introduction
There is an estimated 2.85–2.50 (million) plant species across the globe (Paton et al.
2008; Joppa et al. 2011), and many of them are widely used in pharmaceutical mate-
rials, trade, and traditional remedies (World Health 1997; Belcher and Schreckenberg
2007; Shahidullah and Haque 2010; Sher et al. 2017). History of medicinal plants
can be traced to ancient successive civilizations of Mesopotamia (Sumerian,
Babylonian), China, and India. Therapeutic knowledge regarding plants has been
investigated and practiced for the treatment of broad range of illnesses in the
Mesopotamia. During 3000 BC, the study revealed that Babylonian and Sumerian
pharmaceutical prescriptions were using curative plants for therapy of wide range of
M. Arif
Department of Forestry Economics and Management, Northeast Forestry University,
Harbin, People’s Republic of China
Punjab Forest Department, Government of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
W. R. Khan
Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
M. K. Shahzad
Punjab Forest Department, Government of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Department of Forest Management, Northeast Forestry University,
A. Hussain
Department of Forest Management, Northeast Forestry University,
C. Yukun (*)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_20
708 M. Arif et al.
diseases. As per aged record of 2500 BC, Chinese and Indian traditional healers had
also been utilizing these plants, for which they got benefited from ancient herbal
proscriptions of Ebers Papyrus, written in circa 1550 BC (Nikbakht and Kafi, 2004;
Saad et al. 2005; Azaizeh et al. 2010).
Cognizance of medicinal plants contains a history of over four millennia. At that
time, people were restricted to reply only on natural substances. At first, this knowl-
edge was transmitted orally, followed by the written material in the parchments,
baked clay tablets, papyri, manuscripts, pharmacopeias, etc. (Petrovska 2012; Teall
2013). The Convention on Biological Diversity has accepted the dependence of
international community on natural resources that mostly include medicinal plants.
The conservation and the sustainable uses of biological diversity have also been
recognizing the contribution of traditional knowledge (Maina 2012).
Importance and novelties in drug discovery have reemphasized the interest in
therapeutic plants during the last decades. Pharmacological advancement and activ-
ities are screening several medicinal plant species every day. FAO has estimated an
astonishing figure of over 50,000 curative plant species around the world, which
comes to 18.9% of the total available flora (Schippmann et al. 2002). Medicinal
plants serve as a primary health source for about 70–80% population of the world.
Higher plants, despite the ancient nature of the tradition, are providing active ingre-
dients for 25% of prescription drugs (World Health 1997; Shahidullah and Haque
2010). During the last three decades, herbal product demand has been increased in
the worldwide market of traditional plants. Better results from the products of the
medicinal plants have attracted the pharmacological industry, which has intensified
the demand of herbal products. During 2002, it was estimated that an amount of
US$ 60,000 million had been invested in the trade of herbal products in the interna-
tional market (Sher et al. 2010).
Owing an extensive variation in soil, latitude, and climatic conditions, Pakistan
has a rich and diversified flora. An extensive multiplying of vegetation occurs in this
region, right from the mangroves of Arabian Sea to the alpine pastures of the north-
ern high mountains. The forest ecosystems, therefore, possess profuse biodiversity
of flora and fauna. Out of 6000 flora species recorded in Pakistan, 300 plants repre-
senting 149 genera are endemic. Ninety percent of the endemic species occur in the
northern and western mountains at over 1200 m elevation (Rahim 2010). It has been
forecasted that 10% of the indigenous flora is under threat of extinction (Shinwari
2010). Pakistan is a developing country where data collection is much painstaking
as compared to the developed states. There are few controversies over the conserva-
tion status of indigenous plant species. Various researchers have mentioned diverse
figures about endangered native flowering species in dissimilar time spans (Khan
2005). Some studies have been conducted for the indigenous uses of native species
of different districts and reviewed by Shinwari (2010). Among the leading irrigated
plantations of Punjab, Changa Manga plantation is the only compact plantation in
Pakistan where its ethnomedicinal survey was carried out in 2014. It was identified
that native residents use the local plants for the treatment of malaria, hepatitis, dys-
entery, cholera, burns, eye problems, ulcers, insomnia, insect stings, cough, and
gastric problems (Ahmad et al. 2014). There is a dire need to understand a scientific
study encompassing the medicinal uses of present flora with its current status.
Exploring the Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species in the Chichawatni Irrigated… 709
The aim of the current study is to explore the availability of ethnobotanical plants
in the compact forest of Chichawatni, Pakistan. Objectives of the study are to docu-
ment the inventory of therapeutic plants within the study area; to appraise the pres-
ent status of commercially important curative and lucrative plants; and to explore
the possibilities for sustainable development of medicinal species for the future
toxicological, photochemical, and pharmacological studies of the plantation.
The Study Area
Chichawatni irrigated plantation also known as Chichawatni Reserved Forest is

situated in district Sahiwal, Punjab, Pakistan, between latitudes 30°-29′-32.91″N
and 30°-33′-45.84″N and longitudes 72°-36′-00.25″E and 72o-46′-
48.65″E. Plantation elevation level is 153.6–163.7 m above the sea level. Total
stocked area is 3823.20 hectares out of gross 4666.8 hectares (Khaggah 2015). The
climate of the plantation is dry with a mean temperature of 65–75 °F. Maximum
rainfall is received in July and August as a summer monsoon. The indigenous plant
species included Acacia nilotica (Kikar), Acacia modesta (Phulai), Albizia procera
and Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Melia azedarach (Bakain),
Salvadora oleoides (Jal), Tamarix articulata (Frash), Terminalia arjuna (Arjan),
Prosopis cineraria (Jand), and Ziziphus mauritiana (Ber). Prevailing plant commu-
nities comprises of Bombax ceiba (Simal), Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham), Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Morus alba and Morus nigra (Mulberry), Prosopis glandulosa and
Prosopis juliflora (Mesquite), etc. (Arif et al. 2017; Arif 2018) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Field Survey
Current study was conducted during spring and summer of 2015. Forest’s resources
were explored with the help of working plans and compartment history files. General
information of the investigated area was obtained from Punjab Forest Department,
Pakistan. Frequent visits were made to different sites within the study area. The
information was collected with the help of a questionnaire, which contains personal
information and utilizations of forest resource. Facts about conventional uses of for-
est resources were gathered from the native herbalists, midwives, traditional heal-
ers, and local adult villagers. Ages of the respondents varied from 18 to 65 years
with a high representation of elderly persons. Generally, one informant per five
houses was contacted and interviewed. Their interests as collectors, traders of forest
resources, and native uses were documented. Economic importance, distribution,
frequency, and demand of plant species were noted. The plants were collected,
dried, and preserved properly from different sites of the study area. Fully dried
specimens were mounted on herbarium sheets with scotch tape; plants were identi-
fied. The following research tools/instruments were used during the research work:
710 M. Arif et al.
Fig. 1 Location of study area on the forest cover map of Pakistan
Fig. 2 Map of Chichawatni irrigated Plantation

quadrat, nylon threads, meter rod, pH meter, altimeter, hydrometer, soil air ther-
mometers, digital camera, questionnaire, and computer with other accessories.
Present study revealed that the investigated area was traditionally rich in custom-
ary usage of plant legends and forest products, since time immemorial. This com-
pact forest contains a total of 122 plant species. Shrubs and undergrowth are found
in a maximum figure of 52 species (42.62%), followed by the presence of trees (47
species) (38.52%), grasses (14 species) (11.48%), and climbers (9 species) (7.38%,
Fig. 3). 53 vascular plants belong to 31 families which exist within the study area.
A study of 3 species (5.66%) was recorded as critically vulnerable, 14 species
(26.40%) as endangered, 23 species (43.40%) as rarely distributed, and 13 species
(24.52%) as secure or least concerned (Fig. 4). Sustainable harvesting of plants
Chichawatni Plantation
Trees Shrubs and undergrowth Climbers Grasses
52
47
14
9
Life forms of the vegetations
Fig. 3 Life forms of the plants in Chichawatni plantation
Chichawatni Plantation
25
20
15
10
0
Conservation status off tthe
he plants
Endangered Vulnerab
Vulnerable
a le Secure Rare
Fig. 4 Conservation status of the plants in Chichawatni plantation

712 M. Arif et al.
Fig. 5 Parts usage % age Gums, 2.22%

of the plants in
Chichawatni plantation Stem , 2.22% Ariel Bark,
8.88% Flowers, 6.67%
parts,
7.78%
Whole plant, Fruits, 12.22%

15.56%
Seeds, 7.78%
Leave, 30%
Roots, 6.67%
depends on the time and method of harvesting and consumption of their specific
parts. Therefore, information regarding the usage of particular medicinal and
aromatic plant species and the time of their harvesting was also collected. Leaves
are the most important part of 27 species (30%) that is utilized. The entire use of a
plant was found at a second category in 14 species (15.56%), followed by the usage
of consuming 11 species (12.22%) for fruits, 8 species (8.89%) for bark, 7 species
(each) (7.78%) for seed and stem, 6 species (each) (6.67%) for flowers and roots,
and 2 species (each) (2.22%) for aerial parts and gums (Fig. 5).
The study showed that the reported plants play a vital role in the conventional
livelihood of local folk. The plants available within the study area serve as an anti-
dote for abdominal pains, aching, cramps, cough, constipation, diarrhea, eyes infec-
tions, injury, insect stings, impotency, jaundice, kidney stones, nervous disorders,
respiratory infections, renal insufficiency, skin diseases, sore throat chest pain,
swellings, vomiting, and wounds (Table 1).
It is ascertained that species present in the study area belong to 28 families.
Asteraceae is the leading family with 10 plant species, and it was followed by
Fabaceae (6 spp.), Amaranthaceae (4 spp.), Brassicaceae (2 spp.), Malvaceae (2
spp.), Poaceae (2 spp.), etc. (Table 1). Prominent ethnomedical plants among these
families are Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbeck L., Salvadora oleoides Dene., Tamarix
articulata L., Terminalia arjuna (Rox. Ex D.C), Ageratum conyzoides L., Cannabis
sativa L., Datura stramonium L., Fumaria officinalis L., Oxalis corniculata L.,
Prosopis cineraria L., Sonchus oleraceus L., and Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.).
It is noted that the level of knowledge about the plant resources is realistic in local
people, especially about aromatic and medicinal plants. Different people having the
distinctive level of knowledge, depending on social group, gender, and occupation,
i.e., the hakims and tenants, were having higher knowledge about medicinal and
aromatic plants than other common people. Similarly, the men have extra knowl-
edge than women, and among the men, especially the elder, they were more aware
Table 1 Important plants with medicinal uses in the Chichawatni compact plantation Pakistan
Part
Plant binomial (s) Conservation
Plant family species Local name used status Medicinal uses
Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera Poth kant, WP Endangered Tonic, ophthalmic,
L. ludhri colic, and
emollient
Avera javanica Javi SD, Endangered Emollient,
(Burm.f.) Juss. ex L diuretic, and
Schult. antibacterial
Chenopodium Bathu WP Rare Tonic,
album L. carminative,
ophthalmic,
cathartic,
aphrodisiac, and
diuretic
Suaeda fruticosa Boi booti L Endangered Antibacterial,
(L.) Forsskal. anodyne, and colic
Apocynaceae Calotropis procera Akk WP Secure Colic, alternative,
(Aiton). acrid, anathematic,
antimicrobial, and
sedative
Asteraceae Ageratum Boh FL Endangered Astringent,
conyzoides L. laxative,
antipyretic and
antibiotic, and
expectorant
Ayapana Kamrakh L Vulnerable Tonic, antipyretic,
triplinervis ophthalmic, and
(M.Vahl) colic
Cirsium arvense L.Kandhari FL Rare Emetic
Conyza bonariensisLoosan WP Secure Diuretic and
L. booti, styptic
namkeen
booti
Conyza Canadensis Karari S Endangered Astringent,
L. diuretic, and
antirheumatic
Galinsoga ciliata Kakoh FL, L Rare Clotting agent,
(Rafin.) Blake. antibiotic, and
tonic
Parthenium Booti WP Rare Antipyretic and
hysterophorus L. emollient
Sonchus arvensis L. Dodh bhatal L, Rare Tonic
FR
Sonchus oleraceus S, AP Endangered Laxative,
L. antipyretic, and
tonic
Taraxacum Kanfhul WP Vulnerable Antibacterial,
officinale aperients, and
F.H. Wigg. analgesic
(continued)
714 M. Arif et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Part
Brassicaceae Coronopus didymus Thandi booti L Rare Cooling
L.
Sisymbrium irio L. Saag booti SD Secure Tonic, alternative,
and colic
Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Bhang L, Endangered Sedative, blood
FR purifier, cooling,
and antiseptic
Capparaceae Capparis decidua Kaluari FR, Endangered Carminative,
L. AP analgesic, bitter,
and
anti-inflammatory
Caryophyllaceae Stellaria media L. Washtah L Rare Laxative,
cathartic,
expectorant,
antibiotic, and
cytostatic
Cleomaceae Cleome viscosa L. Chaskoo L, Endangered Tonic, ophthalmic,
SD anodyne, and
carminative
Convolvulaceae Convolvulus Lali WP Rare Aperients
arvensis L.
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Chhatri SD, Rare Laxative and colic
helioscopia L. dodak, gandi R
booti
Fabaceae Acacia modesta Phulai G, S Rare Stimulant
(Linn.) Wall.
Acacia nilotica Kikar,babul WP Secure Astringent,
Willd. stimulant, and
tonic
Albizia lebbeck L. Siris L, F Rare Acrid, stimulant,
and tonic
Albizia procera Siris L Rare Stimulant and
(Roxb.) Benth. tonic
Dalbergia sissoo Shisham L, B, Secure Astringent and
Roxb. SD tonic
Prosopis cineraria Pirasoo SD, Secure Demulcent,
(L.) Druce. S, B pectoral, and tonic
Lamiaceae Mentha spicata L. Jangli L Rare Tonic, sedative,
pudina cordial, and
aperients
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Part
Malvaceae Abutilon Peeli booti WP Secure Diuretic, styptic,
theophrasti L. ophthalmic, and
stimulant
Malvastrum Patakha FR Secure Tonic,
coromandelianum antibacterial,
(L.) anti-inflammatory,
cooling, and
expectorant
Meliaceae Melia azedarach L. Bakain FR Secure Stimulant
Azadirachta indica Neem B, L, Rare Tonic, stimulant,
L. SD, expectorant,
S febrifuge, and
alternative
Moraceae Morus alba L. Safaid toot R, L, Secure Antibacterial,
FR, astringent, and
B ophthalmic
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus Sufaida L, B Secure Sedative,
camaldulensis anesthetic,
Hook. f. antiseptic, and
expectorant
Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata Khati booti L, Endangered Sedative, anodyne,
L. FR tonic, carminative,
stimulant, and
anathematic
Papaveraceae Ficus carica L. Injeer FR, Rare Stimulant and
L anti-inflammatory
Plantaginaceae Plantago ovata Isphogol L.FL Rare Demulcent,
Forssk. laxative,
astringent,
refrigerant, and
emollient
Poaceae Cynodon dactylon Humrik WP Secure Anti-
(L.) Pers. booti inflammatory,
stimulant, and
colic
Desmostachya Drabh R, L Secure Tonic, febrifuge,
bipinnata (L.) Stapf and laxative
Polygonaceae Rumex Crispus L. Palak booti L, Rare Laxative, tonic,
FR and expectorant
Primulaceae Anagallis arvensis Sowa WP Endangered Emollient and
L. analgesic
(continued)
716 M. Arif et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Part
Ranunculaceae Ranunculus Rara L Endangered Acrid, stimulant,
muricatus L. and tonic
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus Ber FR Rare Cooling,
mauritiana L. astringent, and
stimulant
Salicaceae Salix tetrasperma Beesan B, L, Rare Anodyne and
Roxb. S febrifuge
Simaroubaceae Ailanthus excelsa Darawa B, R, Endangered Astringent
Roxb. ex Willd. L
Solanaceae Datura stramonium Datura WP Endangered helminths,
L. soporific,
anti-incendiary,
anesthetic,
antibiotic, and
emollient
Verbenaceae Lippia nodiflora L. Rye L, Rare Blood purifier,
FL, joint ache, tonic,
R stimulant, and
anodyne
Keys: AP aerial parts, B bark, FL flowers, FR fruits, G gums, L leaves, R roots, S stem, SD seeds,
WP whole plan
than the younger members from the community. It is further noticed that the distri-
bution, pattern, and availability of medicinal plant species were depending on graz-
ing, harvesting intensity, habitat loss, and forest stand.
The people living around the Chichawatni plantation are mostly agriculturists,
and their socioeconomic life relies on this forest regarding timber, firewood, medici-
nal plants, and animal fodder. However, the people’s faith in the curative benefits of
herbal medicine is declining with the change in time. The introduction of allopathic
medicines in the remote areas has faded people’s trust, skill, and knowledge (Sher
et al. 2015, 2016). Existing plant species at the same time, as recorded in the current
study, do serve as multipurpose species as well. Amazingly, in spite of this depen-
dence, important renewable natural resource has not been managed scientifically for
its sustainable production. Resultantly, various species are going to be vanished in
specific regions around the world (FAO 2016). Overexploitation at some places has
led to a state where certain plants have acquired the status of endangered or even
near extinction. It is reported that ruthless utilization of medicinal plants, non-
systematic grazing, and unchecked harvesting can degrade the environment (Sher
et al. 2014). Further it has raised the number of endangered species in the fragile
ecosystem. Advance research in modern science has discovered multiple medicinal
effects of the existing plants. This development, in turn, has further raised the fre-
quency of cutting such tree species. It has become essential to take immediate reme-
dial steps for conservation and stabilization of this resource. Being a common
property resource, active participation of the local communities to regenerate the

ecosystem under stress is of prime significance.
The current study further revealed that such multiple tree species had significant
nutritional and economic value for local villagers. Adjacent living communities
draw benefits of major and minor values from different species, i.e., Plantago ovata
Forssk is used to control constipation problem in the study areas, while Salix tetra-
sperma was used for the treatment of fever. Traditional use and medicinal properties
of some plant species have been previously reported by the national researchers, i.e.,
Datura stramonium as emollient and spasmolytic, used for relieving spasm of
smooth muscle (Ahmad et al. 2012). An extensive survey should be carried out
regarding distribution phonology, bearing, and ecological characteristics to formu-
late and undertake a conservation strategy for the species under threat of vulnerability.
Species like Taraxacum officinale, Ayapana triplinervis, and Fumaria officinalis
should be considered on priority.
Conclusion
The study documents the ethnopharmacological knowledge, which can be used as

an important tool for the future toxicological, pharmacological, and photochemical
studies of the area. This study will create awareness and inculcate knowledge
regarding potential medicinal and aromatic plant resources, in particular, and forest
resources in general. There is a strong need for the documentation of local knowl-
edge of medicinal plants, and this transforming information should be prioritized
from older generations to their descendants.
References
Ahmad KS, Qureshi R, Hameed M, Ahmad F, Nawaz T (2012) Conservation assessment and
medicinal importance of some plants resources from Sharda, Neelum Valley, Azad Jammu and
Kashmir, Pakistan. Int J Agric Biol 14:997–1000
Ahmad SS, Erum S, Khan SM, Nawaz M, Wahid A (2014) Exploring the medicinal plants wealth:
a traditional medico-botanical knowledge of local communities in Changa Manga Forest,
Pakistan. Middle-East J Scientific Res 20:1772–1779
Arif M, Shahzad MK, Elzaki EEA, Hussain A, Zhang B, Yukun C (2017) Biomass and car-
bon stocks estimation in Chichawatni irrigated plantation in Pakistan. Int J Agric Biol 19:
1339–1349
Arif M (2018) Resources assessment and sustainable management of Chichawatni irrigated planta-
tion in Pakistan. Doctoral thesis, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, P. R. China
Azaizeh H, Saad B, Cooper E, Said O (2010) Traditional Arabic and Islamic medicine, a re-
emerging health aid. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 7:419–424
Belcher B, Schreckenberg K (2007) Commercialisation of non-timber forest products: A reality
check. Dev Policy Rev 25:355–377
718 M. Arif et al.
FAO (2016) Global forest resources assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing? ,
Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization
Joppa LN, Roberts DL, Pimm SL (2011) How many species of flowering plants are there? Proc
Royal Soc Lond B: Biol Sci 278:554–559
Khaggah NH (2015) Working plan of Chichawatni Forest Division. Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
Department, Government of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Khan A (2005) Joint Forest Management Plan Madaklasht Valley Chitral (Qashqar Conservancy).
In: Technical Report Prepared for Pakistan Mountain Areas Conservation Project
Maina CK (2012) Traditional knowledge management and preservation: intersections with library
and information science. Int Inform Library Rev 44:13–27
Nikbakht A, Kafi M, (2004) The history of traditional medicine and herbal plants in Iran. In: VIII
International people-plant symposium on exploring therapeutic powers of flowers, greenery
and nature, vol 790, pp 255–258
Paton AJ, Brummitt N, Govaerts Rl, Harman K, Hinchcliffe S, Allkin B, Lughadha EN (2008)
Towards Target 1 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: a working list of all known
plant species progress and prospects. Taxon 57:602–611
Petrovska BB (2012) Historical review of medicinal plants’ usage. Pharmacognosy Rev 6:1
Rahim SMA (2010) Working plan of changa manga forest division. Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
Department, Government of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Saad B, Azaizeh H, Said O (2005) Tradition and perspectives of Arab herbal medicine: a review.
Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2:475–479
Schippmann U, Leaman DJ, Cunningham AB (2002) Impact of cultivation and gathering of
medicinal plants on biodiversity: global trends and issues. In: Biodiversity and the ecosystem
approach in agriculture, forestry and fisheries. FAO, Rome
Shahidullah AKM, Haque CE (2010) Linking Medicinal Plant Production with Livelihood
Enhancement in Bangladesh: Implications of. J Transdisciplinary Environ Stud 9(2)
Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, de Boer HJ (2014) Economic benefits of high value medicinal plants to
Pakistani communities: an analysis of current practice and potential. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 10
Sher H, Al-Yemeni M, Sher H (2010) Forest resource utilization assessment for economic develop-
ment of rural community in northern parts of Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 4:1786–1789
Sher H, Barkworth ME, de Boer HJ (2017) Medicinal and aromatic plant cultivation in the Swat
valley, north-western Pakistan, for economic development and biodiversity conservation.
Genet Resources Crop Evol 64:237–245
Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ (2016) Traditional use of medicinal plants among
Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni groups in Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan.
Shinwari ZK (2010) Medicinal plants research in Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 4:161–176
Teall EK (2013) Medicine and doctoring in ancient mesopotamia. Grand Valley J Hist 3:2
World Health O (1997) Essential medicines and health products information portal: A World
Health Organization resource. World Health Organization
Therapeutic Characteristics of Murree
Plants: An Emerging Feature
Waseem Razzaq Khan, Muhammad Arif, Sadaf Shakoor, M. Nazre,

and M. Muslim
Introduction
Globally 350,000–400,000 species have been estimated as medicinal plants (Joppa

Roberts and Pimm 2010; Paton et al. 2008), and many of them are valuable as future
of safe drugs (Abbasi et al. 2010; Bussmann et al. 2008). Sustainability of this
renewable natural resource is a vital issue, which needs to be discussed worldwide.
As it not only provides raw materials for herbal remedies, for around 80% of the
world’s population, but also helpful for primary health care in rural and remote hilly
areas (Ntie-Kang et al. 2013). Pakistan has a unique position in the developing
world due to potential of a variety of aromatic and therapeutic plants and varied
ecosystem and climate, which reflect valuable plant heritage and biodiversity. There
is calculated a value of billion US dollars for the trade of fragrant and medicinal
plants in 2013 (Hamilton 2013). Due to increasing demand for herbal medicines
(Khan et al. 2011), this trade is likely to rise largely by the year 2050 (Lange 1997).
In South Asia, millions of people, especially low-income groups and women, are
involved in the harvesting, cultivation, and trade of medicinal plants (de Boer et al.
2012; Larsen and Olsen 2007). Due to the cultural acceptability of plant-based
W. R. Khan (*) · M. Nazre

Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Serdang 43300, Selangor, Malaysia
M. Arif
S. Shakoor
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43300, Selangor, Malaysia
M. Muslim
Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_21
720 W. R. Khan et al.
products and their economic potential, interest has been growing in medicinal plants
in Pakistan during the past few decades (Sher et al. 2014, 2015).
It has been reported that more than 6000 species of flowering plants are found in
Pakistan. Majority of ethnobotanical plants are located in northwestern and north-
ern parts of the country. Out of all, phytochemical properties have been recognized
in 1012 plant species; whereas 350–400 plant species are traded in different drug
markets of the country, which are used by 28 leading manufacturing units of
Homeopathic, Ayurvedic, and Greco-Arabic medicines. More than 200 drug plants
are being used by unregistered practitioners, which are scattered in the remote hilly
and rural areas. These plants are used for primary health care and as household
remedies against several diseases. The uncontrolled and haphazard exploitation of
important medicinal and aromatic plants, such as Saussurea lappa, Podophyllum
emodi, Rheum emodi, Dioscorea deltoidea, Atropa acuminata, Angelica glauca,
Digitalis sp., Aconitum sp., Valeriana jatamansi, etc., presents imminent danger of
annihilation and lead to these species being scheduled in CITES (Convention of
International Trade of Endangered Species). There is a need for the protection of
natural habitats of medicinal and aromatic plant species to conserve genetic diver-
sity for the continuation of the evolutionary process. These genetic reservoirs can be
utilized for improving yield, resistance to diseases of field crops, genetic manipula-
tion, and biomedical research to fight fatal diseases like AIDS, hepatitis, cardiovas-
cular, cancer, etc. Similarly various plants have high-quality potential to manufacture
lifesaving and painkilling drugs from their derivatives like digitoxin and digoxin
derived from Digitalis purpurea used in the treatment of cardiovascular disease.
Azizol and Chang (2000) have worked over the manufacturing quality of herbal
medicines, and they reported appropriate cultivation and harvesting of plant mate-
rial being chief factors in good quality of medicines.
Murree is located in the district of Rawalpindi in Pakistan (Fig. 1). The area is
dominated by hills and slope. Lying in Himalayan foot hills at 33°54′30” north lati-
tude and 73°26′ east longitude, it has an altitude of 2286 m (Ahmed et al. 2013).
Having a cool and humid climate throughout the year supports the growth of variety
of trees and shrubs. Subtropical and moist temperate forests such as blue pine and
chir pine are abundant in the area. Angiosperms, ferns, and mosses are mainly found
as a vast spread on the ground.
In Murree, Pakistan, medicinal plants have been the main source of the life for
the people living within and around the study area. These people have deep knowl-
edge of the abundance, distribution, use, harvest, and market value of medicinal
plants. The aim of the current chapter is to reveal the availability of ethnobotanical
plant in the forests of Murree, Pakistan. The objectives of the chapter are to make an
inventory of medicinal, economic, and aromatic plants for the socioeconomic devel-
opment of the study area, to assess the present status of commercially important
medicinal and economic plants, and to explore the possibilities for sustainable
development of a medicinal plant by the involvement of rural communities (Table 1).
As per Table 2, 70 species of plants have been reported for high medicinal val-
ues, which were further categorized into 12 subgroups based on their specific dis-
ease treatment. Ahmed et al. (2013) reported similar results; most of the plants were
Therapeutic Characteristics of Murree Plants: An Emerging Feature 721
Fig. 1 Map of study area (outlined in red boundaries): Murree, Pakistan
Table 1 Classification of plants in Murree based on ethnobotany

Sr. No. Ethnobotanical uses Number of species Percentage
1 Medicinal species 70 51.3
2 Multipurpose plants 33 20
3 Fodder/forage species 27 16.6
4 Fuel wood species 21 14
5 Vegetables 8 6.6
6 Timber wood species 07 6
7 Roof thatching species 07 4.6
8 Wild fruits 06 4
9 Toolmaking species 06 4
10 Poisonous species 06 4
11 Veterinary important plants 05 2.6
12 Religious plants of Muslim 04 2.6
13 Fences/hedges species 05 2.6
14 Mud supporter 04 2.6
15 Blooming species 03 2
16 Evil repellent species 02 1.3
17 Honey bee species 02 1.3
Table 2 Ethnobotanical use of plants in Murree, Pakistan

Sr. Total
No. Diseases Botanical name species
1 Stomach and Mentha longifolia, Mentha viridis, Polygonatum 15
gastrointestinal multiflorum, Trachyspermum ammi, Bunium persicum,
problems Acorus calamus, Plantago lanceolata, P. ovata, Bergenia
ciliata, Rosa webbianum, R. moschata
2 Skin diseases, Verbascum thapsus, Aesculus indica, Urtica dioica, 10
itching, scabies, and Bergenia ciliata, Chenopodium album, Pistachio, Melia
eczema azedarach
3 General body tonic; Mows nigra, Paeonia emodi, Solanum nigrum, 10
backache, arthritis Asparagus spp., Viola serpens, Bistorta amplexicaule,
Juglans regia
4 Chest pain, fever, Berberis vulgaris, Allium sativum, Dioscorea deltoidea, 07
and sore throat Juniperus excelsa
5 Kidney stone and Aconitum leave, A. heterophyllum, Bergenia ciliata, 06
kidney problem Dioscorea deltoidea, Gentiana kurroo
6 Anthelmintic Valeriana jatamansi, Artemisia brevifolia, Bistorta 05
amplexicaule, Amaranthus viridis
7 Nervous disorder Cichorium intybus, Podophyllum hexandrum, Aconitum 04
leave, Atropa acuminata, Hypericum perforatum
8 Liver diseases and Cichorium intybus, Morus alba/nigra, Onosma hispida, 04
jaundice Rheum webbianum
9 Diabetes Hedera nepalensis, Rheum webbianum 03
10 Swelling Verbascum thapsus, Salvia 02
11 Cut and wound Berberis vulgaris, B. lycium 02
12 Laxative Corydalis govaniana, Digitalis lanata 02
used for therapeutic purpose, followed by fodder, while spiritual significance was
practiced by a few elders (Orr et al. 2017). The mentioned plants are categorized on
the basis of their medicinal effects against the diseases such as stomach and gastro-
intestinal problems (15 spp.); skin disease, scabies, eczema, and aching (10 spp.);
general body tonic and arthritis (10 spp.); sore throat, chest pain, and fever (7 spp.);
kidney stone (6 spp.); anthelmintic (5 spp.); liver diseases (4 spp.); swelling (2
spp.); cut and wound healing (2 spp.); nervous disorder (4 spp.); laxative (2 spp.);
and for the control of diabetes (3 spp.). Sustainable harvest of plants depends on
time, method of harvesting, and plant parts used. Therefore, information regarding
the use of specific parts of medicinal and aromatic plant species and their harvest
are also collected. Out of 70 medicinal plant species, 20 species have been catego-
rized on their parts used as roots and rhizomes, 18 as leaves, 16 as whole parts, 8 as
flowers, 6 as fruit and seeds, and 2 as barks.
The local medicinal uses of few high-value MAP species in terms of its tradi-
tional medicinal uses as the local community has strong faith on these few species
only the remaining are used in rare cases. Therefore, the current use of each species
is discussed as follows: the mixture of ghee and dried powdered rhizomes of
Aconitum leaf is helpful for curing lumbago problem and also for anorexia. Its dried
powdered rhizomes are cooked in goat’s ghee and taken orally for the treatment of
myalgia. Some of the local hakims (especially women) use their roots for abortion.
Aconitum heterophyllum has been similarly used to aconitum leaf but of inferior
quality. The fresh rhizomes of Bistorta amplexicaule are taken orally with a glass of
water for curing of joint pains in old age people. The fruits of Bunium persicum are
mainly collected for commercial purposes. It is used as a spice and condiment agent
at local and national levels. The rhizomes of C. govaniano are used to treat all kinds
of eye diseases and to improve eye sight. Ferula narthex is mixed with chicken soup
in the form of dried ground roots to be used orally for the treatment arthritis.
Ephedra gerardiana is used for fuel and snuff. Hippophae rhamnoides fruit is
mainly collected for commercial purposes, while in some sites its dried fruits are
taken orally with water for curing hypertension. Hyoscyamns niger, although locally
considered as poisonous, some local hakims use its fruits for curing epilepsy. The
leaves and young stem of Mentha longifolia are locally administered for curing of
diarrhea and dysentery and for aiding digestion. Young shoots of Nepeta cataria are
mainly collected for commercial purposes. Indigenous people also use the pow-
dered stem for external wound healing. The rhizomes of Rheum webbianum are
used for removal of kidney stone. The fruits of Trachyspermum ammi are used as a
stimulant carminative and antispasmodic agent. The flowers of Viola canescens are
helpful to improve eyesight.
According to Ahmed et al. (2013), ethnobotanical statistic shows that most plants
are used for medicinal and fodder purposes followed by fuel, fruit, vegetable, and
ethnoveterinary. There is also an established association of medicinal use of plants
to the fruits used. Non-woody plants have a high tendency toward the medicinal use
of the plants as compared to woody plants. Annual plants are less likely to be
directly associated with the medicinal use of plants in the surveyed vegetation.
Underground plant parts are also to be used for medicinal purposes as revealed from
the local discussion. In short, hilly areas, plants are very important by nutritional
and medicinal aspect (Orr et al. 2017). Further plants ethnography is better described
by (Casagrande 2002, Voeks 2009).
Local Knowledge About Plant Resources
It has been noted in Murree that local people have longed realized about aromatic
and medicinal plants. Out of 216 plant species, 160 species had been known locally
for various purposes, while the remaining 56 species were unknown to the inhabit-
ants of the area. Different people have the different level of knowledge, depending
on the social group, gender, and occupation, i.e., the Hakims having higher knowl-
edge about medicinal and aromatic plants than other people. Similarly, men usually
have extra knowledge than women, especially the elderly.
Availability and Distribution
MAP species and other forest resources like fodder, fuel, wood, and timber wood
spread in almost whole of the area under investigation. It is further noted that pattern
and distribution of individual species were different according to differences in
habitats, aspect, and altitude. Some species are quite abundant, and some are in the
restricted habitat of the study area. i.e., Bistorta amplexicaule, Mentha viridis/lon-
gifolia, Paeonia emodi, Polygonatum multiflorum/verticillatum exist abundantly.
Aconitum leave. Valeriana jatamansi, Podophyllum hexandrum, Dioscorea deltoid,
and Berberis vulgaris have been recorded in few sites. Similarly, Corydalis govani-
ana, Primula denticulate, Mentha longifolia, Viola serpents, and Valerian jatamansi
are restricted to moist and shady locations.
The distribution, pattern, and availability of valuable MAP species and other
economically important forest resources are depending on grazing, harvesting
intensity, habitat loss, and coniferous forest stand. For example, the population size
of some aromatic and medicinal plants (Dioscorea deltoidea, Podophyllum hexan-
drum, Viola serpens, Paeonia emodi, Valeriana jatamansi, and Berberis vulgaris)
are under high threat near residential area due to overgrazing and anthropogenic
activities. Higher rates of grazing and unsustainable harvesting were found in resi-
dential areas due to the rapid destruction of habitat for expansion of settlement and
agriculture purposes. Population size of these species was increasing with the rise in
altitude and in areas with dense coniferous forest. Locals have revealed the avail-
ability of these forest resources being very highly 30 years ago.
he Relation Between Exploitation of MAPs and Socioeconomic

T
Factors
The correlation analysis was conducted between exploitation and socioeconomic

factors of the study area. The results’ parameters showed significant negative cor-
relation with the family education level, which is defined in terms of family educa-
tion index (FEI). FEI simply indicates that harvesting of MAPs decreases as the
education level of family increases (Table 3). Farmers were found more involved in
the harvesting of MAPs. It was also found that the size of the landholding has a
significant negative correlation with the harvesting of MAP species. People having
enough food products and sources of income and do not prefer to practice the har-
vest and use of MAPs. Resultantly, the period of food shortage has a significant
positive correlation with the harvesting of MAPs. In addition, people with large
livestock herds have a significant positive correlation as they were harvesting more
MAP species more than others. The movements of livestock herders were found
different at different altitudes in different seasons. Household income from business
has revealed significant negative correlation. Harvestings of MAPs are found in
those people who are also having an alternate source of cash income. Because har-
vesting of MAPs is not productive like other businesses as results are shown in
table.
Deterioration of Ethnobotanical Species
Ethnobotanical information discusses the use of plants in a definite culture which

has been experienced throughout generations. Inhabitants of the area largely depend
on this plant association. Existing plant species do serve as multipurpose species: a
cure for ailments, fuel for cooking, wood for construction food and fodder for
humans and livestock, respectively. In spite of such dependence, these important
renewable natural resource has not been managed scientifically for its sustainable
production. Consequently various species are under risk of extinction in specific
Table 3 Correlation coefficients between exploitation of MAPs and socioeconomic factors of

medicinal and aromatic plants
Socioeconomic variables Correlation coefficients Significance level
Education index (family) −0.399 0.020*
Income generated from labor work −0.325 0.010*
Land ownership −0.412 0.050*
Income (total) −0267 Not significant
Food shortage period −0.423 0.020*
Livestock unit −0.456 0.010*
D.F = 33, NS = Non significant, *= Significant at 95% confidence interval
regions of the world (Sher et al. 2017; MacDicken 2015). Overexploitation at some
places has led to a state where certain plants have acquired the status of endangered
or even near extinction.
National flora has drastically deteriorated due to unchecked and unplanned
exploitation in the form of grazing beyond carrying capacity, illegal cutting, fre-
quent collection of medicinal plants, urbanization, and exploitation of agriculture
lands at the expense of forest ecosystem. Sher et al. (2015) reported that prevailing
activities like ruthless utilization of medicinal plants, nonsystematic grazing, and
harvesting had degraded the environment. Further, it has raised the endangered spe-
cies in the fragile ecosystem. Advance research in modern science has discovered
multiple medicinal effects of the existing plants. This development, in turn, has
further raised the frequency of cutting such tree species. It became essential to take
immediate steps for conservation and stabilization of trees as trees could play a
multipurpose role as well as medicinal and fodder. Being a common property
resource, active participation of the local communities to regenerate the ecosystem
under stress is very important.
Nutritional and Economic Value
It was revealed that multiple tree species have significant nutritional and economic
value for local villagers. The communities residing in the area draw benefits of
major and minor values from different species. Al-Yemeni and Sher (2010) reported
that in Sri Lanka, food scarcity had made bread fruit (Artocarpus otitis) as a supple-
ment food and even a substitute for a staple like rice. Numerous local fruit trees had
been used for the horticultural improvement of common varieties. Worth mention-
ing here is the use of root stock from such an indigenous flora. An extensive survey
should be carried out regarding nutritious species and their role in the daily life of
the people. Species like Juglans regia, Ficus carica, Diospyros lotus, Pyrus com-
munis, Morus nigra, and Morus alba are considered as nutritious species, and steps
should be taken for the conservation of these species.
There is a dire need to protect such deteriorating ecosystem to maintain the bal-
ance of a wide range of biodiversity and for the ultimate safe survival of our own
generations to come. Sher et al. (2014, 2015) also reported that northern areas of
Pakistan, including Swat, are major production sites for medicinal plants of eco-
nomic value. Trade business of these plants, as noticed in this study, is not simple as
it involves many stockholders. It includes a chain of beneficiaries, right from collec-
tors to middlemen to retailers and wholesalers. A large share of profits is fetched by
the wholesalers. Price of the production will considerably rise, provided it gets an
opportunity to access the international market.
Conclusion
Rosa damascene and Rheum webbianum are abundantly available in the Murree
area. Chinese scientists have been treating cancer with the oil extracted from the
Rheum webbianum species. Juice of fruits has a nutritional value and is taken as a
tonic. Furthermore, by developing small-scale enterprise like preparation of jams
and pickles, China has been carrying an annual profit of five million US dollars
from this single species. Rheum webbianum harness similar scope in Pakistan, par-
ticularly in Murree and allied areas. A multinational and integrated endeavor is
required to reverse the process of environmental degradation. It should keep in front
sociocultural attitudes and economic uplift of the local people while devising reha-
bilitation strategies. From a preservation point of view, in the initial phase, it would
be urgent and appropriate to establish conservation plots of adequate dimensions to
protect and nurse the medicinal and aromatic plants. Establishing community-based
small-scale enterprise is essential to local conservation. Profit sharing within the
community will raise the feeling of ownership regarding common property resource.
This part leads to creating awareness and inculcates knowledge regarding potential
medicinal and aromatic plant resources, in particular, and forest resources.
Documentation of local knowledge about medicinal plants transferring from older
generations to their descendants must also be prioritized.
References
Abbasi AM, Khan MA, Ahmed M, Zafar M (2010) Herbal medicines used to cure various ail-
Journal Traditional Knowledge 9:175–183
Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of plants in Patriata, New Murree, evidence from
Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 9:13
Azizol AK, Chang YS (2000) Production of quality herbal medicine towards the 21st century
Bussmann R, Sharon D, Ly J (2008) From garden to market? The cultivation of native and intro-
duced medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications for habitat conservation.
Ethnobot Res Appl 6:351–361
Casagrande, D. G. (2002) Ecology, cognition, and cultural transmission of Tzeltal Maya medicinal
plant knowledge. Uga
de Boer HJ, Lamxay V, Björk L (2012) Comparing medicinal plant knowledge using similarity
indices: a case of the Brou, Saek and Kry in Lao PDR. J Ethnopharmacol 141:481–500
Hamilton A (2013) Plant conservation: an ecosystem approach. Routledge
Joppa LN, Roberts DL, Pimm SL (2010) How many species of flowering plants are there? Proc
Royal Soc Lond B Biol Sci rspb20101004
Khan B, Abdukadir A, Qureshi R, Mustafa G (2011) Medicinal uses of plants by the inhabitants of
Khunjerab National Park, Gilgit, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:2301–2310
Lange D (1997) Trade in plant material for medicinal and other purposes. Traffic Bull 17:21–32
Larsen HO, Olsen CS (2007) Unsustainable collection and unfair trade? Uncovering and assessing
assumptions regarding Central Himalayan medicinal plant conservation. Biodivers Conserv
16:1679–1697
MacDicken KG (2015) Global forest resources assessment 2015: what, why and how? Forest Ecol
Manage 352:3–8
Ntie-Kang F, Lifongo LL, Mbaze LMA, Ekwelle N, Owono LCO, Megnassan E, Judson PN, Sippl
W, Efange SMN (2013) Cameroonian medicinal plants: a bioactivity versus ethnobotanical
survey and chemotaxonomic classification. BMC Complement Altern Med 13:147
Orr DJ, Jernigan KA, Belichenko OS, Kolosova VB (2017) Naukan ethnobotany in post-Soviet
times: lost edibles and new medicinals. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 13:61
Paton AJ, Brummitt N, Govaerts R l, Harman K, Hinchcliffe S, Allkin B, Lughadha EN (2008)
Towards target 1 of the global strategy for plant conservation: a working list of all known plant
species—progress and prospects. Taxon 57:602–611
Sher H, Aldosari A, Ali A, de Boer HJ (2014) Economic benefits of high value medicinal plants
to Pakistani communities: an analysis of current practice and potential. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed
10:71
Sher H, Al-Yemeni M, Sher H (2010) Forest resource utilization assessment for economic develop-
ment of rural community in northern parts of Pakistan. J Medicinal Plants Res 4:1786–1789
Sher H, Barkworth ME, de Boer HJ (2017) Medicinal and aromatic plant cultivation in the swat
valley, North-Western Pakistan, for economic development and biodiversity conservation.
Genet Resour Crop Evol 64:237–245
Voeks RA (2009) Traditions in transition: African diaspora ethnobotany in lowland South America.
In: Alexiades M (ed) Mobility and migration in indigenous Amazonia: contemporary ethnoeco-
logical perspectives, vol 11. Berghahn, London, pp 275–294
Plant Resources and Human Ecology
of Tarnawai area, District Abbottabad,
Pakistan
Raheela Taj, Inayat Ur Rahman, Abbas Hussain Shah, Shujaul Mulk Khan,

Aftab Afzal, Niaz Ali, Zafar Iqbal, and Farhana Ijaz
Introduction to Human Ecology and Natural Resources
Tarnawai is one of the major part of the Union Council Banda Pir Khan of Abbottabad
District. It is located at an elevation of 1524 m. It is at distance of about 27 km from
Abbottabad city. It is situated between 34°16′15’ North and 73°17′47’ East. Banda
Pir Khan is one of the 51 union councils of Abbottabad District in KPK, Pakistan. It
is located in the north west of Abbottabad city near the border with Mansehra
District. According to the 1998 Census, the total population of Banda Pir Khan is
25,385. This union council consists of the following areas: Banda Pir Khan,
Mandroch, Samesar, Bandi Dhundan, Tarnawai and Garlaniyan. Qalandarabad is
the main junction of the union council. Abbottabad District takes its name from the
city of Abbottabad named after Major James Abbott, the first deputy commissioner
of Hazara who served from 1849 to 1853 under the British colonial administration
of India. The area is scenic and its location at the base of the Himalayas. It has a
temperate climate almost throughout the year. It is situated between 33°50′ and
34°23’ north and 73°35′ and 73°31′ east. Abbottabad is bordered by Mansehra
District in the north, Muzaffarabad and Rawalpindi districts in the east, Haripur and
Rawalpindi districts in the south, and Haripur district in the west. It is spread over
an area of 1967 km2. The average elevation of peaks ranges from 2500 to 2700 m in
the district. These mountains form a part of lesser Himalayas and dominate the
R. Taj · I. U. Rahman · A. Afzal · N. Ali · Z. Iqbal · F. Ijaz

Department of Botany, Hazara Universit, Mansehra, Pakistan
A. H. Shah
Department of Botany, GPGC, Mansehra, Pakistan
S. M. Khan (*)
e-mail: [email protected], https://www.qau.edu.pk/profile.php?id=804024

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_22
732 R. Taj et al.
landscape (Pastakia 2004). Miranjani and Mushkpuri are the highest peaks of the
district. The soil of Abbottabad is rich in minerals, containing biotite, granite, lime-
stone, slate, soapstone, quartz, etc. Phosphate stones are extracted from Kakool and
Tarnawai. Most of the soil is gray in color (under moist forest) and coarse in texture.
Abbottabad has a humid subtropical climate, with mild to warm temperatures dur-
ing spring and autumn, hot temperatures during June and July, and cool to mild
temperatures during winter. The temperature rises as high as 38 °C (100 °F) during
mild summer months and drops below -5 °C (23 °F) during extreme cold waves.
Snowfall occurs occasionally in December and January. Abbottabad District lies
within active monsoon zone and due to which receives heavy rainfall in the monsoon.
The population of the Abbottabad District was 881,000 according to the 1998
Census. The most frequently spoken language in Abbottabad is Hindko and Gujri.
Besides this, Panjabi, Pashto, and Urdu are also spoken here. Most of the district’s
tribes belong to Abbasi, Dhund, Sardar, Jadoon, Karlal, Syed, and Tanoli tribes.
The area of Abbottabad District is 1967 km2 and is situated in the Orash Valley
at an elevation of 4120 feet (1260 m). It is located in predominantly mountainous
terrain. The average peak elevation in the district ranges from 2500 to 2700 m. The
elevation of the Miranjani peak is 3313 m, and it is the highest peak (Pastakia 2004).
On the north of Abbottabad side, Kaghan valley is located.
The soil of Abbottabad is rich in minerals. It contains deposits of limestone, gran-
ite, phosphate, and soapstone. These minerals are deposited in the hills as well as
deposited on the valley floors. The soil is coarse in texture and gray in color. The big
mines of phosphate are present in Abbottabad. The phosphate stones are extracted
from Kakool and village Tarnawai.
Abbottabad lies in the humid subtropical zone. Abbottabad’s summer starts a
little late and is relatively mild. Temperature begins to rise in the month of May and
begins to drop in the months of September and October. In severe winter, heavy
snowfall occurs in the higher elevations causing the snowline to drop to around
1650 m. The average precipitation received by land is 60% during July to August
and 40% received during September and June. The population of Abbottabad
District was 881,000 in the 1998 Census, and according to 2017, the urban popula-
tion of Abbottabad is 157,699, and the population of rural area is 723,301.
The Abbottabad District has high standard educational institutions, and people
are attracted toward its educational systems all over Pakistan. Sometimes Abbottabad
is also known as “The city of Schools.” It is a home to a number of training institutes,
schools, and colleges. The literacy ratio is 56.6% in district, which includes 74.5%
male and 39.1% female. The local language in Abbottabad is Hindko. It is spoken
by 94% of the rural population and 75% by urban population. Pashto and Urdu also
have been spoken by urban population. According to the 1998 Census, overall
employment in the district is as high as 31.13%. 31.84% of the district’s men and
only 1.05% of women are unemployed. 30.4% of the rural people are unemployed
while 33.5% of the city dwellers are jobless. About 1072 health institutes have been
established in Abbottabad District. Poverty is prevalent in the district and its
proportion is assuming with the passage of time. About 51% of the district’s
population lies below the poverty line, and 30% of the population belongs to middle
group.
Plant Resources and Human Ecology of Tarnawai area, District Abbottabad, Pakistan 733
Abbottabad District accounts for 5.4 of the province forest resources. Forests of

Abbottabad District cover 36,394.6 acres. Parks and protected areas are also present
here, e.g., Ayubia National Park and Qalandarabad game reserve area. Tarnawai
game reserve forest is also present in the study area. The economy of Abbottabad
depends upon natural resources and agriculture. Small part of the land is under
cultivation. Fruits and nut crops are also cultivated in Abbottabad, e.g., pear, plum,
apricot, walnut, etc. Abbottabad is rich with highly medicinal plants with 43
varieties. Abbottabad has been attracting the tourist to its beautiful scenery since the
colonial era, and it is a major transit point to all major tourist regions in Pakistan
such as Ayubia, Nathiagali, Dunga Gali, Harnoi, etc. On October 8, 2005, Abbottabad
District was badly affected by an earthquake. Although most of the citizens survived,
many older buildings were destroyed or severely damaged. Flora and fauna of the
area was also adversely affected.
Ethnobotany
Indigenous knowledge is as old as human civilization. The word “ethnobotany”

literally means the study of botany of the primitive human race. Ethnobotany is the
association between cultural anthropology and botany, investigating the uses of
plants as medicine, nourishment, and natural resources. In 1986, the term ethno-
botany was published by Hershberger and suggested that it is a field which “indi-
cates the cultural positions of tribes who used the plants for food, shelter, or
clothing.” In this way this term began to be used, and a new field was opened.
Ethnobotany is the study about tribal and rural people for recording their
unique information about plant wealth and for search of sources of herbal medi-
cines, edible, and other aspects of plants (Jain 1991). In many cases the purpose
of ethnobotanical studies by botanists has followed the tradition of early naturalist
who reported the various uses of plants by primitive cultures for possible inclu-
sion in home country economy. Schulte has drawn attention to his tradition by
quoting Hershberger’s advice that by studying primitive cultures, we can find the
valuable characteristics they have used in their wildlife, which may fill some
niche in our own.
Ethnobotany is an interdisciplinary science, which includes aspects of both
the science and humanities. Ethnobotany serves as a gateway to various disciplines.
The listing of plants of ethnobotanical value is important for evaluating human-
plant relationship (Bye 1979) and for understanding the regional human ecology
relations to their environment (Alcorn 1981). Thus ethnobotany has emerged as a
multidisciplinary science involving sociology, ecology, botany, anthropology,
forestry, agriculture, mythology, pharmacology, economics, literature, phytochemistry,
and veterinary medicine.
Pakistan has nine different ecological zones, which have over 6000 unique plant
species. Due to its climate, Pakistan is quite rich in medicinal plants mostly herbs
734 R. Taj et al.
which are spread over a large area. These herbs are mostly growing in the wild, and
methodical selection also has been made to collect and cultivate them.
About 5691 known species of flowering plants are present in Pakistan, and 1010
of them can be classified as medicinal (Stewart 1972). In Pakistan mostly medicinal
herbs are primarily used by Tibbi Dawakhanas. Allopathic herbal medicines are
prepared from these medicinal plants and have high cost. Medicinal plants are also
used as a traditional medicine in rural areas as a more appropriate method of
treatment.
Local people are fundamentally involved in all stages of research, so it is a better
chance of “buy in” and more robust solutions. Among the parts of plant species,
seeds, fruits, flowers, leaves, roots, bark, frond, tubers, rhizome, and bulbs are
commonly used. A Hazara region is the most important market for crude drugs.
These drugs are easily available on cheap prices. Among the commercially exploited
drugs, Viola canescens, Berberis lycium, Papaver somniferum, Bergenia ciliata,
Acacia modesta, and Pistacia chinensis fetch a high price. Rates of Viola canescens,
Berberis lycium, Acacia modesta, and Bergenia ciliata are increasing day by day
due to decline in availability. Dafni et al. (2005) conducted a survey on ethnobotany
of Ziziphus spina-christi in the Middle East for various aspects. Historical, religious,
linguistic, as well as pharmacological evidences from Muslims, Jews, and
Christians customs suggested that this is the only tree considered “Holly” by
Muslims in addition to its status as “sacred tree” in the Middle East. It has also a
special status as a “blessed tree” among Druze.
The study area being the part of Hazara division shows rich floristic diversity,
and this study will explore the ethnobotanical resources of the area and prove very
much helpful in future research as well.
The study area was selected for ethnobotanical study because this area was unex-
plored due to difficult paths and shortage of a lot of facilities, e.g., roads, vans,
hotels, restaurants, etc. So, the current study was designed to explore the floral
checklist and document the indigenous knowledge of ethnoecologically important
species of the study area.
Field Survey and Field Work
A field survey was conducted during 2016–2017 to access the different plants in
Tarnawai, Abbottabad District. A total of eight trips were made to the study area for
the collection of data regarding plant species. A questionnaire method was adopted
to collect information about plants from local communities. Face-to-face interviews
were also taken from different peoples and data collected from different places in
the study area. Data were based on common name of the plant, botanical name,
family, habit, habitat, locality, part used, and pattern of use. Interviews were taken
randomly from 89 people including males and females belonging to different tribes
from different localities. The areas under survey were Biyang, Chikiar, Gidar banna,
Kalu Bandi, Rarkandi, and Jabbri in Tarnawai, Abbottabad. Field notebook, pen or
pencil, polythene bags, tags, trowel, scissors, camera, newspaper, presser, cutter,
umbrella, and GPS were used during the survey (Ijaz 2014).
The plants were collected in spring season (March to April) and summer season
(June to July). The plants were properly dried and pressed by using a newspaper for
about 2–4 weeks at normal temperature. Then the plants were treated or poisoned
with chemical solution for preservation and mounted on standard herbarium sheets.
Then data were shifted from a field notebook on herbarium label of standard
herbarium sheets. This herbarium label is always pasted on the right side of the
herbarium sheets (Ijaz 2014; Rahman et al. 2016a, b). The size of the herbarium
sheet is standardized (11.5 × 16.5) (Ijaz 2014). The specimens were identified by
using relevant materials and Flora of Pakistan (Stewart 1967–72). Plants species
were also photographed. The specimens were also verified. The specimens were
deposited in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, Govt. Post Graduate College,
Mansehra (Pakistan).
Survey on Cultural Knowledge
The culturally significant plants were collected from Tarnawai area. The plants were
classified on the basis of their utility in the area. For ethnobotanical information of
the area, local people were interviewed. A total of 89 people were interviewed
including 51% female, followed by 45% male and 4% hakims. A questionnaire was
constructed, and a survey was conducted at different localities in the study area. The
data noted on questionnaires were according to field observations (Ijaz 2014).
Documentation and Ethnobotanical Exploration
Field visits were undertaken together with local communities to identify the plant
specimens of household importance, medicinal importance, and economic value.
Plant species used for different purposes were recorded along with the data on their
local names, parts used, and modes of utilization. A comprehensive list was
prepared. In order to verify the information, queries were made for the same plant
and same uses, from different individuals at different areas.
Statistical Analysis
The recorded data were analyzed via using statistical indices, Use Value Index
(UVI), and Relative Frequency Citations (RFCs) (Ijaz et al. 2016; Rahman et al.
2016a, b).
736 R. Taj et al.
Use Value Index (UVi)
To know about the importance of ethno species, the use value index (UVi) was
applied to give a quantitative form of its relative importance to the plants neutrally
(Philips et al. 1994; Rahman et al. 2016a, b). This study evaluates the relative
importance of each ethno species, based on relative use between informants. The
use value was calculated by applying the following formula.
UVi = ∑ Ui / Ni
Ui is the number of use for a given plant species reports cited by each informant.
N is the total number of informants interviewed for a given plant species.
Relative Frequency Citations (RFCs)
Relative frequency of citation was used to determine the local importance of each
plant species by using the following formula (Rahman et al. 2016a, b).
RFCs = FCs / N
FCs is the number of informants who mentioned the use of plant species.
N is the total number of informants.
Observations
Ethno-ecological data was recorded from 89 informants including 40 (45%) male,

45 (51%) female, and 4 (4%) hakims. These informants are belonging to different
tribes such as Sardar, Karlal, Awan, Syed, Abbasi, and Dhund tribes. The most
frequently informants belong to the Sardar Gujjars families. Old age people have
more information about traditional plants than the youngsters and non-educated.
Floristic Diversity
In the present study, 71 plant species were documented from the study area. These
are being potentially used ethno-ecologically by local communities. Based on habit
form these species can be categorized into 18 trees (25% share), 8 shrubs
(11% share), and 45 herbs (64% share) (Fig. 1). The recorded plant species are
Fig. 1 Plant habit of the

recorded plant species of
the study area
belonging to 37 families and 63 genera. In study area, a total of 37 families are

recorded. Rosaceae is the largest represented plant family with 8 plant species fol-
lowed by Poaceae (5 spp.), Asteraceae (4 spp.), Brassicaceae (3 spp.), Lamiaceae (3
spp.), Solanaceae (3 spp.), Moraceae (3 spp.), Fabaceae (3 spp.), Amaranthaceae (2
spp.), Euphorbiaceae (2 spp.), Polygonaceae (2 spp.), Umbelliferae (2 spp.),
Pinaceae (2 spp.), Rutaceae (2 spp.), Caryophyllaceae (2 spp.), Liliaceae (2 spp.),
Rhamnaceae (2 spp.), Pteridaceae (2 spp.), Berberidaceae (1 sp.), Saxifragaceae (1
sp.), Punicaceae (1 sp.), Rubiaceae (1 sp.), Meliaceae (1 sp.), Valerianaceae (1 sp.),
Violaceae (1 sp.), Vitaceae (1 sp.), Fagaceae (1 sp.), Oleaceae (1 sp.), Juglandaceae
(1 sp.), Ebenaceae (1 sp.), Oxalidaceae (1 sp.), Malvaceae (1 sp.), Plantaginaceae (1
sp.), Cannabaceae (1 sp.), Convolvulaceae (1 sp.), Fumariaceae (1 sp.), and
Chenopodiaceae (1 sp.) in terms of species utilization by the local communities. A
total of 63 genera have been identified from the study area, including family 4 from
family Rosaceae, followed by families like Poaceae (5 genera), Asteraceae (4),
Brassicaceae (3), Solanaceae (3), Fabaceae (3), Lamiaceae (3), Moraceae (2),
Pteridaceae (2), Liliaceae (2), Amaranthaceae (2), Rutaceae (2), Caryophyllaceae
(2) Euphorbiaceae (2), Umbelliferae (2), Punicaceae (1), Rhamnaceae (1),
Valerianaceae (1), Rubiaceae (1), Meliaceae (1), Violaceae (1), Polygonaceae (1),
Vitaceae (1), Fagaceae (1), Oleaceae (1), Juglandaceae (1), Ebenaceae (1),
Berberidaceae (1), Saxifragaceae (1), Punicaceae (1), Oxalidaceae (1), Malvaceae
(1), Plantaginaceae (1), Cannabaceae (1), Convolvulaceae (1), Fumariaceae (1), and
Chenopodiaceae (1).
738 R. Taj et al.
Ethno-Ecological Use Categories
Survey conducted in the study area shows the highest number of plant species are
used medicinally by local people belonging to diverse families. This survey was
carried out in the field to document the traditional knowledge pertinent to ethnobo-
tanical and ethnoecological uses prevailing in the area. The documented data
revealed that a maximum number of species were reported to be used for medicinal
purposes, 43 (43%) followed by vegetables, 20 (19%), fodder, 13 (12%), fuel, 15
(14%), timber, 12 (11%), and ornamental purposes, 3 (3%) as mentioned by the
informants (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Fig. 2 Ethnoecological uses of plants

categories of the recorded
plant species of the study Ornamental
area 3% Timber
11%
Fodder Medicinal
12% 41%
Fuel
14%
Vegetables
19%
Fig. 3 Range of ethnobotanical categories

45
Medicinal
40
Taxa (95% confidencel
35
30
25
20 Vegetables
15 Fuel
Timber
10 Fodder
5
0 Ornamental
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Specimens
Fig. 4 Distribution of species in association with ethnobotanical categories
Fig. 5 Correlation among ethnobotanical categories
Classification of Diseases
The reported plant species in the area shows that 43 plants species are used differ-
ently for 35 various diseases by inhabitants (Tables 1 and 2). Local people of the
study area use plants for various purposes i.e., stomach acidity (9 species), stomach-
ache (6 species), pimples and skin pox (6 species), dental problems (5 species),
cough and cold (5 species), constipation (5 species), diabetes (4 species), hepatitis
(4 species), wound and bleeding (4 species), blood purifier (4 species), dysentery (3
740 R. Taj et al.
Table 1 Folk recipes of ethnomedicinal plant species of the study area

S. No Botanical name Folk recipe
1 Achyranthes aspera Fresh juice of leaves is applied in piles and other wounds. Ash of
L. plant is added to honey and used in treatment of cough and
asthma. Roots are also used for cleaning teeth
2 Adiantum raddianum Stem and leaves are crushed into powder, and mixed with water to
C. Presl. use for hepatitis, stomach burn, heartburn, and headache
3 Ajuga integrifolia Leaves are crushed and mixed with water and then used as a juice
Buch.-Ham. before breakfast for stomach acidity and blood purification, and
juice is also put in the ear for ear pain
4 Aloe vera (L.) Juice of stem is used as a blood purifier and also used for stomach
Burm.f. acidity and stomach burn. Juice is also taken for diabetes, cancer,
and pimples on face
5 Amaranthus viridis Aerial part of plant is cooked and used as a vegetable to cure the
L. inflammation of the pharynx
6 Artemisia Leaves are crushed and made into paste and placed under the
absinthium L. teeth for cavities
7 Berberis lycium Roots are dried, crushed, and made into powder and applied on
Royle. wounds and also used for bone pain and joint pain. Bark of roots
are put off and chewed for cough
8 Bergenia ciliata Roots are crushed into powder, and mixed with water to use for
(Haw.) Sternb. stomach burn and heartburn problems
9 Cannabis sativa L. Leaves are crushed and mixed in water to make juice, added with
milk and use to feel high and relax
10 Capsella bursa- Whole plant is crushed, and one spoon of powder leaves are taken
pastoris L. every month for menstrual cycle when too early (8, 10, 15 days
early)
11 Capsicum annum L. Seeds of fruits are placed under the teeth for tooth pain and
cavities
12 Centaurea iberica Plant fresh leaves are ground and mixed with water for use in case
Trevir. ex Spreng. of gastric problems
13 Citrus medica L. The lemon juice is mixed in curee (chicken soup) and taken as
blood purifier. The fruit is rubbed on the face to remove pimples
and on the face skin
14 Convolvulus arvensis Roots are crushed to make a shake for use in case of diarrhea and
L. stomachache. Hairs are washed with juice of Convolvulus
arvensis to remove dandruff, and the roots can also be used to
treat liver inflammation
15 Cichorium intybus L. Roots are boiled in water to make tea for vomiting and fever.
Roots are soaked in water during the night and then the juice is
taken before breakfast for diabetes
16 Cynodon dactylon L. Whole plant is crushed and taken with water for vomiting
17 Dryopteris patens Leaves of Dryopteris are crushed and applied on burning part of
(SW.)D. Ktze., the body
C. Chr.
18 Euphorbia Plant milk is applied on skin and used to cure skin rashes. It is
helioscopia L. also used for cholera
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
19 Foeniculum vulgare Edible fruit helps in digestion
Mill.
20 Fumaria indica Whole plant is crushed to make powder and a spoon of that
(Hauskn) Pugsley. powder is taken with honey to cure vomiting
21 Galium aparine L. Fresh plant juice is used to cure wounds, ulcers, and other skin
problems
22 Juglans regia L. Leaves and twigs of Juglans regia are used as a toothbrush for
cleaning the teeth
23 Malva neglecta L. The older leaves are boiled in water and then made into paste and
used for headache
24 Medicago truncatula Leaves are used as vegetables to cure the chest pain, cough, and
Gaerth. cold
25 Melia azedarach L. Fruits are crushed to make powder to be taken with water for
constipation and piles. Fruits are also used in making shampoo
26 Mentha longifolia Whole plant is dried and crushed to make powder that is used then
(L.) L. in case of stomach acidity, stomach pain, cholera and dysentery.
Leaves are crushed and mixed with yogurt for use as a
food supplement
27 Morus alba L. Edible fruits are used to cure the stomach acidity
28 Nasturtium officinale Leaves are cooked and eaten as vegetables for the death of
R. Br. cancerous cells
29 Olea ferruginea Leaves are boiled and made into tea and taken for cough and cold
Royle.
30 Oxalis corniculata Leaves are used as vegetables eaten for stomach acidity and
L. dysentery
31 Plantago lanceolata Leaves are crushed and mixed into water to make juice to cure
L. cholera, nausea, and dysentery. Juice is also used for ear pain
32 Punica granatum L. Carp of fruit is crushed, made into powder, and mixed with water
to cure dysentery and cholera. Seeds of fruits and green chillies
are crushed and used as “chatni” in meal
33 Pyrus pashia Fruits are eaten to cure kidney stone and for dysentery
Buch.-ham. ex
D. Don.
34 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Roots of Rubus ellipticus and Rumex hastatus are boiled and used
as a tea for hepatitis B and C
35 Rumex hastatus L. Roots are boiled and made into tea and used for hepatitis,
tuberculosis, and kidney stone. Stem and leaves are crushed into
powder and applied on wounds and also used to control bleeding
36 Solanum nigrum L. Leaves are crushed and mixed in water and used as juice for
abdominal insects in children
37 Triticum aestivum L. Grains of wheat are soaked in water, crushed, and then made into
powder called “nishasta” used for body strengthening
38 Valeriana wallichii Leaves are crushed and made into powder and used with water for
DC. skin rashes and skin pox. Powder of roots are mixed with flour
and given to cattle for tuberculosis
(continued)
742 R. Taj et al.
Table 1 (continued)
39 Viola canescens Flowers are boiled and used as tea for cough, cold, flu, and
wall. asthma
40 Vitis vinifera L. Dried fruits of Vitis vinifera are eaten to cure chickenpox
41 Zanthoxylum Twigs are used as a brush for cleaning teeth. Fruits are ground
armatum DC. with Punica granatum's seeds and leaves of mint to make
“chatni,” to reduce stomach acidity and stomachache
42 Ziziphus nummularia Leaves are crushed and mixed in water to make juice and is then
(Burm.f.) Wight Qs used to reduce high sugar level
Arn.
43 Ziziphus oxyphylla Roots are crushed into powder, and mixed with water to cure
Edgew. hepatitis. Leaves are crushed and applied on skin pox and skin
tumor as well
species), asthma (3 species), liver inflammation (3 species), vomiting (3 species),

fever (3 species), kidney stone (2 plant species), cholera (2 species), tuberculosis (2
species), skin rashes (2 species), headache (2 species), ear pain (2 species), cancer
(2 species), piles (2 species), sugar (1 species), joint pain (1 species), burning part
(1 species), abdominal worm (1 species), chickenpox (1 species), chest pain (1 spe-
cies), menstrual problem (1 species), freshness (1 species), dandruff (1 species),
pharynx inflammation (1 species), body strengthening (1 species), and ulcer (1 spe-
cies) (Fig. 6).
Among vegetables, Solanum nigrum, Malva neglecta, Lamium amplexicaule,
Oxalis corniculata, Traxicum officinale, Medicago truncatula, Nasturtium officinale,
Ficus carica, Capsicum frutescens, Amaranthus viridis, and Zanthoxylum
armatum have medicinal importances as well and hence used for by local
communities for double purposes, e.g., to treat asthma, cough, fever, dental
problems, ear pain, abdominal worms, death of cancers cells, pharynx inflammation,
headache, and fever (Table 2). Mentha longifolia is used for digestive problems and
also used in food. All the above plant species are wild but not cultivated specially
for diseases except Capsicum frutescens, cultivated especially for vegetables. When
all the above mentioned wild plant species would be cultivated on large scale by the
inhabitants for vegetable and nmedicine purposes, this could be a profitable source
as for their socioeconomies.
Prunus armeniaca, Prunus domestica, Malus domestica, Rubus ellipticus, and
other many plant species were used as fodder for cattle in the study area (Table 3).
Grazing is one of the common and usual practices for cows, goats, sheep, and
buffaloes, and these domestic animals fulfill their dairy requirements from the local
plant species as fodder and improve the local micro economy. As we know, grasses
are the major source of fodder for cattles of the local people. Among grasses
Cynodon dactylon is mostly grazed by the animals and is sometimes stored in dry
form for winter use as well. Triticum aestivum (wheat) is the most important and
cultivated crop in Pakistan. The fruits of various plants species are used by local
inhabitants including Ficus carica, Morus nigra, Morus alba, Malus domestica,
Table 2 Ethnomedicinal plants of Tarnawai, Abbottabad District
S. No. Botanical name Vernacular name Family Habit Part used Medicinal use UVi RFCs
1 Achyranthes aspera L. Puthkanda Amaranthaceae Herb Whole plant Respiratory problems, piles, wound, 0.71 0.27
dental problems
2 Adiantum raddianum C. Presl Kukwai Pteridaceae Herb Stem, leaves Hepatitis, stomach acidity, fever, and 0.69 0.22
headache
3 Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-ham. Kori boti, manji Lamiaceae Herb Leaves Stomach acidity, blood purifier, ear pain 0.89 0.35
boti
4 Aloe vera (l.)Burm.f. Koar gandal Liliaceae Herb Stem Blood purifier, digestive problems, 0.77 0.27
anti-cancerous, diabetes
5 Amaranthus viridis L. Chalaira Amaranthaceae Herb Whole plant For pharynx inflammation 0.71 0.22
6 Artemisia absinthium L. Chauu Asteraceae Herb Leaves Dental problems 0.59 0.22
7 Berberis lycium Royle. Sumbal Berberidaceae Shrub Root Joint pain, cough, and healing wound 0.95 0.44
8 Bergenia ciliata(haw.) Sternb Bhatpy Saxifragaceae Herb Root Stomach acidity 0.92 0.39
9 Cannabis sativa L. Phang Cannabaceae Herb Whole plant Freshness, excitement 0.83 0.34
10 Capsella bursa pastoris (L.) Chambraka/ Brassicaceae Herb Leaves Menstrual problems 0.66 0.24
Medik chapatra
11 Capsicum annuum L. Neli mirch Solanaceae Herb Fruit Dental problems 0.84 0.29
12 Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex Kanda Boti Asteraceae Herb Leaves Gastric problems 0.30 0.12
Spreng
13 Citrus medica L. Nimboo Rutaceae Shrub Fruit Blood purifier, skin problems 0.70 0.24
14 Convolvulus arvensis L. Erli Convolvulaceae Herb Root Anti-inflammation for liver, dandruff 0.76 0.29
15 Cichorium intybus L. Kasni Asteraceae Herb Root Vomiting, fever, diabetes 0.85 0.33
16 Cynodon dactylon L. Khabal Poaceae Herb Whole plant Vomiting, nausea 0.37 0.15
17 Dryopteris patens (SW.) Alfi Pteridaceae Herb Leaves Burn part of the body 0.33 0.10
O.Ktze.,C.Chr
Plant Resources and Human Ecology of Tarnawai area, District Abbottabad, Pakistan
18 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Dodhal Euphorbiaceae Herb Stem Skin rashes, cholera 0.49 0.20
19 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Sonf Umbelliferae Herb Fruit Digestive problems 0.90 0.40
(continued)
743
744
Table 2 (continued)
20 Fumaria indica (Hausskn) Pappra Fumariaceae Herb Whole plant Blood purifier, vomiting 0.47 0.20
Pugsley.
21 Galium aparine L. Unknown Rubiaceae Herb Leaves, stem Ulcer, wound, skin problems 0.61 0.21
22 Juglans regia L. Khorri Juglandaceae Tree Leaves, stem Dental cavities 0.98 0.46
23 Malva neglecta L. Sonchal Malvaceae Herb Leaves Headache, fever 0.80 0.31
24 Medicago truncatula Gaerth. Sinjii Fabaceae Herb Leaves, stem Respiratory diseases 0.81 0.34
25 Melia azedarach L. Daraik Meliaceae Tree Fruit Gastrointestinal problems 0.73 0.33
26 Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Poodna Lamiaceae Herb Leaves Digestive problems 0.90 0.40
27 Morus alba L. Chitta tut Moraceae Tree Fruit Stomach acidity 0.71 0.33
28 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Tarameera Brassicaceae Herb Leaves Anti-cancerous 0.76 0.28
29 Olea ferruginea Royle. Kauu Oleaceae Tree Leaves Respiratory problems 0.77 0.34
30 Oxalis corniculata L. Khatkurla Oxalidaceae Herb Leaves, stem Digestive problems 0.42 0.16
31 Plantago lanceolata L. Chamchipatra Plantaginaceae Herb Leaves Ear pain, gastrointestinal problems 0.84 0.36
32 Punica granatum L. Drunna Punicaceae Shrub Fruit Antidiarrheal, dysentery, cholera 0.91 0.44
33 Pyrus pashia Buch.-ham.Ex D. Batangi Rosaceae Tree Fruit Kidney stone and dysentery 0.84 0.29
Don.
34 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Garacha Rosaceae Shrub Root Hepatitis B and C 0.38 0.15
35 Rumex hastatus L. Khatimal Polygonaceae Herb Root, stem, Hepatitis, tuberculosis, kidney stone, 0.89 0.28
leaves wound, and bleeding
R. Taj et al.
36 Solanum nigrum L. Kachmach Solanaceae Herb Leaves Diabetes, abdominal worm 0.76 0.33
37 Triticum aestivum L. Karrank Poaceae Herb Seed Body strengthened 0.72 0.24
38 Valeriana wallichii DC. Mushk bala Valerianaceae Herb Leaves, root Skin rashes and skin pox 0.54 0.15
39 Viola canescens wall. Banafsha Violaceae Herb Flower Cough, cold, and asthma 0.76 0.31
40 Vitis vinifera L. Daakh Vitaceae Herb Fruit Chickenpox 0.61 0.25
41 Zanthoxylum Timber Rutaceae Shrub Fruit, stem Stomachache, stomach acidity, dental 0.81 0.33
armatum DC. problems
42 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Sinjli Rhamnaceae Tree Fruits, leaves Sugar 0.69 0.25
Wight Qs Arn.
43 Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. Phitni Rhamnaceae Shrub Root, leaves Hepatitis, skin pox 0.42 0.11
Plant Resources and Human Ecology of Tarnawai area, District Abbottabad, Pakistan
745
746 R. Taj et al.
Medicinal Fuel
Vegetables Timber
Fodder Ornamental
0.96
0.80
0.64
Correlation
0.48
0.32
0.16
0.00
-0.16
-0.32
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Lag
Fig. 6 Various ailments treated by plant species of the study area
Prunus persica, P. domestica, P. armeniaca, Pyrus communis, and Vitis vinifera in

both dried and fresh form. Presently these species are under pressure due to defor-
estation. Juglans regia, Pinus wallichiana, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus spp.,
Diospyros lotus, and many other plants are used for timber as well as for fuel
purpose by the inhabitants of village Tarnawai. Among ornamental plants, Traxicum
officinale, Tulipa stellata, and Robinia pseudoacacia occur frequently in the study
area.
Statistical Analysis
Use Value Index (UVi)
Use value is the quantitative method that indicates the relative importance of a plant
species for a population (Vendruscolo and Mentz 2006). In this study the use value
of ethnomedicinal species ranges from 0.30 to 0.98. The plant species with use
values were reported: Juglans regia (0.98 UVi), Berberis lycium (0.95 UVi),
Ziziphus oxyphylla, and Bergenia ciliata (0.92 UVi). Maximum used values of
medicinal plants mentioned might be due to their common distribution and local
practitioners’ awareness which make the plant species a first choice for ailment
(Rahman et al. 2016a, b).
Table 3 Ethno-ecological use categories of the recorded plant species use in the study area
S. No Botanical name Medicinal Vegetables Fodder Fuel Timber Ornamental
1 Achyranthes aspera L. + − − − − −
2 Adiantum raddianum + − − − − −
C. Presl
3 Ajuga integrifolia + − − − − −
Buch.-ham.
4 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. + − − − − −
5 Amaranthus viridis L. + + − − − −
6 Artemisia absinthium L. + − − − − −
7 Arundo donax L. − − − + + −
8 Avena sativa L. − − + − − −
9 Berberis lycium Royle. + − − − − −
10 Bergenia ciliate (haw.) + − − − − −
Sternb
11 Brassica campestris L. − + − − − −
12 Cannabis sativa L. + − − − − −
13 Capsella bursa pastoris + − − − − −
(L.) Medik
14 Capsicum Annuum L. + + − − − −
15 Centaurea iberica Trevir. + − − − − −
ex Spreng
16 Chenopodium album L. − + − − − −
17 Citrus medica L. + − − − − −
18 Convolvulus arvensis L. + − − + − −
19 Coriandrum sativum L. − + − − − −
20 Cichorium intybus L. + − − − − −
21 Cynodon dactylon L. + + + − + −
22 Diospyros lotus L. − − − + + −
23 Dryopteris patens (Sw.) + − − − − −
O.Ktze., C.Chr.
24 Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) − + − − − −
Focke
25 Euphorbia helioscopia L. + − − − − −
26 Ficus carica L. − + + + + −
27 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. + − − − − −
28 Fumaria indica (Hausskn) + − − − − −
Pugsley
29 Gallium aparine L. + − − − − −
30 Indigofera heterantha − − + − + −
Brandis
31 Juglans regia L. + − − − + −
32 Lamium amplexicaule L. − + − − − −
33 Lycopersicum esculentum − + − − − −
Mill.
(continued)
748 R. Taj et al.
Table 3 (continued)
S. No Botanical name Medicinal Vegetables Fodder Fuel Timber Ornamental
34 Malva neglecta L. + + − − − −
35 Medicago truncatula + + − − − −
Gaerth
36 Melia azedarach L. + − − − − −
37 Menthe longifolia (L.) L. + − − − − −
38 Morus alba L. + − + + + −
39 Morus nigra L. − − + − + −
40 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. + + − − − −
41 Olea ferruginea Royle. + − − − + −
42 Oxalis corniculata L. + + − − − −
43 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. − − − + + −
44 Pinus wallichiana Jackson − − − + + −
45 Plantago lanceolata L. + − − − − −
46 Poa pratensis L. − − + − − −
47 Prunus armeniaca L. − − + + − −
48 Prunus domestica L. − − + + − −
49 Prunus persica (L.) Batsch − − − + − −
50 Punica granatum L. + − − − − −
51 Pyrus communis L. − − − + + −
52 Pyrus domestica L. − − + + − −
53 Pyrus pashia Buch.-ham. + − − + + −
Ex D.Don
54 Quercus dilatata Royle − − − + − −
55 Ricinus communis L. − − + − − −
56 Robinia pseudoacacia L. − − − − − +
57 Rubus ellipticus Sm. + − − − − −
58 Rumex hastatus D.Don. − + − − − −
59 Rumex hastatus L. + − − − − −
60 Silene conoidea L. − + − − − −
61 Solanum nigrum L. + + − − − −
62 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. − + − − − −
63 Traxicum officinale − + − − − −
G.H.Weber ex Wiggers.
64 Triticum aestivum L. + − + − − −
65 Tulipa stellate hook. − + − − − +
66 Valeriana wallichii DC. + − − − − −
67 Viola canescens wall. + − − − − −
68 Vitis vinifera L. + − − − − −
69 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. + + + − − −
70 Ziziphus nummularia + − − − − −
(Burm.f.) Wight Qs Arn.
71 Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew + − − − − −
Relative Frequency Citations (RFCs)
A relative frequency citation (RFC) shows the local importance of each plant spe-
cies with reference to informants who cited the plant species. In this study, the value
of relative frequency citation of medicinal plants species ranges from 0.10 to 0.46.
The reason for the maximum RFCs may be due to the wide range of distribution,
easy availability, and cultural uses of plants for curing various diseases by using
these medicinal plant species. In the present study, the relative frequency citation of
medicinal plants was Juglans regia (0.46 RFC and 41 URs), Berberis lycium and
Punica granatum (0.44 RFCs and 39 URs), Pyrus pashia, Capsicum annuum, and
Convolvulus arvensis (0.29 RFC and 26 URs) each. Singnorini et al. (2009) reported
that Asparagus acutifolius was the most used species (0.71 RFCs). Medicinal plant
species with maximum RFCs should be progressed to biological, phytochemistry
and pharmacological studies to access and prove their vitality.
750 R. Taj et al.
752 R. Taj et al.
Conclusions
The flora of Pakistan is diverse due to different ecological zones and diverse cli-
matic and soil conditions. Pakistan is blessed with diverse flora, and a total 6000
flowering plant species were reported. Plants are the priceless gift of nature. The
human beings take their food directly or indirectly from plants and totally depend
upon plants. The human world mostly fulfills their needs from plants, i.e., medicine,
fodder, food, fuel, timber, etc. The floral diversity play a key role as carbon sink
around the globe (Health et al. 2005). The inhabitants of Tarnawai utilize 71 plants
species, belonging to 64% herbs, 25% trees, and 11% shrubs. Due to moist subtropi-
cal climate, herbaceous flora is very rich in this area. In the ethnobotanical survey,
herbaceous flora was frequently used by inhabitants as traditional medicines, and
the reason is that the herbaceous form is dominant due to their easy availability; due
to the presence of wide range of bioactive compound, medicinal and healing
potential is high (Khattak et al. 2015). Herbaceous growth as the dominant growth
habit was also reported by many other researchers, from Torghar District (Shah
et al. 2015), from Manoor Valley (Rahman et al. 2016a, b), and from Sarban Hills in
Abbottabad (Ijaz et al. 2015).
The reported plant species were belonging to 37 different families, and the lead-
ing family reported from the study area was Rosaceae with 8 species, followed by
Poaceae with 5 spp. and Asteraceae with 4 spp. Abbottabad being part of humid
subtropical and temperate zone of the lesser Himalayas and hence Rosaceae is the
largest family as it is primarily present in the Northern Hemisphere and adopts vari-
eties of habitats except deserts and tropical rain forest. Due to its multidimensional
uses, plant species are mostly utilized as medicine, food, fuel, timber, and fodder by
the local communities. Rosaceae family has 2500 plant species followed by 98 gen-
era, including herbs, shrubs, and trees. Family Rosaceae was the leading family also
reported by other researchers, while dissimilar results reported by Ijaz et al. (2016);
they reported Asteraceae as the leading family used to cure various ailments. Mostly
members of family Poaceae are used as fodder and as fuel in the study area. Members
of Asteraceae were mostly used as ethnomedicine and Rosaceae for fuel and food
purposes.
The indigenous knowledge pertinent to ethnobotanical uses of plants in the area
was recorded. The data revealed that 41% medicinal plants, 19% vegetables plants,
3% ornamental, 12% fodder, 14% fuel, and 11% timber plants were used
ethnobotanically by inhabitants of Tarnawai. Haider and Qaiser (2009) documented
that 83 plants were used as traditional medicines in Chitral Valley. In Naran Valley
183 plant species were used as timber, fuel, food, fodder, and medicines by local
communities reported by Khan et al. (2012). During research study it was found out
that that 41% of the medicinal plants have variety of uses to cures disorders, and the
most curable disease was the gastrointestinal disease which is cured by 15 spp. Nine
ethnomedicinal spp. are used for stomach acidity, and six spp. are used to cure the
stomachache. Five plant spp. are used for cough, cold, and asthma. As it is a rural
area, people used the local flora as homemade drugs for the treatment of different
diseases because there are no such health and other basic facilities to fulfill their
basic needs; that’s why their lives totally depend on plants. Similar results were
reported by Abbasi et al. (2013) and Rokaya et al. (2010) that constipation,
stomachache, diarrhea, and anthelminthic disease were the most curable diseases.
In this area, the old ones are more informative than the youngsters. Mostly
females are more informative about traditional knowledge of medicinal plants than
men. It was also observed that most of the informants were uneducated, some are
included in primary and secondary education category, and very less number of
informants are included in the bachelor and master’s degree. Most of the respondents
were belonging to Sardar tribes as it is the dominant tribe. Besides this, Dhund,
Karlal, Abbasi, Awan, and Syed tribes were also found in the study area.
The reported data were quantitatively analyzed by using statistical method and
by using software. Two formulas were applied on recorded data, i.e., use value
index (UVi) and relative frequency citation (RFCs). The maximum use values were
found in Juglans regia (0.98UVi) and in Berberis lycium (0.95 UVi), and the
maximum relative frequency citations were found in Juglans regia (0.46 RFCs and
41 URs) and in Berberis lycium and Punica granatum (0.44 RFCs and 29 URs),
while Ijaz et al. (2016) reported maximum use value in Berberis lycium (0.91) and
Cannabis sativa (0.81), and the maximum relative frequency citations were reported
754 R. Taj et al.
in Berberis lycium (0.313) and in Ziziphus nummularia (0.276). The maximum use
value and relative frequency citations were found in these plants species due to the
wide range of their local distribution and easy availability of the plants for cultural
uses as medicine or for other so many purposes.
Fumaria indica is used for vomiting, for constipation, and for blood purification.
The same results are shown by Polio et al. (2008). Lycopersicum esculentum is com-
monly used for lycopene by the inhabitants especially in cooked tomatoes, used as
vegetables. The fruit contains lycopene, and it is one of the most powerful antioxi-
dants (Sesso et al. 2003). So the results are similar with (Sesso et al. 2003). Bergenia
ciliata is commonly used for ulcers and stomach problems. The rhizome is crushed
and used in stomach ulcers, internal infection, and muscular disorders and also as
tonic in a specific quantity and recipes by the local Hakeems these results are quite
similar with the findings of others in the adjacent regions. Generally, Ricinus com-
munis is used as fodder locally, but oil is also extracted from it to use in skin prob-
lems, that was also reported by Sairam (2002), i.e., oil is used on skin for prevention
of dryness and to protect oneself from damage and pricking of nails, lethargy, and
infection.
Rumex hastatus is used to cure hepatitis, tuberculosis, and kidney stone and heal
wounds, while dissimilar results were reported by Ijaz et al. (2016), i.e., Rumex
hastatus is used in arthritis and for bone fracture. These results were reported from
Sarban Hills in Abbottabad. Juglans regia is used in dental problems. The wood of
Juglans regia is best in making furniture, and the bark is good for the gums and
available as “Dandasa” in local market which is used for cleaning the teeth. These
results are similar with (Afzal et al. 2009). Amaranthus viridis is used as vegetables
and for the treatment of inflammation of the pharynx, while opposite results are
reported by Shah et al. (2015), i.e., he reported it to be used as blood purifier in
Basikhel Tribe of Torghar District, KP, Pakistan. These opposing results are due to
the different geographical conditions and diversity in cultural practices.
Cynodon dactylon is reported here to be used for vomiting and cholera apart
from good source of fodder while opposing results are reported by Mehmood et al.
(2011), where the plant of the Cynodon dactylon has been reported as carminative
that expels poison from body, and is used to treat small pox and headache in District
Mirpur, AJK, Pakistan. These differences in results are due to opposing climatic and
soil condition of both study areas. Solanum nigrum whole plant juice is used for ear
pain and for abdominal worms, while dissimilar results are reported by Shah et al.
(2015), i.e., whole plant juice is used for fever and eye disease and suitable for
digestion and dysentery. Ahmed et al. (2014) reported that the leaves of Ajuga
bracteosa are washed, boiled in water, and left overnight in dew and then this
decoction is taken before breakfast for blood purification, while the same results
were reported from Tarnawai, i.e., Ajuga bracteosa leaves’ juice is taken by people
before breakfast for blood purification and for ear pain. Zanthoxylum armatum is
used for gastrointestinal problems. The fruits of Zanthoxylum armatum are used in
diarrhea, in constipation, and in cholera. The same results are shown by Rahman
et al. (2016a, b) and Khan et al. (2015).
The present study indicated that the study area has abundant ethnobotanical
plants used as a wide spectrum of human resources. As a result, these valuable
plants are increasingly entered into the threatened list by loss of habitats,
overexploitation, and deforestation. The ratio of the medicinal plant is high in the
area, and these medicinal plants are valuable global resources but unfortunately, due
to overexploitation, are increasingly destroyed and included in the red list category.
The major cause of overexploitation includes poverty, illiteracy, unsustainable use
of plants, breakdown of traditional controls, and lack of all other basic facilities, i.e.,
hospitals, markets, Sui gas, roads, schools, and colleges. There must be guidelines
for work to improve the local management system for all the plant resources. There
must be resource ownership and decision-making processes within the local
communities in Tarnawai. The people should be aware about the plant resource use,
land use, and resource ownership category. Those who actually harvest the locally
used wild plant resources must be within the management system. Mostly females
are the most harvesters of wild medicinal plants and are the most unprivileged
members in society.
Recommendations
Awareness projects should be initiated in Tarnawai, to educate the local communi-

ties about the importance of all natural resources including plants and how to utilize
them in a sustainable maner. Overgrazing should be controlled in the study area.
There must be a control on collection beyond a permisable limits of that plant
species which is used in a larger quantity for a medicine or other purpose.
Conservation of multi-purpose plant species must be declared necessary according
to the IUCN recommendations which are being potentially used abundantly. There
should be a control on deforestation due to which floras are being endangered in the
study area.
References
Abbasi AM, Khan SM, Ahmad M, Khan MA, Quave CL, Pieroni A (2013) Botanical ethnovet-
erinary therapies in three districts of the lesser Himalayas of Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed
9:84
Afzal S, Mir AK, Tayyaba S (2009) Ethnobotanical studied northern Pakistan. J Ayub Med Coll
Abbottabad 21:52–57
Ahmed M, Sultana S, Hadi SF, Hadda TB, Rashid S, Zafar M, Khan MA, Khan MPZ, Yaseen G
(2014) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountains region of Chail Valley
(district swat Pakistan). J Ethnobiol 10:36
Alcorn JB (1981) Huastec non-crop resource management. Hum Ecol:395–417
Bye RA (1979) Incipient domestication of mustard in north-West Mexico. Kiva 44:237–256
Haidar A, Qaiser M (2009) The ethnobotany of Chitral Valley, Pakistan with particular references
to medicinal plants. Pak J Bot 41(4):2009–2041
756 R. Taj et al.
Health J, Ayres E, Possell M, Bardgatt RD, Black HIJ, Grant H, Ineson P, Kerstiens G (2005) Rising
atmosphere CO2 reducessequestration of root-devied soil carbon. Science 309:1711–1713
Ijaz F (2014). Biodiversity and traditional uses of plants of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad. M. Phil.
Thesis Hazara University Mansehra, KP, Pakistan
Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Alam J, Khan SM, Afzal A, Rahman IU, Islam M, Sohail (2015) Ethnomedicinal
study upon folk recipes against various human diseases in Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, Pakistan.
World J Zoology 10(1):41–46
Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Rahman IU, Khan SM, Shah GM, Khan K, Afzal A (2016) Investigation of tradi-
tional medicinal floral knowledge of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, KP, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
179:208–233
Jain SK (1991) Dictionary of Indian folk medicine and ethnobotany. Deep Publ Delhi, pp 1–31
Khan SM (2012) Plant communities and Vegetation Ecosystem Services in Naran Valley. Western
Himalaya. PhD, University of Leicester, University of Leicester 249
Khan SM, Ud Din N, Ilyas M, Sohail IU, Ijaz Rahman F, Iqbal Z, Ali Z (2015) Ethnobotanical
study of some medicinal plants of tehsil Kabal, District Swat, KP, Pakistan. Med Aromat Plants
4:189
Khattak NS, Nouroz F, Rahman IU, Noreen S (2015) Ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants of
district Karak, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 171:273–279
Mehmood A, Riffat NM, Zabta KS, Aqeel M (2011) Ethnobotanical survey of plants from Neelum
valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:105–110
Pastakia F (2004) Abbottabad state of environment and development. International union for the
conservation of natural resources, Pakistan and the government of the north-west Frontier
Province (NWFP). Rosette Printers, Karachi. ISBN: 969–8141-72.3- www. Asc. iucnp
Phillips OI, Hall P, Gentry AH, Sawyer SA, Va’squez R (1994) Dynamics and species richness of
tropical forests. Proc Natle Acad Sci USA 91:2805–2809
Polio A, Natale AD, Appetiti E (2008) Continuity and change in the Mediterranean medical tradi-
tion: Ruta spp. (Rutaceae) in Hippocratic medicine and present practices. J Ethnopharmacol
116(3):469–482
Rahman IU, Ijaz F, Afzal A, Iqbal Z, Ali N, Khan SM (2016a) Contributions to the phytotherapies
of digestive disorders; traditional knowledge and cultural drivers of Manoor Valley, Northern
Rahman IU, Ijaz F, Iqbal Z, Afzal A, Khan MA, Muhammad S, Qadir G, Asif M (2016b) A novel
survey of the ethnomedicinal knowledge of dental problems in Manoor Valley (Northern
Himalaya), Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol 194C:877–894
Rokaya MB, Munzbergova Z, Timsina B (2010) Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the
Humla district of western Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol 130:485–504
Sairam K, Rao CV, Babu MD, Kumar KV, Agrawal VK, Goel RK (2002) Antiulcerogenic effect
of methanolic extract of Emblica officinalis: an experimental study. J Ethnopharmacol 82:1–9
Sesso HD, Liu S, Gaziano JM, Buring JE (2003) Dietary lycopene tomato- based food products
and vascular diseases in women. J Nutr 133(7):2336–2341
Shah AH, Khan SM, Shah AH, Mehmood A, Rahman IU, Ahmed H (2015) Cultural uses of
plants among Basikhel Tribe of District tor Ghar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak J Bot
47(SI):23–41
Singnorini MA, Piredda M, Bruschi P (2009) Plants and traditional knowledge: an ethnobotanical
investigation on Monte Ortobene (Nuoro, Sardinia). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 5:6
Vendruscolo GS, Mentz LA (2006) Estudo da concordancia das citasoes de uso e importancia
das especiese familias utiliza das como medicinais pela communidade dobairro Ponta Grossa.
Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil. Acta Bot Bras (2):367–382
Licorice in Middle Asia
F. O. Khassanov
Introduction
The last revision of the genus Glycyrrhiza was made by V. Grankina (2009) where
36 species were divided into two subgenera and 9 sections (excluding Meristotropis
species). Afterwards, two more new species were described recently from Siberia
(G. krasnoborovii Grankina, G. orientalis Grankina and Letjaeva). Genus
Meristotropis was separated by A. Fischer and C. Meyer (1843) with the only spe-
cies M. triphylla. There are several papers on the relationship between G. glabra
and some other allied species showing allied position between genera Glycyrrhiza
and Meristotropis (Barghi and Siljak-Yakovlev 1990; Yamazaki et al. 1994). On the
other hand, embryological studies made by O. Ashurmetov (1987) confirmed sepa-
rated position of these genera. Controversial views after studying of palynological
characters were published by Meng L. and X.-Y. Zhu (2010). Accordingly genera
Glycyrrhiza and Glycyrrhizopsis (Boiss.) Boiss. showed morphological differences
but Meristotropis suggested to be merged in Glycyrrhiza.
Taxonomy (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7)
Genus Glycyrrhiza L., Sp. Pl. 2: 741 (1753).

Section Glabrae Grankina, Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 40: 95 (2009). Type: G. gla-
bra L.
1. G. glabra L. Sp. Pl.: 742 (1753) = G. violacea Boiss. and Noe, Diagn. Pl. Orient.
ser. 2, 2: 23 (1856).
F. O. Khassanov (*)
Institute of Botany, Academy of Science, Tashkent, Uzbekistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_23
758 F. O. Khassanov
Fig. 1 G. michajloviana in
the mountains of
Tien-Shan
Fig. 2 G. shiheziensis in
the mountains of
Tien-Shan
Lectotype: Herb Linn 916.3 (LINN). Described from Europe.

Distribution: Europe, Mediterranean, Siberia, Iran, Afghanistan, Caucasus, Middle
Asia, Mongolia, China.
2. G. hirsuta L., Sp. Pl.: 742 (1753) = G. pallida Boiss., Diagn. Pl. Orient., ser. 2,
3(2): 22 (1856).
Type: Herb. Linn. NN 914.9–917.7 (LINN). Described from Orient.
Licorice in Middle Asia 759
Fig. 3 G. soongoroca in
the mountains of
Tien-Shan
Distribution: Southern Russia, Caucasus, Middle Asia (Kazakhstan).

Section Arthrocarpaea (Fisch. et C. A. Mey.) Grankina, Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast.
40: 102 (2009). Type: G. asperrima L. f.
3. G. brachycarpa Boiss., Diagn. Pl. Orient., ser. 1, 1(2): 28–32 (1843).
Type: “In Syria circa Damascum, 1830, Aucher. Pl., exs. N 996” (G, isolectotype
LE, designated by Grankina in Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 40: 97 (2009)).
Distribution: Syria, Middle Asia (Kazakhstan).
4. G. michajloviana Grankina and E.V. Kuzmin, Izv. Natsional. Akad. Nauk
Respubl. Kazakhstan, Ser. Biol. Med. 4: 18–20 (Fig. 1, map) (2006) et Novosti
Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 40: 97 (2009) = G. korshinskyi Grig. in Bull. Jard. Bot. Princip
URSS, 23, 1–2:94 (1930).
Type: Kazakhstan, Almaata prov., ad ripam sinistram humilior affientia Kurty,
praedium saltuarum, 16.07.1959, V.P. Michailova (NS, isotypes LE, AA).
Distribution: Kazakhstan.
In the protologue two different gatherings designated as type in Latin and Russian
parts of the article but later in Grankina (2009) senior author designated one type
specimen making this taxon validated.
5. G. nadezhinae Grankina, Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 39: 215–217 (2007).
760 F. O. Khassanov
Fig. 4 G. nadezhinae in
Uzbekistan
Fig. 5 G. eglandulosa in
Altay area
Type: Kazakhstan, prov. Dzhambul, Kuragajskyi distr., ad ripam dextram fluvi Chu,
pag. Uspenskoe, 13.07.1970, T.P. Nadezhina (NS, isotypes LE, AA).
Distribution: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tadzhikistan, Turkmenistan, China
(Xinjiang).
Section Parvifloroides Grankina, Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 40: 98 (2009). Type: G.
uralensis Fisch.
6. G. uralensis Fisch. in de Candolle, Prodr. 2:248 (1825).
Fig. 6 G. glabra in the

mountains of Pamir-Alay
Fig. 7 M. triphylla in the

mountains of Tien-Shan
Type: Glycyrrhiza uralensis m. Ural. Helm. Fructis non vidi, G. asperrima pr. G.
uralensis Fisch. (G, isotype LE).
Distribution: Russia (Ural), Middle Asia (Kazakhstan).
Section Flexuosocarpae Grankina. Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 40: 102 (2009). Type:
G. soongorica Grankina
7. G. shiheziensis X. Y. Li, Bull. Bot. Res. North-East. Forest. Inst. 9, 1: 29 (1989).
762 F. O. Khassanov
Holotype: “Xinjiang: Shihezi, 16.07.1981, N 810339, X. Y. Li” (SAC).

Distribution: China, Russia (Siberia), Middle Asia (Kazakhstan).
8. G. eglandulosa X. Y. Li, Bull. Bot. Res. North-East. Forest. Univ. 13, 1: 29
(1993).
Distribution: China, Russia (Altay), Middle Asia (Kazakhstan).
9. G. soongorica Grankina, Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 33: 148 (2001).
Holotype: “Mongolia Kobdo ajmak, Uentsch somon, 25 km ad meridiem a somone,
ripa sinistra fluminis Uentsch, 6.08.1972, Nadezhina” (LE).
Distribution: Mongolia, Middle Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan), China (Xinjiang).
10. G. sergievskiana Grankina and Aralbaev, Izv. Natsional. Akad. Nauk Respubl.
Kazakhstan, Ser. Biol. Med. 3: 29–31 (Fig. 1, map) (2006).
Type: “Kazakhstan orientalis, Zaissanica depression adjacentia pagi Kokpektinsk,
locus salsus, 29.08.1988, Grankina and Pisareva” (NS, isotypes LE, TK, AA).
Distribution: Middle Asia (Kazakhstan).
Section Arthrocarpaea (Fisch. et C. A. Mey.) Grankina, Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast.
40: 102 (2009). Type: G. asperrima L. f.
11. G. aspera Pall. Reise Russ. Reich. 1: 449 (1771) = G. laxiflora X.Y. Li and
D.C. Feng, Bull. Bot. Res., Harbin 13(1): 40 (1993) = G. macrophylla X.Y. Li,
Bull. Bot. Res., Harbin 9(1): 30 (1989) = G. nutantiflora X.Y. Li, Bull. Bot.
Res., Harbin 13(1): 36 (1993) = G. prostrata X.Y. Li and D.C. Feng, Bull. Bot.
Res., Harbin 13(1): 38 (1993)
Lectotype: In aridissimo ausralioris deserti limo frequens planta, Pallas, 1770
(Herb. Linn. N 916.5 (LINN), designated by Grankina in Novosti Sist. Vyssh.
Rast. 40: 103 (2009)).
Distribution: Southern Russia, Caucasus, Iran, Middle Asia (Kazakhstan), China.
12. G. hispida Pall., Reise 3: 72 (1776).
Lectotype: “Deserto inter Volgam et Iaikum abundat. Pallas, 177!” (Herb. Linn. N
916.5 (LINN), designated by Grankina in Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 40: 103
(2009)).
Distribution: Southern Russia, Caucasus, Iran, Middle Asia (Kazakhstan), China.
13. G. laxissima Vassilcz., Bot. Mater. Gerb. Bot. Inst. Komarova Akad. Nauk
S.S.S.R. 11: 120 (1949).
Holotype: “Western Tien-Shan, Angren river valley (in Russian), 17.05.1880, Regel
(LE).
Distribution: Middle Asia (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan).
Section Monilîcarpae Grankina, Novosti Sist. Vyssh. Rast. 40: 103 (2009). Type:
G. zaissanica Serg.
14. G. zaissanica Serg. in Animadvers. Syst. Herb. Univ. Tomsk. Nos. 1–2, 11
(1933).
Type: “Kazakhstania, Zaissanica depressio, circa opp. Kokpektinsk, in herbosis,
7.07.1929, Krylov et Sergievskaja” (TK).
Distribution: Middle Asia (Kazakhstan), China.
15. G. purpureiflora X.Y. Li, Bull. Bot. Res., Harbin 13(1): 34 (1993).
Distribution: Middle Asia (Kazakhstan), China.
Section Glycyrrhiza.
16. G. echinata L. Sp. Pl.: 741 (1753) = G. dioscoridis Medik. in Vorles, Churpf.
Phys. Ges. 2: 367 (1787).
Lectotype: In Gargano Apuliae, in deserto Nagico Tatariae (Herb. Linn. N 916.1.
(LINN, designated by Chamberlain in Jarvis et al.: 50 (1993)).
Distribution: Europe, Caucasus, Middle Asia, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan.
17. G. foetidissima Tausch, Flora (Regensb.) 1, 13: 210 (1831).
Holotype: “Colitur in horto bot. Pragensi” (PRG).
Distribution: Europe, Southern Russia, Caucasus, Iran, Morocco, Middle Asia
(Turkmenistan).
Genus Meristotropis Fisch. et C. A. Mey. in Index Seminum (St. Petersburg-
Petropolitanus) 9: 95 (1843).
18. M. bucharica (Regel) Kruganova in Acta Inst. Bot. Acad. Sci. URSS, 1, 11:194
(1955); G. gontscharovii Maslenn. Trudy Tadzhikistanskoy Bazy 8:617
(1938); G. kulabensis M.M.Ivanova, Trudy Tadzhikistanskoy Bazy, 8:620
(1938).
Holotype: “Tadzhikistania, 1881, Regel” (LE).
Distribution: Middle Asia (Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan).
19. M. triphylla (Fisch. et C. A. Mey.) Fisch. et C. A. Mey. in Index Seminum (St.
Petersburg (Petropolitanus) 9:95 (1842) = M. erythrocarpa Vassilzc. Not. Syst.
Herb. Inst. Bot. Acad. Sci. URSS 11: 121 (1948) = M. xanthioides Vassilcz.,
Bot. Mater. Gerb. Bot. Inst. Komarova Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R. 11: 120 (1949).
Holotype: “East bank of the Caspian Sea, Mangyshlak, Fisch (in Russian)” (LE).
Distribution: Middle Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan).
There are about 40 species of Glycyrrhiza and 3 species of Meristotropis natu-
rally growing in the Old and New World and one of the main centers of diversity is
located on the large area of deserts and mountains in Middle Asia, Siberia, and
China. One of the most used medicinal plants—G. glabra—is mainly distributed in
Middle Asia within the floodlands and valleys of large rivers and cannels (Ozturk
et al. 2017). It also has fair quantities in the water meadows even in the deserts and
steppes. G. glabra is a very common plant in the low-mountainous vegetation
764 F. O. Khassanov
among other tall grasses (Ferula species, Hordeum bulbosum L., Elytrigia
trichophora (Link) Nevski, Origanum tyttanthum Gontsch., Crambe kotschyana
Boiss., Haplophyllum acutifolium (DC.) G. Don etc.) and shrubs (Pistacia vera L.,
Amygdalus spinosissima Bunge., Rosa species, Atraphaxis sarawschanica Pavlov,
Cotoneaster nummularioides Pojark., etc.). Usually it grows on the awashed south-
ern slopes up to 2000 m above sea level, but it can also be found even in juniper,
apple, or maple forests as a subdominant. In the mountainous zone of Western
Pamir-Alay it also grows together with G. uralensis having neighboring populations
nearby the springs and rivers. In the Western Tien-Shan it is growing together with
Meristotropis triphylla having isolated populations one of each other. G. glabra is
one of the best pioneer plants on the landslips growing together with Datisca can-
nabina L. and Tussilago farfara L. It also could be named as a ruderal plant not only
in natural plant associations, but also in the fruit or vegetable gardens and various
crops.
Uses
Information about the use of glycyrrhizin-comprising species of genus Glycyrrhiza

L. in the region of Middle Asia comes from the ancient times (Varganov et al. 1985;
Ozturk et al. 2017). Licorice is well known from many recipients of Eastern medi-
cine to have higher position than ginseng. Avicenna used G. glabra as one of the
numerous compounds as a treatment against tertian ague, rash and scab, agnail,
stomach ulcer, biliary dyspepsia, leprosy, toxin substances, paralysis, chill, cough,
bronchitis, etc. (Sadykov et al. 1980). Glycyrrhizin acid is a well-known antagonist
of poisons with antiphlogogenic action. Roots and rhizomes of licorice contain up to
23% of glycyrrhizin (potassium and calcium acid salts). Glycyrrhizin itself consists
of triterpene saponin where aglycon is glycyrrhetic acid with sugary residuum of
two molecules of glucuronic acid). Besides 27 different flavonoids (liquiritin,
isoliquiritin), ascorbic acid (up to 30 mg) has been found as well as a small amount
of essential oil, gum, resin, and asparagines (Abubakirov and Yatsin 1959).
Chemicals made from licorice have a beneficial effect against viruses and natrium
glycyrrhetic acid salt is very active against protozoa (Muravjev and Ponamarev
1962). Licorice is used not only in medicinal purposes but also in steel factories as
a foam-forming admixture (Varganov et al. 1985; Ozturk et al. 2017).
In 1964 a special laboratory for studies of glycyrrhizin-comprising taxa was
founded by Prof. K. Zakirov. He worked out original system of actions for meliora-
tion and mapping of wild populations of G. glabra in Middle Asia. All these wide
researches have been supported by a special Department of Cabinet of Ministry of
USSR—Sojuzlakritsa. This organization was one of the leading ones in the export
of licorice root in the world. Researchers of this laboratory have been collecting all
species of genus Glycyrrhiza growing in Soviet Union as well as numerous varieties
of G. glabra and G. uralensis. They were studying anatomy, embryology, and phys-
iology of highly productive forms and intraspecific hybrids in order to create new
plantations (about 20,000 hectares) of licorice in salty steppes and deserts espe-
cially. Studying water balance of licorice in salty deserts it was revealed that planted
licorice was promoting lowering of soil salinization (Nigmatov 1977). Licorice is a
well-known plant in uzbek folk medicine as shirin-miya. People are collecting the
roots of G. glabra for medicine purposes sailing on the markets. Usually one can
buy licorice roots even in the markets in small towns and villages. In the mountain-
ous zone local people are collecting G. uralensis together with G. glabra without
any difference. Local healers are using licorice in the same way as Avicenna (Ozturk
et al. 2017). The list of diseases is very wide (from stomach and liver problems up
to cancer).
References
Abubakirov A, Yatsin V (1959) Issledovanie sredneaziatskih vidov Glycyrrgiza L. na soderzhanie

glicyrizinovoy kisloty. Uzb Khim Zhurn 5:81–86
Ashurmetov O (1987) Embryology of some Glycyrrhiza species in the middle Asia. Avtoreferat
doktorskoj dissert. Leningrad 48
Barghi N, Siljak-Yakovlev S (1990) Karyological study in three species of Glycyrrhiza genus (G.
glabra, G. lepidota and G. echinata). Caryologia 43:223–234
Fischer A, Meyer C (1843) Addenda plantarum novarum. Index Seminum (St Petersburg,
Petropolitanus) 9:95
Grankina V (2009) The system of the genus Glycyrrhiza L. (Fabaceae). Novosti systematiki, St
Petersbourgh 40:89–109
Meng L, Zhu X-Y (2010) Palynological characters of Glycyrrhiza, Glycyrrhizopsis,and
Meristotropis (Leguminosae),with special reference to their taxonomic significance. J Syst
Evol 48:6
Muravjev I, Ponamarev V (1962) Glycyrrizinovaja kislota I ee preparaty v kachestve novyh lek-
arstvennyh sredstv medicinskoy promyshlennosti SSSR. Med Prom 8:16
Nigmatov S (1977) Rastenija-melioranty. Tashkent, Izdateljstvo FAN 17
Ozturk M, Altay V, Hakeem KR, Akçiçek E (2017) Licorice: from botany to phytochemistry.
SpringerBriefs in Plant Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74240-3.
Sadykov and Others (1980) Avicanna—Kanon vrachebnoj nauki. Izdanie 2, Tom 4 153(235):322
Varganov L, Pauzner L, Chevrinidi S (1985) Perspectivy vvedenija v kulturu glycyrinsoderzhashih
I dubiljnyh rastenij. In: Zakirov P, Khassanov O (eds) Puti povyshenija produktivnosti lek-
arstennyh I kormovyh rastenij v culture. FAN UzSSR, Izd, pp 3–9
Yamazaki M, Sato A, Shimomura K, Saito K, Murakoshi I (1994) Genetic relationships among
Glycyrrhiza plants determined by RAPD and RFLP analyses. Biol Pharm Bull 17:1529–1531
Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants
for Livelihood and Community Health
in Deserts of Sindh-Pakistan
Ghulam Yaseen, Mushtaq Ahmad, Daniel Potter, Muhammad Zafar,

Shazia Sultana, and Sehrosh Mir
Introduction to Deserts of Sindh
Biogeography
A desert is moisture-deficit area under climatic conditions and has precipitation less
than 20% of moisture loss through evaporation (Smith et al. 1995). Deserts include
various regions along the tropics in southern as well as northern hemispheres
(Murray 1999). In Pakistan, deserts occupy about 11 million hectares including
14% land area of the whole country. The major deserts are found in Sindh including
Thar Desert. The Thar Desert is situated in Sindh and subdivided into Nara, Achro,
and Thar located in southern Sindh. Nara occupies Khairpur and some areas of
Sanghar districts, while Achro Thar is bordered to Nara and Indian Thar Desert.
Nara and Achro Thar are topographically marked with plain areas, some sandy hills,
and some lakes (Qureshi and Bhatti 2005a). The Thar Desert occupies four districts
of Sindh, namely, Tharparkar, Umerkot, Mirpur Khas, and few areas of Badin. The
Thar Desert shares its border with Barmer and Jaisalmer of India in the southeast
and Rann of Kutch of India in the south, while the Mirpur Khas region of the Thar
Desert shares its border with Rajasthan (Yaseen et al. 2015). The Nara Desert is
linked to the Thar via Sanghar and Mirpur Khas. The vegetation is represented by
primitive cryptogams to higher vascular plants, especially in the Nagarparkar.
Kharan and Chagi deserts are sandy and mountainous deserts situated in Balochistan
province in southwestern Pakistan. Most of the deserts in Pakistan cover sand dunes,
scrub vegetation, weathered rocks, salt lakes, and small natural water dams.
G. Yaseen · M. Ahmad (*) · M. Zafar · S. Sultana · S. Mir

Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
D. Potter
Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_24
768 G. Yaseen et al.
The deserts of Sindh include Thar desert, Nara desert and Achro Thar desert.
Thar desert is in Badin, Tharparkar, Umerkot and Mirpurkhas. Nara desert is in
Khairpur and Achro Thar desert is located in Sanghar and Khairpur. It is bordered
to Thar Desert of India (Great Indian Desert) in the east, while in the west it
shares borders with Kirthar Range. In the north it continues into the Cholistan
Desert, in the east it extends into the Rajasthan Desert, and in the southern
extremes, the Thar submerges into the Rann of Kutch toward the Arabian Sea.
Overall, it occupies 18th position in all deserts while 9th position in subtropical
deserts. Based on population density, it is most densely populated with 83 per-
sons per square among all deserts of the world. According to an estimate, its
population is nearly about 1.2 million (Khan et al. 2003). It covers about
30,000 km2 area, while the rest of Thar Desert is situated in India. The topogra-
phy of the area includes sand dunes, hill outcrops, and the alluvial flood plains.
Like Kalahari Desert, its aridity is not very high where most of the areas have
more than 100 mm annual rainfall rate. However, unlike Kalahari, it is character-
ized with diversity of arid lands, foot hills in Nagarparkar, valleys and delta of
River Indus, and salt land of Rann of Kutch in the south (Khan et al. 2003).
Pictorial Representation of Deserts of Sindh-Pakistan
Climate
The climatic conditions include high temperature, low annual rainfall, and high rate
of evaporation than precipitation. The annual temperature ranges from 20 °C to
51 °C in different seasons. In May to July, temperature may reach to peak, while
lowest temperature may be recorded in January. Annual rainfall ranges from 88 to
135, while July to August are most favorable months for monsoon rain. However,
winter rainfall with low intensity may shower during December, January, and
February. In records, normal monsoon is 127.5 mm, while it reached to maximum
443.9 mm in 2011 due to abrupt climatic changes (Cheema et al. 2012). Water scar-
city is observed in most of the areas that has resulted to limited agriculture, while
groundwater may be found at 50–300 ft of depth with variation in salt concentra-
tion. The most favorable and easily available sources of water are ponds, dugouts,
and tanks filled during monsoon rainfall (Qureshi and Bhatti 2005a). Climate
change and global warming during the last half century contributed to the severity
and exacerbation of floods in 2010 and 2011. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (2007) reported that climate projection reveals more frequent and
more intense weather events due to global warming.
Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants for Livelihood and Community Health in Deserts… 769
Plate 1 (a, b) Presents the panoramic views of deserts of Sindh

Plate 2 (a, b) Green view after moon soon rain fall

Plate 3 (a) Country side life in deserts of Sindh. (b) Cultural houses in villages
Plate 4 (a, b) Religious places in deserts of Sindh

Population
The deserts of Sindh including Thar Desert, Achro, and Nara sustain high level of
livestock and human population. Most of the population comprised of small nomads
commonly distributed according to need and rainfall pattern. The commonly speak-
ing language is Sindhi, while mother language varies among tribes. Commonly,
people of deserts of Sindh are known as Thari, and livestock keeping is the only
livelihood of the inhabitants of the study area (Qureshi and Bhatti 2008). The main
occupations of its inhabitants are either agriculture which doesn’t go well because
of lack of water and irrigated land or farming which causes overgrazing of land. The
area is often in drought, despite that people do not have anything else to do. They
depend on these professions because there is a serious lack of education in the
region.
Cultural Heritage and Ethnography
The deserts of Sindh possess rich cultural heritage that is inherited from the genera-
tions and present a thrill for tourists and visitors. Demographically, the deserts of
Sindh including Thar Desert, Nara, and Achro Thar are occupied by diversity of
ethnic groups. Major ethnic groups include Bhagora, Bheel, Kohli, Meena, Garasia,
Damor, and Garasia and possess strong cultural association with medicinal plants.
The most dominant spoken languages are Dhatki, Gujarati, and Sindhi, while rare
spoken language is Urdu. In culture, like other parts of Sindh, joint family system is
most commonly established with few exceptions. Among family systems, early-age
marriages, apothecary, and weddings of daughters without their consent are most
common. Early-age marriage is considered as religious fact and families and caste
are preferred over the others. In most of families, all three generations including
grandparents, parents, and child live under one roof with joint family system. At
family level, males are given duties related to plowing, weaving, animal grazing,
and house construction, while the major duties are bringing water from wells and
ponds, cooking, washing, and helping their family members in the field (Qureshi
and Bhatti 2005b).
The deserts of Sindh exhibit various cultures. The most popular are Rajasthani,
Sindhi, and Gujarati. In a variety of music, Thari is considered as most popular,
impressive, and peculiar. In many carnivals and traditional programs, expert Thari
singers commonly called faqirs are invited to show off their expertise. Among vari-
ous folk dances, most common are chakar rand, mitco, dandan rand, and rasooro.
In each custom, both Muslims and Hindus are directly interlinked without any dis-
crimination of religious belief. Hindus and Muslims form the two ethnic groups in
almost all regions of the deserts of Sindh. The Hindus form 62% of all population,
and Muslims are represented by 38% (Iqbal et al. 2000), but their coexistence rep-
resents strong cultural relation without any differentiation of religion. The sociocul-
tural interrelationships are observed during cultural celebrations. The major cultural
celebrations are Holi, Diwali or Deepawali, Krishna Janmashtami, and Maha
Shivaratri.
Health and Education
The deserts of Sindh have been facing a lot of issues, but lack of information has
been a major obstacle in the empowerment of indigenous people of Thar. According
to recent rankings, literacy rate is less than 17% in most of the regions especially in
Tharparkar. According to Alif Aiilaan (www.alifailaan.pk/district_rankings), female
literacy rate is only 7% among Thari populations. Various factors are found to be
responsible, but most common includes poverty, lack of basic educational facilities,
and cultural constraints. Young generation is bound to work with their parents in
fields for financial assistance. Parents think that without the help of siblings in daily
routines, they cannot afford their financial burden. People are not aware even of
their basic rights. According to Alif Ailaan Pakistan District Education Ranking
2017, it has been ranked 113th in terms of education in Pakistan. Status of basic
facilities at school level is very poor.
The deserts of Sindh lack basic health facilities in most of the area. Health cen-
ters with enough facilities are only available in district headquarters, while approach
to such facilities is not possible for people living in flung areas due to lack of proper
roads and transport facilities. In villages, doctors and nurses are available, while
lower staff such as health technicians perform the duties of health specialists which
is another major cause of deaths in children. Most of the women lack good physical
health due to continuous work at field resulting in mental and health problems. In
various regions, concept of medical checkup during pregnancy is very rare due to
ignorance and unavailability of basic health facilities. At local level, various labor
cases are dealt by untrained and unskilled technicians that result into prenatal
deaths.
The Plant Diversity and Its Cultural Significance
The plant diversity provides complete to partial substitute for many products includ-
ing NTFPs, fertilizers, allopathic drugs, pesticides, and many other important prod-
ucts used in daily life. The biodiversity of the deserts in Sindh is directly associated
with the habitat diversity. Vegetation in most of the regions is sparse except
Nagarparkar. In most of the areas, perennial herbs and thorny shrubs with drought
resistance are commonly dominant. The most important species of plants include
Commiphora wightii, Euphorbia tirucalli, Tecomella undulata, Pedalium murex,
Moringa concanensis, Cistanche tubulosa, Acacia jacquemontii, Senna
oiccidentalis, etc. In Nagarparkar, the vegetation is dense due to its topography and
commonly found springs and waterfall. It seems lush green during monsoon.
Overall, tree population is meager except few species such as Acacia senegal,
Prosopis cineraria, and Tecomella undulata, while ephemerals grow up during
monsoon and complete their life cycle before winter. Each habitat and landform in
the desert supports distinctive plants and animals with their respective niches, which
are endemic to the thar. The plant species of economic value have become either
threatened or endangered (e.g., Commiphora wightii and Tecomella undulata).
Other endemic species have ecological requirements and need to multiply and be
conserved.
The deserts of Pakistan present a unique plant biodiversity, with estimated 400–
600 medicinal plants out of a total well-known 7000 plant species in the country
(Khatri et al. 2011; Yaseen et al. 2015). The biodiversity of the deserts is intimately
associated with the habitat diversity. The vegetation is represented by primitive
cryptogams to higher vascular plants, especially in the Nagarparkar of Thar Desert.
Land degradation, overgrazing and overexploitation of natural resources, transition
of human culture, and increased anthropogenic activities are serious issues in des-
erts of Pakistan resulting in loss of biodiversity and cultural integrity. The plant
resources along with other biodiversity are degrading day by day due to various
environmental factors such as low rainfall, scarcity of water, natural disasters, and
mismanagement of land sources. These factors have resulted in habitat destruction
and serious threats to plant diversity especially to those which are overexploited for
trade, food, and shelter. Besides, these factors are threatening the plant species in
the wild by changing their habitat.
Ethnobotany in Deserts of Sindh
The deserts of various regions represent great diversity in terms of both their tradi-
tional knowledge about medicinal plants and their geomorphological processes
(Goudie 2002). In deserts such as Thar Desert, the dependency of local people on
traditional herbal medicine is deeply rooted and has a very old history. Among rural
populations, local people has rich knowledge about traditional use of medicinal
plants in treating various diseases which are not easily treated using other medi-
cines. In Thar Desert, plant-based medicines were practiced since the arrival of the
Christian era perhaps during Mohenjo Daro and Harappan civilizations. Among
rural communities of the deserts, various civilizations were dependent on herbal
medicines (Katewa 2009). However, very little attention has been paid to the ethno-
botanical studies among cultural communities of the deserts.
The deserts of Sindh present a unique plant biodiversity, with estimated 400–600
medicinal plants out of a total of 7000 plant species in the country (Khatri et al.
2011; Yaseen et al. 2015). In the desert communities of Sindh, traditional medicines
obtained from plants are still more popular than available allopathic and biomedical
Plate 5 (a, b) Tourist visits in deserts of Sindh

medicine. Specifically, people with low income and socioeconomic status rely on
traditional medicine because of the low or lack of availability of medicines and
inaccessibility to modern health-care systems. The Thar Desert occupies a major
transitional zone between the arid, Palearctic landscapes of Southwest Asia and the
Sahara and the monsoonal, oriental biomes of South and East Asia, making it a criti-
cal location to investigate cross-cultural trends about medicinal plant across
Southern Asia (Boivin 2012).
The medicinal plants-rich region, Thar Desert, is strongly associated with indig-
enous knowledge, and this is seriously depleted due to abrupt climatic changes,
long-term drought due to short rainfall, famines, and natural disasters. Due to this,
indigenous knowledge related to plant-based ethnomedicines in this desert of
Pakistan especially in deserts of Sindh is under threat. In deserts of Sindh, local
people use plants in various herbal recipes for curing various diseases due to lack of
health facilities and less hygienic conditions and most probably due to transfer of
indigenous knowledge from generation to generation. Table 1 presents the detail of
some of the important plant species, their local names, plant part used, modes of
utilization, and treated diseases and modes of administration.
Diversity of Medicinal Plants in Deserts of Sindh
In total, 45 important plant species belonging to 24 plant families are commonly

used in the treatment of various diseases among rural communities in deserts of
Sindh-Pakistan. The most commonly used families are Fabaceae, with six species,
followed by Amaranthaceae with four species, Asteraceae with three species,
Acanthaceae with three species, and Malavaceae with three species, while the rest
of the families have one or two species. In growth forms, the most dominant are
herbs (31 species) followed by trees (7 species). The most frequently cited species
are Blepharis scindica, Oxalis corniculata, and Portulaca oleracea, while least
documented species are Achyranthes bidentata followed by Euphorbia caducifolia
(Table 1).
There are many factors regarding the diversity of plant families in any region. In
this study, Fabaceae are highly distributed and possess a large number of species
resulting in high number of reported species in the study, while Amaranthaceae
represent well ecological adaptations and are surviving under stress conditions. The
local people use the species belonging to these families for curing number of dis-
eases. The most dominantly cited species of these families may have a wide variety
of phytochemical compounds responsible for curative effect. In most of the studies,
herbs are frequently reported for treating various diseases. According to Shrestha
and Dhillion (2003), the common use of herbs is due to their easy manipulation in
herbal recipes, while Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2005) and Uniyal et al. (2006) sug-
gest that the more frequent use of herbs may be due to their diverse geographic
range along roadsides, home gardens, and farmlands. Based on our findings and
Table 1 Ethnobotanically important medicinal plant species reported from deserts of Sindh and
their documented uses
Plant
part Mode of Diseases treated (body organ system
Taxonomic name Local name used utilization treated/mode of administration)1
Abelmoschus Bhindi Fruit Powder Cough (RT/I), asthma (RT/I), diarrhea
esculentus Seeds Raw (DS/I), nerve tonic (NS/I), sexual
(L.) Moench Decoction weakness in male (RS/I), general
debility (NS/I), spermatorrhea (RS/I),
urinary disorders (RS/I)
Abutilon indicum Peeli nair Whole Decoction Diarrhea (DS/I), gonorrhea (RS/I),
(L.) Sweet plant Powder urinary bladder burning (US/I), urethral
Leaves Juice inflammation (US/I), constipation
Seeds (DS/I), jaundice (GS/I), piles (DS/E),
Flower body pain (NS/E), cough (RT/I),
Root bronchitis (RT/I), leprosy (SO/E),
sexual disorders (RS/I)
Acacia Bhaaori Leaves Juice Brain tonic (NS/I), sexual weakness in
jacquemontii Gum male (RS/I), menstrual disorders (RS/I),
Benth fever (CS/I), stomach pain (DS/I),
kidney stone (US/I), diabetes (GS/I),
jaundice (GS/I)
Acacia senegal Khoonbhat Gum Paste Arthritis (MS/I), brain tonic (NS/I),
(L.) Willd. Leaves jaundice (GS/I), toothache (DS/I),
Bark sexual weakness in male (RS/I), liver
tonic (GS/I)
Achyranthes Ubat Leaves Powder Pneumonia (RT/I), skin diseases
bidentata Blume kandri Flowers Paste (SO/E), nausea (DS/I), scorpion bite
(CS/I), burning in urine (US/I),
dysentery (DS/I), joints pain (MS/E),
pimples (SO/I), boils (SO/E),
contraceptive (RS/I)
Aerva lanata (L.) Bhoo Whole Decoction Toothache (DS/I), joint pain (MS/E)
Juss. plant
Root
Albizia lebbeck Siraainh Leaves Powder Tuberculosis (RT/I), reddishness in eyes
(L.) Benth. Seeds Paste (SO/E), boils (SO/E), diabetes (GS/I),
Flower sexual impotency (RS/I), blood purifier
Bark (CS/I), asthma (RT/I), stomach ulcer
(DS/I), piles (DS/I), leprosy (SO/E),
gonorrhea (RS/I)
Alhagi Kandero Flower Decoction Piles (DS/E), eye diseases (SO/E),
maurorum Leaves constipation (DS/I), abdominal pain
Medik. Root (DS/I), diarrhea (DS/I), blood purifier
(CS/I), skin allergy (SO/E), diabetes
(GS/I), kidney stones (US/I)
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Plant
Amaranthus Lulhar Leaves Paste Flu (RT/I), fever (CS/I), scorpion sting
viridis L. Seeds Powder (CS/E), joint pain (MS/I), skin allergy
Whole Decoction (SO/E), abscess and boils (SO/I),
plant amenorrhea (RS/I), eye sight (SO/I),
Root piles (DS/I), constipation (DS/I),
gallbladder stones (GS/I), kidney stones
(US/I), diarrhea (DS/I), mouth ulcer
(DS/I), contraceptive (RS/I)
Barleria Nar Whole Juice Liver disorders (GS/I), diabetes (GS/I),
acanthoides Vahl utangan plant Powder cold (RT/I), malaria (CS/I), pharyngitis
Leaves (RT/I), sexual weakness in male (RS/I),
menstrual problems (RS/I)
Barleria cristata Accholi Roots Juice Cough (RT/I), rheumatism (MS/I),
L. Flowers pneumonia (RT/I), snakebite (CS/I), ear
and eye infections (SO/O), flu (RT/I)
Blepharis Utangan Seeds Powder Earache (SO/E), spermatorrhea (RS/I),
scindica Stocks sexual impotency (RS/I), increased milk
ex T. Anderson production in female (GS/I),
dysmenorrhea (RS/I), brain tonic (RS/I)
Borago Deniii Leaves Paste Skin infections (SO/I), wound healing
officinalis L. Seeds Powder (SO/I), body pain (NS/I), leucorrhea
Decoction (RS/I), painful urine (US/I)
Caesalpinia Kharpat Seeds Decoction Asthma (RT/I), anemia (CS/I), wounds
bonduc (L.) Leaves Powder (SO/E), blood purifier (CS/I), typhoid
Roxb. Fruit fever (CS/I), pimples (SO/E), jaundice
(GS/I)
Capparis Kirar Flower Paste Sexual weakness (RS/I), stomach ulcer
decidua (Forssk.) Stem Juice (DS/I), cough (RT/I), asthma (RT/I),
Edgew. Root Powder blood purifier and producer (CS/I),
Decoction constipation (DS/I), toothache (DS/E),
bronchial problems (RT/I), joint pain
(MS/E), heart tonic (CS/I), bone
fracture (MS/I)
Caralluma edulis Maddi Whole Juice Jaundice (GS/I), dysentery (DS/I),
(Edgew.) Benth. thoor plant Powder stomachache (DS/I), constipation
ex Hook.f. Leaves (DS/I), hepatitis B and C (GS/I),
diabetes (GS/I), high blood pressure
(CS/I), pimples (SO/I), blood
purification (CS/I), rheumatism (MS/I),
paralysis (NS/I)
Cassia fistula L. Chilkani Seeds Juice Gastric problems (DS/I), constipation
Kaathi Fruit Decoction (DS/I), hepatitis A (GS/I), heart tonic
(CS/I), leprosy (SO/I), chest infections
(RT/I), dysentery (DS/I), diarrhea
(DS/I), scabies (SO/E)
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Plant
Chenopodium Chhilh Leaves Juice Jaundice (GS/I), urinary infections
album L. Root Oil (US/I), snakebite (CS/I), stomach ulcer
Seeds Powder (DS/I), dyspepsia (DS/I), seminal
Shoot Decoction weakness (RS/I), hemorrhoids (DS/I),
cardiac disorders (CS/I), sexual
weakness in male (RS/I), vitamin C
source (NS/I), kidney stones (US/I),
spleen enlargement (GS/I), constipation
(DS/I)
Cleome viscosa L. Chhiprii Leaves Juice Earache (SO/E), stomach ulcer (DS/I),
Seeds indigestion (DS/I), ear infections
Root (SO/E), deafness (SO/E)
Cocculus Sar Fruit Decoction Constipation (DS/I), fever (CS/I), eye
hirsutus (L.) paarano Leaves Juice infections (SO/E), dysentery (DS/I)
W. Theob. Paste
Cucumis melo Chhibhar Fruit Paste Skin infections (SO/E), stomach ulcer
subsp. agrestis Seeds Powder (DS/I), kidney pain (US/I), constipation
var. agrestis L. Leaves Decoction (DS/I), urethra inflammation (US/I),
spleen diseases (GS/I), jaundice (GS/I),
painful urination (US/I), leucorrhea
(RS/I), eczema (SO/E)
Cuscuta reflexa Be Paari Whole Juice Jaundice (GS/I), cough (RT/I), blood
Roxb. plant Decoction purification (CS/I), bronchitis (RT/I),
fever (CS/I), sex stimulation (RS/I)
Cymbopogon Mitho Leaves Decoction Chronic fever (CS/I), gastric irritations
citratus (DC.) Gaah Juice (DS/I), insect bites (CS/I), bronchitis
Stapf (RT/I), epilepsy (NS/I), skin diseases
(SO/I), cholera (DS/I), nerve tonic
(NS/I)
Echinops Kandy wari Seeds Powder Sexual debility (RS/I), urinary
echinatus Roxb. Booti Leaves Juice infections (US/I), cough (RT/I), kill lice
(MS/E), liver tonic (GS/I), bronchial
disorders (RT/I), eye infections (SO/I),
burning sensation in urine (US/I)
Euphorbia Danda Latex Powder Ear pain (SO/E), ringworm (SO/E), skin
caducifolia thoor Shoot Paste ulcers (SO/E), wounds (SO/E), may
Haines cause abortion (RS/I)
Euphorbia hirta L. Kaazi Leaves Juice Redness of eyes (SO/E), eye diseases
dustar Seed Powder (SO/E), hair tonic (MS/I), asthma
Flower Decoction (RT/I), respiratory infections (RT/I),
cough (RT/I), measles (RT/I), athlete’s
foot (SO/E), premature ejaculation
(RS/I), diarrhea (DS/I)
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Plant
Launaea Bhitar Whole Leaves Painful urination (US/I), kidney
procumbens Plant Juice disorders (US/I), urethral inflammation
(Roxb.) Roots (US/I), milk production in females
Ramayya and (GS/I), skin allergy (SO/E), ringworm
Rajagopal (SO/E)
Lawsonia Mehndi Seeds Paste Cooling agent (GS/I), athlete’s foot
inermis L. Bark Powder (SO/E), jaundice (GS/I), stomach ulcer
Leaves (DS/I), cough (RT/I), bronchitis (RT/I),
Flower dysentery (DS/I), headache (NS/E),
Root burning sensation (SO/E), leprosy
(SO/E), may cause sterility in male
(RS/I)
Leucas aspera Asairo Leaves Decoction Fever (CS/I), malaria (CS/I), typhoid
(Willd.) Link (CS/I), skin ulcer (SO/E), measles
(SO/E)
Luffa acutangula Toori Fruit Paste Stomach pain (DS/I), stomach ulcer
(L.) Roxb. (DS/I), constipation (DS/I), Flu (RT/I),
nose allergy (RT/I)
Moringa oleifera Swanjno Bark Paste Sexual weakness in male (RS/I), liver
Lam. Fruit Decoction disorders (GS/I), spleen diseases (GS/I),
Gum tetanus (NS/I), Paralysis (NS/I),
Root toothache (DS/E), earache (SO/E),
rheumatism (MS/I), enhance urination
(US/I), may cause abortion (RS/I)
Ocimum Tulsi Leaves Oil Mouth sores (DS/I), urinary diseases
tenuiflorum L. Seeds Decoction (US/I), cough (RT/I), indigestion
Flower (DS/I), depression (NS/I), induce
sweating (GS/ I), gonorrhea (RS/I), low
blood pressure (CS/I), bronchitis (RT/I),
cold (RT/I), fever (CS/I), diarrhea
(DS/I), ringworm (SO/I), stomach ulcer
(DS/I), malaria (CS/I)
Opuntia dillenii Naang Latex Paste Asthma (RT/I), cough (RT/), hepatitis
(Ker Gawl.) Phan Fruit (GS/I), gonorrhea (RS/I), paralysis
Haw. (NS/I)
Oxalis Dil wari Leaves Juice Fever (CS/I); dysentery (DS/I); GIT
corniculata L. Root Powder worms (DS/I); stomach ulcer (DS/I);
Fruit Decoction used as blood clotting (CS/E); skin
Seeds diseases (SO/E); snakebite (CS/I);
Whole spermatorrhea (RS/I); premature
plant ejaculation (RS/I); jaundice (GS/I);
hepatitis A, B, and C (GS/I); eyesight
(SO/I)
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Plant
Peganum Harmal Root Powder Body spasm (NS/I), nervous disorders
harmala L. Seeds Juice (NS/I), rheumatism (MS/I), cough
Leaves Smoke (RT/I), stomachache (DS/I), measles
Stem Decoction (SO/E), asthma (RT/I), jaundice (GS/I),
Fruit malaria (CS/I), laryngitis (RT/E), may
cause abortion (RS/I)
Portulaca Loonak Shoot Juice Kidney and urinary disorders (US/I),
oleracea L. Seeds Decoction lung infections (RT/I), urinary bladder
Leaves Powder inflammation (US/I), jaundice (GS/I),
typhoid (CS/I), skin allergy (SO/I)
Solanum nigrum Pat peeron Leaves Powder Enhance urination (US/I), hepatitis A
L. Shoot Paste (GS/I), sore throat (RT/I), skin diseases
Seed Juice (SO/I), skin itching (SO/E), stomach
Fruit Decoction ulcer (DS/I), flu (RT/I), cough (RT/I),
Stem fever (CS/I), ear infections (SO/E),
piles (DS/E), constipation (DS/I),
obesity (GS/I)
Tamarindus Imli Fruit Juice Hepatitis B (GS/I), jaundice (GS/I),
indica L. Root blood purifier (CS/I)
Tecomella Rohiro Shoot Decoction GIT worms (DS/I), constipation (DS/I),
undulata (Sm.) Flower menstrual problems (RS/I), wounds
Seem. (SO/I), tetanus (NS/I)
Thespesia Denaa Root Juice Insect bites (CS/E), gonorrhea (RS/I),
populnea (L.) Flower Paste ringworm (SO/E), migraine (NS/I),
Sol. ex Corrêa Leaves headache (NS/I), scabies (SO/E)
Trichodesma Gaaozaban Whole Decoction Snakebite (CS/I), enhance urination
indicum (L.) plant Juice (US/I), joint pain (MS/E), dysentery
Lehm. Leaves Powder (DS/I), blood purifier (CS/I), influenza
Root Paste (RT/I), cough (RT/I), urinary infections
(US/I), flu (RT/I)
Typha Pann Flowers Powder Enhance urination (US/I), burning
angustifolia L. Paste sensation (GS/I), sedative (NS/I), used
as blood clotting agent (CS/E), kidney
stones (US/I), painful menstruation
(RS/I)
Withania Asgand Root Powder Nerve tonic (NS/I), stomach ulcer
coagulans Leaves (DS/I), sexual weakness (RS/I), arthritis
(Stocks) Dunal (MS/I), rheumatism (MS/I), skin ulcer
(SO/E), asthma (RT/I), uterine
infections (RS/I), sexual power (RS/I)
Xanthium Jangli Leaves Powder Fever (CS/I), induce sweating (GS/I),
strumarium L. Dhatoori Fruit Paste enhance urination (US/I), nerve
Root relaxation (NS/I), earache (SO/E),
Seeds smallpox (CS/I)
Bark
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Plant
Ziziphus Bair Fruit Juice Hair tonic (MS/E), constipation (DS/I),
nummularia Leaves Ash pimples (SO/E), snakebite (CS/I),
(Burm.f.) Wight Powder measles (SO/I), bronchial disorders
and Arn. Decoction (RT/I), indigestion (DS/I), blood
purifier (CS/I), skin infections (SO/I)
1
(“I” stands for internal and “E” stands for external mode of administration); DS digestive system,
RT respiratory tract, NS nervous system, CS circulatory system, MS musculoskeletal system, SO
sensory organs, US urinary system, RS reproductive system, GS glandular system
previous studies (Megersa et al. 2013), herbs are frequently used due to their easy
accessibility in wild habitats and their common availability.
Diversity of Plant Part Used and Modes of Utilization
The leaves with 30 reports are commonly used in the herbal recipes, while least
used plant part is latex followed by gum (three reports) and shoots (four reports). In
modes of utilization, powders (26 reports) and decoctions (25 reports) are frequently
used, while ash, smoke, raw forms, and oil are less frequently used modes of utiliza-
tion. The mode of administration includes internal and external use as mentioned by
study participants. The internal mode comprised of oral intake of recipe, while
external application is directly used as topical. The internal mode of application is
frequently cited in present study.
In plant part used, leaves are the most commonly used in herbal recipes for treat-
ing various diseases. This common use of leaves in herbal recipes may be due to
their easily extractable variety of phytochemicals and secondary metabolites which
may be used as valuable source for drug discovery (Verpoorte and Memelink 2002).
Besides, leaves are the main photosynthetic organ and act as reservoir of photosyn-
thetic products which are basis of active bioactive compounds (Balick and Cox
1996; Bhattarai et al. 2009). In herbal clinics and markets, seeds and roots are also
commonly used for making herbal recipes, while in some cases, fruits in the form
of powder and juice are also reportedly used for treating number disorders. There
may be a wide variety of active phytochemical compounds stored in leaves, in roots,
as well as in seeds which might play an important role in the treatment of various
diseases. Meanwhile roots and seeds are easily traded in herbal markets and clinics,
so preference is given to roots in various ethnic communities. When we talk about
the folk use of plants among indigenous communities, people always use leaves
because of their easily availability and ease in preparation of recipes, whereas in
trade, herbal sellers and herbalists prefer roots or undergrounds parts due to their
massive nature.
The data on modes of preparation reported by informants in the study shows that
most of rural population of the study area used decoctions prepared at homes by
boiling plant material in water, while THPs frequently provided herbal formulas in
the form of powders. The prepared decoction contains a diversity of active com-
pounds that plays important role in therapeutics. THPs prepare recipes and store
them for a long time as they must sell them in the herbal market. So, they prefer
powder instead of decoction. Many studies such as Costa Pinto and Maduro (2001),
Medeiros et al. (2004), and Oliveira et al. (2010) have concluded that boiling plant
material in water or any other solvent activates the phytochemical compounds or
may harmonize synergetic effect of various compounds stored in that plant part.
Pictorial Representation of Some Important Plant Species
Cultural Significance of Medicinal Plants in Deserts of Sindh
The deserts of Sindh especially Thar Desert occupy a distinct geographical location
in the deserts of Asia. The Thar Desert is particularly important for its endemic and
medicinal plant species. Each habitat and landform in the desert supports distinctive
plants with their respective niches (Khan et al. 2003). Different indigenous com-
munities of deserts in Sindh are represented by nomads that are directly linked with
wild plants. For most of the nomads, livestock is one of the major sources of income,
and status of each nomad is determined on the basis of size of herd owned. The
nomads use plants as forage, food, shelter, and folk medicine and for various other
purposes.
The Thar Desert especially Nagarparkar region has diversity of medicinal plants
ranging from lower nonvascular to angiosperms. The local people of deserts of
Sindh are completely dependent on plants in daily life and possess close cultural
associations with local plants. The indigenous possess rich traditional knowledge
about medicinal plants acquired from their parents who had experience about use of
plants in herbal medicine (Katewa 2009). In deserts of Sindh, most of the rural
people depend on traditional medicinal systems for primary health care. The local
old-aged people are experts in making herbal medicine, but documentation of this
information from them is very difficult due to their belief that transfer of informa-
tion may lose their expertise. The traditional health practitioners (THPs) of Thar
Desert have a diversity of traditional knowledge on herbal recipes prepared from
local plant species.
The local people throughout the deserts of Sindh use plants for their life activi-
ties including as herbal medicines, rituals, and cultural aspects. The knowledge of
people and their perceptions on environment are thought to be important element of
cultural integrity. In desert communities, these cultural associations have a long
history which can be traced perhaps from the dawn of early civilizations. Early civi-
lizations include Mohenjo Daro, Harappan, Aryan, and Dravidians. The civiliza-
Plate 6 (a, b) Interviews and group discussion during documentation of ethnobotanical knowl-
edge in deserts of Sindh
Plate 7 (a, b) Some vendors selling local plants in local markets in Thar Deserts
Plate 8 (a) Capparis decidua. (b) Withania coagulans

Plate 9 (a) Caesalpinia bonduc. (b) Cuscuta reflexa

Plate 10 (a) Euphorbia caducifolia. (b) Opuntia dillenii

Plate 11 (a) Peganum harmala. (b) Luffa acutangula

tions had rich traditional knowledge about herbal medicine especially in Indian
subcontinent (Albuquerque et al. 2017). In deserts of this subcontinent, indigenous
medicines were commonly utilized during early civilizations, and early human
populations were closely associated with plants used as food and medicine
(Ramawat et al. 2009). Being closely associated to nature, local people have
acquired traditional knowledge from their grandparents. The expertise about medic-
inal properties and herbal recipes and uses is enriched among rural populations, and
many aspects are unknown outside these populations. The local plants among these
indigenous populations are thought to be a cultural and integral part, and knowl-
edge about such plants is passed on from generation to generation through oral
folklore (Katewa 2009).
Current Threats to Traditional Knowledge in Deserts of Sindh
The rural indigenous communities are facing several problems that lead to direct or
indirect loss of traditional knowledge (TK) possessed by local people. The major
causes of threats include loss of pathways of transmission of traditional knowledge,
change in livelihood practices, change in traditional religious and ritual beliefs, fast
climatic changes resulting in loss of biodiversity linked with traditional knowledge,
loss of knowledge about intellectual property rights among local communities, dis-
appearance or nonfunctional institutions linked to preservation of TK, lack of legis-
lative governmental policies and their implementation, impact of modern culture,
fast shift in urbanization, and economic development pressure. A comprehensive
understanding of the drivers of TK change and conservation options is lacking in
most locations. All these factors single or in combination are threatening traditional
knowledge linked with plant diversity found in deserts of Sindh. Many conservation
and preservation actions are needed to save the precious traditional knowledge. To
reduce the loss and threats to TK, important actions that may be applied are
community-based TK conservation activities, traditional lifeway programs, indige-
nous capacity building, institutional development, self- government, self-
organization, community alliance, indigenous financing, ethno-tourism or
eco-cultural tourism, education and awareness building, customary education,
research and documentation of TK, development of database, etc. These proposed
actions should be applied at various levels to compensate for the threats and loss of
TK in deserts of Sindh.
References
Albuquerque UP, Ramos MA, Júnior WSF, de Medeiros PM (2017) Ethnobotany for beginners.
Springer, New York
Ayyanar M, Ignacimuthu S (2005) Traditional knowledge of Kani tribals in Kouthalai of Tirunelveli

hills, Tamil Nadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol 102(2):246–255
Balick MJ, Cox PA (1996) Plants, people, and culture: the science of ethnobotany. Scientific
American Library, New York, NY
Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RS (2009) Wild edible plants used by the people of Manang
district, central Nepal. Ecol Food Nutr 48(1):1–20
Boivin N (2012) The Palaeolithic occupation of the Thar Desert. University of Oxford, Oxford
Cheema S, Zaman Q, Rasul G (2012) Persistent heavy downpour in desert areas of Pakistan in
South Asian Monsoon 2011. Pak J Meteorol 9(17):71–84
Costa Pinto AA, Maduro CB (2001) Produtos e subprodutos da medicina popular comercializados
na cidade de Boa Vista. Roraima Acta Amazônica 33(2):281–290
Goudie A (2002) Great warm deserts of the world: landscapes and evolution, vol 1. Oxford
University Press on Demand
Iqbal M, Farooq U, Bashir A, Khan N, Malik S (2000) A Baseline survey for the development
of livestock sector in Cholistan. Joint Publication of AERU, AARI, Faisalabad, SSI, NARC,
Islamabad and GTZ, Lahore
Katewa S (2009) Indigenous people and forests: perspectives of an ethnobotanical study from
Rajasthan (India). In: Ramawat K (ed) Herbal drugs: ethnomedicine to modern medicine.
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 33–56
Khan T, Dular AK, Solomon DM (2003) Biodiversity conservation in the Thar Desert; with
emphasis on endemic and medicinal plants. Environmentalist 23(2):137–144
Khatri A, Rathore A, Patil U (2011) Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce: a boon plant of desert-an over-
view. Int J Biomed Adv Res 1(5):141–149
Medeiros MFT, Fonseca VD, Andreata RHP (2004) Plantas medicinais e seus usos pelos sitiantes
da Reserva Rio das Pedras, Mangaratiba, RJ, Brasil. Acta Bot Bras 18(2):391–399
Megersa M, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E, Beyene A, Woldeab B (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medic-
inal plants in Wayu Tuka district, east Welega zone of oromia regional state, West Ethiopia.
J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 9(68):2–18
Murray MD (1999) Encyclopedia of television news. Greenwood Publishing Group
Oliveira GLD, Oliveira AFMD, Andrade LDHC (2010) Plantas medicinais utilizadas na comuni-
dade urbana de Muribeca, Nordeste do Brasil. Acta Bot Bras 24(2):571–577
Qureshi R, Bhatti GR (2005a) Nara Desert, Pakistan. Part I: soils, climate, and vegetation.
Rangelands 27(5):27–31
Qureshi R, Bhatti GR (2005b) Nara Desert, Pakistan. Part II: Human Life. Rangelands 27(5):32–35
Pakistan. Fitoterapia 79(6):468–473
Ramawat KG, Dass S, Mathur M (2009) Herbal drugs: ethnomedicine to modern medicine.
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Shrestha PM, Dhillion SS (2003) Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha
district, Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol 86(1):81–96
Smith M, Vellen L, Pask J (1995) Vegetation history from archaeological charcoals in central
Australia: The late Quaternary record from Puritjarra rock shelter. Vegetation History and
Archaeobotany 4(3):171–177
Uniyal SK, Singh K, Jamwal P, Lal B (2006) Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal
communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2(1):1
Verpoorte R, Memelink J (2002) Engineering secondary metabolite production in plants. Curr
Opin Biotechnol 13(2):181–187
Yaseen G, Ahmad M, Sultana S, Alharrasi AS, Hussain J, Zafar M, Ur-Rehman S (2015)
Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in the Thar desert (Sindh) of Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol
163(2):43–59
Index
A Antidiabetic plants
ABCI multiglycosides, 642, 643 Astragalus gummifer, Lactuca sativa, and
Acetone fraction (AF), 157 Santalum album, 465
Achyranthes aspera Linn., 141–143 chemotaxonomic investigations, 411
Aged garlic extract (AGE), 146 data analysis, 464
Agrimonia pilosa LEDEB, 143–144 diabetes mellitus
Agrobiodiversity, 43 in Malaysia, 413, 414
All India Coordinated Research Project in Pakistan, 413
(AICRP) on Ethnobiology, 67 in Turkey, 412, 413
Allium sativum Linn., 145–146 dominant family, 465
Allyl sulfides, 145 frequency of citation (FC), 512
Aloe emodin (AE), 147 growth forms, 510
Aloe vera, 147 herbal formulations, DM treatment, 465,
Aloe vera Linn. (Burm. f), 147–148 507–509
Amooranin, 150 online bibliographic databases and
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 16, 22 libraries, 464
Annoglacin-B, 149 Papyrus Ebers, 410
Annona squamosa Linn., 148–149 plant parts, 511
Annonaceous acetogenins (ACGs), 149 as practical and cost-efficient
Annosquamosin B, 149 alternatives, 410
ANOSIM tests, 16 preference of herbs, 510
Anticancer single herb recipes, DM treatment,
Aloe vera gel, 147 465–507
antimutagenic and antibacterial THP, 464
properties, 170 traditional medicine, 465
and antineoplastic agent, 163 traditional modes of administration, 511
and antitumor, 151, 158 tropical rainforest plant taxa, 411
Aronia melanocarpa, 150 Antitumor
chemotherapeutic agents, 147 activity, 149
Curcuma longa L., 160 Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb., 144
DATS, 146 and anticancer, 151
Elephantopus scaber, 166 antioxidant, 162
rapeseed peptide, 152 antitumorigenic properties, 145
Tabernaemontana divaricata, 170 and cancer-preventive activities, 158
Walker tumor, 148 Crocus sativus, 159

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1
794 Index
Antitumor (cont.) Bryophytes

cytokine IL-2, 174 anticancer agents, 332
DLA tumor cells, 164 biomass, 325
dose-dependent manner, 164 characteristics, 324
in in vitro and animal models, 147 drugs, 331
luteolin, 171 ethnobotanical use, 325
MeOH, 143 Frullania, 333
Nigella sativa, 165 halophytic, 323
stigmasterol, 152 Medicinal uses
AOM-induced aberrant crypt foci (ACF), 157 Chinese medicinal system, 331
Aphanamixis polystachya, 150 peat moss, 324
Aromatic plant, 720 Physcomitrella patens, 323
Aronia melanocarpa L. (Pers.), 150–151 phytochemistry, 324, 332
Asclepiad, 55 Turkey
Asclepiadaceae and Apocynaceae bryofloristic studies, 334
data analysis, 576 ecological studies, 334
ethnic group study, 572 ecophysiological, 335
food and medicine medicinal uses, 335
ethnobotanical surveys, 579 phytochemical screening, 335
ICF, 580 uses, 333
UV, 573–576
growth forms, 577
ICF, 571, 578 C
plant parts usage, 577 Camellia sinensis Linn. (Kuntze), 155–156
rare, endemic, and threatened, 580 Cancer, 134
study region, 570 Cardiovascular system, 374–376
survey methodology, 570 Cardiovascular system disorders, 207, 208
UV, 571, 577 Casuarinin, 171
Asclepion, 56 Catechins, 155
Asiatic pennywort, 156 Celastrus hindsii, 7
Asteraceae, 163 geography and occurrence, 29
Ayurveda, 142, 660 morphology and taxonomy, 30
Azoxymethane (AOM), 157 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, 156–158
Cereals, 583, 590
Chichawatni forest
B allopathic medicines, 716
Bacopa monnieri L. (Pennell), 151–152 climatic condition, 709
Bio-cultural allopatry, 550 conservation status, 711, 716
Bio-cultural connections, in TsFD, 550 data collection, 709
Biodiversity dried specimens, 709
definition, 3, 4 ethnomedical, 712–715
in TsFD, 549 ethnomedicinal survey, 708
Biogeography livelihood, 712, 716
definition, 3 location, 710
ecotopes, 2 medicinal uses, 713–716
phylogenetic data, 7 plant parts usage, 712
species diversity and distribution, 7 research tools/instruments, 709
Bioinformatics, 9 species families, 712
Bioprospecting, 3, 92 sustainable harvesting, 711
Bioscreening, 11 traditional use, 717
Bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), 627 Chichawatni Reserved Forest, 709
Brassica campestris Linn., 152–153 Chokeberry, 150, 151
Brassica oleracea Linn., 153–155 Climate, TsFD, 551, 553
Brassica rapa, 152, 153 Cluster analysis, 16
Index 795
Community Forestry Projects (CFP), 668 sociocultural diversity, 268

Conservation strategies, 42, 43 traditional communities, 268
Convention on biological diversity (CBD), Deoxyelephantopin (DET), 164
84, 272 Dermal system, 372
Convergence, 4 Dermal system disorders, 204–206
Coronary heart diseases (CHD), 59 Deserts of Sindh
Crocus sativus Linn., 158–159 biogeography, 767, 768
Cultural ecotypes, 2 climatic conditions, 768
Curcuma longa Linn., 159–163 cultural heritage, 773
Cycas fugax ethnography, 773
conservation and protection, 28, 29 health and education, 774
geography and occurrence, 24 medicinal plants
morphology and taxonomy, 25 diversity, 777
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), 158, 161, 169 ethnobotanical knowledge, 785
indigenous knowledge, 777
low income and socioeconomic
D status, 777
Dalton lymphoma ascites (DLA), 149 modes of administration, 783
Dalton’s lymphoma, 148, 151, 157–160, 164 modes of utilization, 783
Dalton’s lymphoma ascites tumor cells Nagarparkar region, 784
(DLA), 157 properties and herbal recipes, 791
Dawuro Zone of Ethiopia THPs, 784
agro ecology, soil, climate and vegetation, TK, 791
274–275 traditional use, 775
anthropogenic activities, 318 uses, 778–783
biodiversity loss, 269 pictorial representation, 769
climatic, topographic and soil features, 268 plant diversity, 774, 775
data analysis, 284 population, 773
data collection, 276–284 tourist visits, 776
ethnobotany, 267, 270 Di (2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), 148
ethnomedicinal research, 268 Diabetes mellitus (DM)
geographical location, 273–274 cause, 463
human beings and livestock, 267 chronic illness, 463
indigenous knowledge, 267, 271, 318 herbal products, 464
land use, 275–276 intensity, 463
management system, 275–276 Pakistan, 464
medicinal plants prevalence, 463, 464
depletion, 316–317 type 1 and 2, 463
diversity, 284–309 Diabetes mellitus in traditional medicine
food security, 315 herbs used
growth forms and parts, 309–311 in Malaysia, 444–447
harvesting, 315–316 in Pakistan, 434–444
home garden management, 313–314 in Turkey, 421–434
and indigenous knowledge, 311–313 See also Antidiabetic plants
intercropping, 314 Diallyl disulfide (DADS), 146
study area, 316 Diallyl trisulfide (DATS), 146
traditional cultural ceremony, 315 Dibenzyl trisulfide (DTS), 166
tree and shrub management Diet
practices, 314 CHD, 59
objectives, 269 DASH, 60
plants, 268 definition, 59
preliminary survey, 276 large-scale study, 60
primary healthcare system, 268 life span, 60
sampling sites, 274 Mediterranean-style food, 60
796 Index
Diet (cont.) Epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCG), 155

portfolio, 60 Epimedium elatum
red wine, 60 antimicrobial activity, 631
well-being, 61–63 botanical description, 621, 622
Diferuloyl-methane, 160 chemical structures, chemotaxonomic
Digestive system, 372 markers, 620
Digestive system disorders, 204, 205 chemoprofiling studies, from Kashmir
16,17-Dihydroxy-ent-kau-ran-19-oic acid, 149 Himalayas, 643–644
Dihydroxyketone, 143 distribution of, 622, 623
4,5-Dihydroxy, 4’-methoxybenzophenone-3- ethnomedicinal usage, 625
O-β-d-glucoside, 168 flavonoid content, 645
6,4’-Dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone-2- genetic diversity, 639
O-β-d-glucopyranoside, 167 habitat characteristics, 623, 624
Dioscorides, 351 location, 621
Direct array technology (DArT), 13 molecular markers and molecular
Discrimination analyses (DA), 22 taxonomical approaches, 635
Dithiolthiones, 152, 154 propagation strategy, 624
DNA barcoding, 9, 21 in wild, 621, 622
DNA sequencing technology, 18 Epimedium species
Drug discovery, 6 antioxidant and biochemical analysis,
644, 645
biological action and bioactivity, extract,
E 625–627
Ecdysterone, 143 DNA fingerprinting status, 638
Echinacea purpurea L. (Moench), 163 (see also Epimedium elatum)
Ecological genomics, 19 extracts, usage, 619
Economy, 659 flavonoids, 644
Ecosystem services, in TsFD, 559, 562, 565 genetic diversity, 637–640
Ecotones, 5 genus, 619
Ecotopes, 2 pharmacological actions, 620
Ecotypes, 3 pharmacological importance
Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC), 150 anti-ageing, anti-fatigue and anti-
Ehrlich ascites tumor cells (EAC), 157 hypoxia activities, 631
Elaeocarpaceae anticancer activity, 628–629
bioactive compounds, 128 anti-inflammatory activity, 630–631
botanical features, 126 antimicrobial and antiviral activities,
chemotherapeutic evaluation, 127 631, 632
distribution, 126 anti-osteoporosis activity, 627–628
flowering and fruiting stage, 126, 127 aphrodisiac activity, 625, 627
glucosidases, 127 cardiovascular diseases, prevention, 630
indolizidine alkaloids, 125 ethnobotanical surveys, 625
steroids/cucurbitacins, 127 as health supplements, 625
Elaeocarpus floribundus in Korea, 625
botanical description, 131 medicinal usage, 624
chemical composition, 132 neuroprotective activity, 629, 630
pharmacological activity, 133–135 PPAR-γ ligand-binding activity, 632
phytomedicine, 126, 129 phenotypic plasticity, 633, 634 (see also
taxonomical classification, 132 Phenotypic plasticity)
traditional uses, 132 phytochemical characterization, 620, 640–642
Elaeocarpus genus, 129, 130 propagation of, 624
Elaeocarpus lanceofolius, 127 taxonomic classification, 635–637
Elephantopus scaber Linn., 163–164 wild resources, 621
Ent-kaur-16-en-19-oic acid, 149 15,16-Epoxy-17-hydroxy-ent-kau-ran-19-oic
Epicatechin, 155 acid, 149
Index 797
Ethnic tribes NGS (see Next-generation sequencing

agriculture, 86 (NGS))
Andhs, 78 pharmacology, 125
beliefs, 88 sampling technique, 276
Bhil, 79 Telangana (see Telangana, India)
Boya, 81 traditional medicine, 10
Chenchus, 81 wild plants documentation, 67
Dhulia, 82 Ziziphus spina-christi, 734
festivals and fairs, 89, 90 Ethnoflora, 412, 417
Gonds, 76, 77 Ethnomedicinal plants, see Antidiabetic
Gothi Koyas, 82 plants, Pakistan
Gowari, 79 Ethnomedicine, 66
health care and status, 85, 86 Ethnopharmacology, 404
Kolam, 77 Ethnoveterinary, 681, 682, 703
Konda Reddis, 75, 76 EU Laws, about fresh vegetables, 589
Koyas, 74
Lambadis, 80
Mannewar, 79 F
Mathura Lambadis, 82 Family education index (FEI), 726
medicinal plants Fevicordin A, 169
botanical name, 94–110 Filicophytes, 350
distribution, 94–111 Flavopiridol, 150
family, 94, 96–111 Folk classification, 549
growth form, 94, 96–111 Food
local name, 94, 96–111 and health, 583
uses, 94–111 essential amino acids, 590
medicinal plants treatment, 112–119 fresh healthy diet, 591–592
Naikpods, 78 fresh/dry-based WC, 585–587
Nakkala, 82 fruits, vegetables and cereals, 583
NTFPs, 90–92 fungi, 583
Pardhans, 78 gustative quality, 588
politics, 89 healthy, 589, 590
Raj Koyas, 83 quality, 583
sacred groves, 88 research, 583
Thotis, 78 scientists, 591
Yerukalas, 79 vegetables, 588, 589
Ethnobotanical, 720 Food and drug plants, 29–32, 38
Murree (see Murree) C. hindsii
Pakistan, 720 genetic diversity, 32
Ethnobotany, 18, 68, 198 geography and occurrence, 29
AICRP, 67 morphology and taxonomy, 30
biodiversity conservation, 66 RAMP-PCR, 31
biological resources, 273 ethomedicinal use and markets, 34
bioprospecting, 10 M. stipulata
convergence, 4 genetic diversity, 32
definition, 9, 733 geography and occurrence, 30
ecotopes, 2 morphology and taxonomy, 30
Ethiopia, 268 RAMP-PCR, 31
ethnic groups, 68 management (see Plant breeding
ethnobiology, 270 cultivation and management)
field approach, 270 population genetics, 31
human-plant relationship, 733 threats, 6
interdisciplinary subjects, 68 THs, 6
natural and social sciences, 7, 9 TMP, 5
798 Index
Food and medicine and illness, 53, 54

Asclepiadaceae and Apocynaceae Indian civilization, 55
ethnobotanical surveys, 579 Islamic medicine, 57
ICF, 580 Mesopotamian civilization, 54
UV, 573–576 quality of life, 58
Forest dwellers religious treatments, 56
economy, 659 tablets, 54
livelihood, 657 time and culture, 58
Forest Flora of Hyderabad, 67 vitamins and nutriment, 584
Fresh healthy diet, 591–592 WHO, 58
Fuel wood, 696, 702, 703 Healthy foods, 589, 590
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), 171
Herbal formulations, for DM treatment in
G Pakistan, 465, 507–509
Genetic diversity, 4, 6, 9 Herbal recipes, DM, 511, 512
Genomics, 3 Herbals
Girijan Cooperative Corporation Limited biodiversity, 197
(GCC), 91, 92 data analysis, 200–202
Glioblastoma cells, 171 medicinal plant, 198
Glucobrassicin, 153 natural products, 198
Glucosidases, 126, 127 study areas, 199–200
Glycyrrhiza traditional folk medicine, 198
G. eglandulosa, 760 in Turkey, Azerbaijan and Iran
G. glabra, 761 ailments, 213–215
G. michajloviana, 758 cardiovascular, 207
G. nadezhinae, 760 dermal, 204–206
G. shiheziensis, 758 digestive, 204, 205
G. soongoroca, 759 disease groups, study areas, 215
and Meristotropis, 757 distribution, 202
taxonomy, 757–764 ear, nose, and throat system disorders, 210
uses, 764 empirical remedies, 216
Gustative quality, 588 ethnobotanical knowledge, 215
Gynecological system, 208–210, 376–377 floristic differences, 214
Gynecological system disorders, 209 gynecological, 208–210
gynecological system disorders, 209
linguistic areas, 216
H MAPS, 202, 203, 216–263
Health medicinal flora, areas, 215
Asclepion, 56 mouth and teeth ailments, 212
Asclepius, 55 mouth and teeth disorders, 211
belief systems, 57 neurological and psychological system,
Chinese civilization, 55 210–212
Christianity civilization, 55 peculiar ethnofloras, 216
chronic diseases, 58 respiratory, 206, 207
definition, 53, 58 self-explanatory, 216
diet, 54 skeletal–muscular system disorders, 212
epic of Gilgamesh, 54 sociolinguistic community, 216
eternal life, 55 taxa, 202, 203
and food, 583 tremendous data, 215
fresh healthy diet, 591–592 urogenital, 208
healthy diet (see Diet) High-throughput sequencing (HTS), 19
healthy food, 589, 590 Hindu Kush–Himalaya (HKH) region, 658
Hippocrates, 56 Hippocrates, 56
hunter-gatherer period, 54 Homeostasis, 57
Index 799
Horny goat weeds, 624 L

Human health care and status, 85, 86 Leaf extract (LE), 143
Human health, TsFD, 558 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 157
Human-derived hepatoma cell line Livelihood
(HepG2), 153 forest dwellers, 657
Hypertension natural plant products, 657
local traditional knowledge, 595 NTFPs (see Non-timber forest products
locally available plant-derived (NTFPs))
medicine, 596 Living Planet Index, 39
prevalence, 595 Lung carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-
traditional medicine pyridyl)-1-butanone, 153
herbs parts and taxa, 598 Lycophytes, 350
Jaccard similarity index, 600
in Malaysia, 598–600
medicinal plant taxa, 600 M
in Pakistan, 598–600 Mahkota dewa, 166
preparations and taxa, 599 Malaysia
in Turkey, 597, 598 hypertension treatment, medicinal plants,
Hypoglycemic drugs, 465 599–600
location, 597
regions, 597
I tree species, 597
India Brand Equity Foundation Malondialdehyde (MDA), 629, 630
(IBEF), 664 Malvaceae, 173
Indigenous herbal treatment, 65 Mantel (r) test, 16
Indigenous knowledge Markhamia stipulata
aboriginal cultures, 271 geography and occurrence, 30
biodiversity loss, 269 morphology and taxonomy, 30
Dawuro people, 318 Materia Medica, 669
documentation, 268 Medicinal and aromatic plant species (MAPS)
ethnobotanical studies, 273 ailments, 202, 213–214
medicinal plants, 269, 311–313, 316, 318 and planet Earth, 198
plant species, 313 cardiovascular system disorders, 201, 208
tree and shrub management practices, 314 dermal system disorders, 201, 206
urban and rural areas, 271 digestive system disorders, 201, 205
Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), 152 ear, nose and throat system disorders,
Indo-Pak continent, 402 201, 210
Inducible NO synthase (iNOS), 158 families constitute, 202
Informant consensus factor (ICF), 571, gynecological system disorders,
578, 580 201, 209
Insulin, 410, 411, 419 modern drugs, 198
Iridaceae, 158 mouth and teeth ailment, 202
Isodeoxyelephantopin, 164 mouth and teeth disorders, 211
Isothiocyanates, 152, 153 neurological and psychological system
disorders, 201, 211
parts of, 203
J remedies, 216
Joint Forest Management (JFM), 668 respiratory system disorders, 201, 207
skeletal–muscular system disorders,
202, 212
K study areas, 217–263
K562 cell line, 173 urogenital system disorders, 201, 209
Kashmir Himalaya, E. elatum distribution, Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs),
623, 624, 643–645 658, 661
800 Index
Medicinal plants intercropping, 314

Achyranthes aspera Linn., 141–143 Madhya Pradesh, 668, 669
Agrimonia pilosa LEDEB, 143–144 Mesopotamian civilizations, 139
Allium sativum Linn., 145–146 Nara desert
Aloe vera Linn. (Burm. f), 147–148 ethnopharmacology, 404
Annona squamosa Linn., 148–149 fidelity level, 405
anti-cancerous compounds, 140 herbal preparation, 401
antitumor and anticancer potential, 140 Indo-Pak continent, 402
Aphanamixis polystachya, 150 medicaments, 394, 402
and aromatic, 720 phytotherapies, 401
Aronia melanocarpa L. (Pers.), 150–151 TK, 405
Ayurveda, 660 treated diseases, 394, 402–404
Bacopa monnieri L. (Pennell), 151–152 trees and shrubs, 395–400
Brassica campestris Linn., 152–153 uses, 404
Brassica oleracea Linn., 153–155 NCI, 140
Camellia sinensis Linn. (Kuntze), 155–156 Nigella sativa Linn., 164–165
cancer, 140 Petiveria alliacea, 165–166
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, 156–158 Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl,
commercial value, 660 166–169
conservation, 272 policies, 671
Crocus sativus Linn., 158–159 purposes, 139
Curcuma longa Linn., 159–163 remedies, 310
demand, 669–671 revenues, 661, 667
depletion, 316–317 Sarban Hills
deserts of Sindh collection, 686–692
diversity, 777 ethnobotanical survey, 700
ethnobotanical knowledge, 785 large scale usage, 686
indigenous knowledge, 777 marketing, 701, 702
low income and socioeconomic plants families, 685
status, 777 plants parts usage, 692
modes of administration, 783 therapeutic use, 686, 687
modes of utilization, 783 WHO, 701
Nagarparkar region, 784 secondary metabolites, 660
properties and herbal recipes, 791 source, 309
THPs, 784 study area, 285–308, 316
TK, 791 Tabernaemontana divaricata, 170
traditional use, 775 taxa of, 271
uses, 778–783 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight
diversity, 284–309 and Arn., 170–173
Echinacea purpurea L. (Moench), 163 Thespesia populnea L. sol ex Correa., 173
effective parts, 141 Thuja occidentalis Linn., 173–174
Elephantopus scaber Linn., 163–164 trade
emerging markets, 661, 663 AYUSH, 666, 667
Ethiopia, 270, 271 CAGR, 666
ethnomedicinal, 276 common name, 665
extensive research, 140 consumption, 665, 666
families, 142 demand and supply, 663–664
and food security, 315 EXIM study, 663
generic drug market, 666 growth rates, 661, 664
global market trend, 663 IBEF, 664
growth forms, 309–311 plant part, 665–666
herbal industries development, 669 World Bank, 663
home garden management, 313–314 traditional cultural ceremony, 315
indigenous knowledge, 311–313 treat human and domestic animals, 312
Index 801
tree and shrub management practices, 314 uses, 722

used for hypertension treatment ethnomedicinal
herbs parts, in three countries, 598 non-woody plants, 723
plant taxa, in three countries, 600 rhizomes, 723
Medicinal plants, diabetes mellitus FEI, 726
comparative evaluation geography, 720
Malaysia, 416–417 high-value MAP species, 722
MAPS parts, 415 local knowledge, 723
Pakistan, 415, 416 MAP, 726
preparations, 416 MAPs, 726
Turkey, 414 medicinal values, 720
destruction, tropical rainforests, 411 nutritional value, 727
herbal therapeutic remedies, 409, 410 socio-economic, 720, 726
Jaccard similarity index, 417, 419 sustainable harvest, 722
medicinal plant taxa, in three countries,
418–419
Medicinal properties, 139, 145, 155, 160 N
Medicinal uses, bryophytes Nara desert
anticancer agents, 332 agriculture, 391
Chinese medicinal system, 331 ethnobotanical data collection, 393
global scale, 326–329 fidelity level, 394
taxa, 336, 337 human and livestock populations, 391
Meristotropis triphylla, 757, 761 medicinal plants
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) cells, 147 ethnopharmacology, 404
Metabolomics, 11, 12 fidelity level, 405
Methanolic extract (MeOH), 143 herbal preparation, 401
Methylation-sensitive AFLP (MS-AFLP), 14 Indo-Pak continent, 402
Microarray flow cytometry, 14 medicament, 394
Middle Asia, Glycyrrhiza medicaments, 402
G glabra, 763, 764 phytotherapies, 401
taxonomy, 757–764 TK, 405
uses, 764 treated diseases, 394, 402–404
Molecular biology, 2, 4 trees and shrubs, 395–400
ANOSIM and ANOVA, 16, 17 uses, 404
cluster analysis, 16 plant specimens, 394
DNA markers, 12, 13 topography, 391
mantel (r) test, 16 trees and shrubs, 394
MDS, 16 National Cancer Institute (NCI), 140
microarray, 14 Neutral theory, 15
mistakes, 41 Next-generation sequencing (NGS)
neutral theory, 15 advantages and disadvantages, 23, 24
PCA, 15 ANOVA, 22
protein method, 14 cost of genotyping, 40
Molecular DNA methods, 12, 13 DA, 22
Multidimensional scaling (MDS), 16, 28, 33 DNA barcoding, 21, 23
Multivariate analyses, 17 DNA sequence, 19
Murree epigenetic modifications, 21, 22
availability and distribution, 724 HTS, 19
economic value, 727 RADseq, 20
ethnobotanical restoration and propagation, 40
classification of plants, 721 RNAseq, 20
National flora, 727 RRBS, 14
risk of extinction, 726 SNP, 21
statistic, 723 whole genome and transcriptome, 19
802 Index
Nigella sativa Linn., 164–165 PI3-K/AKT signaling pathway, 168

Nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3- Plant-based traditional medical systems, 65
pyridyl)-1-butanone, 153 Plant breeding cultivation and management
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) ex situ conservation, 38
economy, 659 markets and benefits, 38, 39
HKH region, 658 NGS, 36
livelihoods, 658 propagation, 37
MAPs, 658 restoration, 37
Southeast Asia, 659 selection, 35
Nutriment, 584 time factor, 38
Nutritionism, 58 Plant trade, 719
Pleiotropy, 3
Population genetics, 3, 5, 31
O Prickly chaff flower, 141
Oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs), 170 Principal component analysis (PCA), 15, 32
Organosulfur, 145 Prior informed content (PIC), 84
Proteomics, 11, 12
Pteridophytes
P Acrostichum aureum, 350
Pakistan ailments, 378–382
biodiversity, 597 ancient times, 382
hypertension treatment, medicinal plants, Ayurvedic formulation, 351
598–600 Carboniferous, 349
location, 597 cardiovascular disorders, 375
rainfall, 597, see Antidiabetic plants, cardiovascular system, 374–376
Pakistan common diseases, 381
Perennial cereals, 590 dermal system, 372, 373
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor digestive system, 372, 373
(PPAR) distribution, 368–371
from E. elatum, 632 ear, nose and throat disorders, 377
Petiveria alliacea, 165–166 ecological niches, 350
Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl, 166–169 economic and medicinal values, 351
Pharmacology, 3, 133, 134 ethnomedicinal knowledge, 352
Phenotypic plasticity expectorant and formulations, 351
Epimedium species genera and species, 359, 365, 367
defined, 632 gynecological disorders, 376
E. acuminatum, 634 gynecological system, 376–377
E. diphyllum and E. sempervirens, 634 herbal formulations, 382
E. pseudowushanense, 634 international markets, 382
E. pubescens and E. wushanense, 633 Malaysia, 354–367
environmental conditions, 634 marsiline, 351
morphological variations, medicinal and therapeutic uses, 351
E. sagittatum, 634 mouth and teeth ailments, 378
in Northwestern Himalayas, 633 neurological and psychological
and Picrorhiza kurroa, 633 disorders, 377
Phenyl isothiocyanates (PEITC), 154 neurological and psychological system,
Phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5), 627 377–378
Phylogenomics, 11 Pakistan, 353, 355, 360–365
Phylogeny, 2, 3 pharmacological effects, 382
Phytochemical, 3 plants flourish, 350
Phytodiversity, 569 respiratory system, 372–374
Phytomedicine, 658 seedless vascular plants, 382
Phytotherapies, 401 skeletal-muscular disorders, 376
Phytotherapy, 420 skeletal-muscular system, 376
Index 803
therapeutic effectiveness, 382 fodder plants, 694, 695

therapeutic uses, 380 fuel wood, 696, 698, 702, 703
traditional medicine, 356–367 geography, 675
Turkey, 352–353, 355, 359 herbarium work, 683
urogenital system, 374, 375 languages, 677
uses, 381 livestock, 678
market assessment, 684
medicinal plants
Q collection, 686–692
Quality of life, 58 ethnobotanical survey, 700
families, 685
large scale usage, 686
R marketing, 701, 702
Ranunculaceae, 164 plants parts usage, 692
Rare and endangered plants therapeutic use, 686, 687
cluster analysis, 27 WHO, 701
conservation, 28, 29, 39 plant identification, 683
Cycas fugax plant materials, 683
geography and occurrence, 24 population, 676
morphology and taxonomy, 25 questionnaires, 683
RAMP-PCR, 26 socioeconomic status, 678
population genetics, 26 soil, 676
propagation, 39 study area, 675
protection, 29 timber, 695, 698, 702, 703
restoration, 39 traditional medicine, 680, 693
Sinocalamus mucclure Single herb recipes, for DM treatment in
geography and occurrence, 25 Pakistan, 465–507
morphology and taxonomy, 26 Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP),
RAPD-PCR analysis, 26 13, 21
Reduced representation bisulphite sequencing Sinocalamus mucclure
(RRBS), 14 conservation and protection,
Relative frequency citations (RFCs), 736 28, 29
Respiratory system, 372–374 geography and occurrence, 25
Respiratory system disorders, 206, 207 morphology and taxonomy, 26
Restriction site-associated DNA sequencing Skeletal–muscular system, 212, 376
(RADseq), 20 Skeletal–muscular system disorders, 212
RNA sequencing (RNAseq), 20 SMMC-7721 cells, 144
Rohitukine, 150 Socio-ecological systems , TsFD, 549
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples
Region (SNNPR), 273
S Species, 707, 708
Sacred natural sites (SNSs), 88 Squamocin, 149
Sarban Hills Squamotacin, 149
agriculture, 677 Stigmasterol, 152
biodiversity, 678, 684, 685, 695, 697, 699 Succus aloes, 148
climate, 676 Sulforane, 154
conservation, 704 Sulforaphane, 154
data documentation, 684 Swidden agriculture, 42
economy and tourism, 677
education, 677
ethnobotany, 678, 679, 700 T
ethnoveterinary, 681, 682, 703 T24 human bladder cancer cells, 147
fieldwork, 682 Tabernaemontana divaricata, 170
fodder for livestock, 702 Taoism, 55
804 Index
Tarnawai, Abbottabad Nakkala, 82

climate, 731, 732 NTFPs, 90–92
cultural knowledge, 735 Pardhans, 78
diseases classification, 739, 742 politics, 89
documentation, 735 Raj Koyas, 83
ethnobotany sacred groves, 88
classification, 738, 739, 747–748 Thotis, 78
definition, 733 Yerukalas, 79
distribution, 739 ethnobotanical work, 69–71
exploration, 735 forest cover, 84
human-plant relationship, 733 geographical and forest cover, 73
treated ailments, 746 NTFPs, 68
Ziziphus spina-christi, 734 PIC, 84
ethnomedicinal plants wildlife sanctuaries, 84, 85
folk recipes, 740–742 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight and
uses, 743–745 Arn., 170–173
field survey, 734 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA),
field work, 735 143, 157–158, 160, 171
floristic diversity, 736, 737 Thandiani Sub Forest Division (TsFD)
literacy ratio, 732 agriculture, 548
plant habit, 737 agroecology and agricultural crops, 558
poverty, 732 in blocks and beats, 549
RFCs, 736, 749 climate, 551, 553
soil, 732 crops, 548
statistical analysis, 735 description, 548
UVi, 736, 746 ecosystem services, 559, 562, 565
Taxonomy, 757–764 elevation ranges, 548
Telangana, India ethno-ecological studies
climatic condition, 71 bio-cultural allopatry, 550
Crotalaria, 67 biodiversity, food, 549
demographical statistics, 72, 73 conservation, 550
economic benefits, 67 folk/traditional knowledge systems, 549
ethnic people local communities, 549
agriculture, 86 vegetation type, 550
Andhs, 78 ethnology, 558
beliefs, 88 livelihood, 558, 559
Bhil, 79 location, 548
Boya, 81 medicinal plants, traditional uses, 559–562
Chenchus, 81 Northwestern region, Pakistan, 547
Dhulia, 82 trees, exploitation, 548
festivals and fairs, 89, 90 tribes, 548
Gonds, 76, 77 vegetation
Gothi Koyas, 82 dry subtropical broad-leaved forests, 554
Gowari, 79 low-level blue pine vegetation, 556
health care and status, 85, 86 subtropical pine forests, 554, 556
inhabit, 72 types, forests, 553
Kolam, 77 western Himalayan province, 553
Konda Reddis, 75, 76 western mixed coniferous forest
Koyas, 74 vegetation, 556, 557
Lambadis, 80 villages, 548
Mannewar, 79 Thar Desert
Mathura Lambadis, 82 biogeography, 767, 768
medicinal plants treatment, 112–119 endemic and medicinal plant, 784
Naikpods, 78 herbal medicine, 775
Index 805
indigenous knowledge, 777 ecological studies, 334

livestock and human population, 773 ecophysiological, 335
Nagarparkar region, 784 hypertension treatment, medicinal plants,
Nara and Achro, 767 597, 598
THPs, 784 medicinal uses, 335
Thari people, 391 global scale, 326–329
Theaceae, 155 taxa, 336, 337
Theophrastus, 351 phytochemical screening, 335
Therapeutic remedies, 409, 410
Thespesia populnea L. sol ex Correa., 173
Thuja occidentalis Linn., 173–174 U
Thymoquinone (TQ), 165 Univariate analyses, 17
Traditional botanical knowledge (TBK) Urogenital system, 208, 374
trade, 66 Urogenital system disorders, 209
WHO and the Rio Earth Summit, 66, Use value (UV), 577
see Ethnic tribes Use value index (UVi), 736, 746
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 139
Traditional ecological knowledge, 595
Traditional healers V
and agroclimatic zone, 276 Vegetables, 588, 589
residential addresses, 276 Vitamins, 584, 593
study area, 277–283, 311–313
Traditional healers (THs), 6
Traditional health practitioners (THPs), 464, W
511, 784 Walker tumor, 148
Traditional knowledge (TK) Water content (WC)
Babylonian and Sumerian, 707 dry matter-based WC, 585
biological diversity, 708 dry-based WC, 585
deserts of Sindh, 791 on fresh/dry matter base, 586
drug discovery, 708 kinetic, plants’ WC, 587
Mesopotamia, 707 lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), 587
Traditional knowledge of medicines for single lettuces, in dry
India, 658 condition, 587
Traditional medicinal practice (TMP), 5 Well-being
Traditional medicine dental health, 62
administration, 311 eating habits, 62
for hypertension emotional stability, 61
in Malaysia, 599, 609–612 excessive food intake, 62
in Pakistan, 598, 599, 606–609 exercises, 62
in Turkey, 597, 601–606 genetic inheritance, 61
in Iğdır, Nakhchivan and Tabriz, 202 memory, 61
plant-derived preparations, 596 quality sleep, 62
Transposable elements (TEs), 14 vaccination programs, 62
Trees and shrubs, 395–400 World Health Organization (WHO), 270
Tumor-suppressor protein, 144
Turkey, bryophytes
bryofloristic studies, 334 X
centres of diversity and origin, 596 Xanthorrhoeaceae, 147

Plant and Human Health, Volume 1 - Ethnobotany and Physiology (PDFDrive)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Plant and Human Health, Volume 1 - Ethnobotany and Physiology (PDFDrive)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Plant and Human Health, Volume 1 - Ethnobotany and Physiology (PDFDrive)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Munir

Plant and Human Health,

ISBN 978-3-319-93996-4 ISBN 978-3-319-93997-1 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018954546

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abu Rayḥan Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Biruni

He was born in Hive-Turkmenistan in the

Quatre Bornes, Mauritius Ameenah Gurib-Fakim

Izmir, Turkey; Amann, Jordan Munir Ozturk

 olecular Biodiversity Convergence with Biogeography

 Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Pteridophytes in Turkey,

 herapeutic Characteristics of Murree Plants: An Emerging Feature������ 719

Munir Ozturk (Ph.D.) has served at the Ege

Khalid Rehman Hakeem (Ph.D.) is Associate

H. V. Huy, H. V. Hung, R. T. Buckney, and L. F. De Filippis

Biogeography, Ethnobotany and Phylogeny

H. V. Huy · H. V. Hung · R. T. Buckney · L. F. De Filippis (*)

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

g­ eneration to generation which has led to the development of the traditional

Convergence of Ethnobotany and Molecular Biology

Genetic Diversity and Population Genetics

Natural Foods and Biopharmaceuticals

In this chapter we provide an overview of plant biogeography and ethnobotany and

Traditional Ethnobotanical Methods

Natural and Social Sciences: Crucial Resources for Humans

Biogeography seeks to understand the underlying biotic and abiotic processes

be a focused effort and is likely to be enabling, rather than transformative. For

Ethnobotany Information: Bioprospecting and Traditional Uses

Phylogeny and Chemical Methods

Medicinal plants synthesize an arsenal of protective (even toxic) molecules, most of

Metabolomics and Proteomics: Evolutionary-Conserved Traits

central challenge of natural product research. The combination of bioassay-guided

Molecular Ethnobotanical Methods

Molecular DNA Methods

by safer, less complex and more cost-effective PCR-based markers including

Microarray and Protein Methods

Bioinformatics, Computers and Statistics

Molecular population genetics is being invigorated by the ever-growing amount of

Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)

remember that revealed associations among variables and patterns of object

Next-Generation Sequencing and Ethnobotany

present problems and challenges in plant molecular biology. The widespread

Restriction Site-Associated DNA Sequencing (RADseq)

RADseq provides researchers with the ability to record genetic polymorphism

RNA Sequencing (RNAseq)

RNAseq adds large-scale transcriptomics to the toolkit of ecological and evolu-

Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP)

Epigenetic modifications are expected to occur at a much faster rate than

methylation frequency between different positions of a genome varies widely,

A comprehensive discussion of the genetic and statistical analysis employed in

(b) Generate whole plastid genomes and ribosomal sequences, circumventing

Molecular Biology of Rare and Endangered Plants

The rare ‘string’ bamboo (Ampelocalamus sp./Sinocalamus sp. McClure) is only

Sinocalamus sp. McClure is a monocotyledon species with healthy root systems,

rhizome. It is the most important product in ethnomedicinal use, as an excellent

Percent of polymorphism (%) 74.2 72.7 64.7 70.2

Nei genetic diversity (H) 0.24 0.25 0.18 0.21

Estimation of gene flow (Nm) 0.80 0.66 0.65 0.59

Quatre Bornes, Mauritius Ameenah Gurib-Fakim

Izmir, Turkey; Amann, Jordan Munir Ozturk

olecular Biodiversity Convergence with Biogeography

Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Pteridophytes in Turkey,

herapeutic Characteristics of Murree Plants: An Emerging Feature�� 719

Biogeography, Ethnobotany and Phylogeny

g eneration to generation which has led to the development of the traditional

Convergence of Ethnobotany and Molecular Biology

Genetic Diversity and Population Genetics

Natural Foods and Biopharmaceuticals

Traditional Ethnobotanical Methods

Natural and Social Sciences: Crucial Resources for Humans

Ethnobotany Information: Bioprospecting and Traditional Uses

Phylogeny and Chemical Methods

Metabolomics and Proteomics: Evolutionary-Conserved Traits

Molecular Ethnobotanical Methods

Molecular DNA Methods

Microarray and Protein Methods

Bioinformatics, Computers and Statistics

Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)

Next-Generation Sequencing and Ethnobotany

Restriction Site-Associated DNA Sequencing (RADseq)

RNA Sequencing (RNAseq)

Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP)

Molecular Biology of Rare and Endangered Plants

Molecular Biology of Drugs and Food

Ethomedicinal Use and Markets

Plant Breeding Cultivation and Management

Plant Breeding and Selection for Sustainability

Cultivation and Sustainable Active Product Production

Perspective and Future Direction

Biogeography, Ethnobotany and Conservation

New Molecular Developments

Common Mistakes in Molecular Biology

Concept of Health from Past to Present

An Overview of Health at Present

What Is a Healthy Diet Actually?

ifferent Dietary Habits Between Societies and Possible

Tips for a Life Full of Wellness

Multidisciplinary Subjects of Ethnobotany

Ethnic People of Telangana

Prior Informed Content (PIC)

Ethnic Tribes: Health Care and Status

Ethnic Tribes: Agriculture

Ethnic Tribes: Beliefs

Ethnic Tribe: Sacred Groves

Ethnic Tribes: Politics

Ethnic Tribes: Associated Festivals and Fairs

Ethnic Groups: Economic Source from Major NTFPs