EDEXCEL NATIONAL CERTIFICATE

UNIT 4 – MATHEMATICS FOR TECHNICIANS

OUTCOME 4 - CALCULUS
TUTORIAL 1 - DIFFERENTIATION
Use the elementary rules of calculus arithmetic to solve problems that involve differentiation and
integration of simple algebraic and trigonometric functions.

CONTENT

CALCULUS ARITHMETIC, DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

Differentiation: introduction to the differential coefficient, graphical analogy of differential

coefficient, gradient at a point; Liebnitz notation for differential coefficient; differentiation of
simple polynomial, exponential functions and sinusoidal functions, rate of change applied to simple
functions

Integration: integration as the reverse of differentiation, basic rules of integration for simple
polynomial functions, exponential functions and sinusoidal functions, indefinite integrals, definite
integrals of simple polynomial functions; concept of the integral as a summation device.

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

• Explain differential coefficients.

• Apply Newton’s rules of differentiation to basic functions.

• Solve basic engineering problems involving differentiation.

• Define higher differential coefficients.

• Evaluate higher order differential coefficient.

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1. GRADIENTS AND FINITE CHANGES

Remember that the symbol ∆ (Capital Delta) means a finite change in something. Here are some
examples.
Temperature change ∆T = T2 – T1
Change in time ∆t = t2 – t1
Change in Angle ∆θ = θ2 – θ1
Change in distance ∆x = x2 – x1
Change in velocity ∆v = v2 – v1

The symbol δ (lower case delta) means a small but finite

change in something such as δT, δt, δθ, δx, δv and so on.

Consider the following. The distance moved by an object

is directly proportional to time t as shown on the graph.

Velocity = Change in distance/change in time.

v = ∆x/∆t
This would be the same for a small change.
v = δx/δt = ∆x/∆t

The ratio ∆x/∆t is the same as the ratio δx/δt and the ratio is the gradient of the straight line.

TANGENT OF A CURVE

The graph shows a curve that is a plot of

x = f(t) = t3 The f(t) means a function of
time and this idea is often used instead of
writing the variable itself.

If we stuck a pin in the paper at point P

and moved a straight edge around until it
touched the pin, the straight edge would
be the tangent at P. This could be a solid
triangle as shown and we must keep the
other edges horizontal and vertical. The
vertical and horizontal sides of the triangle
give us the gradient of the tangent.

Gradient = ∆x/∆t

CHORD OF A CURVE

We could draw a line and measure the gradient

but another way is to draw a chord between
two points either side of P. The chord joins
points A and B which are approximately
equally spaced from P. The gradient would be
approximately ∆x/∆t but this time we could
evaluate ∆x and ∆t mathematically.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Estimate the gradient of the curve f(t) = t3 at the point t = 6 by finding the chord between
t = 8 and t = 4

SOLUTION

At t = 4, f(t) = 43 = 64 At t = 8, f(t) = 83 = 512

∆x = 512 – 64 = 448 ∆t =8 – 4 = 4
Gradient of the chord is 448/8 = 112 Gradient is approximately 112

The closer we make the points A and B to P the more accurate the estimate will be.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Repeat the last question taking A at t = 5 and B at t = 7.

SOLUTION

At t = 5, f(t) = 53 = 125 At t = 7, f(t) = 73 = 343

∆x = 343 – 125 = 218 ∆t = 7- 5= 2
Gradient of the chord is 218/2 = 109 Gradient is approximately 109

If we took values closer to point P we should start

to use δx and δt to indicate that the increments are
small. If we made it really small, such that the
values got very close to 0 the gradient would be
very accurate and the ratio δx/δt would have a
definite value. We can actually do this. If we take
the chord between point P and another point B the
gradient would be evaluated as follows.

δx = f(t+δt) – f(t)
δx f(t + δt) - f(t) δx (t + δt) 3 - (t) 3
Gradient = = and =
δt δt δt δt
You need to be able to multiply out the brackets but here is the result when you do it.

δx t 3 + (δt )3 + 3t 2 δt + 3t ( δt) 2 − t 3 (δt )3 + 3t 2 δt + 3t ( δt) 2 δx

= = = (δt )2 + 3t 2 + 3t ( δt)
δt δt δt δt
δx δx
Now if we bring B so close to P that δt = 0 we have = 3t 2 and at t = 6 = 108
δt δt
dx
When the value of δ is made zero, we replace it with 'd' so that the gradient is = 108
dt
dx
We might use the expression "as δt →0, = 108 " This is the value at the limit as δt becomes zero
dt

and we also use the expression to mean "in the limit as δt tends to zero"

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2. DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT- THE DERIVATIVE

Summarizing what we have just studied - In general if

we have a function y = f(x) and we wish to find the
gradient at a point P, we take a point close to it and
form an expression for the gradient of the chord and
this is:

δy f(x + δx) − f(x)

= where f(x)is the value of y at P at
δx δx
f(x + δx) is the value of y at P + δx

If we reduce the value of δx to zero we get a limiting ratio that is the true gradient of the curve at
point P and this ratio is called the DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT or DERIVATIVE
δy dy
As δx →0 =→
δx dx

WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

Using the method just described, find the exact gradient of y = f(x) = x2 at the point x = 4

SOLUTION
δy f(x + δx) - f(x) (x + δx) 2 - f(x) 2 x 2 + (δx ) + 2xδx - x 2 (δx ) + 2x δx
2 2
= = = = = δx + 2x
δx δx δx δx δx
dy dy
In the limit as δx→0 =2x Put t = 4 and =8
dx dx

THE DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT FOR f(x) = xn

We seem to be on the way to finding the solution for this because we have already solved f(x) = x2
and f(t) = t3.Using the same method, the differential coefficient is :
δy f(x + δx) - f(x) dy
= = in the limit when δx→0 Putting f(x) = xn we have
δx δx dx
dy (x + δx) n - x n
= as δx → 0
dx δx
n
n n⎛ δx ⎞
Rearrange into this form (x + δx) = x ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ x ⎠
δx ⎡ δx ⎤
x n (1 + ) n - x n ⎢ (1 + ) n - 1⎥
dy x dy x
= as δx → 0 = xn ⎢ ⎥ as δx → 0
dx δx dx ⎢ δx ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Multiplying out any bracket to a power higher than 1 will produce the result shown next.
⎡ ⎧⎪ ⎛ δx ⎞ ⎛ δx ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎤
n
⎢ ⎨1 + n⎜ ⎟ + .......⎜ ⎟ .⎬ - 1⎥
dy n ⎢⎪ ⎩ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎥
=x ⎢ ⎥ as δx → 0 The 1 will disappear.
dx ⎢ δx ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
All the missing terms contain higher powers than 1.

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 ⎡ ⎧⎪ ⎛ δx ⎞ ⎛ δx ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎤
n
⎢ ⎨n ⎜ ⎟ + .......⎜ ⎟ .⎬ ⎥
dy ⎢ ⎪
⎩ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎥
= xn ⎢ ⎥ as δx → 0
dx ⎢ δx ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Divide out by δx
dy ⎧
n⎪ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ δx ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎫⎪
n
= x ⎨n ⎜ ⎟ + .......⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟.⎬as δx → 0
dx ⎪⎩ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ δx ⎠ ⎪⎭
Put δx = 0 and all the terms inside the square bracket will be zero except the first
dy nx n
= = nx n −1
dx x
This is a general solution for the differential coefficient of y = f(x) = xn

The notations used in this section were the work of the Great Mathematician Liebnitz and more can
be found on this at the following Web Site
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz%27s_notation_for_differentiation

Newton is credited with developing this work at the same time as Liebnitz but it is Newton is
regarded as the father of Calculus.

3. NEWTON’S METHOD

3.1 DIFFERENTIATION OF AN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION

The equation x = a t2/2 is an example of an algebraic equation. In general we use x and y and a
general equation may be written as y = axn where ‘a’ is a constant and ‘n’ is a power or index. The
rule for differentiating is :

dy/dx = nax (n-1) or dy = nax (n-1) dx

Note that integrating returns the equation back to its original form.

3.2 DIFFERENTIATING A CONSTANT.

Consider the equation y = a xn. When n = 0 this becomes y = a x0 = a (the constant).

(Remember that anything to the power of zero is unity).

Using the rule for differentiation dy/dx = anx 0-1 = a (0)x-1 = 0

The constant disappears when integrated. This explains why, when you do integration without
limits, you must add on a constant that might or might not have been present before you
differentiated. It is important to remember that:

A constant disappears when differentiated.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

Differentiate the function x = 3 t2/2 with respect to t and evaluate it when t = 4.

SOLUTION
3t 2 dx (2)(3)t 2−1 dx
x= = = 3t Putting t = 2 we find =6
2 dt 2 dt

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

Differentiate the function y = 4 + x2 with respect to y and evaluate it when y = 5.

SOLUTION
dy dy
y = 4 + x2 = 0 + 2x 2−1 = 2x Putting y = 5 we find = 10
dx dx

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 6

Differentiate the function z = 2y4 with respect to y and evaluate it when y = 3.

SOLUTION
dz dz
z = 2y 4 = (2)(4)x 4−1 = 8y 3 Putting y = 3 we find = 64
dy dy

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 7

Differentiate the function p = 2q3 + 3q5 +5 with respect to q and evaluate it when q = 2.

SOLUTION

dp
p = 2q 3 + 3q 5 + 5 = (3)(2)q 3−1 + (5)(3)q 5−1 + 0 = 6q 2 + 15q 4
dq
dp
putting q = 2 we get = 24 + 240 = 264
dq

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 8

The equation linking distance and time is x = 4t + ½ at2 where ‘a’ is the acceleration. Find the
velocity at time t = 4 seconds given a = 1.5 m/s2.

SOLUTION
x = 4t + ½ at2 velocity = v = dx/dt = 4 + at = 4 +(1.5)(4) = 10 m/s

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. Find the gradient of the function y = 2x - 5x7 when x = 2

(Answer -2238)

2. Find the gradient of the function p = 2q + 2q2 + 4q3 and evaluate when q = 3
(Answer 58)

3. Find the gradient of the function u = 2v2 + 4v4 and evaluate when v = 5
(Answer 2020)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. The electric charge entering a capacitor is related to time by the equation q = 3t2.

Determine the current (i = dq/dt) after 5 seconds. (30 Amp)

2. The angle θ radians turned by a wheel after t seconds from the start of measurement is found to
be related to time by the equation θ = ω1 t + ½ αt2

ω1 is the initial angular velocity (2 rad/s) and α is the angular acceleration (0.5 rad/s2).
Determine the angular velocity (ω = dθ/dt) 8 seconds from the start. (6 rad/s)

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3.3 OTHER STANDARD FUNCTIONS

For other common functions the differential coefficients may be found from the look up table
below.

dy
y = sin(ax) = acos(ax)
dx
dy
y = cos(ax) = −asin(ax)
dx
dy
y = tan(ax) = a + atan(ax) 2
dx
dy 1
y = ln(ax) = x −1 =
dx x
dy
y = ae kx = ake kx
dx

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 9

The distance moved by a mass oscillating on a spring is given by the equation:

x = 5 cos (8 t) mm. Find the distance and velocity after 0.1 seconds.

SOLUTION

At 0.1 seconds x = 5 cos (0.8) = 3.48 mm

v = dx/dt = -40 sin (8t) = -40 sin (0.8) = -28.69 mm/s

Note that your calculator must be in radian mode when looking up sine and cosine values.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 10

The distance moved by a mass is related to time by the equation :

x = 20e 0.5t mm. Find the distance and velocity after 0.2 seconds.

SOLUTION

At 0.2 seconds x = 20e 0.5t = 20e 0.1 = 22.1 mm

v = dx/dt = (20)(0.5) e 0.5t = 10 e 0.1 = 11.05 mm/s

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. If the current flowing in a circuit is related to time by the formula i = 4sin(3t), find the rate of
change of current after 0.2 seconds. (9.9 A/s)

2. The voltage across a capacitor C when it is being discharged through a resistance R is related to
time by the equation v = 4e-t/T where T = is a time constant and T = RC.

Find the voltage and rate of change of voltage after 0.2 seconds given R = 10 kΩ and C = 20
µF. (1.472 V and -7.36 V/s )

3. The voltage across a capacitor C when it is being charged through a resistance R is related to
time by the equation v = 4 - 4e-t/T where T = is a time constant and T = RC.

Find the voltage and rate of change of voltage after 0.2 seconds given R = 10 kΩ and C = 20
µF. (2.528 V and 7.36 V/s )

4. The distance moved by a mass is related to time by the equation :

x = 17e 0.3t mm. Find the distance and velocity after 0.4 seconds.
(19.17 mm and 5.75 mm/s)

5. The angle turned by a simple pendulum is given by the equation:

θ = 0.05 sin (6 t) mm. Find the angle and angular velocity (dθ/dt) after 0.2 seconds.
(0.0466 radian and 0.1087 rad/s)

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4. HIGHER ORDER DIFFERENTIALS

Consider the function y = x3. The graph looks like this.

The gradient of the graph at any point is dy/dx =3x2. This may be evaluated for any value of x. If
we plot dy/dx against x we get the following graph.

This graph is also a curve. We may differentiate again to find the gradient at any point. This is the
gradient of the gradient. We write it as follows.
⎛ dy ⎞
d⎜ ⎟ 2
⎝ dx ⎠ = d y = 6x
dx dx 2
The graph is a straight line as shown with a gradient of 6 at all points.

If we differentiate again we get

⎛ d2y ⎞
d⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ dx ⎟ d 3 y
⎝ ⎠= =6
dx dx 3

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 11

The distance moved by a body (in metres) with uniform acceleration is given by s = 5t2.
Find the distance moved, velocity and acceleration after 12 seconds.

SOLUTION

distance = s = 5t 2 = 720 m
ds
velocity = v = = 10t = 120 m/s
dt
dv d 2 s
acceleration = = 2 = 10 m/s 2
dt dt

WORKED EXAMPLE No.12

The distance moved by an oscillating body is related to time by the function:

x = 1.2 sin(2t) mm.

Find the distance moved, velocity and acceleration after 0.3 seconds.

SOLUTION

distance = x = 1.2sin(2t) = 1.2sin (0.6) = (1.2)(.5646) = 0.678 mm

dx
velocity = v = = (2)(1.2)cos(2t) = (2.4)cos(0.6) = 1.981 mm/s
dt
dv d 2 x
acceleration = = = −(2)(2)(1.2)sin(2t) = - 4.8sin(0.6) = -2.71 mm/s 2
dt dt 2

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

1. Evaluate the first and second derivative of the function p = 8e-0.2t when t = 2.
(Answers -1.073 and 0.215)

2. The motion of a mechanism is described by the equation x = 50 Cos(0.5t) mm. Calculate the
distance, velocity and acceleration after 0.3 seconds.
(Answers 49.44 mm, -3.74 mm/s and -12.36 mm/s2)

3. Evaluate the first and second derivatives of the function z = 2x4 + 3x3 + 2x - 5
when x = 4
(Answers 658 and 456)

4. The motion of a body is described the equation x = Asin(ωt) where x is the distance moved and
t is the variable time. Show by successive differentiation and a substitution that the acceleration
is given by a = -ωx.

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