Chapter 3 Integral Calculus

3.1 Origin of integral

Suppose we are to find area under a curve y = f(x) as shown in Fig 1 .

Fig 1

One way to do this is to draw thin rectangles onto the graph and estimate the total
area of these rectangles . We enlarge Fig 1 for you to see what is going on. ( Fig 2)

Fig 2

Suppose the area under the curve = A

Then A ≈ sum of all rectangles under the graph.

Each rectangle has area = y Δx where y = f(x) and Δx = width of rectangle.

b
So A ≈  yx .
x a
For A to be more accurate Δx has to be very small, which means we have to take
more and more rectangles. Then how can A be exact ? Well, we have to make
Δx → 0 and at the same time the number of rectangles goes to infinity.

x b
Mathematically A = lim  yx .
x → 0 x  a

b
The last expression above is written as ∫
a
ydx

The notation ∫ is symbol for integral which is widely used.

b
Now how do we calculate ∫
a
ydx ? This is the answer supplied by many eminent
mathematicians such as Newton, Leibnitz, Riemann and Darboux.

1
Later we will see how ∫ relates itself to derivative that we studied.

3.2 Integral as Reverse Process to Differentiation

Mathematicians realised that there is a relation between integral ∫ and derivative.

They discover that they are reverse to each other ;

d
So if
dx
( f (x)) = g(x) then ∫ g(x)dx = f (x) .
This is the most important discovery for which it arises to the birth of integral
calculus.
Using the above we can quickly can many formulae to integration as shwn in the
table below.

f(x) f(x)
∫ f (x)dx ∫ f (x)dx
1 x ex ex
a ax cos x sin x
x x2/2 sin x - cos x
axn ax /(n+1) n ≠ -1
n+1
tan x - ln cos x
1/x ln x sec2 x tan x
ax a /ln a
x
cosh x sinh x

To check whether the entries are correct we can differentiate the second and the
fourth columns and see that they are equal to the first and hhird column
respectively.

d ax 1 x ax
For example ( )=
dx ln a ln a
(a ln a) = a x . Hence ∫ a dx = ln a .
x

d ax n +1 a
Also for n ≠ -1 ( )= ((n + 1) x n ) = ax n .
dx n + 1 n +1
n +1
ax
Hence ∫ ax n dx = .
n +1

Notice that if we add in constant C to the expression that we differentiated,

d 1 1
the answer will be the same. For example (ln x + C ) = . Hence ∫ dx = ln x + C .
dx x x

So officially we should add in constant C to each of the entries in column 2 and 4

above.

2
Using the table we can straight away conclude that
_
7x 4 1 x 5 +1 _ 1
(a) ∫ 7 x dx = + C (b) ∫ 5 dx = ∫ x dx = _
_
3 5
= +C
4 x 5+1 4x4

5
3
x2 5
( c) ∫ 5 x 3
dx = ∫ 5 x dx = 5
2
5
= 2 x 2
+C .
2

b
We also have ∫a
f (x) dx = F (a) _ F (b) where ∫ f (x)dx = F (x) + C

3.3 Rules of Integration

We have certain proven rules to ease us in performing integration.

1. ∫ f (x) ± g(x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx .

2. ∫ cf (x) dx = c ∫ f (x) dx .
b
3. If f(x) ≥ 0 on a ≤ x ≤ b then ∫ f (x) dx ≥ 0 .
a
a b
4. ∫ b
f (x) dx = _ ∫ f (x) dx .
a
b c b
5. If a < c < b then ∫a
f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx .
a c

Example 1

2 x 3 + 3x + 7
Evaluate ∫ x 2 dx .
Solution

Example 2

7 2 7
Given that ∫ g(x)dx = 10
2
and ∫ g(x)dx = 4. Find ∫ g(x)dx.
5 5

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3.4 Techniques of Integration

Of course the table alone won’t help very much to integrate complicated functions.
We need certain technique to get around it.

3.4.1 Substitution Method or Change of Variable

du
In this method we let u = h(x) and then find. We manipulate this and
dx
substitute into the integral so as to change the x form to u form.

Example 3

Evaluate each of the following (a) ∫e 2x

dx (b) ∫ cos 7 x dx (c ) ∫ (x 2 + 7) 5 x dx

Solution

1 1
In general ∫e ax
dx = e ax + C ,
a ∫ cos ax dx = a sin ax + C .

4
Example 4
1
Evaluate each of the following (a) ∫ x ln x dx (b) ∫ sin 3
x cos x dx
1
(c ) ∫ ax + b .
dx

Solution

Example 5

2
∫ ( x + 2)
3
Evaluate x dx
1

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 3.4.2 Integration By Parts ( IBP )

When we differentiate f(x)g(x) we get

d d d
( f (x)g(x)) = f (x) (g(x)) + g(x) ( f (x)) .
dx dx dx

Thus d ( f (x)g(x)) = f (x)d (g(x)) + g(x)d ( f (x))

Integrating left and right of the equation yield

f (x)g(x) = ∫ f (x)d (g(x)) + ∫ g(x)d ( f (x)) and hence

∫ f (x)d(g(x)) = f (x)g(x) ∫ g(x)d( f (x)) .

_

If we let u = f(x) and v = g(x) the above can be written as

∫ udv = uv ∫ vdu
_

which is the famous integration by parts formula and is usually written this way.

As seen integration by parts can be implemented for integration of certain

products of functions. The u and dv need to be properly selected to make the
technique works.

Example 6

Evaluate (a) ∫ x sin 3x dx (b) ∫ x cos 3x dx (c ) ∫x 2

sin 3x dx

6
 As seen in ( c) , the method is rather laborious. Imagine if we need to find
∫x 4
sin 3x dx . To get around this a tabular form of IBP is designed. In this form
we will have two columns, one for differentiating and another one is for
integration. We will show how we do this tabular form for ∫x 2
sin 3x dx and

∫x 4
sin 3x dx .

Example 7

Evaluate each of the following (a) ∫ ln x dx (b) ∫e 2x

cos 3x dx .

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 3.4.3 Integration By Partial Fractions

You must be familar with the calculation in high school such as

1 3 (4 + x ) + 3x 4 + 4 x
+ = = .
x x +4 x(x + 4) x(x + 4)

1 3 4 + 4x
So given + we arrive to .
x x +4 x(x + 4)

4 + 4x 1 3
Now what if is given. How can we arrive to + ?
x(x + 4) x x +4

The answer lies in the technique of Partial Fractions.

This technique governed by the following rule :

Rule of Partial Fractions

p(x)
Suppose we have where p and q are polynomials and deg(p) < deg(q).
q( x )

p(x)
(a) If q contains linear factors (ax + b)(cx + d) then contains partial
q( x )
A B
fractions of the form + .
ax + b cx + d
p(x)
(b) If q contains linear factors (ax + b)(cx + d)2 then contains partial
q( x )
A B C
fractions of the form + + .
ax + b cx + d (cx + d )2

(c) If q contains linear factors of the form (ax + b)(cx2+ dx + e) then

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p(x) A Bx + C
contains partial fractions of the form + 2 .
q( x ) ax + b cx + dx + e

Example 8

3 3
Express
x(2 x + 1)
into partial fractions. Hence evaluate ∫ x(2 x + 1) dx .

Example 9

2x + 3 2x + 3
Express
(x + 2)(2 x + 1)2
into partial fractions. Hence evaluate ∫ (x + 2)(2x + 1) dx .

9
Example 10

x x
Express
(x + 3)(x 2 + 4)
into partial fractions. Hence evaluate ∫ (x + 3)(x 2
+ 4)
dx .

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 3.4.4 Integration Using Trigonometric Identities

In this section we will learn how to integrate some of the trigonometric of the
functions. We will use some of the identities and formulae in trigonometry.
Here are some of the identities that are oftenly used in this integration.

Basic Identities

1. cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
2. 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
3. 1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x

Double Angle Formula

4. sin 2x = 2sin x cos x

5. cos 2x = cos2 x - sin2 x = 2cos2 x - 1= 1 - 2sin2 x

Product Formula
1
6. sin x sin y = [cos (x _ y ) _ cos( x + y)]
2
1
7. cos x cos y = [cos (x _ y )+ cos( x + y)]
2
1
8. sin x cos y = [sin(x + y )+ sin( x _ y)]
2
1
9. cos x sin y = [sin(x + y ) _ sin( x _ y)]
2

Example 11

Find each of the following (a) ∫ sin x cos 2 x dx (b) ∫ cos 3 x dx (c ) ∫ sin
2
x dx

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Example 12

Evaluate ∫
0
2
cos 2 x cos 5x dx .

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 3.5 Applications of Integral

3.5.1 Finding Area Under a Curve and Between Two Curves.

In early part of this chapter we have discussed a bit on finding area under a curve. In
this section we will learn to calculate the area.

A. Area between graph y = f(x) and x axis

Consider a region between the graph of a function y = f(x) and x axis from
x = a to x = b . ( Fig 3 )

Fig 3

Suppose the area that we seek is A.

The area of an arbitrary rectangle is ydx . We sum up all the rectangles to get

b b
A= ∫a
y dx or ∫
a
f (x) dx .

Example 13

Find the area between the graph y = x2 + 3 and x axis between x = 2 to x = 5.

Solution

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 Example 14

Find the area enclosed by the graph y = x2, y = 6 - x and x axis

Solution

B. Area between graph x = g(y) and y axis.

Consider the region between graph x = g(y) and the y axis from y =c to y = d.
( Fig 4 )

Fig 4

Suppose the area is A .

We now draw the rectangles onto A parallel to x axis . The area of each
rectangle with width dy is xdy . Sum up all the rectangles will lead us to the
formula

d d
A= ∫ x dy
c
or ∫ g(y)dy
c

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 Example 15

6
Find the area between y = and the y axis from y = 1 to y = 5.
x

C. Area between two graphs ( upper and lower graphs ).

Suppose the upper graph is y2 = f(x) and the lower graph is y1 = g(x).
Let A be the region between the two graphs, from x = a to x = b. ( Fig 5 )

If we draw vertical rectangles onto A then each rectangle with width dx will
have length y2 - y1 . Thus each rectangle will have area (y2 - y1)dx . This leads us to
the formula for A as

b b
A= ∫ (y
a 2
_
y1 ) dx or ∫ ( f (x)
a
_
g(x)) dx

b
This A can also be memorised as ∫ (upper
a
graph _ lower graph) dx .

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Example 16

Find the area between the graph y = x(6 - x) and y = x.

D. Area between two graphs ( left and right graph )

Suppose the right graph is x2 = f(y) and left graph is x1 = g(y) . Let A be the area
between the two graphs between y = c and y = d ( Fig 6 )

Fig 6

Draw horizontal rectangles onto A . The width of a rectangle is dy and length for
each rectangle is x2 - x1 . Thus the area is (x2 - x1)dy . This leads to the formula of
A as

d d
A= ∫ (x
c 2
_
x1 ) dy or ∫ ( f (y)
c
_
g(y)) dy

d
A can also be memorised as A = ∫ (right graph
c
_
lef graph) dy .

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Example 17

Find the area enclosed by the graphs y = 6 - x, y = -2x and the x axis .

Solution

3.5.2 Finding Volume Of Revolution .

Imagine that the region between the graph y = f(x) and x axis from x = a to x = b
is revolved 3600 about the x axis. If the region is a right triangle ( Fig 7a ) then we
will obtain a full cone (Fig 7b)

Fig 7a Fig 7b Fig 7c

This cone is an example of a solid of revolution. If the region is made up of very

thin rectangles with width dx , then when revolved about the x axis we will get a
series of discs with radius y and thickness dx. One disc has volume πy 2dx .( Fig 7c)
Summing up the volumes for all the disc will lead us to the volume of the solid. In
this case the volume of the solid is

b b
V= ∫ πy
a
2
dx or ∫ π( f (x))
a
2
dx .

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 Example 18

The region bounded by y = x2, x = 2 and x = 5 and x axis is revolved about the x
axis. Find the volume of the solid generated.

Solution

Example 19

Prove that the region bounded by a semicircle with equation y = a 2 _ x 2 and x

4 3
axis and when revolved about the x axis has volume πr .
3

Solution

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 Integration of Functions of two variables

The general form is  f (x , y)dA where R is a region on the xy plane .

R
For our purpose we will take R to be a rectangular region on xy plane and
z = f(x,y) will be a surface above( or below) it . dA can be taken as dydx or dydx.

When the integral is computed it will give the volume of a solid with base R and
top the surface z = f(x,y) .

Let us first look at how the integral is evaluated.

To find the value of  f (x , y)dA when R is given as

R

4 5 2
and f(x,y) = x2y + y we will let  f (x , y)dA = 1 2 x y  y dydx
R

Example

4 5 2
Compute 1 2 2 x  3y dydx . Interpret the value.

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 Ordinary Differential Equations

Often the case especially in engineering we are given for example equations
involving rate of change. Suppose velocity is twice that of time . Find the velocity,
displacement and so on.

If velocity is v and time is t then v = 2t . Since v = ds/dt where s is

displacement then ds/dt = 2t.

Th last equation above is an ordinary differential equation written in short as

ODE. There are many types of ODE. We will learn only the simple ones.

Firstly every ODE must have an order. This order is given as the highest order of
derivative in the equation.

Example
Determine the order of each

1. dy/dx = x2 + 1
2. d2y/dx2 = dy/dx - 7x
3. (dy/dx)4 + d3y/dx3 = cos x

Solving ODE

ODE is solved according to its type. We will learn two types of ODE of First Order

1. Separable equation

An ODE which can be separated the x on one side and the y on the other side.

When separated the x and the y we have the form f(y)dy = g(x)dx. The
solution to the equation can then be found by integrating both sides.

Example

Solve dy/dx = xy +y

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Example

Solve : exdy/dx = y3 ,
y = 1 when x = 0

In the above example the condition y =1 when x = 0 is known as initial condition.

2. Linear Equation

Equation of this type takes the form dy/dx + P(x)y = Q(x).

P ( x )dx
To solve this equation we multiply the left and right by e  , which is known
as integrating factor. Let us remind that before multiplying ensure rhat the
equation must be in the above form.

Example Solve dy/dx + y/x= sin x y(0) = 1

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Example Solve xdy/dx + (3x + 1)y = x2

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