MTH4100 Calculus I: Lecture Notes For Week 6 Thomas' Calculus, Sections 3.5 To 4.1 Except 3.7
MTH4100 Calculus I: Lecture Notes For Week 6 Thomas' Calculus, Sections 3.5 To 4.1 Except 3.7
MTH4100 Calculus I: Lecture Notes For Week 6 Thomas' Calculus, Sections 3.5 To 4.1 Except 3.7
Rainer Klages
Autumn 2009
Derivatives of trigonometric functions
cos h − 1 sin h
• Use lim = 0 and lim = 1 to conclude f ′ (x) = cos x.
h→0 h h→0 h
d
(2) A very similar derivation gives cos x = − sin x.
dx
(3) We still need d d sin x
tan x =
dx dx cos x
d d
dx
(sin x) cos x − sin x dx (cos x)
(quotient rule) =
cos2 x
cos x cos x − sin x(− sin x)
=
cos2 x
cos x + sin2 x
2
1
= =
cos2 x cos2 x
Derivative of composites
examples:
Parametric equations
example:
The variable t is a parameter for the curve. If t ∈ [a, b], which is called a parameter
interval, then (f (a), g(a)) is the initial point, and (f (b), g(b)) is the terminal point.
Equations and interval constitute a parametrisation of the curve.
examples:
√
(1) Given is the parametrisation x = t , y = t , t ≥ 0. What is the path defined by these
equations?
Solve for y = f (x): y = t , x2 = t ⇒ y = x2 . Note that the domain of f is only [0, ∞)!
5
(2) Find a parametrisation for the line segment from (−2, 1) to (3, 5).
x = −2 + at , y = 1 + bt .
• Implement the terminal point at (3, 5) for t = 1:
3 = −2 + a , 5=1+b.
• We conclude that a = 5 , b = 4.
x = −2 + 5t , y = 1 + 4t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 ,
example: Describe the motion of a particle whose position P (x, y) at time t is given by
x = a cos t , y = b sin t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
dy dy/dt b cos t
= = .
dx dx/dt −a sin t
dy b2 x
Eliminating t again we obtain =− 2 .
dx a y
Implicit differentiation
problem: We want to compute y ′ but do not have an explicit relation y = f (x) available.
Rather, we have an implicit relation
F (x, y) = 0
between x and y.
example:
F (x, y) = x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0 .
solutions:
1. Use parametrisation, for example, x = cos t, y = sin t for the unit circle.
√
• Compare with solution above: substituting y = y1,2 = ± x therein reproduces the
explicit result.
x2 y 2
example: Find dy/dx for the ellipse, + 2 = 1.
a2 b
2x 2yy ′
1. + 2 =0
a2 b
2yy ′ 2x
2. =− 2
b2 a
b2 x
3. y ′ = − , as obtained via parametrisation in the previous lecture.
a2 y
p
application: Motivate the power rule for rational powers by differentiating y = x q using
implicit differentiation:
• write y q = xp
note: Above we have silently assumed that y ′ exists! Therefore we have ‘motivated’ but
not (yet) proved this theorem!
Linearisation
“Close to” the point (a, f (a)), the tangent L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) (point-slope form) is
a “good” approximation for y = f (x).
√
example: Compute the linearisation for f (x) = 1 + x at x = a = 0.
1
L(x) = 1 + x .
2
9
Why are linearisations useful? Simplify problems, solve equations analytically, . . . many
applications!
Make phrases like “close to a point (a, f (a)) the linearisation is a good approximation”
mathematically precise in terms of differentials:
Choose x = a + dx, a = x:
10
example:
11
examples:
. . . and the extension of this definition to endpoints via half-open intervals at endpoints.
note: Absolute extrema are automatically local extrema!