Non-destructive Testing Equipment

4-1. Introduction
While living organisms such as human beings are aware of changes in their physical condition,
and can tell the state of their health from their appearance, changes in body temperature, breathing
condition, etc., metals, concrete, etc., cannot tell from the outside whether they have minute surface
scratches or internal defects.
In order to prevent problems caused by component failure or breakage, we can visualize minute
surface defects that cannot be seen with the naked eye, or apply ultrasonic waves, X-rays, electricity,
magnetism, heat, or other energy from the outside to determine whether the material is healthy or not
without breaking or damaging the object, in other words, whether cracks, voids, etc. are present or
not.
Unlike destructive testing, nondestructive testing is performed without damaging the test object,
so the test object can be used as is, which is one of major features.

Non-destructive testing is applied to the inspection of products during the processing process from
materials and at the time of completion, and to the inspection of facilities at the time of construction,
thereby helping to increase the reliability and extend the period that we can use products and
facilities safely in. Also, by applying non-destructive testing as part of maintenance and inspection, it
is possible to effectively utilize equipment in use for a long period of time. Thus, non-destructive
testing is one of the technologies to ensure the safety of society, and it is expected to become
increasingly important in the future.
There are a number of non-destructive testing methods, and each method has its own
characteristics (strengths and weaknesses), so it is necessary to select an inspection method that fully
considers the purpose of the test and the material and shape of the test object.
4-2. Types of Testing and Definition

2-1. Non-destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing is a test in which ultrasonic waves, X-rays, electricity, magnetism, heat, or
other energy is applied externally to figure out whether a material is healthy or not without
destroying or damaging the object.
NDT is short for non-destructive testing, and NDI stands for non-destructive inspection. In other
words, NDT is just used for nondestructive 'testing,' while NDI is used for 'inspection' to make a
pass/fail decision based on the result of the test. In addition, the term Non-destructive Evaluation
(NDE) is used for other 'evaluations' of materials and products.
Non-destructive testing on concrete includes rebound hammer testing, ultrasonic testing,
percussion testing, etc.

2-2. Semi/Partial Destructive Testing

Semi/Partial destructive testing is a method of examining the interior of a structure with the
minimum amount of destruction which is necessary. One of the main purposes of the inspection is to
confirm the quality control of the constructor.
Semi/Partial destructive testing on concrete includes measuring the strength of newly constructed
structural concrete using BOSS, which is short for broken off specimens by splitting, specimens or
small-diameter core boring, etc.

2-3. Destructive Testing

Destructive testing is a test of applying an external force to industrial materials to observe and
measure the occurrence and growth of fractures and cracks in order to determine their strength and
properties.
Destructive testing on concrete includes the compressive strength test, etc.

4-3. Objectives of Non-destructive Test

By conducting non-destructive testing, problems caused by component failure or damage can be
prevented. For this reason, non-destructive testing is performed on a wide variety of industrial
products and plays a major role in the safety of society.
The purpose of conducting non-destructive testing can be divided into two categories: "Quality
 Evaluation" to confirm that manufactured products meet specifications, and "Lifetime Evaluation" to
detect deterioration and damage of products and predict their remaining product lifetime.
“Quality Evaluation" can assure the reliability of manufactured products. Since non-destructive
testing does not damage the inspection target, it is also possible to perform a total inspection.
On the other hand, “Lifetime Evaluation" can determine whether the product can be used until the
next inspection or whether it needs to be repaired or replaced. This type of evaluation can avoid huge
expenditures associated with failures and accidents, resulting in cost savings.

4-4. Methods of Non-destructive Tests on Concrete

4-5. Rebound Hammer Method

The rebound hammer test is one of non-destructive tests to estimate the compressive strength of
concrete from the rebound number when striking the concrete surface, and can be used to measure
concrete strength without damaging the structure. The rebound hammer is designed to apply a
constant impact to the concrete by the force of an internal spring.

Rebound Hammer Set

Principle
When the tip of the equipment is pressed against the concrete, the mass of spring-loaded steel is
automatically released and struck by the plunger at the tip. In this process, the elastic deformation of
the concrete absorbs part of the energy produced by the release of the spring, but the remaining
energy causes the hammer to rebound. In other words, if the concrete is hard, the impact energy from
the blow is less likely to be consumed by the plastic deformation of the concrete, and the rebound
will be greater. Conversely, if the concrete is not hard, the impact energy from the blow is likely to
be consumed by the plastic deformation of the concrete, resulting in a smaller rebound.
From the above principle, a correlation is observed between rebound hammer bounce and concrete
hardness. On the other hand, since concrete hardness and compressive strength are correlated as
well, concrete compressive strength can be estimated using the rebound hammer bounce height,
which is the Rebound Number, via concrete hardness. The Rebound Number is the distance
rebounded expressed as a percentage.

Diagram of a Rebound Hammer Test

There are various measurement methods using rebound hammers, which can be roughly divided into
"Single Impacts" and "Continuous Impacts". In the Continuous Impacts, the measurement point is
fixed, so the number of strike steps and the selection of data have a large impact on the Rebound
Number. On the other hand, in the Single Impact, the same point is struck only once, and the points
are moved one after another, so the Rebound Number differs depending on how the point to be
struck is selected.
1. Preparation for Testing Equipment
After a rebound hammer has been struck many times, or if it has not been used for a
long period of time, the hardness of the spring, internal friction, etc. may change, and
correct test results may no longer be obtained. Therefore, before taking a measurement,
confirm that the rebound hammer is correctly adjusted by striking the test anvil before
commencement and after completion of the test to ensure reliable results.or by other
means. Rebound hammers whose inspection results differ by more than 3% from the
Rebound Number at the time of manufacture of the rebound hammer shall not be used for
measurement.
 *There are various types of test anvils, ranging from large ones that have the
reproducibility of the Rebound Number to small and lightweight ones that are highly
portable. When using a test anvil, check the Rebound Number of the test anvil.
*It consists of a steel cylinder with 150 mm diameter and 150 mm height. The hardness
Rockwell C (HRC) value of the impact area shall be 64 to 68. The supplier/manufacturer
of the rebound hammer should indicate the range of readings on the anvil suitable for
different types of rebound hammers.
*General rebound hammers change their measurement results after 2,000 to 3,000 blows,
for reasons such as increased friction in the actuating part. Therefore, maintenance,
verification, etc. should be performed after these number of blows.
*There are currently no established guidelines for the maintenance, verification, etc. of
rebound hammers. For details, please contact the manufacturer of the rebound hammer.

Check of the Rebound Number Using the Test Anvil iii)

2. Factors influencing test results

Type of cement
Concretes made with high alumina cement can give strengths 100 percent higher than
that with ordinary Portland cement. Concretes made with super-sulphated cement can give
50 percent lower strength than that
with ordinary Portland cement.
Type of aggregate
Different types of aggregate used in concrete give different correlations between
compressive strength and rebound numbers. Normal aggregates such as gravels and
crushed rock aggregates give similar correlations, but concrete made with lightweight
aggregates require special calibration.
Surface condition and moisture content
The rebound hammer is only suitable for open texture concrete. Open texture concrete
typical of masonry blocks, honeycombed concrete or no-fines concrete are unsuitable for
this test. All correlations assume full compaction, as the strength of partially compacted
concrete bears no unique relationship to the rebound numbers. Trowelled and floated
surfaces are harder than moulded surfaces, and tend to overestimate the strength of
concrete.A wet surface will give rise to underestimation of the strength of concrete
calibrated under dry conditions. In structural concrete, this can be about 20 percent lower
than in an equivalent dry concrete.
Curing and Age of Concrete
The relationship between hardness and strength varies as a function of time. Variations
in initial rate of hardening, subsequent curing and conditions of exposure also influence
the relationship. The effect of age can be ignored for concrete above 14 days old.
Carbonation of concrete surface
The influence of carbonation of concrete surface on the rebound number is very
significant. Carbonated concrete gives an overestimate of strength which in extreme cases
can be up to 50 percent. The carbonation depth shall be checked in cases where the age of
concrete is more than 6 months and same shall be
reproduced in the test report.
Vertical Distance from the Bottom of Concrete Placement
The influence of vertical distance from the bottom of concrete placement on the rebound
number is very significant. Generally, a higher rebound number is
observed near the bottom of concrete placement as during compaction, concentration of
aggregates will be higher at the bottom.
Surface Conditions Used in Development of Correlation Between Compressive Strength
and Rebound Number
The direct correlation between rebound numbers and strength of wet cured and wet tested
cubes is not recommended. It is necessary to establish a correlation
between the strength of wet tested cubes and the strength of dry tested cubes on which
rebound readings are taken.
It is known that when resilience is measured on wet or damp concrete, the measured
resilience is smaller than when the same concrete is measured in an air-dry condition.
However, the extent of this is not always sufficiently clear. Therefore, it is important to use
dry concrete for the measurement. Whenever possible, avoid measuring when the concrete
surface is wet or damp, such as during or after rain. If it is unavoidable to measure when
the concrete surface is wet or damp, the Rebound Numbers are corrected by adding
correction value.
Correction Value for the Condition of the Concrete
 Concrete Condition Correction Value
The measurement position is wet and the
+3
rebound points become black.
Measurement position is damp. +5

Measurement Date
The relationship between the results of resilience measurements using a rebound
hammer and the compressive strength of concrete is believed to vary with the age of the
concrete. For this reason, rebound hammer manuals may provide a correction value to
compensate for the effect of age of the concrete. However, published research results have
shown that using the correction values in manuals or other documents does not necessarily
improve the accuracy of concrete strength estimation. Therefore, the Japanese Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) has adopted the principle of
measuring concrete whose age is between 28 and 91 days and not using the correction
value.

In cases that measuring concrete whose age is 28~91 days is unavoidable, MLIT uses the
following methods.
・ Measurements on the concrete whose age is prior to 9 days are not performed because
of the difficulty in making a proper evaluation.
・ If measurements are conducted at 10 days of age of the concrete, the calculated
estimated strength shall be multiplied by 1.55 to evaluate the strength of the concrete.
・ If measurements are conducted at 20 days of age of the concrete, the calculated
estimated strength shall be multiplied by 1.12.
・ No correction shall be made when measuring from 28 days to 91 days of age of the
concrete.
・ No correction shall be made for strength estimates for tests conducted after 92 days of
age.
・ If the test is performed between 10 and 28 days of age of the concrete, the correction
value obtained by proportionally distributing the previous and following correction
values shall be taken out for evaluation. Details of the correction values are shown in
the table below.

3. Measurement of Rebound Number

When measuring the Rebound Number, the equipment must be operated slowly so that a
 constant shock is applied by the force of the internal spring. Note that operating the
instrument with a lot of force may cause the Rebound Number to be measured higher than
it actually is. In addition, to correctly measure the energy of rebound, the impact must be
perpendicular to the measurement surface. In particular, note that the vertical angle is
difficult for the measurer to see. To ensure that these operations are performed properly, be
sure to operate the rebound hammer with both hands.The impact energy required for
rebound hammers for different applications is given in Table below:
Impact Energy for Rebound Hammers for Different Applications
Approximate Impact
Energy Required for the
SN Application
Rebound Hammers
(N-m)
1 For testing normal weight concrete 2.25
2 For light-weight concrete or small and 0.75
impact sensitive part of concrete
3 For testing mass concrete, for example, in 30.00
roads, air-field pavements and hydraulic
structures

The point of impact should be at least 25 mm away from any edge or shape discontinuity.
Around each point of observation, six readings of rebound indices are taken and average of
these readings after deleting outliers as per IS/ISO 16269 (Part 4) becomes the rebound
index for the point of observation.
According to JSCE guidelines, the average value of 20 points in an area of 20 x 20 cm or
more at one measurement location is obtained, and values exceeding ±20% of the average
value are considered abnormal and deleted. Then, the data is rec-collected for the deleted
numbers and the average value is then used for evaluation.
4. Estimation of Concrete Strength
Relationships between rebound number and concrete strength that are provided by
instrument manufacturers shall be used only to provide indications of relative concrete
strength at different locations in a structure.
In general, the rebound number increases as the strength increases but it is also affected by
a number of parameters as mentioned above. It is also pointed out that rebound indices are
indicative of compressive strength of concrete to a limited depth from the surface. If the
concrete in a particular member has internal micro-cracking, flaws or heterogeneity across
 the cross-section, rebound hammer indices will not indicate the same. As such, the
estimation of strength of concrete by rebound hammer method cannot be held to be very
accurate and probable accuracy of prediction of concrete strength in a structure can be up
to ± 25 percent depending upon correlation curve and methodology adopted for
establishing correlation between rebound index and likely compressive strength. If the
relationship between rebound index and compressive strength can be checked by tests on
core samples obtained from the structure or standard specimens made with the same
concrete materials
and mix proportion, then the accuracy of results and confidence thereon are greatly
increased.

4-6. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

The ultrasonic pulse velocity test is a test to measure the location and dimensions of cracks and
spalling in concrete by measuring the ultrasonic waves of 20 kHz or higher that are radiated inside
the concrete by an ultrasonic wave oscillator placed on the concrete surface and measured by a
receiver on the surface of the concrete.
The principle of detecting defects is basically based on the reflection of ultrasonic waves at the
boundary between the concrete and the air layer due to cracks, spalling, internal voids, etc. The
ultrasonic pulse velocity test is suitable for measuring cracks in concrete and has been used in many
cases. While there are fewer restrictions on the shape and size of the concrete to be measured, the
presence of reinforcement bars reduces the accuracy of the method.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test Set

Principle of Crack Depth Measurement
 The basic method of measuring crack depth is to place the transmitting and receiving antennas on
the same surface in the near vicinity of the crack. There are many different methods of measuring
depth, depending on the combination of the type of wave, such as longitudinal, transverse, or surface
wave, and the measurement parameters such as propagation time, amplitude value, frequency, and so
on. Here, the Tc-To method, the short-distance bypass method, and the modified BS method are
explained. Generally, when measuring propagation time, the crack depth and the ultrasonic wave
velocity inside the object are unknown, but the Tc-To methods and the short-distance bypass method
determine the crack depth after determining the ultrasonic pulse velocity in the crack-free area. The
modified BS (British Standard) method determines the crack depth by solving a couple equation in
which the propagation distance and elastic wave velocity are unknowns by varying the spacing of
the oscillators.

The propagation time becomes longer because The propagation time becomes shorter when
ultrasonic waves bypass the crack. the spaling is in the object.
Diagram of the Principle of Crack Depth Measurement by Using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Test Equipment

The following formulas are used to estimate the crack depth in each method.
[Tc-To Method]
d=a √(Tc/ ¿)2 − 1
d: Crack depth [mm]
a: Distance between censer and the crack [mm]
2a: Distance between both of censers [mm]
To: Propagation time when measured in crack-free area [μs]
Tc: Propagation time when measured across the crack [μs]
 Diagram of Tc-To Method

[Short-distance Bypass Method]

t
d=V 0 ×
2
d: Crack depth [mm]
V0: Ultrasonic pulse velocity [km/s]
t: Propagation time [μs]

Diagram of Short-distance Bypass Method

[Modified BS Method]

√
2 2
4 t 1 −t 2
d=a 2 2
t 2 − t1

d: Crack depth [mm]

a: Distance between censer and the crack [mm]
t1: Propagation time when the distance between the censer and the crack is equal to a
t2: Propagation time when the distance between the censer and the crack is equal to 2a

Diagram of Modified BS Method

The procedure for measuring crack depth by seismic propagation time measurement
is as follows.
① Bring the oscillator and receiver into contact. Measure the propagation v
elocity from a reference specimen whose propagation velocity and length a
re known to confirm the accuracy of the measurement in advance.
② Select a point where the concrete surface is smooth and free from other d
efects across the crack to be measured.
③ Set the distance between the sensor and the crack, remove adhered materia
ls from the concrete surface, and smooth the surface where the sensor is
to be installed.
④ Apply a contact agent to the sensor surface and tightly adhere it to the
concrete wall.
⑤ Activate the measuring instrument and measure propagation time. Measure m
ultiple times and examine the measured values carefully.

Concrete Strength Estimated from the Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves Propagating inside the Concrete
Many methods for estimating the strength of concrete from its sound velocity have been
implemented for some time. However, it is difficult to evaluate the measured values because
concrete contains 60-70% aggregate by volume, and the speed of ultrasonic propagation varies
greatly even for concrete with the same water cement ratio, depending on the quality of the
aggregate. Therefore, it is not generally used as a method of evaluating the quality of concrete
structures, but it is possible to estimate the quality of concrete by velocity as a guide as follows.
Estimation of Concrete Quality Grading by Average Value of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Av erage Value of U ltrasonic Puls e Velocity [m/s ] Con cret e Qu a l i t y Gra di n g
Above 4,400 Excellen t
3,750 t o 4,400 Good
3,000 t o 3,750 Dou bt fu l
Below 3,000 P oor

The flow to implement ultrasonic pulse velocity testing is as follows.vi)

 Equipment should be zeroed using the calibration rod on a regular basis.

 Couple the transducers to the calibration rod by applying the gel to the transducers and both ends of the rod

and pressing firmly together as shown.

 Select System Settings

 Check Tx/Rx matches transducer frequency. Pulse width requires no adjustment.

Correction factor set to 1.0.

Select Calibration.

 If necessary, select to enter the transit time as marked on the calibration rod.

 Variable Parameter; set as follows:

Up/down keys: fine adjustment

Left/right keys: coarse adjustment

 Center key: enters the value and returns to the previous menu

Cancel key: cancels the input and returns to the previous menu

 Press “Start” to begin the calibration sequence.

 The final display shows the expected transit time and below it the measured transit time. This should match

the value on the calibration rod

[Basic Measurement – Pulse Velocity]

 Select “Basic Measurements”
 Select parameter setting “path length”
 Enter the path length
 Start the measurement
 The display shows:
- Transmission time
- Measured pulse velocity
- Received signal level
 Stop the measurement (Not necessary in burst mode)
 Save the result or: Adjust the gain settings or: Start a new measurement

[Basic Measurement – Waveform Display]

 Select “Basic Measurements”
 Start the measurement
 Select “Waveform”
 Adjust as required
 Cancel to return to standard display

[Basic Measurement – Path Length]

 Select “Basic Measurements”
 Select parameter setting “pulse velocity”
 Enter the pulse velocity
 Start the measurement
 The display shows:
- Transmission time
- Measured path length
- Received signal level
  Stop the measurement (Not necessary in burst mode)
 Save the result or; Adjust the gain settings or; Start a new measurement

4-7. Ground Penetrating Radar Method

The ground penetrating radar test is a test used mainly for the exploration of reinforcing bars and
void in concrete structures. Using specialized equipment, electromagnetic waves are radiated onto
the surface of concrete and their reflection is used to examine the interior of the structure. The
radiated electromagnetic waves travel straight through the concrete at a constant speed, but when
they hit something with different electrical properties from the concrete, such as a rebar, void, or
PVC　(polyvinyl chloride) pipe, the waves are reflected at the boundary surface. This reflective
property of electromagnetic waves can be used to detect the distance and location to that boundary
surface and to identify buried objects that are different from concrete.
The reflected electromagnetic waves are released onto the concrete surface and are caught by the
receiving antenna. From the time taken for this transmission and reception and the resulting
waveform, the distance to the reflected object and the nature of the object can be determined. Since
the radiated electromagnetic waves are in the microwave band, they are not dangerous as in X-ray
inspection, so they are widely used.

Principle
In the ground penetrating radar test, electromagnetic waves radiated into concrete from a
transmitting antenna are reflected by boundary surfaces such as rebar and voids, and received by a
receiving antenna. By measuring the time between the transmission and reception of the
electromagnetic waves, the depth of the reflector such as a rebar or void can be determined from the
surface of the concrete. In addition, by moving the antenna, position information of the reflector can
be determined as well. Diagram of the principle of the ground penetrating radar test is shown in the
figure below.
 Diagram of the Principle of the Ground Penetrating Radar Test

The velocity of electromagnetic waves inside concrete can be expressed by Formula (1).
V =C/ √ ε r (1)
V: Velocity of electromagnetic waves in concrete
C: Velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum (3×108 [m/s])
ε r: Dielectric constant of concrete (dry concrete: 4~12, wet concrete: 8~20)
The dielectric constant is 1 for air and 81 for water, which means that the propagation velocity of
electromagnetic waves in water is 1/9 of that in air. The moisture content in concrete also affects the
electromagnetic wave velocity, which is 4~12 for general dry concrete and 8~20 for wet concrete.
The distance D to the reflector can be expressed by Formula (2), where T is the round-trip
propagation time from the transmitted wave to the reflected wave.
D=VT /2 (2)
D: Distance from the surface of concrete to the reflector [mm]
T: Round-trip propagation time [mm]

4-8. Reference
i) The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection. What is non-destructive
inspection like. The Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection.
“http://www.jsndi.jp/aboutus/aboutus02.html”. November 20, 2022
ii) IAA Public Works Research Institute. 6 key points of Strength Estimation
Survey by Rebound Hammer. MLIT. November 20, 2022
iii) Housing Defect Warranty Liability Insurance Textbook. 4. Non-destructive
 Inspection. Association of Housing Warranty Insurers. November 20, 2022
iv) Hokkaido Public Works Research Institute Monthly Report No.623, April, 2005.
Diagnosis of tracks and spalling in hardened concrete by non-destructive
testing. Hokkaido Public Works Research Institute
v) MLIT, How to Obtain Distribution of Relative Permittivity (method using
Reinforcement Bar Diameter) and Method for Determining Cover by Using Ground
Penetrating Radar Method (corrected in 2007). MLIT. November 20, 2022
vi) Screening Eagle Technologies. User Manual for Pundit lab+. Screening Eagle
Technologies