Eddy Current Inspection

Ref: ASM HAND BOOK, VOL :17

Dr. B.N.Sarada
 Eddy Current Inspection

• Introduction
• Principles
• Operation variables,
• Procedure,
• Detectable discontinuities.
 Eddy Current Inspection
Introduction
• EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION is based on the
principles of electromagnetic induction and is
used to identify or differentiate among a wide
variety of physical, structural, and
metallurgical conditions in electrically
conductive both ferromagnetic and non
ferromagnetic metals and metal parts.
Eddy current inspection can be used to:
• Measure or identify such conditions and
properties as electrical conductivity, magnetic
permeability, grain size, heat treatment
condition, hardness, and physical dimensions.
• Detect seams, laps, cracks, voids, and inclusions.
• Sort dissimilar metals and detect differences in
their composition, microstructure, and other
properties
• Measure the thickness of coating
 Eddy Current Inspection
Advantages
• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
• Detects surface and near surface defects
• Inspection gives immediate results
• Equipment is very portable Method can be used
for much more than flaw detection
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive
materials
 Eddy Current Inspection
Limitations
• Only conductive materials can be inspected
• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques
• Surface finish and roughness may interfere
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the
probe coil winding and probe scan direction are
undetectable.
 Eddy Current Inspection
History
• Electromagnetic induction was discovered by
Faraday in 1831.
• When the current in a loop of wire was caused to
vary (as by connecting or disconnecting a battery
furnishing the current), an electric current was
induced in a second, adjacent loop.
• This is the effect used in eddy current inspection
to cause the eddy currents to flow in the material
being inspected and it is the effect used to
monitor these currents.
 Eddy Current Inspection
Principles of Operation
• Eddy currents are created through a process called
electromagnetic induction.
• When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such
as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the
conductor.
• This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises
to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to
zero.
 Principles of Operation cont..
• If another electrical conductor is brought into the close
proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be
induced in this second conductor.
• Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a
circular path.
 Generation of Eddy Currents
Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a
circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that are formed
when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles
when conditions are right.

Test Probe

Eddy Currents
 Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
In order to generate eddy currents for an inspection a “probe”
is used. Inside the probe is a length of electrical conductor
which is formed into a coil.
 Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
Alternating current is allowed to flow in the coil at a frequency
chosen by the technician for the type of test involved.
 Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
A dynamic expanding and collapsing magnetic field forms in
and around the coil as the alternating current flows through
the coil.
 Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
When an electrically conductive material is placed in the
coil’s dynamic magnetic field electromagnetic, induction will
occur and eddy currents will be induced in the material.
 Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their own
“secondary” magnetic field which will oppose the coil’s
“primary” magnetic field.
 Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
This entire electromagnetic induction process to produce
eddy currents may occur from several hundred to several
million times each second depending upon inspection
frequency.
 Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)

The magnitude and timing (or phase) of eddy currents

generated depend on:
· The original or primary field established by the exciting
currents
· The electrical properties of the part
· The electromagnetic fields established by currents flowing
within the part.
The flow of eddy currents in the part depends on:
· The electrical characteristics of the part
· The presence or absence of flaws or other discontinuities in
the part
· The total electromagnetic field within the part
Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
• Eddy currents are strongest at the surface of the material and decrease in
strength below the surface.
• The depth that the eddy currents are only 37% as strong as they are on the
surface is known as the standard depth of penetration or skin depth.
• This depth changes with probe frequency, material conductivity and
permeability.

Standard Depth
of Penetration
Depth

Depth
(Skin Depth)

37 % of surface
density

Eddy Current Density Eddy Current Density

High Frequency Low Frequency
High Conductivity Low Conductivity
High Permeability Low Permeability
 Elements of a typical inspection system
Elements of a typical inspection system are shown in Fig. This
system is developed to inspect bar or tubing.
The generator supplies excitation current to the inspection coil
and a synchronizing signal to the phase shifter, which provides
switching signals for the detector.
The loading of the inspection coil
by the part being inspected
modulates the electromagnetic
field of the coil.
This causes changes in the
amplitude and phase of the
inspection coil voltage output.
The output of the inspection coil
Principal elements of a typical
is fed to the amplifier and system for eddy current
detected or demodulated by the inspection of bar or tubing.
 Elements of a typical inspection system

The demodulated output signal, after some further filtering

and analyzing, is then displayed on an oscilloscope or a chart
recorder.

The displayed signals, having been detected depending on:

The speed at which the part is fed through an inspection coil

The speed with which the inspection coil is caused to scan past
the part being inspected
 Operating Variables
The principal operating variables encountered in eddy current
inspection include

• Coil impedance
• Electrical conductivity,
• Magnetic permeability
• Lift-off and fill factors
• Edge effect, and
• Skin effect.
 Operating Variables
Coil Impedance
When direct current is flowing in a coil, the magnetic field
reaches a constant level, and the electrical resistance of the wire
is the only limitation to current flow. However, when alternating
current is flowing in a coil, two limitations are imposed:
• The ac resistance of the wire, R
• Inductive reactance, XL
The ac resistance, R of an isolated or empty coil operating at low
frequencies or having a small wire diameter is very nearly the
same as the dc resistance of the wire of the coil.
Inductive reactance, XL, is the combined effect of coil inductance
and test frequency and is expressed in ohms.
Total resistance to the flow of alternating current in a coil is called
impedance, Z, and comprises both ac resistance, R, and inductive
reactance, XL.
 Operating Variables
Coil impedance contd..

The impedance can be expressed as ,

f is the test frequency (in Hertz),
and L0 is the coil inductance (in henrys).
When a metal part is placed adjacent to or within a test coil, the
electromagnetic field is changed as a result of eddy current flow
in the test object.
In general, both the ac resistance and the inductive reactance of
the coil are affected.
The resistance of the loaded coil consists of two components,
namely, the ac resistance of the coil wire and resistance caused
by the presence of the test object.
 Operating Variables
Coil impedance contd..
• Impedance is usually plotted on an
impedance-plane diagram.
• In the diagram, resistance is plotted
along one axis and inductive
reactance along the other axis.
• Because each specific condition in
the material being inspected may
result in a specific coil impedance,
each condition may correspond to a
particular point on the impedance-
plane diagram.
 Operating Variables
Electrical Conductivity
• Capacity for conducting current can be measured in terms of
either conductivity or resistivity.
• Those with the highest resistivity are classified as insulators, those
having an intermediate resistivity are classified as semiconductors,
and those having a low resistivity are classified as conductors.
• The conductors, which include most metals, are of greatest
interest in eddy current inspection.
• In eddy current inspection, frequent use is made of measurement
based on the International Annealed Copper Standard.
• In this system, the conductivity of annealed, unalloyed copper is
arbitrarily rated at 100%, and the conductivities of other metals
and alloys are expressed as a percentage of this standard.
• Thus, the conductivity of unalloyed aluminum is rated 61% IACS,
or 61% that of unalloyed copper
 Operating Variables
Electrical Conductivity contd…
• Many factors influence the conductivity
of a metal, notably, temperature,
composition, heat treatment and
resulting microstructure, grain size,
hardness, and residual stresses.
• Conversely, eddy currents can be used
to monitor composition and various
metallurgical characteristics, provided
their influence on conductivity is
sufficient to provide the necessary
contrast.
• For example, it is possible to monitor
the heat treatment of age-hardenable Relation of hardness and electrical
conductivity in an age-hardenable
aluminum alloys because of the aluminum alloy
marked effect of hardness on
conductivity (shown in the Fig.)
 Operating Variables
Magnetic Permeability
• Magnetic permeability is the ratio of strength of magnetic field
and amount of magnetic flux with in the material.
• Ferromagnetic metals and alloys, including iron, nickel, cobalt,
and some of their alloys, have exceedingly high and variable
susceptibilities, and have very high and variable permeabilities.
• Magnetic permeability is not necessarily constant for a given
material but depends on the strength of the magnetic field acting
upon it.
• For example, consider a sample of steel that has been completely
demagnetized and then placed in a solenoid coil.
• As current in the coil is increased, the magnetic field associated
with the current will increase.
 Operating Variables
Magnetic Permeability contd…
• The magnetic flux will increase rapidly at first and then the steel sample
will then have achieved a condition known as magnetic saturation as
shown in the fig.
• The curve showing the relation between magnetic field intensity and the
magnetic flux within the steel is known as a magnetization curve.
• Magnetization curves for annealed commercially pure iron and nickel are
shown in Fig.

Fig. Magnetization curves for

annealed commercially pure iron
and nickel

• Because eddy currents are induced by a varying magnetic field, the

magnetic permeability of the material being inspected strongly
influences the eddy current response.
 Lift-Off Factor
• When a probe inspection coil, attached to a suitable inspection
instrument, is energized in air, it will give some indication even if there is
no conductive material in the vicinity of the coil.
• The initial indication will begin to change as the coil is moved closer to a
conductor. Because the field of the coil is strongest close to the coil, the
indicated change on the instrument will continue to increase at a more
rapid rate until the coil is directly on the conductor.
• These changes in indication with changes in spacing between the coil and
the conductor, or part being inspected, are called lift-off.
• The liftoff effect is so pronounced that small variations in spacing can
mask many indications resulting from the condition or conditions of
primary interest. Consequently, it is usually necessary to maintain a
constant relationship between the size and shape of the coil and the size
and shape of the part being inspected.
• The lift-off effect also accounts for the extreme difficulty of performing an
inspection that requires scanning a part having a complex shape.
 Lift-Off Factor
• The change of coil impedance with lift-off can
be derived from the impedance-plane diagram
shown in Fig.
• When the coil is suspended in air away from the
conductor, impedance is at a point at the upper
end of the curve at far left in Fig..
• As the coil approaches the conductor, the
impedance moves in the direction indicated by
the dashed lines until the coil is in contact with
the conductor.
• When contact occurs, the impedance is at a
point corresponding to the impedance of the
part being inspected, which in this case
represents its conductivity.
• The fact that the lift-off curves approach the
conductivity curve at an angle can be utilized in
some instruments to separate lift-off signals Impedance-plane diagram showing
from those resulting from variations in curves for electrical conductivity and
conductivity or some other parameter of lift-off.
interest.
 Lift-Off Factor
• Lift-off can also be useful. For example, with the lift-
off effect, eddy current instruments are excellent for
measuring the thickness of nonconductive coatings,
such as paint and anodized coatings, on metals.
 Fill Factor
• In an encircling coil, a condition
comparable to lift-off is known as fill
factor.
• It is a measure of how well the part being
inspected fills the coil.
• As with lift-off, changes in fill factor
resulting from such factors as variations
in outside diameter must be controlled
because small changes can give large
indications.
• The lift-off curves shown in the previous
Fig. are very similar to those for changes
in fill factor.
• For a given lift-off or fill factor, the
conductivity curve will shift to a new
position, as indicated in Fig.
• Fill factor can sometimes be used as a rapid method for
checking variations in outside diameter measurements in
rods and bars.
• For an internal, or bobbin-type, coil, the fill factor measures
how well the inspection coil fills the inside of the tubing
being inspected.
• Variations in the inside diameter of the part must be
controlled because small changes in the diameter can give
large indications.
 Edge Effect
• When an inspection coil approaches the end or edge of a part
being inspected, the eddy currents are distorted because they
are unable to flow beyond the edge of a part.
• The distortion of eddy currents results in an indication known as
edge effect.
• Because the magnitude of the effect is very large, it limits
inspection near edges.
• Unlike lift-off, little can be done to eliminate edge effect.
• A reduction in coil size will lessen the effect somewhat, but
there are practical limits that dictate the sizes of coils for given
applications.
• In general, it is not advisable to inspect any closer than 3.2 mm
from the edge of a part, depending on variables such as coil size
and test frequency.
 Skin Effect

• In addition to the geometric relationship that exists between the

inspection coil and the part being inspected, the thickness and
shape of the part itself will affect eddy current response.

• Eddy currents are not uniformly distributed throughout a part

being inspected; rather, they are densest at the surface
immediately beneath the coil and become progressively less
dense with increasing distance below the surface, a phenomenon
known as the skin effect.

• At some distance below the surface of a thick part there will be

essentially no currents flowing.
 Skin Effect

• Figure shows how the eddy

current varies as a function of
depth below the surface.
• The depth at which the density
of the eddy current is reduced
to a level about 37% of the
density at the surface is defined
as the standard depth of
penetration.

Variation in density of
eddy current as a function
of depth below the
surface of a conductor
• This depth depends on the electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability of the material and on the
frequency of the magnetizing current.
• Depth of penetration decreases with increases in
conductivity, permeability, or inspection frequency.
• The standard depth of penetration can be calculated from:

where S is the standard depth of penetration (in inches),

ρ is the resistivity (in ohm-centimeters),
μ is the magnetic permeability (1 for nonmagnetic
materials),
and f is the inspection frequency (in hertz).
Resistivity, it should be noted, is the reciprocal of
conductivity.
 Inspection Coils

• The inspection coil is an essential part of every eddy

current inspection system. The shape of the inspection coil
depends to a considerable extent on the purpose of the
inspection and on the shape of the part being inspected.

• When inspecting for flaws, such as cracks or seams, it is

essential that the flow of the eddy currents be as nearly
perpendicular to the flaws as possible to obtain a maximum
response from the flaws.

• If the eddy current flow is parallel to flaws, there will be

little or no distortion of the currents and therefore very
little reaction on the inspection coil.
 Inspection Coils
i] Probe and Encircling Coils.
• Probe coils and encircling coils are the most commonly used coils in eddy
current inspection.
• Normally, in the inspection of a flat surface for cracks at an angle to the
surface, a probe-type coil would be used because this type of coil induces
currents that flow parallel to the surface and therefore across a crack, as
shown in Fig. (a).
• On the other hand, a probe-type coil would not be suitable for detecting a
laminar type of flaw. For such a discontinuity, a U-shaped or horseshoe-
shaped coil, such as the one shown in Fig. (b), would be satisfactory.

• If it is necessary to locate
discontinuities that are
not parallel to the axis, a
probe coil must be used.

applied to a flat plate

 Inspection Coils

• To inspect tubing or bar, an encircling

coil (Fig. c) is generally used. However, an
encircling coil is sensitive only to
discontinuities that are parallel to the
axis of the tube or bar.
• The coil is satisfactory because, as a
result of the manufacturing process,
most discontinuities in tubing and bar
are parallel to the major axis.
• To detect discontinuities on the inside
Applied to a tube
surface of a tube or when testing
installed tubing, an internal or bobbin-
type coil (Fig. d) can be used. • If it is necessary to locate
discontinuities that are not
• The bobbin-type coil, like the encircling
parallel to the axis, a probe coil
coil, is sensitive to discontinuities that must be used.
are parallel to the axis of the tube or bar.
 Inspection Coils
Multiple Coils.
• In many setups for eddy current inspection, two coils are used.
• The two coils are normally connected to separate legs of an alternating
current bridge in a series-opposing arrangement.
• When their impedances are the same, there is no output from the pair.
• Pairs of coils can be used in either an absolute or a differential
arrangement .

Absolute Coil Arrangements. In the

absolute arrangement, a sample of
acceptable material is placed in one coil,
and the other coil is used for inspection.
Thus, the coils are comparing an unknown
against a standard, with the differences
between the two (if any) being indicated by
a suitable instrument. Arrangements of this
type are commonly employed in sorting
applications.
Differential Coil Arrangement.
• An absolute arrangement will indicate
dimensional variations in both outside
diameter and wall thickness even though such
variations may be well within allowable limits.
• To avoid this problem, a differential coil
arrangement such as that shown in Fig. (b) can
be used.
• Here, the two coils compare one section of
the tube with an adjacent section.
• When the two sections are the same, there is
no output from the pair of coils and therefore
no indication on the eddy current instrument.
• Gradual dimensional variations within the
tube are not indicated, while discontinuities,
which normally occur abruptly, are very
apparent.
• In this way, it is possible to have an inspection
system that is sensitive to flaws and relatively
insensitive to changes that normally are not of
interest.
 Eddy Current Instruments
Various types of detection and readout instrumentation
used in eddy current inspection
Instrument System Operations
Eddy current instruments can be classified as belonging
to one of the following categories:

· Resistor and single-coil system

· Bridge unbalance system

· Induction bridge system

· Through transmission system

 Eddy Current Instruments
Resistor and Single-Coil System.
A simple eddy current instrument, in which the voltage
across an inspection coil is monitored, is shown in Fig. (a).
This circuit is adequate for measuring large lift-off variations
if accuracy is not extremely important.
 Eddy Current Instruments

Bridge Unbalance System.

• A circuit designed for greater
accuracy is shown in Fig. (b).
• This instrument consists of a signal
source, an impedance bridge with
dropping resistors, an inspection
coil in one leg, and a balancing
impedance in the other leg.
• The differences in voltage between
the two legs of the bridge are
measured by an ac voltmeter.
• A signal would occur only when
the inspection coil impedance
deviated from that of the
reference sample.
 Eddy Current Instruments
Induction Bridge System.
• Another type of bridge system is an
induction bridge, in which the power signal
is transformer-coupled into an inspection
coil and a reference coil.
• In addition, the entire inductance-balance
system is placed in the probe, as shown in
Fig.
• The probe consists of a large transmitter, or
driver coil, and two small detector, or pickup
coils in opposite directions as mirror images
to each other.
• An alternating current is supplied to the
large transmitter coil to generate a magnetic
field.
• If the transmitter coil is not in the vicinity of
a conductor, the two detector coils detect
the same field, and because they are in
opposition to each other, the net signal is
zero.
 Eddy Current Instruments

• However, if one end of the probe is placed near a metal surface,

the field is different at the two ends of the probe, and a net
voltage appears across the two coils.
• The resultant field is the sum of a transmitted signal, which is
present all the time, and a reflected signal due to the presence
of a conductor (the metal surface).
• The intensity of the transmitted signal decreases rapidly as the
distance between the coil and conductor is increased, and the
intensity of the reflected wave does the same.
• The detector coil nearer the conductor detects this reflected
wave, but the other detector coil (the reference coil) does not,
because the amplitude of the wave has greatly decreased in the
distance from the reflecting metal surface to the rear detector
coil.
 Eddy Current Instruments

Through Transmission System.

• Another system of eddy current measurements is the
through transmission system, in which a signal is
transmitted from a coil through a metal and detected by a
coil on the opposite side of the metal.
• If the distance between the two coils is fixed and the driving
and detecting circuits have high impedances, the signal
detected is independent of position of the metal provided it
remains between them.
• This type of measurement completely eliminates lift-off but
requires that the two coils be positioned.
Readout Instrumentation
• An important part of an eddy current inspection system is the
instrument used for a readout.
• The readout device can be an integral part of the system, an
interchangeable plug-in module, or a solitary unit connected
by cable.
• The readout instrument should be of adequate speed,
accuracy, and range to meet the inspection requirements of
the system.
• Frequently, several readout devices are employed in a single
inspection system.
Alarm lights & Sound alarms alert the operator that a test
parameter limit has been exceeded.
 Readout Instrumentation
• Kick-out relays activate a mechanism that automatically rejects or
marks a part when a test parameter has been exceeded.
• Analog meters give a continuous reading over an extended range.
They are fairly rapid (with a frequency of about 1 Hz), and the scales
can be calibrated to read parameters directly. The accuracy of the
devices is limited to about 1% of full scale. They can be used to set
the limits on alarm lights, sound alarms, and kick-out relays.
• Digital meters provide much greater accuracy and range than analog
meters. The chance of operator error is much less in reading a digital
meter, but fast trends are more difficult to interpret. Although many
digital meters have binary coded decimal output they are relatively
slow.

Analog meters Digital meters

 Readout Instrumentation

• X-y plotters can be used to display impedance-plane plots

of the eddy current response. They are very helpful in
designing and setting up eddy current bridge unbalance
inspections and in discriminating against undesirable
variables. They are also useful in sorting out the results of
inspections. They are fairly accurate and provide a
permanent copy.

• X-y storage oscilloscopes are very similar to x-y plotters

but can acquire signals at high speed. However, the
signals have to be processed manually, and the screen
can quickly become cluttered with signals. In some
instruments, high speed x-y gates can be displayed and
set on the screen.
 Readout Instrumentation
• Strip chart recorders furnish a fairly accurate ( 1% of full scale)
recording at reasonably high speed ( 200 Hz). However, once on
the chart, the data must be read by an operator. Several channels
can be recorded simultaneously, and the record is permanent.

• Magnetic tape recorders are fairly accurate and capable of

recording at very high speed (1 kHz). Moreover, the data can be
processed by automated techniques.

• Computers. The data from several channels can be fed directly to

a high-speed computer, either analog or digital, for online
processing. The computer can separate parameters and calculate
the variable of interest and significance, catalog the data, print
summaries of the result, and store all data on tape for reference
in future scans.
 Applications
Inspection of Tubes
The techniques used in the eddy current inspection of tubes differ depending on the
diameter of the tube.
Tube Outside Diameter Under 75 mm (3 in.)
• Tubes up to 75 mm (3 in.) in diameter can be eddy current
inspected for discontinuities using an external encircling coil.
• The diameter limitation is imposed primarily by resolution
requirements; that is, as the diameter is increased, the area
of a given discontinuity becomes an increasingly smaller
percentage of the total inspected area.
• The inspection is performed by passing the tube
longitudinally through a concentric coil assembly.
• The coil assembly contains an energizing (primary) coil, a
differentially wound detector (secondary) coil, and when
inspecting ferromagnetic materials, a magnetic-saturating
(direct current) coil.
 Applications

• A typical coil assembly and V-roll conveyor for transporting the tube are
shown in Fig.
• The detector coil monitors the flow of the induced currents and permits
detection of current variations, which are indicative of discontinuities.
• The saturating coil, when used, is energized with direct current at high
current levels to produce magnetic saturation in the cylinder.
• This increases the eddy current penetration and nullifies the effects of
magnetic variables that may otherwise degrade the signal-to-noise ratio
of the inspection.
• Because of the orientation of eddy current flow, this type of inspection is
best suited to the detection of such discontinuities as pits, slugs, seams,
laps, and cracks.
Solid Cylinders up to 75 mm (3 in.) in Diameter. Inspection of solid cylinders up to 75
mm (3 in.) in diameter with an external encircling coil is similar to the inspection of
tubes in this size range.

Inspection of Welds in Welded Tubing and Pipe:

Longitudinal welds in welded tubing and pipe can be inspected for discontinuities
using eddy current techniques with an external encircling primary energizing coil and
a probe-type differential detector coil. The probe-type detector coil is located at the
longitudinal center in the inner periphery of the primary coil and is arranged so that it
inspects the outside surface of the longitudinal weld.
The inspection, as shown in Fig. is performed
by passing the tube or pipe longitudinally
through the primary energizing coil, causing
the probe-type detector coil to traverse the
longitudinal weld from end to end. The
primary coil is energized with alternating
current at a frequency that is suitable for the
part being inspected (typically 1 kHz for
ferromagnetic products) and induces the eddy
currents in the tube or pipe.
 Inspection of welds

• For the inspection of ferromagnetic products, a dc magnetic-

saturating coil is located concentrically around the primary
energizing coil.
• The dc coil is energized at high current levels to magnetically
saturate the tube or pipe.
• This improves the penetration of the eddy currents and
cancels the effect of magnetic variables.
• Because of the circumferential orientation of eddy current
flow, this type of inspection is effective in detecting most
types of longitudinal weld discontinuities, such as open
welds, weld cracks, hook cracks, black spots, gray spots,
penetrators, and pinholes.
Inspection of Aircraft Structural and Engine Components

Eddy current inspection has long been used to examine the

quality of aircraft subassemblies. Improvements in this
inspection method, especially the miniaturization of the
probes themselves, have made it practical to test the
intensity of aircraft maintenance procedures for aging
commercial and military aircraft without the need to
disassemble the aircraft and with the component in place on
the plane. This minimizes component removal or
disassembly and possibly masks operational and structural
defects.
Eddy Current Inspection of Fastener Holes.
Originally, inspections for crack detection in fastener holes were performed
using unshielded, absolute eddy current probes. Later, shielded differential coils
provided an overall improvement in detection capability with a higher signal-to
noise ratio. Manual operation is now giving way to scanners specially designed
to ensure good coverage.
Both contact and noncontact probe bodies are used in the scanners. The
contact method probe relies on a spring action to ensure proper alignment of
the coil assembly and friction against the hole surface (Fig. a). Unless ovality is
present, a constant contact with the hole surface is maintained, and stable
sensitivity is the end result. Nevertheless, in demanding high-gain applications,
exact alignment of the scanner assembly is necessary to minimize background
surface noise. In the noncontact method, the probe body is designed to be
located at a depth of approximately 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) below the hole opening.

Contact Noncontact
Eddy Current Inspection of Titanium Alloy Jet Aircraft Engine Blades for Cracks
Resulting From Low-Cycle Fatigue.
Titanium alloy fan blades used in jet aircraft engines are subjected to very high
stresses during takeoff.
Maximum stresses in root sections of the blades may approach or even exceed
the yield strength of the blade material, and high residual compressive stresses
may cause cracking.
Eddy current inspection is applied to the root sections of these fan blades to
detect cracking associated with damage resulting from low-cycle fatigue.
The inspection technique utilizes a commercial high-frequency (1 to 4 MHz)
single-probe, eddy current instrument.
The coil is retained in a plastic holder molded to fit the blade root.
By setting the coil tip slightly beyond the edge of the holder, the flexibility of the
bonding compound ensured tip contact with the blade when the probe was
positioned on the blade.
The instrument response was recorded on either an x-y or a strip chart recorder
as the probe was moved across the blade root.
Inspection Applications
Magnetic Field
From Probe

Test
Material

Eddy Currents

Material Thickness Measurement

 Corrosion and Erosion inspection:
• Eddy current inspection is
often used in the aviation
industries to detect
material loss due to
corrosion and erosion

• Eddy current inspection

is used extensively to
inspect tubing at power
generation and
petrochemical facilities
for corrosion and
erosion.
 Crack Detection
Crack detection is one of the primary uses of eddy current
inspection. Cracks cause a disruption in the circular flow
patterns of the eddy currents and weaken their strength. This
change in strength at the crack location can be detected.

Magnetic Field
From Test Coil

Magnetic Field
From
Eddy Currents

Crack
Eddy Currents
 Crack Detection (cont.)
Eddy current inspection of “bead seat” area on aircraft wheel
for cracks using special probe that conforms to the shape of the
rim.
Nonconductive Coating Measurement
Nonconductive coatings on electrically conductive substrates
can be measured very accurately with eddy current
inspection.
 The coating displaces the eddy current probe from the conductive
base material and this weaken the strength of the eddy currents.
 This reduction in strength can be measured and related to coating
thickness.

Nonconductive
Coating

Conductive
Base Metal

Eddy Currents
 Nonconductive Coating Measurement
(cont.)
The photo to the left shows an aircraft panel paint thickness
inspection. On the right, the display of a digital eddy current
inspection instrument shows the different signals obtained
by measuring eight different thicknesses of paint on
aluminum.

Increasing paint
thickness
Monitoring Conductivity and Permeability
Variations
Eddy current inspection is sensitive to changes in a material’s
electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability. This
“sensitivity” allows the inspection method to be used for such
inspection procedures as:
• Material Identification
• Material Sorting
• Determination of heat damage
• Cladding and plating thickness measurement
• Heat treatment monitoring
 Advantages of Eddy Current Inspection
• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
• Detects surface and near surface defects
• Inspection gives immediate results
• Equipment is very portable
• Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials
 Limitations of Eddy Current Inspection
• Only conductive materials can be inspected
• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques
• Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil
winding and probe scan direction are undetectable
 Glossary of Terms
• Alternating Current: electrical current that regularly reverses
direction.
• Analog: being or relating to a mechanism in which data is
represented by continuously variable physical quantities such
as a watch with hour and minute hands.
• ASME: acronym for American Society of Mechanical
Engineers. This society is highly involved in establishing and
maintaining industrial standards.
 Glossary of Terms
• CRT: acronym for Cathode Ray Tube. Vacuum tube that uses
one or more electron guns for generating an image.
• Calibration: adjustment of a test systems response using
known values so that unknown quantities may be derived.
• Conductor: material capable of allowing electrical current to
flow through it.
• Discontinuity: an interruption in the physical structure of a
part. Cracks are examples of discontinuities.
• EDM: acronym for Electrical Discharge Machine.
 Glossary of Terms
• EDM: acronym for Electrical Discharge Machine. Machining
technique which uses an electrode and electrical current to
remove metal. Sometimes used to prepare calibration
standards for eddy current testing.
• Electromagnetic Induction: process which creates electrical
current flow when a dynamic magnetic field is brought into
close proximity with an electrical conductor.
• Extrapolation: to project or predict unknown values from
know quantities.
 Glossary of Terms
• I.A.C.S.: acronym for International Annealed Copper
Standard. Standard unit of measurement of electrical
conductivity in eddy current testing with pure annealed
copper as the standard, measuring 100% at 20 degrees
Celsius.
• Impedance Plane Diagram: A diagram that depicts the
changes in electrical impedance that occur in an eddy
current coil as test variables change.
• Multiplexing: use of a time sharing system in which a coil
is stimulated at several different frequencies one after
another for a certain amount of time. Results from each
stimulation can then be processed and displayed.
 Glossary of Terms
• Permeability: the ease with which a material can be
magnetized.
• Probe: common term used in eddy current inspection that
refers to the test coil.
• RAM: acronym for Random Access Memory. Most modern
eddy current instruments have some form of memory used as
a data buffer to store information.