TOPIC 3 : ELASTIC INSTABILITY

Consider a case of a perfectly straight long slender elastic rod (column) of uniform cross-
section. It is first subjected to tension and the load – carrying capacity before it fractures
(fails) is measured. If the same rod is subjected to compression, it will be discovered that
its load-carrying capacity before it bends out of the line of action of the load is very small
compared to the load-carrying capacity in tension. It follows that the yield stress of the
material in tension is much greater than its yield stress in compression.
Failure of the column in tension occurs by fracture while in the compression the failure
occurs due to buckling (bending out of the line of action of the load).
See Figure 1 for illustration.
p

p
Figure 1
The load-carrying capacity of any elastic member in compression is very low relative to the
load-carrying capacity of the member in tension.
Buckling is characterized by sudden failure of a structure member subjected to high
compressive stress, when the actual compressive stress at the point of fracture is less than
the ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding. This failure
is described as elastic instability of the material.
When the load is continuously and constantly being applied on a member, such as a
column, it will ultimately reach a value which will cause the member to become unstable.
Further loading will cause significant deformations, possibly leading to complete failure.
The member is said to have buckled and deformed.
Thus buckling is a mathematical instability of a material under lateral loading, leading to a
failure mode.
Theoretically, buckling is caused by a bifurcation (to separate into two parts) in the
solution to the equations of static equilibrium.
The bending action (buckling) is equivalent to the small load that was applied when axial
load reached a certain value at which instability occurred. This load at this stage is referred
to as ‘Euler critical load’.
The causes of this bending are:
1. Impossibility of obtaining a perfectly straight uniform member (eccentricity).
2. Impossibility of manufacturing a perfectly homogenous material
3. Uncertainty that the load actually acts along the centre of area of the cross-section at
instability.
Buckling Failure in Slender Columns
Buckling is characterized by sudden failure of a structural member subjected to high
compressive stress, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than
the ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding. It’s a failure
described as due to elastic instability of the material.
DEFINITIONS
Column: A bar or a member of a structure inclined 90o to the horizontal and carrying an
axial compressive load.
Slenderness ratio: The ratio of the equivalent length of the column to the least radius of
gyration.

S.R =

Buckling load: The minimum axial load at which the column tends to have lateral
displacement and buckle. It is also called the crippling or critical load.
Equivalent length: It is the length of the column which gives the same buckling effect as
given by a column having both ends hinged.
Short column: A column for which the slenderness ratio is less than 32
Medium column: A column for which the slenderness ratio lies between 32 and 120.
Long column; A column for which the slenderness ratio is more than 120.
Safe load: The load under which the column will not buckle.

Safe Load =
EULER’S THEORY OF COLUMNS
The following assumptions were made in formulating the theory,
1. The column is initially straight and the applied load is truly axial.
2. The material of the column is homogenous, linear and isotropic
3. The length of the column is very large as compared to the cross-sectional
dimensions of the column
4. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout
5. The shortening of the column due to axial compression is negligible
6. The self weight of the column is neglected
7. The ends of the column are frictionless
COLUMN-END CONDITIONS AND COLUMN TYPES
There can be three conditions at the end of the column,

I. Fixed end: For such an end, deflection, y, and slope, , are both zero.

i.e, y = 0; and =0
II. Pinned end: For such an end, deflection, y=0
III. Free end: The column is neither fixed in position nor in direction at such end, and
going by the requirements for static equilibrium and stability, the other end will
obviously be a fixed end (i.e. a cantilever column)
Depending upon the end conditions, there are four possible types of columns
Type 1 : Both ends of column hinged
Type 2 : Both column ends fixed
Type 3 : One end fixed and other end hinged
Type 4 : One end fixed and other end free

STATICAL ANALYSIS OF COLUMNS AND STRUTS

Consider a column having both ends hinged and carrying axial compressive load, P
(Figure 2) P

x
C l
y

P
Taking origin at A, the bending moment at a distance, x, is given by
Mx = P.y …………………… eqn1
dy
2
EI = - Mx …………………… eqn 2
L2
dx
= - P.y
d2y
EI 2 + Py = 0 …………………… eqn 3
dx
dy
2 P y
+ =0
dx 2 EI

Let k2 = , then,

d2y …………………… eqn 4

+ k2y = 0
dx2

This is a second-order differential equations with the general solution,

y = ACoskx + BSinkx ………………… eqn5
where,
A and B are arbitrary constants,
The end conditions are;

At x = 0, y = 0 and at x = l, y = 0

Therefore;
A=0

and BSinkl = 0

Now B ≠ 0, because if B = 0, then y = 0 and the column will remain straight which
may not be.
Therefore

Sinkl = 0

Or kl = nπ, for n = 0, 1, 2,3, …….

Taking the fundamental value, n = 1, we get

kl = π
It follows that
√(P/EI) . l = π
P = EI(π/l)2 …………………. eqn 6
This load is called the Euler’s critical load and is donated by Pe
Now if I = Ak2
Where A = area of cross-section of the column
k = least radius of gyration.
Then,
Pe= π2 EA/(l/k)2 ………………………………. eqn 7
Let λ=l/k = slenderness ratio of column
Therefore

Pe = π2EA/ λ2 ……………………………… eqn 8

Euler’s stress, σe, is given by

σe = Pe /A
= π 2E/ λ2
σe = π 2EI/l2.A

Column fixed at both ends

Consider a column of length, l, fixed at both ends in Figure 3.
Let MA and MB be the fixing moments at the ends.
P

MA x

C y

B
MB

P
Figure 3
At a distance, x, from A,
Mx = Py - MA …………………… eqn 1
EI d2y/dx2 = -Mx = MA - Py
Or
EI d2y/dx2 + Py = MA ............eqn 2
d2y/dx2 + (P/EI)y = MA/EI
d2y/dx2 + k2y = MA/EI ………..eqn 3
Let k2 = P/EI
The general solution of the equation is
y = Acoskx + Bsinkx + MA/P …….eqn 4
The end conditions are,
at x = 0, y = 0 and dy/dx = 0
Therefore,
A + MA/P = 0
A = -MA/P
dy/dx = -Aksinkx + Bkcoskx
B=0
And y = MA/ P(1 – Coskx) …………eqn 5
At x = l, y = 0,
0 = MA/P(1 – coskl)
Now MA/P ≠ 0
Therefore,
1 – coskl = 0
Coskl = 1
kl = 2nπ, for n = 0, 1, 2, …
Taking the fundamental value, n = 1
kl = 2π
√(P/EI)-l = 2π
P = 4π2EI/l2 = π2EI/(l/2)2
 = π2EI/(le)2
Where le = l/2 is the equivalent length
Column Fixed at One end and free at the other
Consider a column in Figure 4
P

e
A
x

MB
Figure 4 B

Let the horizontal deflection of end A be e, and fixing moment at end B be MB

At a distance x from A,
Mx = - P (e – y) …………………….. eqn 1
EI d2y/dx2 = -Mx = P(e – y)
d2y/dx2 + ( P/EI)y = Pe/EI ……. eqn 2
The general solution of the equation is
y = Acoskx + Bsinkx + e
Where k2 = P/EI
The end conditions are,

At x = l, y = 0 and =0

Then,

Acoskl + Bsinkl + e = 0 …………………eqn 3

= - Aksinkx + Bkcoskx ……………… eqn 4

- Aksinkl + Bkcoskl =0 ………………..eqn 5

At x = 0, y = e
Hence, e = A + e,
Since A = 0
B =-e/sinkl ………………………………..eqn 6
Then substituting for B in eqn 6
-ek/sinkl . cosk = 0…………………….eqn 7
That is cotkl = 0 with the general solution
kl = (2n + 1) π/2, for n = 0, 1, 2, ---
And for n = 0, k = π/2
√(P/EI).l = π/2 ………………………..eqn 8
P = π2EI/4l2
= π2EI/(2l)2
= π2EI/(le)2
Where le = equivalent length = 2l

SUMMARY

Pinned end Fixed-ends Fixed and Pinned end Cantilever

P π2EI/l2 4π2EI/l2 2π2EI/l2 π2EI/4l2

le l l/2 l√2 2l

Limitations of Euler’s Theory

1. The Euler’s theory is applicable to columns which are initially exactly straight and
the load is truly axial, however, there are always some crookedness in columns and
the load may not be exactly axial.
2. This theory is applicable to long columns ( > 120) only, because of flexibility to
buckle in such columns
3. The theory does not take into account the axial compressive stress.
RANKINE’S FORMULA
This formula takes into account the effect of direct compressive stress,
Rankine proposed that crippling load,
1/P = 1/Pc + 1/Pe
where Pc is the compressive load on the column
Pe is Euler’s critical load
σc is the ultimate compressive stress for the column material
A = area of cross-section of the column,
Pc = σcA
Pe =π2EI/l2
Therefore,
P = PePc/Pe+Pc
= Pc/ 1+Pc/Pe
= σc.A/1 +((σc.A. (le)2)/ π2EI)
= σc.A/1 +((σc.(le)2)/ π2Ek2)
= σc.A/1 +((σc/π2E (le)2)/ (le/k)2))
= σc.A/1+α(le/k)2
where
α = σc/π2E, a constant for the material.
Assignment 1
Compare the crippling load given by Euler’s and Rankine’s formulae for a tabular strut 2m
long and 30mm diameter loaded through pin joints at both ends; hence calculate the safe
load using a F. 0.5 of 1.5

(Assume the yield stress = 320 N/mm2, = E = 200KN/mm2

Assignment 2
A hollow steel column having both ends fixed is 50mm external diameter and 25mm
internal diameter. If the permissible compressive stress is 320N/mm2 and E = 200KN/mm2
Calculate the length.