materials

Article
Pilot Demonstration of a Strengthening Method for
Steel-Bolted Connections Using Pre-Formable Carbon Fiber
Cloth with VaRTM
Takahiro Matsui 1 , Kohei Suzuki 2 , Sota Sato 2 , Yuki Kubokawa 3 , Daiki Nakamoto 3 , Shijir Davaakhishig 3 and
Yukihiro Matsumoto 3, *

1 ACM Technology Department, Toray Industries, Inc., 2-1-1 Nihonbashimuromachi, Chuo-ku,

Tokyo 103-8666, Japan; [email protected]
2 Technical Development Headquarters, Constec Engi, Co., Ltd., 6-1-1 Heiwajima, Ota-ku,
Tokyo 143-0006, Japan; [email protected] (K.S.); [email protected] (S.S.)
3 Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, 1-1 Hibarigaoka,
Tempaku-cho, Toyohashi, Aichi 441-8580, Japan; [email protected] (Y.K.);
[email protected] (D.N.); [email protected] (S.D.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +81-532-44-6845

Abstract: In recent years, many seismic retrofitting methods have been performed to improve the
structural performance and prevent the brittle failure of structural members. In the case of steel
structures, slender seismic braces have been widely used for buildings, towers, and bridges. The brace
connections should resist the full plastic axial tension load to ensure adequate plastic deformation





 performance for vibration energy absorption. However, certain connections do not satisfy these
requirements. Recently, carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) has been used extensively to strengthen
Citation: Matsui, T.; Suzuki, K.; Sato,
existing structures because of its high-strength, high elastic modulus, and light-weight characteristics.
S.; Kubokawa, Y.; Nakamoto, D.;
In this paper, we investigate the applicability of CFRP strengthening for brace connections and gusset
Davaakhishig, S.; Matsumoto, Y. Pilot
Demonstration of a Strengthening plates with stepped surfaces using the vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding technique as a pilot
Method for Steel-Bolted Connections demonstration. Stepped surfaces can be eliminated by using alternative CFRP layers to straighten
Using Pre-Formable Carbon Fiber the structural CFRP layers in order to effectively transfer the axial stress. Eventually, it is shown
Cloth with VaRTM. Materials 2021, 14, that CFRP strengthening can improve the connection strength and plastic deformation with 3%
2184. https://doi.org/10.3390/ elongation, even if the CFRP is molded on the stepped surface.
ma14092184
Keywords: carbon fiber; preform; VaRTM; CFRP; strengthening; steel structure
Academic Editor: Jose Sena-Cruz

Received: 15 March 2021

Accepted: 21 April 2021
1. Introduction
Published: 24 April 2021
1.1. Research Background
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
Steel structures have excellent ductile performance due to their plastic deformability,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
in addition to having good seismic resiliency and energy absorption. Thus, steel materials
published maps and institutional affil- have been widely used for building structures, latticed towers, large span bridges, high-
iations. rise buildings, and spatial structures. On the other hand, to prevent structural damage
caused by severe earthquakes [1,2], seismic retrofitting has been rapidly applied to existing
structures [3,4]. In the case of steel structures, it has been reported that several seismic brace
members lack the connection strength—especially in terms of the load-carrying capacity
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
of the net area at the bolt hole and the gusset plate connection—needed to reach axial full
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
plastic capacity [5]. Although energy absorption via plastic deformation is considered in
This article is an open access article
the seismic design of steel braces, brittle failure in the net area without plastic deformation
distributed under the terms and of the gross sectional area often occurs. Therefore, several strengthening methods have
conditions of the Creative Commons been proposed to prevent brittle failure in the net area [6]. Member ductility of 8.5 is
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// recommended to satisfactory perform seismic energy absorption.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ To ensure the seismic performance of steel structures, several approaches can be
4.0/). taken. Sarno et al. [3] investigated the effects of concentrated bracing, mega-brace systems,

Materials 2021, 14, 2184. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14092184 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2021, 14, 2184 2 of 17

and buckling restrained braces (BRBs) using nonlinear time history response analyses.
Tena-Colunga and Vergara [7] suggested that BRBs have better seismic retrofitting effects
compared with traditional bracing systems; however, the installation costs for BRBs are
increased, as shown by comparing studies of the effects and costs of bracing systems and
BRBs for seismic retrofitting. Usami et al. [4] showed the performance of BRBs experi-
mentally, and their effective seismic retrofitting effects for arch bridge were represented
analytically. Many studies have pointed out that bracing systems can provide higher seis-
mic resistance through their effective horizontal resistance. However, sufficient connection
strength is required to ensure the strength and ductility of the brace member. Cui et al. [5]
experimentally and analytically reviewed the strength of gusset plate connections with
several different geometry plates under axial tension load. They suggested that the design
recommendation by the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) [8] can be used to evaluate
the connection strength within safe value ranges. Tremblay [9] experimentally investigated
the seismic behavior of bracing systems with various cyclic loads, brace member shapes,
and compressive strengths, whereby post-buckling resistance and design equations were
proposed. Additionally, the Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association (JBDPA) estab-
lished evaluation guidelines for seismic performance for the inspection and retrofitting of
existing steel structures [6] to protect them from severe seismic damage [1]. Kasai et al. [10]
developed repair methods for existing beam–column connections using bolted connections
to prevent failure of welded connections at the edges of beams.
Almost all retrofitting methods for existing steel structures require bolted or welded
connections in order to install the alternative members. However, the welding of steel
plates requires high-temperature tools, and certain industrial plants, chemical plants, and
factories cannot allow the use of high-temperature tools because of the risk of fire. The
additional of bolt holes requires heavy tools, and there is often of a lack of space to set up
such tools. Moreover, strengthening using steel increases the weight of structures and its
related increasing seismic loads.
On the other hand, strengthening and repair methods using carbon fiber reinforced
plastic (CFRP) have been gradually applied to existing steel structures [11–13] with insuffi-
cient structural performance in aging or deteriorating structures. CFRP has good mechani-
cal and physical characteristics, e.g., high-strength, high elastic modulus, lightweight, and
good corrosion resistance performance. Moreover, CFRP can be conveniently connected to
steel using adhesive bonding, which can reduce the need for heavy, high-temperature tools.
Thus, CFRP can be easily used in construction without requiring any heavy machines and
can minimize the weight of the resulting strengthened member. Almost all on-site CFRP
strengthening methods use adhesively bonded connections on steel surfaces in order to
apply CFRP, either by adhesively bonding CFRP plates [11–15] or hand-layup molding
and bonding of carbon fiber cloth [11,16–20]. However, CFRP plates can only be applied to
planar surfaces because CFRP cannot be deformed so as to adjust it to curved and bumpy
surfaces. Additionally, the on-site hand-layup molding method can be applied to various
surface conditions; however, it requires lengthy construction time because the resin must
be injected into carbon fiber cloth layer-by-layer, with the time increasing exponentially as
the number of carbon fiber layer increases.
Based on the above, the authors developed an alternative CFRP strengthening method
using an on-site vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VaRTM) technique with adhesive
bonding for steel structures [21]. This technique the authors proposed can adhere and
mold at the same time to strengthen existing steel structures. VaRTM methods have been
used for the manufacture method of FRP products, without bonding to other materials,
in blades of wind power generation facilities, in aerospace structures, and civil structures
because of their excellent mechanical properties and short molding times. In this paper,
we focus on steel brace connections for CFRP strengthening to meet seismic retrofitting
requirements by VaRTM bonding. First, we clarify the strength requirements for steel
brace connections. Next, a CFRP strengthening design method using VaRTM is proposed.
Then, we demonstrate the proposed CFRP strengthening method and investigate the
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Materials 2021, 14, 2184 3 of 17

for steel brace connections. Next, a CFRP strengthening design method using VaRTM is
proposed. Then, we demonstrate the proposed CFRP strengthening method and investi-
gate the strengthening
strengthening effects. it
effects. Finally, Finally, it is that
is shown shownthethat the proposed
proposed CFRP CFRP strengthening
strengthening method
method can be successfully applied to steel brace connections, even
can be successfully applied to steel brace connections, even for stepped and bumpy for steppedbonding
and
surface, showing that the load-carrying capacity of the connections and ductilityand
bumpy bonding surface, showing that the load-carrying capacity of the connections of the
ductility
brace of the brace
members can bemembers
effectivelycanimproved.
be effectively improved.

1.2.Strengthening
1.2. Strengthening Method
Method Using
Using CFRP
CFRPby byVaRTM
VaRTM
VaRTM has been applied to mold largeFRP
VaRTM has been applied to mold large FRPproducts,
products,such such as as
thethe
blades
bladesof wind
of wind
turbines and monocoque automobiles and footbridges [22], because
turbines and monocoque automobiles and footbridges [22], because of its productivity, of its productivity,
quality,and
quality, andusability.
usability. The
The authors
authors have
havedeveloped
developedananadhesively
adhesively bonding
bonding andandstrength-
strength-
ening method by VaRTM through the modification of the VaRTM technique. Figure 1
ening method by VaRTM through the modification of the VaRTM technique. Figure 1
shows a simplified diagram of the adopted CFRP strengthening method using VaRTM
shows a simplified diagram of the adopted CFRP strengthening method using VaRTM that
that the authors developed [21]. Usually, metallic frames are used to mold FRP products
the authors developed [21]. Usually, metallic frames are used to mold FRP products by
by VaRTM, and the frames are dismounted after curing. On the other hand, the adopted
VaRTM, and the frames are dismounted after curing. On the other hand, the adopted CFRP
CFRP strengthening method using VaRTM uses existing steel surface as a molding frame.
strengthening method using VaRTM uses existing steel surface as a molding frame. First,
First, the steel surface is treated to remove paint and make a rough surface for adhesive
the steel surface is treated to remove paint and make a rough surface for adhesive bonding.
bonding. It has been recommended that the surface roughness should be higher than 20
It has been recommended that the surface roughness should be higher than 20 micro-strain
micro-strain of ten-point mean roughness [21]. Second, primer resin is applied to the steel
ofsurface
ten-point meangalvanic
to avoid roughness [21]. Second,
corrosion by carbon primer resin
fiber and is applied
steel. to theofsteel
After curing the surface
primer to
avoid
resin, carbon fiber cloth ais set up onto the steel surface. Next, the molding utilitiescarbon
galvanic corrosion by carbon fiber and steel. After curing of the primer resin, for
fiber
VaRTMcloth ais ply,
(peel set up onto
resin flowthematerial,
steel surface.
seal, and Next, the molding
bagging utilities for
film) are attached. VaRTM
Finally, vacu-(peel
ply, resinand
uming flow material,
resin seal,
injection areand bagging
carried out. Byfilm)
usingarethis
attached.
method, Finally,
carbonvacuuming andbe
fiber cloth can resin
injection
molded and bonded directly onto various steel surfaces, even if many carbon fiber clothsand
are carried out. By using this method, carbon fiber cloth can be molded
bonded directly
are required for onto various steel
strengthening. Thus,surfaces, even time
the molding if many
can becarbon
greatlyfiber cloths are
shortened, andrequired
sta-
for strengthening. Thus, the molding time can be greatly
ble mechanical performance can be obtained compared to the hand-layup moldingshortened, and stable mechanical
performance can be obtained
method. Additionally, carboncompared
fiber clothto canthebehand-layup
easily molded molding method.
for vertical Additionally,
surfaces, such
carbon fiber cloth can be easily molded for vertical surfaces, such
as steel brace connections. Moreover, pre-formable carbon fiber cloth has been developedas steel brace connections.
Moreover,
in recent yearspre-formable carbon fiber
to allow molding with acloth
largehas been of
number developed
carbon fiber in recent yearsand
cloth layers to allow
to
molding
reduce the with a large number
imperfections causedof by
carbon
cloth fiber clothTo
slippage. layers
makeand to reduce thecarbon
the pre-formable imperfections
fiber
caused by cloth slippage.
cloth, thermoplastic powderTowas make the pre-formable
applied onto carbon fiber carboncloth,fiber cloth, in
as shown thermoplastic
Figure 2.
powder
Thus, the wascloth
applied
can onto carbon fiber
be tentatively cloth,by
formed as shown
heatinginbecause
Figure 2. Thus, the cloth
thermoplastic can canbe be
tentatively
remolded easilyformed by by heating
heating. because
In this study,thermoplastic
we stacked carbon can be remolded
fiber easily and
cloth in layers by heating.
uni-
Infied
thisthem
study,by we
heating to ease
stacked the setup
carbon of theincarbon
fiber cloth layersfiber
and cloth
unifiedon them
the steel surface. to
by heating The ease
details
the setup of of
thethe
strengthening
carbon fiber procedure
cloth onfor thethe targeted
steel structure
surface. in this of
The details research are intro-
the strengthening
duced in Section
procedure for the 2.3.
targeted structure in this research are introduced in Section 2.3.

Seal
Bagging film (soft plastic)
Removed after resin curing
Resin flow material
Peel ply
Preformed carbon fiber cloths
Chopped strand glass fiber mat Vacuuming
Primer resin
Resin pot Steel
Injection
(surface of existing structure with surface treatment)

Figure 1. CFRP strengthening method by VaRTM.

Figure 1. CFRP strengthening method by VaRTM.
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 4 of 17
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

Thermoplastic powders

Figure 2. Pre-formable carbon fiber cloth.

Figure 2. Pre-formable carbon fiber cloth.

2.2.Experimental
ExperimentalMethods
Methods
Thissection
This sectionshows
showsthethedesign
designrequirements
requirementsfor forseismic
seismicresisting
resistingsteel
steelbraces,
braces,not
notonly
only
ininterms
termsofof load-carrying
load-carrying capacity,
capacity, butbut
alsoalso in terms
in terms of ductile
of ductile performance.
performance. The The calcula-
calculation
method was used
tion method wastoused
predict of the number
to predict of layersofoflayers
of the number carbon
offiber cloth
carbon needed
fiber clothtoneeded
avoid ato
stepped
avoid asurface
steppedand to transfer
surface and toaxial force.
transfer axial force.

2.1.
2.1.Seismic
SeismicResisting
ResistingSteel
SteelBraces
Bracesand
andItsItsSeismic
SeismicPerformance
PerformanceEvaluation
Evaluation
The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association
The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association (JBDPA) (JBDPA) established an evaluation
established an evalua-
guideline for the seismic performance of existing steel structures [6]. According
tion guideline for the seismic performance of existing steel structures [6]. According to theirto
method, the load-carrying capacity Pu of a seismic brace for existing steel structures
their method, the load-carrying capacity Pu of a seismic brace for existing steel structures under
tensile force can be evaluated using the following equations:
under tensile force can be evaluated using the following equations:

u  min P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 
Pu =Pmin { P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } (1)
(1)
• (1) Ultimate shear strength of bolts:
(1) Ultimate shear strength of bolts:
P1 =
P1 0.6 × mm× nn ×AAb ×Ff Fu
 0.6 (2)
b f u (2)
where,
where,
m is m aistotal
a total number
number of of shear
shear planes;
planes;
n is a total number
n is a total number of bolts;of bolts;
Ab A is sectional
isbsectional area
area of bolt;
of bolt;
F is tensile strength of bolt (1000 N/mm 2 ).
f u
f Fu is tensile strength of bolt (1000 N/mm ).
2

• (2) Tensile strength of brace in net area:

 (2) Tensile strength of brace in net area:
P2 = Ae × Fu = ( A − d0 t2 − hn t1 )n B × Fu (3)
P2  Ae  Fu   A  d0t2  hnt1  nB  Fu (3)
where,
where,
A is a net area of brace;
Ae ise a net area of brace;
Fu is tensile strength of brace (400 N/mm2 for SS400 steel);
is is
Fu A tensile strength
sectional area of
of brace
brace;(400 N/mm for SS400 steel);
2

A is d0sectional area
, t2 , hn , and t1 of
arebrace;
shown in Figure 3 (hn = 0.7 for n = 2);
d 0 , ntB2 ,is han total
, andnumber
t1 are shown in Figure 3 ( hn = 0.7 for n = 2);
of braces.
• nB is(3)a Shear-out
total number of braces.
strength of brace or gusset plate:
 (3) Shear-out strength of brace or gusset plate:
P3 = {e + (m − 1) p}n × t × Fu (4)
P3  e   m  1 p n  t  Fu (4)
where,
e is end distance;
where,
e is end distance;
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 5 of 17
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

m is a number of bolts on axial direction;

m is a number of bolts on axial direction;
p is bolt pitch;
p is nbolt pitch;
is a number of bolts on transverse direction;
n is ta is
number of bolts
thickness on transverse
of brace direction;
or gusset plate;
t is thickness of brace
Fu is tensile or gusset
strength or gusset plate (400 N/mm2 for SS400 steel).
plate;
of brace
F•u is(4)
tensile strength
Ultimate of brace
strength or gusset
of gusset plateplate (400
in net N/mm2 for SS400 steel).
area:
 (4) Ultimate strength of gusset plate in net area:
P4 = A g × Fu (5)
P4  Ag  Fu (5)
where,
where, A g is net area of gusset plate.
Ag isOnnetthe
areaother
of gusset
hand,plate.
the JBDPA requires that the connection strength satisfies the
following
On thestrength to resist
other hand, the fullrequires
the JBDPA plastic axial load-carrying
that the connectioncapacity
strengthand largethe
satisfies plastic
fol-
deformation with hysteresis energy absorption:
lowing strength to resist the full plastic axial load-carrying capacity and large plastic de-
formation with hysteresis energy absorption:
Pu ≥ Preq = 1.2 × A × F (6)
Pu  Preq  1.2  A  F (6)
where,
where, A is sectional area of brace;
A is Fsectional areayield
is nominal of brace;
stress of steel (235 N/mm2 for SS400 steel).
F is nominal yield stress of steel (235 N/mm2 for SS400 steel).

Angle brace

t1
Net area of angle brace, Ae
e
Angle brace
hn Gusset plate
60deg.
p
h d0 Gusset plate

t2
Net area of gusset plate, Ag

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure3.3.Variables
Variables used
used to
to calculate
calculate tensile
tensile strength of brace
strength of brace in
in net
net area:
area: (a)
(a) net
net area
areaof
ofbrace;
brace;(b)
(b)net
net area of gusset plate.
area of gusset plate.

However,
However,several
severalexisting
existing steel brace
steel connections
brace connections designed using
designed olderolder
using Japanese seis-
Japanese
mic design codes do not satisfy the JBDPA requirements, especially
seismic design codes do not satisfy the JBDPA requirements, especially in terms of thein terms of the tensile
strength of the brace
tensile strength of theinbrace
net area . This
in netP2area P2 .isThis
because satisfaction
is because of Equations
satisfaction (1)–(6)(1)–(6)
of Equations was
not
wasrequired for structural
not required designdesign
for structural of the of
bracethe connections. In the case
brace connections. of case
In the a lackofofa tensile
lack of
strength of the brace
tensile strength of thein the
bracenetinarea,
the breakage
net area, occurs
breakage without
occursductile
withoutbehavior,
ductileas shown
behavior,
in
asFigures
shown 4inand 5a. Therefore,
Figures 4 and 5a. extensive brittle
Therefore, failure has
extensive beenfailure
brittle reportedhasinbeen
severe earth-
reported
in severe
quakes earthquakes
[23]. On the other [23]. Onalthough
hand, the othersectional
hand, although
loss fromsectional
bolt holesloss fromatbolt
occurs the holes
con-
occurs atyielding
nections, the connections, yieldingareas
in gross sectional in gross
can besectional
observed areas
whencanthe
bebreakage
observedload when the
in the
breakage
net area is load
higherin than
the netthearea is higher
yielding load than
at thethe yielding
gross loadarea,
sectional at theasgross
shown sectional
in Figures area,
4
as shown
and in Figures
5b. Thus, several 4retrofit
and 5b.methods
Thus, several
have been retrofit methodsand
proposed, have been retrofitting
seismic proposed, and for
seismic
net areasretrofitting for net applied
has been rapidly areas has been rapidly
according to theapplied according
evaluation to the evaluation
and retrofitting guidelinesand
retrofitting guidelines [6]. However, previous retrofitting method
[6]. However, previous retrofitting method have required welding or alternative bolthave required welding or
holes being added on site to connect additional steel elements. This means that heavy
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 6 of 17
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Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

alternative bolt holes being added on site to connect additional steel elements. This means
materials
that heavy
materials and toolsmust
materials
and tools musttools
and bebeused,
used, especially
mustespecially asaswelding
welding
be used, especially cannotbebe
ascannot
welding conducted
cannot inincertain
certain
be conducted
conducted in
factory
certain buildings
factory due
buildingsto fire
due risks.
to
factory buildings due to fire risks. fire risks.

Axialtensile
Axial tensileload
load (a):Load-deformation
Load-deformationbehavior
behaviorwith
with
(a):
lack of tensile strength of brace
lack of tensile strength of brace
Yieldinginingross
Yielding grosssection
section (b):Load-deformation
(b): Load-deformationbehavior
behaviorwith
with
plastic deformation
plastic deformation
(b)
(b)

(a)(a) Hardening
Hardening

Neckingininnet
Necking netarea
area
Yielding in net area
Yielding in net area
Axialdeformation
Axial deformation

Differenceofofelongation
Difference elongation

Figure
Figure Load–deformation
Figure4.4.4.Load–deformation relations
Load–deformationrelations with
relationswith or
withor without
orwithout plastic
withoutplastic deformation.
plasticdeformation.
deformation.

Net area Gross section

Net area Gross section

PnetTS; Breakage load in net area

PnetTS ; Breakage load in net area
PfullYP; Yielding load in gross sectional area
PfullYP ; Yielding load in gross sectional area
Yielding in net area
Yielding in net area

PnetTS < PfullYP PnetTS > PfullYP

PnetTS < PfullYP PnetTS > PfullYP

Yielding in gross sectional area

Yielding in gross sectional area

Strain concentration and breakage in net area

Strain concentration and breakage in net area Breaking in net area
Breaking in net area

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure5.5.Plastic
Figure Plasticbehavior
behaviorofofsteel
steelbrace:
brace:(a)(a)lack
lacktensile
tensilestrength
strengthbrace;
brace;(b)
(b)enough
enoughtensile
tensilestrength
strength
brace. 5. Plastic behavior of steel brace: (a) lack tensile strength brace; (b) enough tensile strength brace.
Figure
brace.
2.2. Specimens
2.2.Specimens
2.2. Specimens
Based on the above, we adopted a steel-bolted connection with a lack of tensile strength
in the Based
Based on
net area, onthe
asthe above,
above,
shown inweweadopted
Figureadopted asteel-bolted
steel-bolted
6. We aadopted connection
SS400 connection
angle with
with
steel with a a50alack
lack
× 50of×oftensile
4tensile
mm3
strength
strength in
sectionalinsize the
theas net
net area,
area, as
a brace as shown
shown
and in
SS400insteelFigure
Figure 6.
6. We
plates We
of 16 adopted
adopted SS400
SS400 angle
mm thickness angle
and 100 steel
steelmm with
with a 5050as
widtha ××
5050 ×
gusset 4
× 4 mm mm 3 sectional size as a brace and SS400 steel plates of 16 mm thickness and 100 mm
sectional
plates.
3 Severalsizepunch
as a brace
marksandofSS400
100 mmsteelpitch
plates of 16created
were mm thickness
on the steeland 100bracemm to
widthasasgusset
evaluate
width gussetplates.
plastic plates.Several
deformationSeveral punch
after marks
testing,
punch marks as ofof100
shown100mm mm
in pitch6.
Figure
pitch were created
M16created
were onthe
high-strength
on thesteel
steel
steel
bracewere
bolts
brace totoevaluate
evaluate plasticdeformation
used toplastic
connect deformation
the brace and after
after testing,
gusset asasshown
plates.
testing, shown
The ininFigure
minimum Figure 6.6.M16
yield M16high-
stress high-
and
strength
tensile steel
strength bolts were
values forused to
SS400 connect
steel is the
245 brace
N/mm and
2 gusset
and 400
strength steel bolts were used to connect the brace and gusset plates. The minimum yieldplates.
N/mm The
2 , minimum
respectively yield
[24].
stress
The
stress andplate
steel
and tensile
tensile strength
around
strength values
thevalues forSS400
bolt holes
for SS400 steelisis245
was welded
steel 245
to N/mm
prevent
N/mm
2 and 400 N/mm2, respec-
2 failure
and 400inN/mm the net area at
2, respec-
tively [24].
the right-side
tively The steel
[24]. The connection. plate around
Table 1the
steel plate around the
showsbolt holes was welded
the load-carrying
bolt holes was welded to to prevent
capacity
prevent failure
asfailure
evaluated in
in the the net
using
net
area
area at
Equations the right-side
at the (2)–(6).
right-side Thus,connection.
the specimen
connection. Table
Table will 1 shows
break inthe
1 shows the load-carrying
theload-carrying
net area without capacity as evaluated
plasticasdeformation
capacity evaluated
using
in Equations
theEquations
using gross section.(2)–(6).Thus,
(2)–(6). Thus,the
thespecimen
specimenwill willbreak
breakininthe thenet
netareaareawithout
withoutplastic
plasticde- de-
formationininthe
formation thegross
grosssection.
section.
Table 2 shows the experimentalparameters—without
Table 2 shows the experimental parameters—withoutCFRP CFRPstrengthening
strengtheningspecimen specimen
(namely NS) and two type of CFRP strengthening specimens
(namely NS) and two type of CFRP strengthening specimens (namely CFS-full and (namely CFS-full andCFS-CFS-
 ber cloth, BT70-20 (Toray Industries, Tokyo, Japan), to strengthen steel connections.
UM46-40P carbon cloth was used for removing steps and bumps, and for stress transfer.
The BT70-20 bi-directional carbon cloth was used for improvement of the bonding area
on the gusset plate because the gusset plate is usually wider than the brace. UM46-40P
carbon fiber cloth is a commercial product, which has an adhered thermoplastic powder
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 7 of 17
on the surface to enable preliminary forming by heating, as shown in Figure 2.
Table 3. shows the specifications for the steel and carbon fiber cloths.

Lbrace

LCFRP Lsteel

CFRP strengthening area

Strengthening by welded steel plate
g2

g1

Name of gage distance; A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

PL16 g3 PL16

Name of gage distance; B1 B2 B3 B4 B5

■;Strain gauge
●;Punch position(reference mark)

Figure6.6.Geometry
Figure Geometryofofspecimen.
specimen.

Table 1. Evaluated load-carrying capacity values.

Failure Mode Load-Carrying Capacity Equation

Ultimate shear strength of bolts 241 kN (2)
Tensile strength of brace in net area 70.8 kN (3)
Shear-out strength of gusset plate 144 kN (4)
Ultimate strength of gusset plate net area 576 kN (5)
JBDPA requirement 110 kN (6)

Table 2 shows the experimental parameters—without CFRP strengthening specimen

(namely NS) and two type of CFRP strengthening specimens (namely CFS-full and CFS-
loss). We adopted two types of CFRP strengthening—the gross sectional strengthening
model and sectional loss strengthening model. The total number of CFRP layers for the
gross sectional strengthening model was calculated by the strength of the gross sectional
area of steel brace, while the sectional loss model multiplied the sectional area of the
bolt hole by the strength of the steel. Thus, CFRP of the gross sectional strengthening
model has an equivalent strength of steel brace, while the CFRP strength of the sectional
loss strengthening model corresponds to the strength of lost area of steel by bolt hole.
Equations (7) and (8) show the calculation method of total number of CFRP layers for stress
transfer layer.

A × Fu
Gross sec tional strengthening model; nST ≥ (7)
tUM × bCFRP × FUM

t2 × Fu
Sectional loss strengthening model; nST ≥ (8)
tUM × FUM
FUM : tensile strength of carbon fiber (2400 N/mm2 )
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 8 of 17

Table 2. Experimental parameters.

Specimen Name Strengthening Number of Specimens

NS N/A 1
CFS-full-1, -2 Gross sectional strengthening model 2
CFS-loss-1, -2 Sectional loss strengthening model 2

We adopted a unidirectional, medium-elasticity carbon fiber cloth designated as

UM46-40P (Toray Industries, Tokyo, Japan) and a bi-directional, high-strength carbon fiber
cloth, BT70-20 (Toray Industries, Tokyo, Japan), to strengthen steel connections. UM46-40P
carbon cloth was used for removing steps and bumps, and for stress transfer. The BT70-20
bi-directional carbon cloth was used for improvement of the bonding area on the gusset
plate because the gusset plate is usually wider than the brace. UM46-40P carbon fiber cloth
is a commercial product, which has an adhered thermoplastic powder on the surface to
enable preliminary forming by heating, as shown in Figure 2.
Table 3. shows the specifications for the steel and carbon fiber cloths.

Table 3. Material properties.

Material Elastic Modulus Yield Point Tensile Strength

Steel (angle steel) 200 GPa *1 370 Mpa *2 457 Mpa *2
UM46-40P [25] 440 Gpa - 2400 Mpa
BT70-20 [25] 230 GPa - 2900 MPa
*1 Assumption (general value), *2 From manufacturer certificate.

In the steel bolted connection, stepped surfaces are commonly found, as shown in
Figure 7. To strengthen a steel connection with a stepped surface, the step between the
gusset plate and brace surface should be minimized to reduce the bending force applied to
the CFRP layer. Additionally, the CFRP should transfer the axial force to prevent strain
concentration around the bolt hole. Thus, we decided on the number of carbon fiber layers
needed to minimize step e using Equation (9). Next, the axial and bending stress values for
CFRP under axial force N were evaluated by Equation (10). The variables in Equations (9)
and (10) are also shown in Figure 7. To determine the number of carbon fiber layers with
fiber volume content Vf variation, we assumed that the fiber volume content Vf would
vary by 45% to 55% based on the previous research [21]. BT70-20 bi-directional carbon
cloth is used on outermost layers to expand the width of the bonding area and effectively
transfer the stress widely because the gusset plate is usually wider than the brace.


 tU M nstep − nbolt 
e = tbrace − (9)

Vf

 

N Ne N Ne
σCFRP = + 2
= + 2 (10)
bCFRP tCFRP bCFRP tCFRP /6 b CFRP ST tU M /Vf
n

bCFRP nST tU M /Vf /6

where,
e is remaining step after CFRP strengthening;
tbrace is thickness of steel brace;
tUM is thickness of carbon fiber cloth UM46-40P;
nstep is a total number of carbon fiber layers required for step minimization;
nbolt is a total number of carbon fiber layers required for bump minimization;
Vf is carbon fiber volume content;
bCFRP is width of CFRP;
tCFRP is thickness of CFRP;
nst is a total number of carbon fiber layers for required axial force transfer.
Eventually, the total number of carbon fiber layers needed to minimize step nstep was
determined as 33 layers (9 layers to adjust the brace thickness, and 24 layers to adjust the
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 9 of 17

Eventually, the total number of carbon fiber layers needed to minimize step nstep was
Eventually, the total number of carbon fiber layers needed to minimize step nstep was
determined as 33 layers (9 layers to adjust the brace thickness, and 24 layers to adjust the
determined as 33 layersof
height
height of(9the
layers
the bolttohead).
bolt adjustThe
head). thetotal
The bracenumber
total thickness,
number and 24 layers
of carbon
of carbon to adjust
fiber layers
fiber layers the to
needed
needed to transfer
transfer the
the
height of the bolt head).
axial force Then total
was number
determined of carbon
as 13 fiber
layers layers
for theneeded
gross
axial force nST was determined as 13 layers for the gross sectional strengthening model
ST to transfer
sectional the
strengthening model
axial force nST was
and determined
4 layers for the as 13 layers for
sectional lossthestrengthening
gross sectional strengthening
model. Figure 8 model
shows the lamination
and 4 layers for the sectional loss strengthening model. Figure 8 shows the lamination
conditions.
and 4 layers forconditions.
the sectional Bonding length
loss strengthening is important to
model.toFigure perform the
8 shows strengthening
the lamination effect and to avoid
Bonding length is important perform the strengthening effect and to avoid
debonding
conditions. Bonding failure.
length failure.
is importantHowever, only
to perform a few hundred-millimeter bonding length can be used
debonding However, only a the fewstrengthening
hundred-millimeter effect and to avoid
bonding length can be used
for the bonding
debonding failure. on gusset plate. Thus, we decided the bonding length should be 150 mm
for However,
the bonding onlyon agusset
few hundred-millimeter
plate. Thus, we decided bonding the length
bonding can be used
length should be 150 mm
for
for the bonding for the gusset
on the
gusset plate.plate area
Thus, we because
decided the
the actual
bonding brace connections
length should lack
be themm
150 applicable surface
gusset plate area because the actual brace connections lack the applicable surface
area
for the gusset plate to adhesively bond the CFRP. However, gusset plates are wider than the brace width,
areaarea because the
to adhesively bondactual brace connections
the CFRP. However, gusset lack the applicable
plates are wider surface
than the brace width,
so
area to adhesively we
bond applied
the CFRP. wider carbon
However, fiber
gussetcloth for
plates the
are step adjustment and alternative bi-directional
so we applied
high-strength wider
carbon carbon
fiber cloth fiber
on the cloth forwider
outermost thelayer
than adjustment
stepto
the brace width,
expand the and alternative
width of the bondingbi-
so we applied directional
wider carbon fiber clothcarbon
high-strength for the fiberstepclothadjustment
on the and alternative
outermost layer to bi-
expand the
area shown
directional high-strength in Figure
carbon fiber 7. Onon
cloth thethe other hand, the
outermost layerbrace members
to expand the have
widthsufficient length of
width
of have sufficient to
the bonding
allow for area
bonding, shown
while initFigure
is known 7. Onthatthe other
the hand,
bonding the brace
capacity members
will peak with increasing
the bonding arealength
showntoinallow Figure for7.bonding,
On the other while hand,
it is the
knownbracethat
members have sufficient
the bonding capacity willmm peak
the bonding
length to allow increasing
for bonding, length
while [18]. Thus,
it is length
known[18]. we decided
that Thus, the
the bonding bonding
capacity length
will should
peak withbe 300 forwith
the
brace side the
with bonding
a 150 mm uniform carbon we
fiberdecided
layer the
lengthbonding
and a length
150 mm should
taper be 300
length
increasing the bonding
mm foronlength
the [18]. Thus, wea decided the bonding length should be 300
based thebrace side
previous with
fundamental 150 mm uniform
bonding testcarbon
results fiber
[21]. layer length and a 150 mm
mm for the brace side with a 150 mm uniform carbon fiber
taper length based on the previous fundamental bonding test results [21].layer length and a 150 mm
taper length based on the previous fundamental bonding test results [21].

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Strengthening
Strengthening method
method diagram
diagram and
and variables
variables in
in Equations
Equations (7)
(7) and
and (8).
(8).
Figure 7. Strengthening method diagram and variables in Equations (7) and (8).
Stress transfer layer, 4 or 13 layers
Bi-directional high-strength carbon fiber cloth,
Stress3transfer
layers layer, 4 or 13 layers
Bi-directional high-strength carbon fiber cloth, 3 layers
Carbon fiber layer to remove bump by bolt
Carbon fiber layer to remove bump by bolt Carbon fiber layer to remove bump by bolt head,
head, 24 layers Carbon fiber layer to remove bump by bolt head,
head, 24 layers 24 layers
24 layers
CFS-full-1, -2 specimens
CFS-full-1, -2 specimens
Carbon fiber layer to remove step Cylinder-shaped cutout for bold head space
Carbon fiber layer to remove step thickness, 9 layers
by brace Cylinder-shaped cutout for bold head space
by brace thickness, 9 layers
CFS-loss-1, -2 specimens
CFS-loss-1, -2 specimens Brace
G.PL Brace
G.PL
Figure 8. Lamination condition of CFRP strengthening.
Figure 8. Lamination condition
Figure 8.ofLamination
CFRP strengthening.
condition of CFRP strengthening.
2.3. Specimen Preparation
2.3. Specimen Preparation
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Materials 2021, 14, 2184 10 of 17

Figure 9 shows the molding process. First, the steel surface was treated to make a rough
surface using a blast surface forming power tool (Bristle Blaster® , G-TOOL Co., Aichi, Japan),
as shown in Figure 9a. We set the minimum surface roughness as 20 micro-strain with
2.3. Specimen Preparation
ten-point mean roughness using a surface roughness tester SJ-210 (Mitsutoyo, Tokyo, Ja-
Figure
pan). 9 shows
Second, E258R the molding
room process.curable
temperature First, the steel epoxy
primer surfaceresin
was(Konishi,
treated toTokyo,
make aJa-
rough surface using a blast surface forming power tool (Bristle Blaster ® , G-TOOL Co., Aichi,
pan) was applied on the steel surface to improve the bonding strength between the steel
Japan), as shown
and CFRP, in Figure
as shown 9a. We9b.
in Figure setAfter
the minimum
curing thesurface
primerroughness as 20 micro-strain
resin, preformed carbon fiber
with ten-point mean roughness using a surface roughness tester SJ-210
cloth (shown in Figure 9c) and molding materials were attached, and the molding (Mitsutoyo, Tokyo,
area
Japan). Second, E258R room temperature curable primer epoxy resin (Konishi, Tokyo,
was covered by vacuum film, as shown in Figure 9d,e. Finally, AUP40T1 low-viscosity,
Japan) was applied on the steel surface to improve the bonding strength between the steel
room temperature curable epoxy resin for VaRTM bonding and molding (Toray Building
and CFRP, as shown in Figure 9b. After curing the primer resin, preformed carbon fiber
Materials, Tokyo, Japan) was injected after the vacuum pressure and absence of leakage
cloth (shown in Figure 9c) and molding materials were attached, and the molding area
were confirmed. The conditions in Figure 4 correspond to the situation shown in Figure 9e.
was covered by vacuum film, as shown in Figure 9d,e. Finally, AUP40T1 low-viscosity,
Figure 10 shows the specimen with CFRP strengthening applied. The average fiber
room temperature curable epoxy resin for VaRTM bonding and molding (Toray Building
volume content was 50.4% with a 4.97% coefficient of variation, as measured by a SWT-
Materials, Tokyo, Japan) was injected after the vacuum pressure and absence of leakage
9000 vortex current coating thickness meter with an Fe-20 probe (Sanko Electric Labora-
were confirmed. The conditions in Figure 4 correspond to the situation shown in Figure 9e.
tory Co., Tokyo, Japan) after demolding.

(a)

(c)

(d)

(b)

(e) (f) (g)

Figure 9. Molding and bonding process: (a) surface treatment; (b) application of primer resin; (c)
Figure 9. Molding and bonding process: (a) surface treatment; (b) application of primer resin; (c)
cutout of carbon fiber cloth; (d) pre-formed carbon fiber cloths; (e) setup of preformed carbon fiber
cutout of carbon fiber cloth; (d) pre-formed carbon fiber cloths; (e) setup of preformed carbon fiber
cloth; (f) setup of peel ply and resin flow media; (g) setup of bagging film around the specimen for
cloth; (f) setupand
vacuuming of peel
resinply and resin flow media; (g) setup of bagging film around the specimen for
injection.
vacuuming and resin injection.

Figure 10 shows the specimen with CFRP strengthening applied. The average fiber
volume content was 50.4% with a 4.97% coefficient of variation, as measured by a SWT-9000
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 11 of 17

vortex
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW current coating thickness meter with an Fe-20 probe (Sanko Electric Laboratory11Co.,
of 17
Tokyo, Japan) after demolding.

CFRP-strengthened area Strengthening by steel welding

Figure10.
Figure 10.Specimen
Specimenwith
withCFRP
CFRPstrengthening.
strengthening.

3.3.Experimental
ExperimentalResults Results
Figure
Figure11 11shows
shows the experimental setup,
the experimental setup,while
whileTable Table4 4showsshows thethe maximum
maximum loadload
and
and failure
failure modes.modes. All specimens
All specimens were monotonically
were monotonically tested tested
in a 1000 in kNa 1000 kN Shimadzu
Shimadzu universal
universal testing machine,
testing machine, as shown as shown 11.
in Figure in Figure
A load 11. A load
cell built celltesting
in the built inmachinethe testingwas ma-
used
chine was used to measure the applied load. Displacement
to measure the applied load. Displacement transducers were mounted to measure cross- transducers were mounted to
measure crosshead displacement, and the longitudinal strain
head displacement, and the longitudinal strain in specimens was measured by strain in specimens was measured
by strainattached
gauges gauges attached
directly to directly
the steel to and
the steel
CFRPand CFRP in
in several several shown
positions positions shown 6.
in Figure inIt
Figure 6. It was demonstrated
was demonstrated that CFRP strengthening
that CFRP strengthening could effectively couldincrease
effectively the increase
load-carryingthe
load-carrying
capacity. Figure capacity. Figure
12 shows the12 shows the load-crosshead
load-crosshead displacementdisplacement
relations, with relations, with
the evaluated
the evaluated strength calculated using Equation (6). CFRP
strength calculated using Equation (6). CFRP strengthening could increase not only the strengthening could increase
not only the load-carrying
load-carrying capacity, but capacity,
also thebut elongation,
also the elongation,
becausebecause the displacement
the displacement just
just before
before breakage in the net area could be significantly increased
breakage in the net area could be significantly increased (shown in Figure 12) in all CFRP (shown in Figure 12) in all
CFRP strengthening specimens. This means that ductile deformation
strengthening specimens. This means that ductile deformation behavior occurred because behavior occurred
because CFRP strengthening
CFRP strengthening could causecouldyielding
cause yielding of thesection
of the gross gross section earlier
earlier than thethan the net
net area. On
area. On the other hand, a lack of plastic deformation and brittle failure occurred without
the other hand, a lack of plastic deformation and brittle failure occurred without energy
energy absorption due to hysteresis if the full plastic axial load after hardening in the
absorption due to hysteresis if the full plastic axial load after hardening in the net area
net area was lower than the yielding load in the gross section, as seen in specimen NS.
was lower than the yielding load in the gross section, as seen in specimen NS. Thus, the
Thus, the performance of CFRP strengthening reached previously established steel-welded
performance of CFRP strengthening reached previously established steel-welded
strengthening methods [6] without fire risk and use of heavy tools. Furthermore, no signifi-
strengthening methods [6] without fire risk and use of heavy tools. Furthermore, no sig-
cant changes in elastic stiffness could be found, as shown in Figure 12b. Figure 13 shows
nificant changes in elastic stiffness could be found, as shown in Figure 12b. Figure 13
load–strain relations at position g1, which is close to the bolt hole. In the case of specimen
shows load–strain relations at position g1, which is close to the bolt hole. In the case of
NS, yielding was observed around 80 kN due to stress concentration, while plastic strain
specimen NS, yielding was observed around 80 kN due to stress concentration, while
grew rapidly. However, in the case of the CFRP-strengthened specimen, elastic behavior
plastic strain grew rapidly. However, in the case of the CFRP-strengthened specimen,
could be maintained until 110 kN, without causing large plastic strain. Thus, it can be
elastic behavior could be maintained until 110 kN, without causing large plastic strain.
confirmed that the CFRP strengthening can effectively decrease the strain nearby the bolt
Thus,
hole andit delay
can bethe confirmed
yielding in thatthethenetCFRP
area to strengthening
perform yielding can effectively
load in thedecrease
gross area. theAfter
strain
nearby the bolt hole and delay the yielding in the net area
reaching the maximum load, the plastic strain grew due to CFRP debonding, and breakage to perform yielding load in the
gross area. After reaching the maximum load, the plastic strain
in the net area finally occurred. Additionally, the loading required for ductility shown in grew due to CFRP debond-
ing, and(6)
Equation breakage in thewithout
was satisfied net areayielding
finally occurred.
in the net area.Additionally,
Loadingsthe loading
in the breakagerequired
section for
of the net area stayed almost constant for all specimens, because the CFRP was debondedin
ductility shown in Equation (6) was satisfied without yielding in the net area. Loadings
bythe
thebreakage section
plastic strain. of the
This net areathe
is because stayed
primer almost
resin constant
cannot resist for all
largespecimens,
strains. Thus,becausethere the
CFRP was debonded by the plastic strain. This is because
was no difference in mechanical conditions just before breakage in the net area between thethe primer resin cannot resist
NSlarge
andstrains. Thus, there was
CFRP-strengthened no difference
specimens. Figure in mechanical conditions just
14 shows load–average before
strain breakage
relations at
in the netg2area
positions andbetween
g3. Slight the NS and
plastic CFRP-strengthened
strain occurred in specimen specimens.
NS because Figure the14loading
shows load–was
average strain
decreased by therelations at positions g2
stress concentration in and
the netg3. area
Slight andplastic strain occurred
the associated necking.in specimen
On the
NS because the loading was decreased by the stress concentration
other hand, values of more than 35,000 micro-strain were observed in CFRP strengthening in the net area and the
associated necking. On the other hand, values of more than
specimens. This means that the gross section position of the steel brace can be elongated 35,000 micro-strain were ob-
served in CFRP strengthening specimens. This means that the
due to prevention of the stress concentration in the net area using CFRP strengthening until gross section position of the
steel brace as
debonding, canalso
be elongated
shown in Figure due to 13b.
prevention
Figure of 14b the stressthe
shows concentration
yielding behavior in the net area
of the
usinginCFRP
brace strengthening
the gross area. In theuntilcasedebonding,
of the specimens as also shown inand
CFS-full-1 Figure 13b. Figure
CFS-loss-2, 14b shows
yielding was
the yielding
observed behavior
at 80kN of the
loading, whilebrace in the gross
specimens area. Inand
CFS-full-2 the case of the specimens
CFS-loss-1 yielded at 115 CFS-full-
and
1 and
100 kN,CFS-loss-2,
respectively. yielding was observed
This variation at 80kN
of behavior was loading,
affected while
by the specimens
strain gauge CFS-full-2 and
position,
CFS-loss-1
because Figureyielded
13 showsat 115a and
strain 100 ofkN,
quiterespectively.
a local position.This variation
Eventually, of behavior was affected
CFRP strengthening
by the strain
specimens gauge
resisted position,
almost because
the same loadFigure
carrying 13 shows
capacity a strain
of 125 of kN, quite a localinposition.
as shown Table
Eventually, CFRP strengthening specimens resisted almost the same load carrying capac-
ity of 125 kN, as shown in Table 4. Additionally, it was estimated that the CFRP strength-
ening effect vanished due to plastic strain measuring 35,000–450,000 micro-strain by the
CFRP debonding. Thus, it is thought that elongation of the CFRP strengthening steel brace
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 12 of 17

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

4. Additionally, it was estimated that the CFRP strengthening effect vanished due to
plastic strainfor
can account measuring
3% plastic 35,000–450,000 micro-strain
deformation without by the CFRP
debonding. Figuredebonding.
15 shows the Thus, it is
typical
thought that elongation of the CFRP strengthening steel brace can
failure mode of the CFRP strengthening specimen. And Figure S1 (supplementary mate- account for 3% plastic
deformation
rial) without debonding.
is an experimental video of Figure 15 shows the typical
CFRP strengthening failure
specimen. modeobserved
It was of the CFRPthat
debonding began from the edge of the CFRP on the brace, and the debonding areavideo
strengthening specimen. And Figure S1 (supplementary material) is an experimental was
of CFRP strengthening
gradually grown. specimen. It was observed that debonding began from the edge of
the CFRP on the brace,
Figure 16 shows the and the debonding
ductility factor, asarea was gradually
calculated grown. equation:
by the following
Figure 16 shows the ductility factor, as calculated by the following equation:
L L 
 L −1 L 0 σ YP  1 (11)
0
µ = 1 L0 / YPE + 1 (11)
L0 E
where,
where,
L1 is gage distance after experiment;
L1 is gage distance after experiment;
L0 is gage distance before experiment;
L0 is gage distance before experiment;
 YP isσyield stress of the steel brace (370 N/mm2); 2
YP is yield stress of the steel brace (370 N/mm );
E isEelastic modulus
is elastic modulus of the steelsteel
of the brace (200(200
brace kN/mmkN/mm2 ). 2 ).
In the case of the NS specimen, the maximum value of the ductility factor was only
3.3 at
at position
positionA5, A5,asasshown
shown in in Figure
Figure 6. the
6. On On other
the other
hand,hand, the maximum
the maximum ductilityductility
factor
factor
was 28was 28 in specimen
in specimen CFS-full-1,
CFS-full-1, and the and the ductility
ductility factor values
factor values for all for all positions
positions were
were larger
larger11.
than than 11.case
In the In the case of CFRP-strengthened
of CFRP-strengthened specimens, specimens, thefactor
the ductility ductility
valuesfactor values
decreased
decreased
as as theapproached
the position position approached
the bolts.theThe bolts. The ductility
ductility factor atfactor at the positions
the positions without without
CFRP
CFRP strengthening (A4, A5, B4, and B5) reached 20–28. Thus, the
strengthening (A4, A5, B4, and B5) reached 20–28. Thus, the total elongation can be calcu-total elongation can
be calculated (including safety considerations) using the steel
lated (including safety considerations) using the steel length Lsteel evaluated length L evaluated
steel by subtract- by
subtracting the CFRP strengthening
ing the CFRP strengthening length LCFRP from length L CFRP from the brace length L
the brace length Lbrace , showing brace , showing
a maxi- a
maximum of 3% plastic deformation.
mum of 3% plastic deformation.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Experimental
Experimental setup:
setup: (a)
(a) NS
NS specimen;
specimen; (b)
(b) CFS-loss
CFS-loss specimen.
specimen.

Table 4. Maximum load and failure mode.

Table 4. Maximum load and failure mode.
Specimen Name Maximum Load Failure Mode
Specimen Name Maximum Load Failure Mode
NS 102 kN Yielding and breaking at net area.
NS 102 kN Yielding and breaking at net area.
CFS-full-1 125 kN
CFS-full-1 125 kN (1) Yielding in gross sectional area; (2)
CFS-full-2 127 kN
CFS-full-2 127 kN debonding
(1) Yielding of CFRP;
in gross sectional (3)(2)yielding
area; debondingat
CFS-loss-1 126 kN
CFS-loss-1 126 kN of CFRP; (3) yielding at breakage in
breakage in net area. net area.
CFS-loss-2
CFS-loss-2 127 kN
127 kN
Materials 2021, 14, 2184
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13 of 17
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Load [kN] Yielding in gross area, CFRP debondig grew

140 Load [kN] Yielding in gross area, CFRP debondig grew
140 CFRP debondig reaches net area position
120 CFRP debondig reaches net area position
Eq. (6)
120 Eq. (6)
100
100
80
80
60
60 Breaking in net area
40 Breaking in net area
40 ━: NS,
20 ━:
━:CFS-full-1,
NS, ━: CFS-full-2
20 ━: CFS-full-1,━:
━:CFS-loss-1, ━:CFS-loss-2
CFS-full-2
0 ━: CFS-loss-1, ━: CFS-loss-2
00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Crosshead 40 45
displacement[mm]50
Crosshead displacement[mm]
(a)
Load [kN] (a)
140 Load [kN]
140 Yielding in gross area, gradual CFRP debondig
120 Yielding in gross area, gradual CFRP debondig
Eq. (6)
120 Eq. (6)
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40 ━: NS,
20 ━:
━:CFS-full-1,
NS, ━: CFS-full-2
20 ━: CFS-full-1,━:
━:CFS-loss-1, ━:CFS-loss-2
CFS-full-2
0 ━: CFS-loss-1, ━: CFS-loss-2
00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Crosshead displacement[mm]10
7 8 9

(b) Crosshead displacement[mm]

(b)
Figure 12.12.
Figure Load–crosshead
Load–crossheaddisplacement relations:
displacement (a) a range
relations: (a) of 0–50 mm
a range of with
0–50experimental ob-
mm with experimental
Figure 12.(b)
servation; Load–crosshead
a range of 0–10displacement
mm. relations: (a) a range of 0–50 mm with experimental ob-
observation; (b) a range of 0–10 mm.
servation; (b) a range of 0–10 mm.
Load [kN]
140 Load [kN]
140
120 Eq. (6)
120 Eq. (6)
100
100
80
80
60
60 Yield strain
40 Yield strain
40 ━: NS,
20 ━:
━:CFS-full-1,
NS, ━: CFS-full-2
20 ━: CFS-full-1,━:
━:CFS-loss-1, ━:CFS-loss-2
CFS-full-2
0 ━: CFS-loss-1, ━: CFS-loss-2
00 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000Micro-strain
90,000 100,000
Micro-strain
(a)
(a)

Figure 13. Cont.

Materials 2021, 14, 2184 14 of 17
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

Load [kN]
Load [kN]
140
140
120
120
100 Eq. (6)
100 Eq. (6)

80
80
60
60
Yield strain
40 Yield strain
40
━: NS,
20 ━:
━: NS,
CFS-full-1, ━: CFS-full-2
20 ━: CFS-loss-1,━:
━: CFS-full-1, ━:CFS-full-2
CFS-loss-2
━: CFS-loss-1, ━: CFS-loss-2
0
0 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Micro-strain
Micro-strain
(b)
(b)
Figure 13. Load–strain (g1) relations: (a) a range of 0–10% strain; (b) a range of 0–1% strain.
Figure13.
Figure Load–strain
13.Load–strain (g1)
(g1) relations:
relations: (a) (a) a range
a range of 0–10%
of 0–10% strain;
strain; (b) a(b) a range
range of 0–1%
of 0–1% strain.strain.
Load [kN]
140 Load [kN]
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
━: NS,
20 ━:
━: NS,
CFS-full-1, ━: CFS-full-2
20 ━: CFS-loss-1,━:
━: CFS-full-1, ━:CFS-full-2
CFS-loss-2
0 ━: CFS-loss-1, ━: CFS-loss-2
0 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000
Micro-strain
Micro-strain
(a)
(a)
Load [kN]
140 Load [kN]
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
━: NS,
20 ━:
━: NS,
CFS-full-1, ━: CFS-full-2
20 ━: CFS-loss-1,━:
━: CFS-full-1, ━:CFS-full-2
CFS-loss-2
0 ━: CFS-loss-1, ━: CFS-loss-2
0 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Micro-strain
Micro-strain
(b)
(b)

Figure 14. Load–strain (average of g2 and g3) relations: (a) a range of 0–4.5% strain; (b) a range of
0–1% strain.
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17

Materials 2021, 14, 2184 15 of 17

Figure 14. Load–strain (average of g2 and g3) relations: (a) a range of 0–4.5% strain; (b) a range of
Figure
0–1%14.strain.
Load–strain (average of g2 and g3) relations: (a) a range of 0–4.5% strain; (b) a range of
0–1% strain.

CFS-full-2
CFS-full-2

Debonding started and grew

Debonding started and grew
Breaking in net area
Breaking in net area

Figure 15. Typical failure mode of CFRP strengthening specimen.

Figure
Figure 15.15. Typical
Typical failure
failure mode
mode ofof CFRP
CFRP strengtheningspecimen.
strengthening specimen.
Ductility factor, μ
Ductility factor, μ
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
5
5
0
0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
(a)
Ductility factor, μ (a)
Ductility factor, μ
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
5
5
0
0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
(b)
(b)
━: NS, ━: CFS-full-1, ━: CFS-full-2, ━: CFS-loss-1, ━: CFS-loss-2
━: NS, ━: CFS-full-1, ━: CFS-full-2, ━: CFS-loss-1, ━: CFS-loss-2
Figure16.
Figure 16.Ductility
Ductilityfactor
factorasasevaluated
evaluatedthrough
throughexperiment:
experiment:(a)
(a)gauge
gaugeposition
positionA1
A1~~A5;
A5;(b)
(b)gauge
gauge
Figure 16. Ductility
position B1 ~ B5. factor as evaluated through experiment: (a) gauge position A1 ~ A5; (b) gauge
position
position B1B1 ~ B5.
~ B5.
4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
4. Conclusions
This
Thispaper
paperproposed
proposeda aCFRPCFRPstrengthening
strengtheningmethod
methodfor forsteel
steelbrace
braceconnections
connectionsusing
using
the This paper proposed a CFRP strengthening method forproposed
steel brace connections using
theVaRTM
VaRTMtechnique
techniqueandanddemonstrated
demonstratedthe theeffects
effectsofofthe
the proposedmethod.
method.TheTheVaRTM
VaRTM
the VaRTM technique
technique and demonstrated the effects of the proposed method. The VaRTM
techniquewas wasimproved
improvedasasan anadhesion
adhesionand andmolding
moldingmethodmethodtotostrengthen
strengthenexisting
existingsteel
steel
technique
structures was
on improved
site. The as an adhesion
following andwere
findings molding method to strengthen existing steel
obtained:
structures on site. The following findings were obtained:
structures on site. The following findings were obtained:
1.1. We Weproposed
proposedaastrengthening
strengtheningmethodmethodusingusingcarbon
carbonfiber
fibercloth
clothfor
forsteel
steelbrace
braceconnec-
connec-
1. We proposed
tions a strengthening method using carbon fiber cloth for steel brace connec-
tionswith
withsteps
stepsand
anddemonstrated
demonstratedthat thatmolding
moldingand andbonding
bondingcan canbebesuccessfully
successfully
tions with steps and
conducted demonstrated that molding and bonding can be successfully
conductedusingusingVaRTM.
VaRTM.
2. conducted using VaRTM.
The load-carrying capacity of the connection and the ductility factor of the steel brace
2. The load-carrying capacity of the connection and the ductility factor of the steel brace
2. The were significantly
load-carrying improved
capacity using
of the CFRP strengthening.
connection and the ductility factor of the steel brace
were significantly improved using CFRP strengthening.
3. wereThesignificantly
total elongation of the steel
improved usingbrace
CFRPcan be estimated using 3% plastic deformation
strengthening.
3. of Thethetotal elongation
length of bare of the steel brace can be estimated using 3% plastic deformation
3. The total elongation of steel position.
the steel brace can be estimated using 3% plastic deformation
of the length of bare steel position.
ofThis method
the length of cannot cover
bare steel all type of steel brace connections, because the various
position.
This method
geometrical conditioncannot
can becover
found allon
type
the of steel brace
connection. connections,
Thus, becausethe
we willbecause
evaluate theapplica-
various
This method cannot cover all type of steel brace connections, the various
geometrical
bility of thesecondition can bemethods
strengthening found onfor thethe
connection.
actual Thus, we
structures by will evaluate
finite elementtheanalysis
applica-
geometrical condition can be found on the connection. Thus, we will evaluate the applica-
bility
and of these strengthening
experiment, methodsstrengthening
and the applicability, for the actualeffects,
structures by finite element
strengthening analysis
design method,
bility of these strengthening methods for the actual structures by finite element analysis
and experiment, and the applicability, strengthening effects, strengthening
as well as experimental variation and stability will be clarified for the typical connection design
and experiment, and the applicability, strengthening effects, strengthening design
geometries in the future.
Materials 2021, 14, 2184 16 of 17

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10

.3390/ma14092184/s1, Figure S1: Experimental video of CFRP strengthening specimen.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.M., K.S., and Y.M.; methodology, T.M., K.S., S.S., and
Y.M.; validation, Y.K., D.N., S.D., and Y.M.; formal analysis, Y.K., D.N., S.D., and Y.M.; investigation,
T.M., K.S., S.S., Y.K., D.N., S.D., and Y.M.; resources, Y.K., D.N., and S.D.; data curation, Y.K., D.N.,
and S.D.; writing—original draft preparation, S.D. and Y.M.; writing—review and editing, T.M., K.S.,
S.S., and Y.M.; project administration, Y.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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