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REFERENCE STUDY MATERIALS (For Unit 1 & 2)

(This is just for your reference, please kindly prepare your own notes for detailed
preparation/knowledge).

What is Psychology?

Etymologically psychology means the science of the soul, viz., ‘psyche’ meaning ‘soul’ and ‘logos’
meaning ‘science.’

In 1892 Wilhelm Wundt defined psychology as the science which studies the ‘internal experiences.

The Four Goals of Psychology

The study of psychology has Four Goals –

1. Describe: • Describing things is something we do every single day with no conscious thought
or effort. But describing in psychology has a slightly different meaning than the describing we do
in our everyday life. • Describing a problem, an issue, or behavior is the first goal of psychology.
• Descriptions help psychologists to distinguish between normal and abnormal behavior and gain
a more accurate understanding and perspective on human and animal behavior, actions, and
thoughts.

2. Explain: • Psychologists are very interested in being able to explain behavior rather than just
being able to describe it. • This helps in providing answers to questions about why people react in
a certain way, why they do the things they do and the factors which affect their personality, their
mental health, their actions, etc.

3. Predict: • Making predictions about how we think, and act is the third goal of psychology. By
looking at past observed behavior (describing and explaining) psychologists aim to predict how
that behavior will appear again in the future and whether other people might exhibit the same
behavior. • Through the process of describing an explanation, psychologists are able to understand
more about what thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are contributing factors. • They can then use
that knowledge to predict why, when, and how those things might happen in the future.
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4. Change : • Psychology aims to change or influence behavior, to make positive, constructive,

meaningful, and lasting changes in people's lives and to influence their behavior for the better. This
is the final and most important goal of psychology.

TYPES/BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

There are different types of psychology that serve different purposes. There is no fixed way of
classifying them, but here are some common types.

1. Abnormal Psychology: Abnormal psychology dedicated to patients who display abnormal

behavior or thinking. Abnormal behavior is considered conduct that doesn’t comply with societal
norms, which can include mental illnesses such as bulimia or schizophrenia. Psychologists in this
field try to understand what causes unusual behaviors in people, whether it stems from a biological
origin (nature) or learned through experiences (nurture).

2. Behavioral Psychology: Psychologists who study the connection between the mind and
subsequent behaviors are behavioral psychologists. Behavioral psychologists counsel, diagnose
and treat patients with behavioral disorders. By better understanding behaviors, the psychologists
hope to better predict how people will behave in different situations. Behavioral psychologists
study how habits form in people, and how the mind plays a role in a physical response.

3. Clinical Psychology: Clinical psychology relates to psychologists directly providing

comprehensive healthcare to patients who are suffering from mental illness. Clinical psychologists
interact with patients through observations, interviews and tests before making a diagnosis and
coming up with a plan to deal with the symptoms of a mental illness. Many psychologists in this
field use psychoanalysis, a psychological theory and form of therapy for treating mental disorders
in patients. Over the course of multiple visits, psychologists delve into the emotions and
experiences of a patient to provide insight into the illness.

4. Cognitive Psychology: Concerned with mental processes, cognitive psychologists study the
human thought process and how people obtain, process, and store information in the brain. These
psychologists conduct experiments and research to study memory, perception, and learning. They
work to better understand the mind and find solutions to memory loss, learning disabilities, and
other cognitive issues.
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5. Counseling Psychology: Patients who are suffering through stressful moments in life could be
advised to see a counseling psychologist. Counseling psychologists treat patients who are
experiencing an emotional strain caused by social or physical factors. This differs from clinical
psychologists, who treat and diagnose patients with mental disorders. Marriage and grief
counselors would be considered part of counseling psychology. The counselors assess patients and
then advise them with a personalized plan to improving their well-being and decreasing stress.

6. Developmental Psychology: Developmental psychologists have helped us better understand

how people mature over the course of their lives, both emotionally and physically, studying human
development from birth until old age. Specifically, psychologists take an in-depth look at
biological growth of the body, cognitive expansion, and emotional maturity, among other areas of
study. When working with patients, developmental psychologists assess and diagnose to treat
various issues, such as developmental delays in children. Some of these delays are common, and
a psychologist could diagnose therapy to help the child catch up or just observation to see how the
child improves on his or her own.

7. Educational Psychology: Educational psychologists study factors that impact learning,

including learning methods and how information is processed and absorbed. Memory, concepts,
and individual differences all affect how a person learns. In researching these processes,
psychologists apply theories of human development to better understand how to improve the
instructional process.

8. Experimental Psychology: Experimental psychologists conduct investigations into basic

psychological processes, such as attention, perception, memory, and reasoning. Arguably, many
psychologists could be considered experimental in that research impacts much of this field.
However, the sole mission of experimental psychologists is conducting and publishing research on
either human or animal behaviors. Their findings often contribute to work across many branches
and builds on a larger conclusion.

9. Forensic Psychology : Forensic psychologists work in the intersection of the legal system and
the field of psychology. They often conduct evaluations and research that help guide legal
proceedings. This can include evaluating a defendant for competency to stand trial or helping train
police officers and first responders on how to properly handle criminals and crime scenes. While
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many forensic psychologists work within the legal system, some work in threat assessment, which
is the scientific approximation of whether a person will become a threat in the future.

10. Health Psychology : In 1977, George L. Engel developed the biopsychosocial model, or the
idea that biological, psychological, and social factors influence disease and illness. In time, this
has become the model used by health psychologists to study how and why people get sick. These
psychologists help people make choices that have a positive impact on their health, as well as that
of their families and communities. Their patients range from those with genetic disorders to
substance abuse issues.

11. Industrial – Organizational Psychology : Industrial-Organizational Psychology, also known as

I/O psychology, serves to study how human behavior impacts industry and organizations. I/O
psychologists evaluate a work situation and develop a plan for the optimal performance and work-
life balance in that situation for the employees. I/O psychologists specialize in designing and
executing research done on workplace setups as well as studying decision-making theories.

12. Personality Psychology: Personality psychologists work to explain why people display certain
types of behavior, such as aggression, and study the differences between disorders. Psychologists
in this branch study individual differences in personality characteristics, such as conscientiousness,
as well as how personality characteristics interact to create a personality. Additionally, personality
psychologists study the influence of expressed genes and how that affects personality. Although
mainly working in research, they can provide treatment to people with personality disorders.

13. School Psychology : Creating a safe and healthy school environment is the goal of every
school psychologist. These psychologists focus on helping find the best environment for student
learning as well as helping teachers or students find their optimal learning space. They study social,
behavioral, emotional, and academic factors to find the best situation for students. They also
conduct research on the best practices for school policy and make recommendations for school
administrators to adopt.

14. Sports Psychology : Sports psychologists help athletes achieve optimal performance on the
field. Psychologists in this subset study how sports affect human psychology and vice versa. In
applied settings, sports psychologists work with athletes (from youth to adults), parents, coaches,
and more regarding injuries and rehabilitation, positive communication, and team building.
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15. Social Psychology: Social psychologists strive to understand individual behaviors and
personalities within a social context. Psychologists in this branch study the social factors that
influence how people act and the condition in which those actions occur. Most social psychologists
research and observe social influence, group processes, prejudice or discrimination, and
stereotypes. Over the years, Social Psychologists have helped better the understanding of people’s
attitudes, willingness to conform to a group, and social decision-making.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONS AND STRESS

Emotions matter because they influence our behavior. And there is no emotional experience that
has a more powerful influence on us than stress. Social psychologists define stress as the physical
and psychological reactions that occur whenever we believe that the demands of a situation
threaten our ability to respond to the threat (Lazarus, 2000; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). We
experience stress when we find ourselves in situations where we are not sure how to respond or
whether we are going to be able to adequately cope.

People who have recently experienced negative situations—for example, being the victim of a
terrorist attack or a natural disaster, going through a divorce, or experiencing the death of a close
loved one—report experiencing stress. Survivors of Hurricane Katrina had a rate of heart attacks
that was three times higher than the national average in the years following the disaster, and this
was probably due to the stress that the hurricane created (American Medical Association, 2009).
And people in New York City who lived nearer to the site of the 9/11 terrorist attacks reported
experiencing more stress in the year following it than those who lived farther away (Lampert,
Baron, McPherson, & Lee, 2002; Pulcino et al., 2003).

Extreme social situations, such as being the victim of a terrorist attack, a natural disaster, or a
violent crime, may produce an extreme form of stress known as post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), a medical syndrome that includes symptoms of anxiety, sleeplessness, nightmares, and
social withdrawal. The syndrome is frequently experienced by soldiers who return home from
wars; those who experience more extreme events during a war also experience more severe PTSD.
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Stress is accompanied by increases in arousal. When we experience stress, our heart rate, breathing,
and blood pressure increase, and our body begins to secrete adrenaline and other hormones.
Perspiration increases to cool down the body. In addition, sugar is released to provide energy, and
the pupils dilate to improve our vision. At the same time, the less immediately essential body
activities controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), including digestion, are
reduced in order to divert more energy to allow the body to react to the threat.

The experience of stress likely had positive aspects for human beings in an evolutionary sense.
When we are attacked, afraid, or concerned about our welfare, the body signals us that we need to
react, and the stress response is one of those signals. But problems begin when a threat continues
over time. When it is extreme or prolonged, stress can create substantial negative mental and
physical effects. In fact, when stress occurs for too long, it can lead to exhaustion and even death.
FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE

The fight-or-flight response, also known as the acute stress response, refers to a physiological
reaction that occurs in the presence of something that is terrifying, either mentally or physically.
The response is triggered by the release of hormones that prepare your body to either stay and deal
with a threat or to run away to safety.

The term ‘fight-or-flight’ represents the choices that our ancient ancestors had when faced with
danger in their environment. They could either fight or flee. In either case, the physiological and
psychological response to stress prepares the body to react to the danger.

What Happens During the Fight-or-Flight Response

In response to acute stress, the body’s sympathetic nervous system is activated due to the sudden
release of hormones. The sympathetic nervous systems stimulate the adrenal glands triggering the
release of catecholamines, which include adrenaline and noradrenaline. This results in an increase
in heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate. After the threat is gone, it takes between 20 to 60
minutes for the body to return to its pre-arousal levels.
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You can probably think of a time when you experienced the fight-or-flight response. In the face of
something frightening, your heartbeat quickened, you begin breathing faster, and your entire body
becomes tense and ready to act.
The fight-or-flight response can happen in the face of an imminent physical danger (such as
encountering a growling dog during your morning jog) or because of a more psychological threat
(such as preparing to give a big presentation at school or work).
Some of the physical signs that may indicate that the fight-or-flight response has kicked in include:

 Rapid Heart Beat and Breathing: The body increases heartbeat and respiration rate in
order to provide the energy and oxygen to the body that will be needed to fuel a rapid
response to the danger.2
 Pale or Flushed Skin: As the stress response starts to take hold, blood flow to the surface
areas of the body is reduced and flow to the muscles, brain, legs, and arms are increased.
You might become pale as a result, or your face may alternate between pale and flushed as
blood rushes to your head and brain.3 The body’s blood clotting ability also increases in
order to prevent excess blood loss in the event of injury.
 Dilated Pupils: The body also prepares itself to be more aware and observant of the
surroundings during times of danger. Another common symptom of the fight-or-flight
response is the dilation of the pupils, which allows more light into the eyes and results in a
better vision of the surroundings.4
 Trembling: In the face of stress or danger, your muscles become tense and primed for
action. This tension can result in trembling or shaking.3

Why It’s Important

The fight-or-flight response plays a critical role in how we deal with stress and danger in our
environment. Essentially, the response prepares the body to either fight or flee the threat. It is also
important to note that the response can be triggered due to both real and imaginary threats.

By priming your body for action, you are better prepared to perform under pressure. The stress
created by the situation can actually be helpful, making it more likely that you will cope effectively
with the threat. This type of stress can help you perform better in situations where you are under
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pressure to do well, such as at work or school. In cases where the threat is life-threatening, the
fight-or-flight response can actually play a critical role in your survival. By gearing you up to fight
or flee, the fight-or-flight response makes it more likely that you will survive the danger.

While the fight-or-flight response happens automatically, that does not mean that it is always
accurate. Sometimes we respond in this way even when there is no real threat. Phobias are good
examples of how the fight-or-flight response might be triggered in the face of a perceived threat.
A person who is terrified of heights might begin to experience the acute stress response when he
must go the top floor of a skyscraper to attend a meeting. His body might go on high alert as his
heartbeat and respiration rate increase. When this response becomes severe, it may even lead to
a panic attack.

Understanding the body’s natural fight-or-flight response is one way to help cope with such
situations. When you notice that you are becoming tense, you can start looking for ways to calm
down and relax your body.
The stress response is one of the major topics studied in the rapidly-growing field of health
psychology. Health psychologists are interested in helping people find ways to combat stress and
live healthier, more productive lives. By learning more about the fight-or-flight response,
psychologists can help people explore new ways to deal with their natural reaction to stress.

PERSONALITY/TYPES/DISORDERS

Personality refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently
think, feel, and behave in specific ways. The unique constellation of the ways we approach the
world, interpret events, and act consistently across situations is our personality. Each person has
an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term characteristics and a manner in which he or she
interacts with other individuals and the world around them. Our personalities are thought to be
long term, stable, and not easily changed. Given the breadth of human experience and the diversity
of things that make each of us unique it is unsurprising that many different perspectives for
empirically studying personality have been proposed. Each perspective does well in explaining
aspects of what makes each of us unique, but also is limited by the assumptions underlying the
approach. Only by sampling each perspective can we truly understand what personality really
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means. The word personality comes from the Latin word persona. In the ancient world, a persona
was a mask worn by an actor.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS

A personality disorder is a mental health condition that involves long-lasting, all-encompassing,

disruptive patterns of thinking, behavior, mood and relating to others. These patterns cause a
person significant distress and/or impair their ability to function.

Personality disorders may cause distorted perceptions of reality, abnormal behaviors and distress
across various aspects of life, including work, relationships and social functioning. Additionally,
people with a personality disorder may not recognize their troubling behaviors or the negative
effect they have on others.

What causes personality disorders?

Personality disorders are among the least understood mental health conditions. Scientists are still
trying to figure out the cause of them.

So far, they believe the following factors may contribute to the development of personality
disorders:

 Genetics: Scientists have identified a malfunctioning gene that may be a factor in

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Researchers are also exploring genetic links to
aggression, anxiety and fear, which are traits that can play a role in personality disorders.
 Brain changes: Researchers have identified subtle brain differences in people with certain
personality disorders. For example, findings in studies on paranoid personality disorder
point to altered amygdala functioning. The amygdala is the part of your brain that’s
involved with processing fearful and threatening stimuli. In a study on schizotypal
personality disorder, researchers found a volumetric decrease in the frontal lobe of their
brain.
 Childhood trauma: One study revealed a link between childhood traumas and the
development of personality disorders. People with borderline personality disorder, for
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example, had especially high rates of childhood sexual trauma. People with borderline and
antisocial personality disorders have issues with intimacy and trust, both of which may be
related to childhood abuse and trauma.
 Verbal abuse: In one study, people who experienced verbal abuse as children were three
times as likely to have borderline, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive, or paranoid
personality disorders in adulthood.
 Cultural factors: Cultural factors may also play a role in the development of personality
disorders, as demonstrated by the varying rates of personality disorders between different
countries.

What are the types of personality disorders?

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which is the standard
reference publication for recognized mental illnesses, organizes the 10 types of personality
disorders into three main clusters (categories). Each cluster has different symptoms in common.

Cluster A personality disorders

Cluster A personality disorders involve unusual and eccentric thinking or behaviors. These
include:

 Paranoid personality disorder: The main feature of this condition is paranoia, which is a
relentless mistrust and suspicion of others without adequate reason for suspicion. People
with paranoid personality disorder often believe others are trying to demean, harm or
threaten them.
 Schizoid personality disorder: This condition is marked by a consistent pattern of
detachment from and general disinterest in interpersonal relationships. People with
schizoid personality disorder have a limited range of emotions when interacting with
others.
 Schizotypal personality disorder: People with this condition display a consistent pattern
of intense discomfort with and limited need for close relationships. Relationships may be
hindered by their distorted views of reality, superstitions and unusual behaviors.
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Cluster B personality disorders

Cluster B personality disorders involve dramatic and erratic behaviors. People with these types of
conditions display intense, unstable emotions and impulsive behaviors. Cluster B personality
disorders include:

 Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD): People with ASPD show a lack of respect
toward others and don’t follow socially accepted norms or rules. People with ASPD may
break the law or cause physical or emotional harm to others around them. They may refuse
to take responsibility for their behaviors and/or display disregard for the negative
consequences of their actions.
 Borderline personality disorder (BPD): This condition is marked by difficulty with
emotional regulation, resulting in low self-esteem, mood swings, impulsive behaviors and
subsequent relationship difficulties.
 Histrionic personality disorder: This condition is marked by intense, unstable emotions
and a distorted self-image. For people with histrionic personality disorder, their self-esteem
depends on the approval of others and doesn’t come from a true feeling of self-worth. They
have an overwhelming desire to be noticed by others and may display dramatic and/or
inappropriate behaviors to get attention.
 Narcissistic personality disorder: This condition involves a consistent pattern of
perceived superiority and grandiosity, an excessive need for praise and admiration and a
lack of empathy for others. These thoughts and behaviors often stem from low self-esteem
and a lack of self-confidence.

Cluster C personality disorders

Cluster C personality disorders involve severe anxiety and fear. They include:

 Avoidant personality disorder: People with this condition have chronic feelings of
inadequacy and are highly sensitive to being negatively judged by others. Though they
would like to interact with others, they tend to avoid social interaction due to the intense
fear of being rejected.
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 Dependent personality disorder: This condition is marked by a constant and excessive

need to be cared for by someone else. It also involves submissiveness, a need for constant
reassurance and the inability to make decisions. People with dependent personality disorder
often become very close to another person and spend great effort trying to please that
person. They tend to display passive and clinging behavior and have a fear of separation.
 Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD): This condition is marked by a
consistent and extreme need for orderliness, perfectionism, and control (with no room for
flexibility) that ultimately slows or interferes with completing a task. It can also interfere
with relationships.

This is a separate condition from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), which is classified as

an anxiety disorder. While people with OCD usually are aware that OCD is causing their behavior
and accept, they need to change, people with OCPD usually have little, if any, self-awareness of
their behaviors.

TREATMENT

Personality disorders are some of the most difficult disorders to treat in psychiatry. This is mainly
because people with personality disorders don’t think their behavior is problematic, so they don’t
often seek treatment.

But psychotherapy (talk therapy) can help manage personality disorders. Psychotherapy is a term
for a variety of treatment techniques that aim to help you identify and change troubling emotions,
thoughts, and behaviors. Working with a mental health professional, like a psychologist or
psychiatrist, can provide support, education and guidance to the patient concerned. Apart from
this, medications are also prescribed from case-to-case basis.

The main goals of psychotherapy for treating personality disorders include:

 Reducing immediate distress, such as anxiety and depression.

 Helping the person understand that their problems are internal and not caused by other
people or situations.
 Decreasing unhealthy and socially undesirable behavior.
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 Modifying the personality traits that are causing difficulties.