UNIT 1

Computer Architecture Overview

Learning Outcomes
After this unit, you should be able to:
1. Gained fundamental knowledge of the Von Neumann Architecture.
2. Explained the purpose of computer bus systems and understood the differences
between its various configurations.
3. Manifested comprehension of the purpose and hierarchy of computer memory
and storage.
4. Acquired a working knowledge of PC-specific computer architecture.

Computer architecture is the design of computer systems, including all of their

major subsystems: the central processing unit (CPU), the memory system, and the
input/output (I/O) system. All of these parts play a major role in the operation and
performance of the overall system. CPU design starts with the design of the instruction
set that the processor will execute and includes the design of the arithmetic and logic
hardware that performs computations; the register set that holds operands for
computations; the control unit that carries out the execution of instructions (using the
other components to do the work); and the internal buses, or connections, that allow
these components to communicate with each other. Memory system design uses a variety
of components with differing characteristics to form an overall system (including main,
or primary, memory and secondary memory) that is affordable while having sufficient
storage capacity for the intended application and being fast enough to keep up with the
CPU’s demand for instructions and data. I/O system design is concerned with getting
programs and data into the memory (and ultimately the CPU) and communicating the
computational results to the user (or another computing system) as quickly and
efficiently as possible.

Architecture Vs. Implementation

Computer architecture, like building architecture, involves first of all a

conceptual design and overall plan. The end result—the implementation—is a working
computer system.

Lesson 1. Von Neumann Architecture

The original digital computer systems ran programs on a single CPU (or simply
“processor”). Thus, in order to understand the operation of present and future

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architectures, it is important to first look back and consider the characteristics of the first
practical modern computing system: The Von Neumann machine.
Von Neumann architecture, also known as the Princeton architecture, is a
computer architecture which comprises an ALU (arithmetic logic unit), a single
shared memory for programs and data, a single memory bus, input/output, and control
unit. The author is John von Neumann, a researcher at Princeton University’s Institute
for Advanced Studies, was the first modern design for a computer based on the stored
program concept originally developed by Babbage. The block diagram of the Von
Neumann computer shown in Figure 1 clearly shows input and output devices as well
as the single memory used to store both data and program instructions. The control unit
and arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) of the Von Neumann machine are key parts of the CPU
in modern microprocessors (internal registers were added later to provide faster storage
for a limited amount of data).

Figure 1 Von Neumann Architecture

The von Neumann machine cycle is illustrated in Figure 2. This is the process
that must be carried out for each instruction in a stored computer program. When all the
steps are complete for a given instruction, the CPU is ready to process the next
instruction. The CPU begins by fetching the instruction (reading it from memory). The
instruction is then decoded— that is, the hardware inside the CPU interprets the bits and
determines what operation needs to be done; the address (location) of the operand(s) (the
data to be operated on) is also determined. The operands are fetched from registers,
memory locations, or an input device and sent to the ALU, where the requested operation
is performed. Finally, the results are stored in the specified location (or sent to an output
device), and the processor is ready to start executing the next instruction.

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 Figure 2. Von Neumann Machine Cycle

To further illustrate the Von Neumann Architecture, researchers come up with a

model called The Little Man Computer (LMC). LMC is an instructional model of
a computer, created by Dr. Stuart Madnick in 1965. The LMC is a simple von Neumann
architecture computer—which has all of the basic features of a modern computer.
The LMC model is based on the concept of a little man shut in a closed mail
room (analogous to a computer in this scenario). At one end of the room, there are 100
mailboxes (memory), numbered 0 to 99, that can each contain a 3 digit instruction or
data (ranging from 000 to 999). Furthermore, there are two mailboxes at the other end

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labeled INBOX and OUTBOX which are used for receiving and outputting data. In the
center of the room, there is a work area containing a simple two function (addition and
subtraction) calculator known as the Accumulator and a resettable counter known as the
Program Counter. The Program Counter holds the address of the next instruction the
Little Man will carry out. This Program Counter is normally incremented by 1 after each
instruction is executed, allowing the Little Man to work through a program sequentially.
Click this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kCyyZI1GgsQ&t=155s and watch
the video to better understand LMC.

Lesson 2. Computer Bus Systems

Data Bus
Function of a data bus is to send data from one device to another. The system
bus connects the CPU with the main memory and, in some systems, with the level 2
(L2) cache. Other buses, such as the IO buses, branch off from the system bus to
provide a communication channel between the CPU and the other peripherals (See
Figure 3).
The system bus combines the functions of the three main buses, which are as follows:
• The control bus carries the control, timing and coordination signals to manage
the various functions across the system.
• The address bus is used to specify memory locations for the data being
transferred.
• The data bus, which is a bidirectional path, carries the actual data between the
processor, the memory and the peripherals.

The design of the system bus varies from system to system and can be specific to a
particular computer design or may be based on an industry standard. One advantage of
using the industry standard is the ease of upgrading the computer using standard
components such as the memory and IO devices from independent manufacturers .

System bus characteristics are dependent on the needs of the processor, the speed,
and the word length of the data and instructions. The size of a bus, also known as its
width, determines how much data can be transferred at a time and indicates the number
of available wires. A 32-bit bus, for example, refers to 32 parallel wires or connectors
that can simultaneously transmit 32 bits.

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Figure 3. Bus Interconnection Scheme

Lesson 3. Computer Memory and Storage

Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. Memory in modern
computer systems is not one monolithic device or collection of similar devices. It is a
collection of many different devices with different physical characteristics and modes of
operation. Some of these devices are larger, and some are smaller (both in terms of
physical size and storage capacity). Some are faster, and some are slower; some are
cheaper, and some are more expensive. Memory system is a linear array of bytes, and
the CPU can access each memory location in a constant amount of time. The general
concept of memory system also known as memory hierarchy is depicted in Figure 3, and
the specific names of the levels found in most modern computer systems are shown in
Figure 4. Notice that the upper levels of the hierarchy are the fastest (most closely
matched to the speed of the computational hardware) but the smallest in terms of storage
capacity. This is often due at least somewhat to space limitations, but it is mainly because
the fastest memory technologies, such as SRAM, are the most expensive. As we move
down the hierarchy, lower levels are composed of slower but cheaper and higher density
components, so they have larger storage capacities. This varying capacity of each level
is symbolized by drawing the diagram in the shape of a triangle.

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 Figure 3. Memory Hierarchy (Conceptual)

Figure 4. Memory Hierarchy (typical of modern computer systems)

In practice, each higher level of hierarchy contains only a subset of the

information from the levels below it. The fundamental idea underlying the hierarchical
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memory is that we want to make as many accesses as we an to the upper levels of the
hierarchy while only rarely having to access the lower levels, such that the resulting,
overall memory system approaches the speed of the highest levels while maintaining a
capacity and cost per gigabyte approximating that of the lowest levels (secondary storage
devices).

Computer memory can be classified into temporary and permanent storage.

Temporary storage is referred to as RAM and this kind of memory is lost once the
computer is switched off. Permanent storage is referred to as ROM. It was written to
once and could never be changed. That was mainly used for BIOS instructions. While
hard drives are non-volatile, meaning they don't need power to retain their memory, they
are not permanent. Nonvolatile storage are hard drives (both internal and external), CD's,
DVDs, floppies, USB devices (including flash memory), because data that is stored on
these devices remain there until physically changed, or deleted. The data is not lost when
the power is turned off.

Lesson 4. PC Architecture

A modern personal computer system consists of one or more CPUs and a number
of device controllers connected through a common bus that provides access between
components and shared memory (see Figure 4). Each device controller is in charge of a
specific type of device (for example, a disk drive, audio device, or graphics display). It
is both simple and complicated. It is simple in the sense that over the years, many of the
components used to construct a system have become integrated with other components
into fewer and fewer actual parts. It is complicated in the sense that each part in a modern
system performs many more functions than did the same types of parts in older systems.
The components and peripherals necessary to assemble a basic modern PC system are
listed in Table 1.

Figure 4. Typical PC computer system.

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Table 1. Basic PC Components

Component Description
Motherboard A motherboard is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) that allows
communication between various components of the system.
Processor The processor is often thought of as the “engine” of the computer.
It’s also called the CPU
Memory (RAM) The system memory is often called RAM (for random access
memory). This is the primary working memory, which holds all the
programs and data the processor is using at a given time.
Case/chassis The case is the frame or chassis that houses the motherboard, power
supply, disk drives,
Power supply The power supply feeds electrical power to the internal components
in the PC.
Hard drive The hard disk is the primary high-capacity storage media for the
system.
Keyboard The keyboard is the primary device on a PC that is used by a human
to communicate with
CD or DVD drive CD (compact disc) and DVD (digital versatile disc) drives are
relatively high-capacity,
Mouse Although many types of pointing devices are on the market today,
the first and most
Video card The video card controls the information you see on the monitor.
Sound card A sound card enables the PC to generate complex sounds.
Network/modem Most prebuilt PCs ship with a network interface and possibly a
modem.

The motherboard is the core of the system. It really is the PC; everything else is
connected. A motherboard consists of a chipset. Northbridge and southbridge are two
chips in that chipset (See Figure 5). High-speed components are connected to the
northbridge while lower speed components are connected to the southbridge.
The Northbridge is an integrated circuit responsible for communications
between the CPU interface, AGP, and the memory. Unlike the southbridge, the
northbridge is directly connected to these components. It acts as a "bridge" for the
southbridge chip to communicate with the CPU, RAM, and graphics controller. Today,
the northbridge is a single-chip that is north of the PCI bus, however, early computers
may have had up to three separate chips that made up the northbridge.
The southbridge is an IC on the motherboard responsible for the hard
drive controller, I/O controller and integrated hardware. Integrated hardware can include

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the sound card and video card if on the motherboard, USB, PCI, ISA, IDE, BIOS,
and Ethernet.
A motherboard is the most complicated component in a computer. When you put
together a computer from parts, generally you start with deciding on which processor
and motherboard you will use. Everything else follows these two decisions. All about
Motherboard and PC components will be discussed on the later chapters.

Figure 5. Motherboard Chipset (Southbridge, Northbridge)

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