LOW COST SHORE PROTECTION

... a Guide for Engineers and Contractors

WARNING! Efforts were made to duplicate the original paper document

(published more than 20 years ago) as closely as possible. Formulas and/or
text may have been omitted or confused during the electronic conversion
process.
 The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers presents this information as a public service. Inclusion of any shore
protection device or method does not necessarily constitute a government recommendation or endorsement, nor is
it guaranteed that any particular method will be successful for a specific application.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Low Cost Shore Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

The Shoreline Erosion Control Demonstration Program. . . . . . . . . 5
Shoreline Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

THE EROSION PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

The Importance of Shoreform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

The Causes of Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

A LOOK AT THE OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

No Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Relocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Bulkheads and Seawalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Revetments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Breakwaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Groins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Beach Fills . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Infiltration and Drainage Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Slope Flattening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Perched Beaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Structures and Fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Structures and Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

THE DESIGN PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Functional Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Structural Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

SHORE PROTECTION METHODS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Revetments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Breakwaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Groins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Beach Fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Vegetation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Perched Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

PROPRIETARY DEVICES AND SPECIALTY MATERIALS . . 129

OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)

Characterization of the Site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Water Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Wave conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Selection of Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

PERMIT REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

OTHER HELP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Corps of Engineers offices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

State Coastal Zone Management Offices . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Other Sources of Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Suggested Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

LITERATURE CITED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

4
LOW COST SHORE PROTECTION

... a Guide for Engineers and Contractors

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this report is to familiarize engineers and contractors with various established
methods of low cost shore protection. It is written for the individual who is knowledgeable in general
civil engineering design and construction, but not a specialist in coastal engineering or shoreline
protection. This report can be used without other references, but many topics are discussed with only
minimal detail, so some additional reading may be necessary to gain a better understanding of the text.
The Suggested Reading section at the end of the report lists a full range of readily available books,
reports, and publications that are recommended for additional background study.

LOW COST SHORE PROTECTION

In distinguishing between low cost and cheap, one should remember that practically any method of
shore protection, if properly implemented, is expensive. Significant investments are required to achieve
the durability needed to resist even small waves. Low cost simply means that the various measures are
commensurate with the value of individual residential or commercial properties. The total cost of
implementation will vary with the different alternatives, but in all cases, there should be a suitable (and
affordable) range of solutions.

The methods described in this report are usually appropriate for use only in sheltered
waters. That is, they are generally not intended for open coast sites where they would be exposed
to the undiminished attack of large oceanic waves. Use of most of these structures in such areas
is definitely not recommended and entails a considerable risk of failure.

THE SHORELINE EROSION CONTROL DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM

From 1975 to 1980, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers conducted a program to develop and
demonstrate low cost methods of shore protection. This program was mandated by Section 54 of Public
Law 93-251, the Shoreline Erosion Control Demonstration Act of 1974. Working with the Soil
Conservation Service, the Corps designated 16 demonstration sites throughout the Atlantic, Gulf, and
Pacific coasts, Alaska and the Great Lakes. These sites were chosen because they represented a broad
cross section of shoreform and environmental conditions. This would permit wide application of the
results obtained to other sites located throughout the country. At each of these sites, various structures
and kinds of vegetation were established to evaluate their effectiveness in the local environment.
Twenty-one additional supplemental sites were also chosen where existing shore protection devices had
previously been established by others.

The devices at all 37 sites were intensively monitored over a period of months. Data that were
collected included daily visual observations of wave heights and directions, quarterly surveys of beach
5
and offshore profiles, quarterly color aerial photos, quarterly sediment sampling and gradation analyses,
and monthly site visits with ground level photos.

SHORELINE PROCESSES

Before developing a comprehensive solution for a client, it is first necessary to understand the
coastal processes that are contributing to the erosion problem. The following sections present basic
information about shoreline processes that will serve as a foundation for later discussions. These
sections are not exhaustive in their depth of coverage and cannot replace detailed and widely accepted
texts such as the Shore Protection Manual [U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1977c)].

Wave Action

While waves are always present on the open coast, they are not continuous in sheltered waters.
Nonetheless, they are still the major cause of erosion in these areas. Several basic wave characteristics
are important. The wave height is the vertical distance between the wave crest and trough, the period is
the time (in seconds) it takes two successive wave crests to pass a stationary point, and the wavelength is
the distance between successive crests (Figure 1). Using linear wave theory (the simplest case), these
characteristics are given by the expressions;

L = CT (1)

where L = wavelength in feet,

C = wave celerity (speed) in feet/second,
and T = wave period in seconds;

C = (gT/2π) tanh (2πd/L) (2)

Where d = water depth in feet;

And g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2

And

L = (gT2/2π) tanh (2πd/L) (3)

6
 As a wave moves through deep water (depths greater than one-half the wavelength), the celerity
and wavelength remain essentially constant, because for d/L > 0.5 (deep water); the expression tanh
[2πd/L] approaches unity. Therefore, since the period remains constant, the celerity and wavelength also
do not vary. However, when a wave approaches the shallower water near the shore (where d/L <0.5),
Equations (2) and (3) cannot be simplified by ignoring tanh [2π/L]. From Equation (2), the celerity
decreases with depth; the wave slows as it enters shallower water. The same is true with the wavelength,
L, as can be seen from Equation (3), where it appears on both sides of the equation and an iterative
solution is required.

As the wave continues to move in shoaling water, its profile begins to steepen and its gently rolling
shape changes to a series of sharp crests with intervening flat troughs. At some point, this process can
continue no longer and the wave breaks at the shore. The break point is a function of the wave height;
period, water depth and bottom slope, but as a first approximation, assume that the wave breaks when the
height is about 0.78 times the depth. For example, a 5-foot high wave breaks in a water depth of about
6.4 feet.

Important wave properties are demonstrated when a train (series) of regular waves meets a solid
barrier such as an offshore breakwater,(Figure 2). Wave diffraction occurs when the waves pass the
breakwater and wave energy is transferred along their crests to the quiet area in the shadow of the
structure. This causes waves to form in the shadow zone that are smaller than in the adjacent unprotected
zone.

Wave reflection occurs on the offshore side of the breakwater. While waves passing the
structure are diffracted, the portions striking the breakwater are reflected like a billiard ball from a
7
cushion. If the structure is a smooth vertical wall, the reflection is nearly perfect; and if the wave crests
are parallel with the breakwater, the reflected and incident waves will reinforce each other to form
standing waves twice as high as the incident waves. This could cause considerable bottom scour at the
toe of, and offshore from, the structure. If the waves approach at an angle, no standing waves will form,
but the resulting water surface, with crossing wave crests, will be rough and choppy. These short-crested
waves could also cause considerable bottom scour.

The final important wave characteristic is evident when waves break either on a beach or
structure. The uprush of water after breaking is called runup and it expends the wave’s remaining
energy. The runup height depends on the roughness and steepness of the structure or beach and the
characteristics of the wave. In general, increased roughness reduces runup.

Sediment Transport

The large variety of littoral (shoreline) materials include rock, boulders, cobbles, gravels, sand,
silt, and clay. A number of classification systems have been developed to identify these materials, and
typical scales of sizes are given in Figure 3.

Rock characterizes cliff shorelines, such as along the coasts of northern California. Boulders are
often present at the base of such cliffs because of rock fracturing and weathering. Cobbles and gravels

8
are prevalent beach materials in the Pacific Northwest, Alaska, and the Great Lakes area. Sand, the most
common shoreline material, is found in virtually all coastal areas. Silts and clays generally occur on
bluff shorelines or marshes, such as along the Great Lakes and various bays.

Littoral materials are derived from the deterioration and erosion of coastal bluffs and cliffs; the
weathering of rock materials found inland and transported to the shore by rivers and streams; the
disintegration of shells, coral or algae to form carbonate materials; and the production of organic material
(generally peat) by coastal marshes and wetlands.

Failure or erosion of a bluff causes material to be deposited at the base. Waves sort this material
and carry the fine-grained silts and clays offshore where they settle to the bottom. The original deposit is
eventually reduced to sand and gravel fractions, which form a beach. Eventually, if no other littoral
material is carried to the site by waves, even the sand and fine gravel will disappear down the coast or
offshore, leaving only coarse gravels behind. However, a new supply of material may be deposited on
the beach by a fresh failure of the bluff, and the process begins again. In many cases, therefore, the
littoral materials comprising beaches are often derived from erosion of the shoreline itself.

Rivers and streams that carry sediments eroded from the inland land mass are a second source of
littoral material, particularly during floods. Material from this source is predominantly smaller than
sand, particularly for large rivers. These silts and clays are largely deposited far offshore. Smaller rivers
that flow through sandy drainage areas may carry significant quantities of sand during floods. However,
the total contribution of sand by rivers and streams is probably considerably less than from erosion of the
shores themselves.

Coral reefs, shells, and other plant or animal matter are a third material source. They gradually
break and weather into carbonate sands, which are, for instance, the primary components of beaches
south of Palm Beach, Florida. Swamps, marshes, and coastal wetlands produce peats and other organic
matter, also a source of littoral material. Too light to remain in place under continued wave action, they
are ultimately washed offshore unless stabilized.

Littoral materials are transported along the shore by wave action. Approaching from deeper water,
the shoreward portion of a wave moves in progressively more shallow water than the section farther of f
shore. This portion begins to slow, which causes the wave to bend (refract) until breaking at an angle to
the beach. This creates considerable turbulence that temporarily suspends the bottom sediments and
carries them up the foreshore (beach face) in the general direction of wave advance. The motion stops a
short distance up the beach, and then reverses direction back down the slope. However, the downrush
does not retrace the same path, but rather, moves directly down the foreshore in response to gravity. The
next wave repeats the process, moving the material downdrift along the beach.

9
10
 Littoral transport occurs not only by rolling bedload, as above, but also by the movement of
suspended sediment. The waves generate a longshore current that flows through the area where they
break (breaker zone). Alone, it is generally too weak to move appreciable quantities of sediment;
however, the turbulence from breaking waves suspends sediments that can then be moved downdrift by
the longshore current. This sediment generally settles out within a short distance, but the next wave
provides additional movement. Therefore, longshore transport is caused by the zig-zag movement of
bedload up and down the beach, and the turbulence and action of the wave-induced longshore current.

Water Level Variations

The water surface elevation itself constantly changes with time. The Stillwater level, or the water
level with no waves present, changes because of three processes; astronomical tides, storms, and periodic
lake level variations.

Astronomical Tides - Tides are generated by the gravitational attraction between the earth, moon,
and sun, and are classified as diurnal, semidiurnal, or mixed. Diurnal tides have only one high and one
low each lunar day. Semidiurnal tides have two approximately equal highs and two approximately equal
lows daily. Mixed tides are intermediate between them and typically have two highs and lows that occur
each day. However, in contrast to semidiurnal tides, there is a large inequality, or difference in height,
between either successive high or successive low waters (Figure 4). Most Atlantic coast tides are
semidiurnal and the heights of successive highs or lows are approximately equal. Gulf and Pacific coast
tides tend to be mixed, and in most cases, there is a distinct inequality between successive highs or lows.

11
12
 In addition, the tidal range, or difference in elevation between the high and low waters, tends to
fluctuate throughout the month. These tidal range variations are caused by changes in the distance
between the earth and moon (perigean and apogean tides), the declination of the moon (equatorial and
tropical tides), the declination of the sun, and the phase of the moon (spring or neap tides). (See
Glossary.) The tides are highest during spring, perigean and tropical tides and are particularly high when
these are approximately in phase.

Tides are also present on the Great Lakes, but they are small and not significant for practical
problems of shore protection design.

Some key tidal datums, shown on Figure 5, are important because of their wide use. Not shown
are datums for the Great Lakes, where all levels are ultimately referenced to the International Great
Lakes Datum (see Glossary). Each lake has a designated chart datum [Low Water Datum (LWD)] based
on the IGLD.

Storm Effects. The passage of storms tends to increase the Stillwater level through two principal
mechanisms: atmospheric pressure effects, and stress caused by storm winds blowing across the water.
Atmospheric pressure differences across a large water body cause a rise in the water level in the lower
pressure area (inverse barometer effect). Water surface rises of one or two feet are common in many
areas under this effect.

Enclosed water bodies (such as the Great Lakes) can also respond to storm forces by seiching.
This occurs when storm winds or pressure effects drive the water surface higher at the downwind end of
a lake. The passage of the storm front releases this water, and causes a periodic oscillation within the
basin that will continue for several cycles. On the Great Lakes, seiching is most pronounced on Erie,
because its long axis more closely matches predominant storm tracks and its relatively shallow depths
lead to higher storm setup levels.

Wind stress also tends to drive the water on shore to above normal heights (storm setup). This
continues until the tendency for the water to flow back to its normal level balances the forces driving it
on shore. The high winds associated with storms also generate large waves, with their effects being felt
in addition to the elevated storm surge levels.

13
 Lake Level Variations. Water levels in the Great Lakes are also subject to periodic changes.
Records of lake levels dating from 1836 reveal seasonal and annual changes, which are due to variations
in precipitation annually, and from year to year. Lake levels (particularly Ontario and Superior) are also
partially controlled by regulatory works operated jointly by Canadian and U. S. authorities, and these
may result in minimizing lake level changes. Average monthly lake level elevations showing data for the
past calendar year and present year to date, and a forecast for the next six months, are published monthly
by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Detroit District (see Other Help Section).

14
 THE EROSION PROBLEM

THE IMPORTANCE OF SHOREFORM

The land-sea boundary in characterized by many shapes and configurations. Geologists have
devised elaborate classification systems to describe these various features. For the purposes of
understanding basic shoreline processes and for designing appropriate corrective measures, however, it
will only be necessary to informally classify shorelines as either bluffs, low erodible plains (including
sandy beaches), or wetlands. Many shorelines, of course, contain two or even all three of these basic
features.

Bluff Shorelines

A distinction will be drawn between bluffs and cliffs. Cliffs will be defined as shorelines
composed of relatively sound rock. These rarely undergo severe or sudden erosion problems, but may
experience slow, steady retreat over a long period of years. Such shorelines generally cannot be treated
with low cost solutions because available alternatives are usually less durable than the cliff rock itself.

On the other hand, bluffs are composed of sediments such as clay, sand, gravel, or erodible rock
and erosion problems are often present along these kinds of shorelines. The most prevalent causes of
bluff erosion are toe scour by wave action, surface runoff, and drainage and infiltration problems that
lead to slope stability failures.

An important factor to consider is whether a bluff is high or low. While no precise definition is
possible, many writers have described high bluffs as those being greater than 20 or 30 feet high or, using
a different criterion, a low bluff might be classified as one that can stand alone, while a high bluff must
either be protected, or otherwise treated, to remain standing.

In evaluating conditions at a site, it is necessary to determine which of the above processes is

primarily responsible for the erosion problem. Slope stability problems that are not aggravated by toe
undercutting should be treated using established civil engineering techniques of slope stability analysis
and design. Typical solutions could include vertical or horizontal drains, slope regrading and terracing,
surface drainage controls, elimination of unnecessary surcharges at the top of the slope, and buttressing
the toe.

Wave action at the toe which undermines the bluff, can be treated using a low cost shore
protection device. Important factors in selecting a device will include the relative steepness of the
offshore bottom slope, and whether a sand beach is present at the base of the bluff. These are often
derived from bluff materials that have fallen from above, and they provide a buffer against normal wave
action and may serve as a suitable foundation for various protective devices. During severe wave
activity, however, waves can reach the bluff itself and erode or undercut the toe. Depending on the
strength and characteristics of the bluff materials, this may cause the bluff to fail in a relatively short
time.

The slope of the offshore bottom is also important. If the offshore slopes are steep, deep water is
closer to shore, larger waves can reach the bluff, and maintenance of a protective beach is more difficult.

15
Conversely, flat offshore slopes inhibit heavy wave action at the bluff and provide for potentially better
protective beaches.

Low Erodible Plains and Sand Beaches

These are the most common shoreforms throughout most areas of the United States. They are
primarily composed of sands and gravels that gently rise from the water's edge and seldom attain a height
of more than five to ten feet above the Stillwater level.

Figure 6 is a definition sketch of an idealized beach profile. Waves approach from offshore,
finally breaking and surging up the foreshore. Above the foreshore, the profile flattens considerably to
form a broad berm, which is not reached by normal wave activity. The beach berm will sometimes be
backed by a low scarp leading to a second berm and eventually to a bluff or sand dune.

The profile will reach some equilibrium shape in response to normal water levels and wave
activity. This equilibrium will be disturbed and erosion will begin if the long-term water level rises or
predominant wave heights increase. For a water level rise, a new equilibrium profile will eventually
form with the same shape as the old, but shifted landward and upward. Similarly, increased wave
activity causes a nearshore bar to grow as the beach erodes. Eventually, as this bar grows and the depths
of water decrease, the larger waves will break farther offshore. This weakens their attacks on the beach
and equilibrium is restored.

At open coast sites, the return to normal water levels and waves will initiate a healing process that
may return the profile to essentially its initial position. This is because the flat swells tend to move sand
back to the beach from the nearshore bar. At sheltered sites, however, these swells are not present, so the
healing process never occurs, and storm-caused erosion losses tend to be permanent.

16
 Changes in the sediment supply from updrift will also cause movement of the profile. A decrease
in th6 supply will cause the beach to erode, and the profile will retreat landward, while still maintaining
the same shape. Conversely, an increase in the supply will cause accretion and the profile will advance
toward the water.

Wetlands and Marshes

Although they are treated separately in this section, wetlands and marshes usually occur in
combination with sand beaches or low erodible plains. For federal regulatory purposes, wetlands are
defined as:

Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration
sufficient to support, and under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation
typically adapted to life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes,
bogs, and similar areas. [U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1977b)]

Marsh plants are primarily herbaceous (lack woody stems) and include grasses, sedges and rushes.
The species present depend on location and whether the marsh is low (regularly flooded) or high
(irregularly flooded).

Until recently, marshes were considered undesirable and regularly drained and filled for new
development or agriculture. Their value has now been recognized as an important environmental
resource, but they also protect the shore by absorbing the energy of approaching waves and trapping
sediment that is being carried along by currents. These shore protection qualities are particularly
important when the marsh fronts a sandy beach or other area where erosion is to be prevented. In that
case, the marsh provides a front line of defense for the shore. While it may not provide full protection, it
may, at least, partially dampen wave action and allow for less massive and costly backup protection.

THE CAUSES OF EROSION

Wave Action

Wave action is the most obvious cause of shoreline erosion.

Littoral Material Supply

Stable shorelines are in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Waves keep the littoral materials in
constant motion in the downdrift direction, and the shoreline remains stable provided there is an equal
supply of material from updrift. When the updrift supply is deficient, the shoreline erodes.

A substantial portion of the littoral material supplied to shorelines is the result of updrift erosion.
If large amounts of the updrift shoreline are suddenly protected, material is lost to the littoral system.
This decreases the supply to the downdrift shore, resulting in erosion problems unless that land is also
protected.
Determining the longshore transport direction is sometimes necessary. This is usually a difficult
task because it depends on wave directions that can vary considerably with the seasons. Summer winds
(and waves) may be from one predominant direction, while winter storm winds may be from an entirely

17
different quadrant. When the winds and waves change direction, the transport direction also changes
(transport reversal).

The gross longshore transport rate is the quantity of sand (usually in cubic yards per year) that
moves past a fixed point in either direction. The net longshore transport rate is the quantity that moves in
the predominant direction minus the quantity that moves the other way. The net transport rate is
specified by both quantity and direction (e.g., 10,000 cubic yards per year to the east).

Transport rates are important when considering accretion devices such as breakwaters and groins
because it is necessary to judge the effects of device construction on the littoral system, particularly with
respect to potential downdrift damages. A precise estimate will not usually be possible, but it may be
feasible to examine similar structures or harbor works that have been constructed in the past for evidence
of accretion over known periods of time. If nothing else, this should reveal the predominant transport
direction and a crude measure of the possible transport rate. This should be an acceptable level of
precision for small scale, low cost devices.

Slope Stability

Slope stability analysis is covered in standard geotechnical engineering textbooks [e.g., Lambe and
Whitman (1969) and Winterkorn and Fang (1975)]. Major stability problems are most likely at high
bluff shorelines where the heights are 20 feet or more. Except where toe protection is needed, slope
stability problems on high bluffs tend to be beyond the range of low cost solutions.

18
 A LOOK AT THE OPTIONS

Three basic choices are possible in response to an erosion problem: no action, relocation of
endangered structures, and positive corrective measures. The latter includes devices that directly armor
the shore, those that intercept and dissipate wave energy, and those that retain the earth slopes against
sliding. Each alternative requires an evaluation of the planned land uses, money and time available, and
other effects that may result from the decision.

NO ACTION

This is a decision-aid that can be used to evaluate different alternatives. Because even low cost
solutions can require substantial investments, it is preferable to closely estimate potential losses using
this alternative, particularly if no dwellings are directly threatened, and only undeveloped land or
inexpensive structures are in danger. Also, erosion problems are sometimes caused by temporary factors
(e.g., unusually high Great Lakes levels) that may abate. The resulting erosion, therefore, may slow
before any action is taken. This could eliminate the immediate need for protective devices, or it could
mean choosing a smaller scale, less expensive, device.

RELOCATION

In most cases, some action is necessary. It may be less expensive to relocate endangered structures
than to invest in shore protection. Relocation can be to an entirely different site or it can be a setback
farther from the water at the present site. The required setback must be carefully evaluated because the
considerable expense of moving a building could be wasted if the setback is insufficient.
The first step is to evaluate the long-term erosion rate. This is difficult because reliable historical
data on past shoreline positions is often lacking. Possible sources of data include a time sequence of
aerial photographs or shoreline maps. If the property owner has occupied the site for many years (say 25
or more), and has observed slow shoreline retreat during that time, the annual erosion rate could be
approximated by dividing the total amount of retreat by the number of years of observation. For instance,
if the shoreline steadily receded 300 feet in 30 years, the estimated average erosion rate is about 10
feet/year. A setback of 100 feet could produce an additional 10 years of life for a structure, provided
erosion continues at the same rate.

Conversely, if the shoreline was stable for years and suddenly retreated 300 feet in only 5 years,
relocation on the same site may be risky and not generally advisable unless considerable setback room is
available.

BULKHEADS AND SEAWALLS

The terms bulkhead and seawall are often used interchangeably. In a strict sense, however,
bulkheads are retaining walls whose primary purpose is to hold or prevent sliding of the soil while
providing protection from light-to-moderate wave action. Seawalls, on the other hand, are structures
whose primary purpose is to protect the backshore from heavy wave action. Their massive size generally
places them beyond the low cost range. Also, they are not generally needed in sheltered waters where
large waves are not generated (except perhaps in the Great Lakes).

Bulkheads can be used to protect eroding bluff s by retaining soil at the toe, thereby increasing
stability, or by protecting the toe from erosion and undercutting. They are also used for reclamation
19
where a fill is needed in advance of the existing shore. Finally, bulkheads are used for marina and other
structures, where deep water is needed directly at the shore (Figure 7).

Construction of a bulkhead does not insure stability of a bluff. If a bulkhead is placed at the toe
of a high bluff steepened by erosion to the point of incipient failure, the bluff above the bulkhead may
slide, burying or moving the structure toward the water. To increase the chances of success, the
bulkhead should be placed lakeward of the bluff toe, and if possible, the bluff should be graded to a
flatter, more stable slope.

Bulkheads protect only the land immediately behind them and offer no protection to adjacent
areas up- or downcoast, or to the fronting beach. In fact, their vertical faces reflect wave energy, which
may cause increased scour and could lead to a loss of any existing fronting beach. If the downdrift
beaches were previously supplied by erosion of the land now protected, they may erode even more
quickly. If a beach is to be maintained adjacent to a bulkhead, additional structures such groins or
detached breakwaters may be required.

Bulkheads may be either cantilevers or anchored (like sheet piling), or gravity structures (like
sand-filled bags). Cantilever bulkheads require adequate embedment to retain soil, and are used where
low heights are sufficient. Toe scour reduces their effective embedment and can cause failure. Anchored
bulkheads are usually used where higher structures are needed. They also require adequate embedment
(although less than cantilever bulkheads) to function properly, but they tend to be less susceptible to toe
scour.

Gravity structures eliminate the need for heavy pile driving equipment and are often appropriate
where subsurface conditions hinder pile penetration. However, they require strong foundation soils to
adequately support their weight, and they normally do not sufficiently penetrate the ground to develop
reliable soil resistance on the offshore side. Therefore, they depend primarily on shearing resistance
along the base of the bulkhead to support the applied loads. Gravity bulkheads also cannot prevent
rotational slides in materials where the failure surface passes beneath the structure. Their use, therefore,
is generally limited to relatively low heights where their cost is comparable to cantilever sheet pile
bulkheads.

20
REVETMENTS

A revetment is placed on a slope to protect it and adjacent uplands against scour (Figure 8). It
depends on the underlying soil for support, so it must be built on a stable slope. An unstable bank must
first be properly graded before construction. Fill material, when needed to achieve a uniform grade, must
be adequately compacted.

21
 Revetments protect only the land immediately behind them and provide no protection to adjacent
areas. Erosion may continue on adjacent shores, and near the revetment may be accelerated by wave
reflection from the structure, although not as seriously as with vertical-faced bulkheads. Also, the
downdrift shore may experience increased erosion if it was formerly supplied with material eroded from
the now protected area. If a beach is to be maintained in front of a revetment, additional structures such
as groins or detached breakwaters may be required.

A revetment consists of an armor layer, filter and toe. The armor must resist the waves, and
settlement, and provides drainage of slope must be sufficiently flat to provide stability. Typical armor
materials include quarrystone and various concrete blocks. The filter supports the armor groundwater
through the revetment, and prevents the retained soil from being washed through the armor layer by
waves or groundwater seepage. Toe protection prevents displacement of the seaward edge of the
revetment.

Overtopping by green water (not white spray) may cause erosion at the top of the revetment.
Problems from overtopping can be minimized by choosing a structure height that is greater than the
expected runup height, or by providing an overtopping apron at the top of the revetment.

Flanking is another potential problem that can be prevented by tying each end of the revetment
into adjacent shore protection structures or the existing bank. However, if the bank recedes, the ends will
have to be periodically extended to maintain contact.

BREAKWATERS

Breakwaters are constructed offshore to dissipate the energy of approaching waves and form a
protected shadow zone on their landward sides. (Figure 9). The ability of waves to transport sediment is
a function of the wave height-squared, so a relatively modest decrease in incoming wave heights can
22
have a major effect on sediment transport. For instance, if incoming waves are reduced to 70% of their
original height after passing a breakwater, their ability to move sediment will decrease to 0.70 x 0.70 or
49% of their original capacity. Therefore, longshore-moving littoral drift will tend to accumulate behind
the structure. The ability of a breakwater to trap sand is a function of its distance offshore, length
parallel to shore, porosity, and spacing (where more than one breakwater is used).

If accretion continues until the breakwater is joined to the shore, the resulting system would act
as a large groin that would totally block the sand supply to the downdrift beach. This could cause
significant erosion damages. Therefore, the area landward of the breakwater should be partially filled
with sand after construction is completed. This may allow sand to continue past the structure and on to
the downdrift beach without causing serious erosion problems.

Breakwaters are either fixed or floating. Fixed breakwaters are large masses of heavy material that
rest on the bottom. Floating breakwaters are constructed of buoyant materials such as logs, hollow
concrete boxes and scrap rubber tires. The latter are most popular because of their durability and ready,
no-cost availability. Floating breakwaters are generally effective in sheltered waters where short-period
(less than five seconds) waves are dissipated as they pass floating structures. Such waves have short
lengths that may be less than the width of the breakwater.

23
GROINS

Groins are constructed perpendicular to shore and extend, finger-like, out into the water. Used
singly or in groups known as groin fields, they trap sand or retard its longshore movement (Figure 10).
Sand tends to accumulate on the updrift side of a groin while erosion occurs downdrift. This will cause
the shoreline to rotate and align itself with the crests of the incoming waves, gradually decreasing the
angle between the waves and the shore. In turn, the longshore transport rate will decrease and the
shoreline will stabilize. The fillets of sand that collect on the updrift sides of the groins act as protective
buffers. Storm waves attack these accumulations first, before reaching the unprotected backshore.

Without the sand fillets, groins cannot protect the shoreline from wave action, nor are they
effective where the waves approach perpendicular to shore. Groin installations also require an adequate
sand supply and are not effective where the littoral materials are finer than sand. Silts and clays tend to
move in suspension and are not retained by groins on the beach.

When a groin is first built, the sand trapped on its updrift side is no longer available to downdrift
beaches and erosion may result. When the updrift fillet is completely formed, the sand will pass around
or over the groin to the downdrift shore, but at a slower rate than before it was built. If erosion of the
downdrift shore is unacceptable (it usually is), an alternative is to build more than one groin and fill the
area between with sand. This minimizes the downdrift damages and limits the erosion at the groin's
shoreward end.

24
 Groins can be built either high or low with respect to the existing beach profile. High groins
effectively block the supply of sand to downdrift beaches, provided sand cannot pass through them. Low
groins, built to be overtopped by waves either during storms or at a given tide level, permit sand to pass
over them and nourish downdrift beaches.

A groin's length must be sufficient to create the desired beach shape while still allowing sand to
pass around its outer end. If a groin extends seaward past the breaker zone, the sediment moving around
the structure may be forced too far offshore to return to the adjacent downdrift beach. If it is too short, it
may not trap enough sand to provide the desired beach.

The correct spacing of individual groins within a field is often difficult to determine and is a
function of their length and the desired final shoreline shape. If groins are too far apart, excessive
erosion can occur between them. If spaced too closely, they may not function properly. This is
particularly true for long groins where sand passing around their ends must follow a curved path back to
the beach. If the groins are too close together, the sand will be unable to reach the beach before it is
again forced seaward by the next downdrift groin.

A groin must be built to resist wave forces, currents, the impact of floating debris, and earth
pressures created by the difference in sand levels on both sides. As with other structures, groins must
resist toe scour, and must be constructed to prevent failure due to flanking (erosion at their landward
end).

BEACH FILLS

Beach fills are quantities of sand placed on the shoreline by mechanical means, such as dredging
from offshore deposits or overland hauling by trucks. The resulting beach provides some protection to
the area behind it and also serves as a valuable recreational resource.

The beach fill functions as an eroding buffer zone. Its useful life will depend on how quickly it
erodes; a rapid succession of severe storms can completely eliminate a new fill in a short time. The
owner must then be prepared to periodically renourish (add more fill) as erosion continues. Beach fills
generally have relatively low initial costs but periodic maintenance costs needed for adding new fill.

VEGETATION

A planting program to establish desired species of vegetation is an inexpensive approach to

shoreline protection and erosion control. Depending on where stabilization is desired, species from one
of two general groups should be selected to insure adequate growth.

Found on parts of shorelines flooded periodically by brackish water, species of grasses, sedges,
and rushes occur in marshes of moderate to low energy shorelines. Once extensive and widely
distributed, marsh areas were viewed in the past as useless and were subjected to filling and diking.
However, their destruction has lessened as their importance in the ecosystem and to shoreline protection
has been realized.

Upland species (shrubs and trees but particularly grasses) are especially adapted to growing in the
low-nutrient, low-moisture environment of the higher beach elevations, where they are subject to
25
abrasion by windblown sand particles. Used to trap sand and stabilize the beach, upland vegetation also
improves the beauty of a shoreline, prevents erosion during heavy rain, diminishes the velocity of
overland flow, increases the soils infiltration rate, and provides a habitat for wildlife.

Even though vegetation provides significant help in stabilizing slopes and preventing erosion,
vegetation alone cannot prevent erosion from heavy wave action or prevent movement of shoreline bluffs
activated by groundwater action. In those instances, structural devices augmented with vegetation are
recommended.

The effectiveness of vegetation is also limited by characteristics of the site. For instance, the site
requirements which determine the effectiveness of a tidal marsh planting include: elevation and tidal
regime, which determine the degree, duration, and timing of plant submergence; slope of the site;
exposure to wave action; type of soil; salinity regime; and oxygen-aeration times. Plants which are
specially adapted for higher beach elevations must tolerate rapid sand accumulation, flooding, salt spray,
abrasion by wind-borne sand particles, wind and water erosion, wide temperature fluctuations, drought,
and low nutrient levels. Appropriate species also vary with geographical location, climate, and distance
from the water (vegetative zone).

INFILTRATION AND DRAINAGE CONTROLS

Infiltration and drainage controls are often needed to achieve stability along high bluff shorelines.
Although many factors lead to slope stability problems, the presence of groundwater is one of the most
important, since the majority of slope failures and landslides occur during or after periods of heavy
rainfall or increased groundwater elevations. Infiltration controls prevent water from entering the
ground, while drainage controls remove water that is already present in the soil.

Infiltration can be controlled by appropriate ditches and swales, and by sealing the ground surface.
Surface cracks that develop when a slope begins to fail can be an easy path for water to enter, exert
hydrostatic pressures, and lead to further instability. Such cracks should be promptly filled with
compacted, relatively impermeable soil (preferably clay) to reduce the potential for such detrimental
effects.

Drainage of the subsurface can be accomplished using vertical or horizontal drains. Standard
design techniques and methods are described in civil engineering references such as Winterkorn and
Fang (1975).

SLOPE FLATTENING

A bluff slope may be flattened to enhance its stability when adequate room exists, and there is no
interference with the desired land use. Freshly excavated slopes should be planted to prevent erosion
from surface runoff. It may also be necessary to build a revetment or bulkhead at the toe of the slope to
protect against wave action.

PERCHED BEACHES

A perched beach (Figure 11) combines a low breakwater or sill and a beach fill perched, or elevated,
above the normal level. This alternative provides a broad buffer against wave action while offering a
26
potentially excellent recreational site. The sill can be constructed of various materials, but it must be
impermeable to the passage of the retained beach sand by using, for instance, a filter cloth behind and
beneath the structure. The cloth prevents the fill from escaping through any large voids in the sill and
also stabilizes the structure against settlement. While a graded stone core could also be used in a rock
sill in place of filter cloth, the limited height of such sills generally precludes use of muli-layered
structures of this kind. The figure also shows a splash apron which is provided to prevent scour and
erosion of the beach fill from overtopping waves.

Perched beaches can be provided where offshore slopes are mild enough to permit the use of a sill
in shallow water at a reasonable distance from shore.

27
STRUCTURES AND FILLS

In addition to perched beaches, fills can also be incorporated in groin systems and with
breakwaters. In fact, auxiliary fills are almost mandatory in most cases, otherwise serious erosion
problems can occur downdrift.

STRUCTURES AND VEGETATION

While vegetation is one means of controlling shoreline erosion, its most serious deficiency is its
restriction to areas of limited fetch because it cannot become established in heavy wave environments.
Vegetation can be used in areas experiencing considerably heavier wave activity, however, if it is placed
in the shadow of a structure such as a breakwater. The use of temporary structures is particularly
appealing because they provide protection while the plants need it, and can then be removed later when
the plantings have matured.

28
 THE DESIGN PROBLEM

FUNCTIONAL DESIGN

Shoreform Compatibility

Certain approaches are better suited to particular shoreline configurations than others. It is
important to choose a method appropriate to the dominant shoreform at the site.

Bluff Shorelines. The no action alternative can be appropriate for bluffs since it does not disrupt
natural shoreline processes and requires no investment for protective structures. Eventually, however,
the property may be totally destroyed by erosion. While relocation does not disrupt shoreline processes,
and it can permanently eliminate any threat to buildings, it can cost as much as or more than a protective
structure. Bulkheads are ideally suited, either for full-height retention of low bluffs, or as toe protection
for high bluffs. Constructed of readily available materials and easily repaired if damaged, they are
particularly useful where offshore slopes are steep. They can, however, induce toe scour and loss of
beach material. Revetments are marginally effective in bluff situations. Low bluffs that can be flattened
to a stable slope may be effectively protected by revetments, but high bluffs generally cannot be
regraded. Revetments can protect the toes of high bluffs, either alone, or in conjunction with another
device. Breakwaters reduce wave energy reaching the bluff but do not provide positive toe protection.
They may build or maintain a beach (if an adequate sand supply exists), which provides some protection
against normal waves, but would be ineffective against storm waves. Use of breakwaters generally
requires gentle offshore slopes. Groins protect only to the extent they can build or hold a beach. Since
they require a sand supply, they would not work in an area of clay or silt bluffs unless sand was imported.
Beach fills provide some protection against normal wave action but would be ineffective during storms.
Vegetation would provide little protection until well established and even then, does not positively
protect against large storm waves. Drainage controls are mandatory if groundwater adversely affects
slope stability. However, they provide no toe protection and can be expensive. Slope flattening provides
a permanent solution for slope stability problems, but does not protect against continued wave action. It
also requires adequate room at the top of the bluff for the slope. A perched beach would protect against
normal waves but would be ineffective during storms. A combination approach can be the best solution.
For instance, drainage controls should be used as needed, possibly with slope flattening. Toe protection
could be provided with a revetment and a fronting sand beach to provide additional protection (provided
offshore slopes are mild). Vegetation planted on the regraded slope would prevent erosion from runoff,
and other species could be used to stabilize the beach fill.

Sand Beaches. The no action and relocation alternatives are applicable as they were for bluffs.
Bulkheads are generally inappropriate unless an elevated feature, such as a promenade or parking lot, is
needed. Vertical bulkheads induce toe scour and wave reflections, and could cause erosion of the beach
fronting the bulkhead. Revetments are better for protecting features directly behind the beach since they
absorb wave energy better and are more flexible when settlement occurs. They have an adverse aesthetic
effect on the beach, however, and they can limit use or access to the shore. Use of revetments by a single
landowner is often a problem because they are subject to flanking. Breakwaters are also well suited
because they trap and hold sand moving along, on or offshore. They can cause extensive downdrift
damages, however, because the trapped sand cannot reach adjacent beaches. They are also expensive to
build. Groins can effectively build beaches on their updrift sides but can also cause accelerated downdrift
29
erosion. Their functional behavior is complex and difficult to predict. Beach fills retain the natural form
and character of the beach and enhance its recreational potential. Local sources of suitable sand are not
always available, however, and fills require periodic renourishment. Vegetation, effective in many
sheltered areas, has low initial costs and enhances the natural appearance and beauty of the shoreline.
Unfortunately, foot and vehicular traffic damage plantings. Drainage controls and slope flattening are
not applicable. Perched beaches can be used in some areas where fills alone would be too large to be
economical, or where larger wave action is a problem. Combination approaches are often excellent, such
as a perched beach that is further stabilized by vegetation.

Wetlands. Structures built near wetlands are usually placed at a low bluff or beach behind the
marsh. For protection of the marsh itself, vegetation is the only appropriate alternative. To assist in
establishing plantings, however, small temporary breakwaters may be required. Beach fills or perched
beaches may also be used to provide a suitable substrate for planting in some areas.

Applicability to Shoreline Uses

Some methods lend themselves more readily than others to particular shoreline uses. It is
important to choose a method that performs its function and does not interfere with the planned use of the
shoreline. No action obviously does not enhance shoreline uses, although continued erosion may have an
adverse impact. Relocation involves similar considerations. Bulkheads create an access problem unless
stairs are provided. Vertical structures may also cause wave reflections that can erode the remaining
beach material. Bulkheads are necessary when some water depth for boating activities is needed at the
shore. Revetments of randomly placed rough stone may hinder access to the beach. Smooth structures,
such as concrete blocks, cause less difficulty for walkers. Breakwaters provide an area sheltered from
waves, but they can hinder circulation and cause water quality problems. Beaches built behind
breakwaters have enhanced recreational potential. Rough stone structures may provide an improved
habitat for certain fish species but may be hazardous to climbers. High structures may also intrude on the
view of the water and be aesthetically undesirable. Groins may hinder travel along the beach, but any
sand they trap improves the beach conditions. Beach fills enhance recreational uses of 'the shore, but
increased turbidity during construction can temporarily harm certain fin and shellfish species.
Vegetation greatly improves the natural habitat but hinders other uses of the beach because traffic
through the plantings must be restricted. Drainage controls have little impact on shoreline uses and slope
flattening reduces the available land at the shore. Perched beaches provide a recreational beach. A
vertical sill may pose a hazard to bathers because of the sudden step to deeper water, but it may provide
improved access for fishing. A rock sill may provide a natural habitat for fin and shellfish and may not
be as hazardous to bathers.

Conditions in the General Area

Conditions in the local area can strongly influence the selection of an alternative. One of the most
important considerations is the possible effects on downdrift properties. Accretion devices (breakwaters
and groins) trap sand moving along the beach and tend to starve the downdrift shoreline. If this would
cause damages to neighboring properties, the area behind the breakwater or updrift from the groin must
be partially filled so that littoral material bypasses the structure, and downdrift damages are avoided.

30
 Shoreline composition is also important. Accretion devices do not function in areas where little
sand is in transit because they do not sufficiently calm the water to permit settlement of silts and clays.
Slopes and soil composition are also important for determining appropriate plant species.

Finally, climatic and other environmental conditions must be considered. Plant species obviously
must be planted where the climate permits survival and growth. salinity is critical for many species which
can only tolerate changes of salinity within a narrow band. Warm salt water more easily corrodes steel
and other metals than cold fresh water. Warm salt water is also the habitat of marine borers that attack
submerged timber structures. On the other hand, fresh water lakes freeze in the winter, subjecting
structures to large forces and abrasion from ice sheets. In some areas this may require more sturdy
construction than would be required for resisting wave action at the site.

Summary

The factors relating each available alternative to shoreform and shoreline use are summarized on Tables
1 and 2.

Table 1

METHODS APPLICABLE TO VARIOUS SHOREFORMS

Alternative* High Bluffs Low Bluffs Beaches Wetlands

Relocation Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes

Bulkheads Usually Almost always Sometimes Rarely

Revetments Sometimes Almost always Almost always Rarely

Breakwaters Rarely Rarely Almost always Sometimes

Groins Almost never Almost never Almost always Almost never

Beach Fills Almost never Almost never Almost always Rarely

Vegetation Almost never Almost never sometimes Almost always

Infiltration and Drainage

Controls Almost always Usually Almost never Almost never

Slope Flattening Rarely Usually Almost never Almost never

Perched Beaches Rarely Rarely Almost always sometimes

* Applicability is for the alternative used alone in the given situation. Combination devices are not

included.

31
 Table 2

COMPATIBILITY OF ALTERNATIVES WITH SHORELINE USES

Alternative Strolling Bathing Fishing Boating

No Action Sometimes Sometimes Usually Usually

Relocation Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes

Bulkheads Usually Sometimes Almost always Almost always

Revetments Usually Sometimes Usually usually

Breakwaters Almost always Almost always Almost always Usually

Groins Usually Almost always Almost always Usually

Beach Fills Almost always Almost always Usually Almost always

Vegetation Almost never Almost never Almost always Rarely

Infiltration and
Drainage Controls Almost always Almost always Almost always Almost always

Slope Flattening Almost always Almost always Almost always Almost always

Perched Beaches Almost always Almost always Almost always Usually

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

If the chosen alternative involves construction of a physical shore protection device, several key
problems must be resolved before an adequate structural design is completed. The first step is an
evaluation of the potential water level and design wave height at the site. Other considerations include
toe protection, filtering, flank protection, structure height, and various environmental factors.

Water Levels

A design water level must be determined before the wave height used to design structures can be
found. In tidal waters, the elevation of the mean spring or diurnal tide is a sufficient starting point for
low cost protection. Table 3 is reproduced from Tide Tables published by the National Ocean Survey
(See Water level in the OTHER HELP Section). For instance, at Station 2037, Oxford, Maryland, the
mean tide range is 1.4 feet, the spring range is 1. 6 feet, and the mean tide level is +O. 7 feet above chart
datum (MLW). The average spring tide, therefore, is +1.5 feet above MLW (Figure 12). An increment
should be added to account for storm setup effects. Local experience should dictate, but values of two
or three feet are probably reasonable for storm setup.
32
 Attention should be drawn to the use of Mean Low Water (MLW) as datum in the previous
discussion. This has been the datum used by the National Ocean Survey in the past for east coast
navigation charts. In the future, however, the NOS will begin to adopt Mean Lower Low Water
(MLLW) as datum for all nautical charts in the United States. This change will occur gradually as
charts are periodically revised and reissued.

On the Great Lakes, the Monthly Bulletin of Lake Levels for the Great Lakes (see Water Levels in
the Other Help Section) summaries of water levels for the previous year and the current year to date, as
well as projected lake levels for the next six months. For each lake, a curve is also given for the long-
term average lake level (1900 to the present) (See Figure 13). A suggested design water level is the
greater of (a) the water level midway between the long-term average and the recorded maximum average
monthly water level or (b) the highest monthly water level that has occurred during the preceding year.
For instance, on Lake Michigan, the highest average water levels occur in July when they are about 2.0
feet above chart datum (576.8 feet). (Low Water Datum (LWD) is +576.8 feet IGLD for Lake Michigan.)
The maximum observed monthly water level for July on Lake Michigan was observed in 1974 at +4.2
feet. A water level midway between them is +3.1 feet. The maximum observed monthly water level
during the previous year was +3.0 feet, so the chosen water level should be the greater of the two or +3.1
feet (579.9 feet).

Storm setup or seiche values should be added to obtain a final water level. Figure 14 contains
suggested values from Help Yourself [U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1978d)] superimposed on a map
of the Great Lakes - The design lake level, therefore, will be the sum of the lake level found in the
previous step and the storm setup value.

Wave Heights

Waves at a site are generated either by wind action or moving vessels. At most locations,
however, wind action is more critical for design. The design wave will be the lesser of (a) the maximum
height generated by wind acting along the critical fetch or (b) the maximum breaker height that can reach
the site during design water level conditions. In other words, if the wind can produce a larger wave than
can be supported at the site, the available depth will control, not the wind.

33
34
35
36
 The height of wind-driven waves depends on several factors: wind speed, duration, fetch length
and depth. When considering wind speed, it is important to realize that there must be sustained wind
37
action to effectively generate waves. Brief gusts reaching high velocities do not last long enough to
cause wave growth. The fastest-mile is a convenient way to characterize both wind speed and duration.
The maximum fastest-mile is the highest speed that occurs with a sufficient duration for the wind to
travel one mile. In other words, a 60-mile/hour wind must last for one minute to travel one mile, whereas
a 30-mile/hour wind must last for two minutes. Figures 15 and 16 are maps of the continental United
States, including Alaska, which displays the maximum fastest-mile wind speed contours for 10- and 25-
year return periods. For example, the 10-year fastest-mile wind speed at New York City is 60 mph, and
at Charleston, South Carolina it is 75 mph.

A brief review of the concept of return period is needed because the public tends to be confused
about its meaning. For instance, when told that a device will withstand the 10-year wave at a site, most
people will probably conclude that the structure will be safe for the next ten years. Or, if design wave
conditions have occurred recently, they may assume that these will not occur again for another ten years.
Neither of these perceptions is correct. What is really meant can be illustrated by an example. For
instance, if over a long time (e.g., 100 years), 10 episodes with waves of a certain size were observed, the
return period for that wave height, based on the available statistics, would be 10 years (100 years of
record/10 observed episodes).

Return periods can be used to assess the risk involved in a particular decision. The probability,
P, that a particular event with return period, Tr., will occur during a period of time, I , is given by,

P = [1 – (1 – 1/Tr)I] * 100 (4)

Table 4 contains probabilities of occurrence (percentages) for events with 10- or 25-year return periods
as a function of various project durations. For example, consider an individual who wishes to protect his
shoreline for 10 years. Using methods explained later, the designer chooses a 10-year design wave. The
chance of experiencing the design wave during a structure's 10-year life is 65 percent. If this is an
unacceptable level of risk, the designer may then provide protection against a larger design wave, say 25
years. In that case, there is a 34-percent chance of the 25-year wave occurring during the structure's 10-
year life. If this is an acceptable level of risk, the design can proceed on that basis.

38
39
 Table 4

PERCENT CHANCE OF DESIGN EVENT OCCURRENCE

Project Life Design Condition Return Period

(years) (years)
10 25

1 10 4
2 19 8
5 41 18
10 65 34
15 79 46
20 88 56
25 93 64
30 96 71
40 99 80
50 99 87

Returning to the problem of the design wave, the critical fetch must be identified before it is
possible to calculate the wave height. Fetch length is the distance across water that wind blows to
generate waves. At a constant wind speed, the longer the fetch, the larger the generated waves, up to an
equilibrium point beyond which there is no further wave growth unless the wind speed increases. Figure
17 shows a proposed site for a shore protection project. The critical fetch must be determined in order to
estimate the design wave height. The longest fetch is labeled (1) the figure. Line (2), although shorter
than Line (2) crosses significantly deeper water.

In general, greater depths along the fetch will cause greater wave heights because of decreased
bottom frictional effects. The fetch lines on Figure 17 have been divided into a series of equal length
segments. As shown on the figure, by noting the depth at each division point, the average depth along
the fetch can be determined. Care should be taken, however, to avoid including depths which are the
result of small-scale depressions or rises, that are not typical of the area, but which the fetch line happens
to cross. Small features such as rocks would not significantly affect wave growth and should be excluded
in favor of a depth that is more typical to that area. The average depth must also be adjusted to
correspond with the design water level. If, for instance, the design water level is +2.8 feet MLW, then
the average fetch depth would be 10.0 feet for Line (1) and 14.4 feet for Line (2).

The final step in determining wind-driven wave heights is to refer to Tables 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, and
select the tables that bracket the average fetch depth. The wave height can then be found by using the
fetch length and the fastest-mile wind speed. In the example, fetch line was 3.2 miles long with an
average depth of 10.0 feet (design water level at +2.81 MLW). Assuming a 10-year, fastest-mile wind
speed of 65 mi s/hour, the wave height would be 3.0 feet (Table 6). Along Line with an average depth of
14.4 feet, the wave height would b .5 feet (interpolating between Tables 6 and 7), despite the fact that its
fetch length is only 2.4 miles. This should be used for design. The wave periods are given in
parentheses on the tables below the wave heights. In both cases, the wave period is 4.0 seconds.
40
41
42
43
 Alternate, more precise, methods of determining the wave height and period by using shallow
water wave forecasting equations are given in U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1977c) (1981b) and
(1981c). The two later references will eventually supersede the first and are preferred by many coastal
engineering specialists. Their use, however, involves more elaborate procedures so, for the sake of
brevity and simplicity, only the equations from the first reference will be given. Either the tables or the
equations are adequate for design of low cost shore protection.

The wave height, H. is,

H = (0.283U2 /g) tanh [0.530 (gd/U2)0.75] tanh {(0.0125(gF/U2)0.42)/(tanh[0.530(gd/U2)0.75])} (5)

And the period, T, is

T = 2.40 (πU/g) tanh [0.833(gd/U2)0.375] tanh {(0.077(gF/U2)0.25)/(tanh[0.833(gd/U2)0.375])} (6)

Where U = the wind speed in feet/second;

F = the fetch length in feet;
D = the depth in feet:
And g= 32.2 ft/sec2.

Note: The above equations are in dimensionless form and can be used with any consistent set of units.

44
 Wave heights so determined should then be checked against the maximum possible breaking wave
at the design water level. This should be evaluated using Figure 18 and the depth at the toe of the
structure, or if appropriate, the minimum depth offshore from the structure. With the design water depth
at the toe of the structure ds ; the wave period, T; and the fronting bottom slope, m; the breaker height Hb, can
be found as a function of ds. For instance, if ds = 3.0 feet, m = 1:33, and T = 4.0 seconds ds/gT2 =
0.00582, and Hb,/ds = 0.98; therefore, Hb = 3.0 x 0.98 = 2 (say 3.0) feet. T. Minimum depth along fetch line
is near Cedar Point where the depth is 1 foot at MLW, and 3.l feet under the design water level. This would
not control for this case (it is greater than ds), but it should be checked in every instance. Fetch line (2) does
not cross similar shoal areas.

If the wind-driven wave height was 3.5 feet, it should not be used for design because only a 3.0-foot
wave can be supported based on the available minimum depth at the structure. The final design wave height,
therefore, should be 2.9 (3.0) feet in this case. To restate the rule, the design wave height should be the
lesser of the maximum wind-generated wave along the fetch, or the maximum possible breaking wave at the
structure or at points offshore.

45
46
 Figure 19 gives appropriate locations for measuring the depth at the structure, ds.

Strength

Shore protection structures must be strong, and this can only be achieved by using either massive
and heavy components that cannot be dislodged by waves, or smaller components that interlock to form a
large mass. The problem with small interlocking units, such as concrete blocks, is that they exhibit little
reserve strength. That is, once damages occur, they generally progress to complete failure.

Flexibility

Flexibility is also desired because it allows structures to compensate for settlement, consolidation
and toe scour. The revetment shown on Figure 20 illustrates this point. The massive individual concrete
slabs could not be moved by waves, but the structure failed because it was not able to adjust to erosion
that occurred around the ends and through cracks between the slabs.

Toe Protection

47
 Toe protection is supplemental armoring of the beach surface in front of a structure, which
prevents waves from scouring or undercutting it. Failure to provide toe protection invites almost
certain failure.

48
Filtering

Filtering, although one of the most important technical design details of shore protection
structures, is probably the most neglected, and leads to more failures than any other cause. The
consequences of not providing proper filtering are illustrated on Figure 22. Without filtering, the soil
particles are easily transported through the armor layer, which continues to settle as the bank erodes. A
properly designed filter blocks the passage of the soil particles while still allowing for hydrostatic
pressure relief beneath the structure (Figure 23).

A filter layer can be provided through the use of either graded aggregates or a synthetic filter
fabric. Filter criteria for graded filters are covered in standard references such as Winterkorn and Fang
(1975). Bertram (1940) developed one widely used criterion as given below:

D15 (filter)/D85 (soil) < 4 to 5 < D15 (filter)/ D15(soil) (7)

The left side of the equation is intended to prevent piping of fine-grained soil through the filter. That is,
the 15-percent size of the filter material, D15 (percent finer by weight), must be no more than 4 or 5 times
the D85 size of the protected soil. The right side of the equation provides for adequate permeability of the
49
filter (several times greater than the adjacent soil). It requires the D15 size of the filter to be at least 4 or 5
times the D15 of the soil. This criterion should provide adequate permeability for structural bedding
layers, but be insufficient for the groundwater drains.

Inadequate or No Filtering Proper Filter Design

Several organizations have developed further restrictive criteria for filters. For instance, the
Bureau of Reclamation allows no filter aggregates larger than 3.0 inches, and the Corps of Engineers
specifies that,

D50 (filter) / D50 (soil) <= 25 (8)

In other words, the D50 of the filter cannot be greater than 25 times the D50 of the soil. This is
intended to insure that the gradation curves of the filter and soil are generally parallel.

For perforated or slotted pipe, the D85 of the filter must be greater than the hole width or slot
diameter.

50
D85 (filter) / Hole diameter > (1.0 to 1.2) (9)

D85 (filter) / Slot width > (1.2 to 1.4) (10)

These and other criteria for graded filters are illustrated on Figure 24.

The above criteria also apply to the armor layer in relation to the filter layer. That is, the armor
layer must retain the filter layer as the filter retains the soil. In some cases, two filter layers may be
required to provide the necessary transition from the soil to the armor.

Synthetic filter fabrics, available in woven and non-woven varieties, can be used in place of
graded stone filters. Woven cloths, manufactured of high strength nylon or other synthetic fibers,
provide a uniform mesh with a constant opening size which can be matched to the soil characteristics.
Non-woven cloths, manufactured from masses of somewhat randomly oriented fibers bonded together by
chemicals, heat or pressure,, come in various standard thicknesses. Unlike woven cloths, however, they
lack uniform-sized openings, their principal advantage being lower cost.

Guidance on the selection of filter fabrics is contained in Plastic Filter Fabric [U. S. Army Corps
of Engineers (1977a)]. Selection is based on the equivalent opening size (EOS), which the Corps defines
as "the number of the U. S. Standard Sieve having openings closest in size to the filter fabric openings".
Material will first be retained on the sieve whose number is equal to the EOS. The EOS of commonly
used filter fabrics is given in Table 10. The appropriate filter fabric should be selected as follows:

For granular soils with less than 50 percent by weight fines

(minus No. 200 materials)

85%, Passing Size of Soil => 1 (11)

Opening Size of the EOS Sieve

For other soils, the EOS should not be less than 70 (0.0083 in.). Furthermore, to reduce problems with
clogging, no fabric should be used whose EOS is greater than 100 (openings smaller than the mesh of a
No. 100 sieve). Also, no filter fabric should be used alone if the underlying soil contains more than 85
percent of particles finer than the No. 200 sieve. In those cases, an intermediate sand layer may provide
the necessary transition layer from the in-situ soil to the filter fabric.

51
52
 Table 10

FILTER FABRIC EQUIVALENT OPENING SIZES

Fabric EOS

Filter X 100
Laurel Erosion Control Cloth 100
Monsanto E2B 80
Polyfilter X 70
Mirafi 140 50
Nicolon 66424 50
Nicolon 66429 40
Polyfilter GB 40
Nicolon 66487 30

[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1977a)

*Note: Manufacturer's product lines are subject to change. Check with the
supplier to verify current products and specifications.

The Corps of Engineers also limits the gradient ratio of the filter fabric to a maximum of 3. This is
defined as the hydraulic gradient through the fabric and the one inch of soil immediately above the fabric
(i1) divided by the hydraulic gradient over the two inches of soil 'between one and three inches above the
fabric (i2).

Gradient Ratio = i1/i2 <= 3, (12)

Where i1 and i2 are measured by a constant head permeability test conducted as specified by the Corps in
the earlier cited reference.

Flank Protection

Flank protection is important because any shore protection structure, such as a revetment or
bulkhead, is vulnerable as erosion continues around its ends. If not prevented by flank protection, the
land eventually erodes from behind the structure, which then fails to function adequately. Figure 25
illustrates what happens when flank protection is not provided.

Return sections can be provided either during the original construction or later, as erosion
progresses. For instance, sheet pile bulkheads along low bluffs can easily be tied into the existing bank
during the initial work. This is not generally possible for high bluffs. Revetments must nearly always be
progressively lengthened as erosion continues. They should be tied to the existing bank or high ground
during initial construction, however.

53
54
Structure Height

Waves breaking against an inclined structure will run up to an elevation higher than the Stillwater
level depending on the roughness of the structure. Smooth concrete surfaces experience higher runup
than rough stone slopes. Vertical structures also cause splashing and can experience overtopping. If
possible, the structure should be built high enough to preclude severe overtopping. White spray does
little damage, but solid jets of "green" water should be avoided. The required height of the structure will
depend on the computed runup height based on the wave and structure characteristics. Detailed guidance
is presented in Stoa (1978) and (1979). The runup height, R, can be found by a more approximate
method as given below.

First, find the wavelength at the structure by using either Figure 26 or Equation (3) with the known
depth at the structure and the design wave period. The definition sketch for runup is shown on Figure 27.
For SMOOTH impermeable slopes, the runup, R, is given in Seelig (1980) by,

R=HC1 (0.12L/H)^(C2 (H/ds)0.5 + C3)

where: L= the local wavelength from Figure 26 or Eq. (3),

ds = the depth at the structure (feet),
the approaching wave height (feet), and
C1, C2, C3 = coefficients given below.

Structure Slope * C1 C2 C3

Vertical 0.96 0.23 +0.06

1 on 1.0 1.47 0.35 -0.11
1 on 1.5 1.99 0.50 -0.19
1 on 2.25 1.81 0.47 -0.08
1 on 3.0 1.37 0.51 +0.04
*
Interpolate linearly between these values for other slopes.

For ROUGH slopes, Seelig (1980) gives the runup as,

R = (0.69ξ/1+0.5ξ)H (14)

ξ = tan θ/(H/Lo)0.5 (15)

Lo = 5.12 T2 (16)

θ = structure of the slope (e. g., tan θ = 0.25 for a slope of 1V on 4H

55
56
 For STEPPED slopes, Stoa (1979) recommends using 70 to 75 percent of the smooth slope runup
if the risers are vertical, and 86 percent if the edges are rounded.

A rough approximation of the runup height can be obtained from Table 11. However, the values in
the table tend to represent the upper bound of the available data and may result in over design. Equations
(13) and (14) or the methods given in Stoa (1978) and (1979) are recommended.

If it is impossible or undesirable to build a structure to the recommended height, a splash apron

should be provided at the top of the structure. These are generally constructed of rock and they prevent
the ground at the top from being eroded and undermining that portion of the structure.

Environmental Factors

Many different materials can be used to construct shore protection structures, including rock,
concrete, timber, metal and plastics. The choice often depends on the desired permanence of the
protection. Durable materials usually cost considerably more than shorter-lived materials used for
temporary protection. The choice of materials is important because the coastal environment is a harsh
testing ground for all man-made structures. Aside from wave forces, which are formidable in and of
themselves, a host of chemical, biological and other factors can degrade structural
materials. A brief review of these follows.

57
58
 Corrosion and Freezing. Corrosion is a primary problem with metals in brackish and saline water.
This is particularly true in the splash zone, where the materials are subjected to continuous wet-dry
cycles. Plain carbon steel, for instance, probably has a life of less than five years under some conditions.
Corrosion resistant steel marketed under various trade names is useful for some applications. Aluminum
sheet piling can also be used in many areas in place of steel. Stainless, galvanized, or other corrosion-
protected steel, or wrought iron can be used for bolts and other fasteners. However, care should be taken
not to mix dissimilar metals in structures where they directly contact each other. The resulting galvanic
action will quickly corrode the more active metal of the pair (e.g., aluminum is more active than stainless
steel).

Concrete can be degraded by chemical reaction with salt water and by freeze-thaw cycles.
Guidance on producing suitable high quality concrete is presented in Mather (1957). Aggregates should
be durable and not reactive with cement. Dense (cement rich) mixes should be used, typically about 7
bags of portland cement per cubic yard. Types II or V should be used in salt water, while Types I or II
are acceptable in fresh and brackish water. Potable water should generally be used, but brackish or salt
water may sometimes be acceptable for mass concrete. Fresh water, however, should always be used for
reinforced concrete. Maximum water content should be no more than 5 1/2 gallons per bag of cement,
including the moisture content of the aggregates. Finally, air entrainment (typically 4 to 7% of the
concrete volume) is necessary to minimize damages from freeze-thaw cycles.

Marine Borer Activity. Timber structures submerged in brackish and sa-1 water are sub ' ject to
damage from marine borers. Any wood or timber used for bulkhead or other construction in areas of
moderate borer activity should be treated with 20 pounds of creosote or 2.5 lbs. of preservative salts per
cubic foot of timber. Where borer activity is severe, 20 pounds of creosote and 1.5 pounds per cubic foot
of preservative salts in a dual-treatment process is recommended for all lumber. Timber piles should be
dual-treated with 20 pounds of creosote and 1.0 pound of preservative salts per cubic foot in such areas
[American Wood Preservers' Association (1977)].

Ultraviolet Light. The ultraviolet component of sunlight rapidly degrades untreated synthetic
fibers such as those used for filter cloth or sand bags, totally deteriorating them in less than one season if
heavily exposed. Any fabric used for shore protection devices should be stabilized against ultraviolet
light. This typically involves adding carbon black to the synthetic compound, which gives the finished
product a black or dark color in contrast to the white or light gray color of unstabilized cloth. Even filter
cloth covered by a structure should be stabilized since small cracks or openings in the structure could
admit enough light to destroy the cloth.

Abrasion. Abrasion damage occurs in all structures where waves move coarse sediments such as
sand and gravel back and forth across their faces. coarse gravels and cobbles can also cause impact
damages when hurled by large waves. Little can be done to prevent abrasion damages beyond the use of
durable rock and concrete as armoring in critical areas such as along the sand line of sheet pile groins. It
is here that such structures typically experience the greatest amount of abrasion.

Ice Forces. Ice forces are primarily a problem on cold region waterbodies such as the Great
Lakes. Ice covers will typically vary with the size and location of the waterbody, and local climatic
conditions. Large bodies, such as the Great Lakes, usually develop partial ice covers, while smaller
embayments within them may be totally covered.

The ice covets are never totally stationary and movement creates several categories of ice forces
on structures. For instance, dynamic forces result from wind and current-driven ice sheets or floes.
59
Vertical-faced structures will experience large horizontal forces, while inclined faces will tend to reduce
the total force acting on the structure. Static ice forces result from thermal 6xpansion and contraction of
relatively stationary ice sheets. Fractured ice forces arise from broken pack ice driven against a structure.
Uplift and drawdown forces are associated with the adhesion of floating ice sheets to structures.

Water level fluctuations caused by seiches, tides, or reservoir operation can result in significant
damage to pile-supported structures. Water level recession can cause considerable downward loadings
that force the piles deeper into the bottom. Conversely, water surface rises will pull the piles upward. As
this occurs, the soil will collapse beneath the pile tips and will prevent return to their original positions.
A series of such actions can jack the piles completely out of the bottom.

Possible preventative measures include air bubbler systems and pile sleeves, but these must be
evaluated on an individual case basis. Relatively comprehensive summaries of current methods for
evaluating ice forces on structures are given in Neill (1976), Wortley (1978) and the U. S. Army Corps of
Engineers (1980b).

Vandalism and Theft. The final factor is the susceptibility of the structure to vandalism. If this
may be a problem, materials should be selected which cannot easily be cut, carried away, dismantled or
otherwise damaged. For instance, sand-filled fabric bags are easily slashed by knives, small concrete
blocks can be stolen, and wire mesh baskets can be opened with wire cutters and the contents scattered.

60
SHORE PROTECTION METHODS

This section will examine specific devices, including structures and vegetation, in more detail.
Where past performance data are available, these will be incorporated in the discussion.

BULKHEADS

Because bulkheads normally have vertical faces for ease of construction and cost efficiency, wave
reflections are maximized, increasing the potential for overtopping and scour in front of the structure.
Since scour can be a serious problem, toe protection is necessary for stability. Typical toe protection
consists of quarrystone large enough to resist movement by wave forces, with an underlying layer of
granular material or filter cloth to prevent the soil from being washed through voids in the scour apron.

Sheet Pile Bulkheads

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

Sheet piling is available in different materials, including steel, aluminum and timber. These are
used in structures that may be either cantilevers or anchored (Figure 28). Detailed design procedures
are available in standard references such as the Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual [U. S. Steel
Corporation (1975)].

61
 A cantilever bulkhead derives its support solely from ground penetration; therefore, the sheet
piles must be driven deep enough to resist overturning. Cantilever bulkheads are susceptible failure due
to toe scour because this reduces the effective embedment of the piling.

An anchored or braced bulkhead gains additional support against seaward def lection from
embedded anchors or from batter structural piles on the seaward side. Anchors are commonly a r of piles
or deadmen driven or buried a distance behind the bulkhead. Connections between the anchors and wall
should be wrought iron, galvanized or other suitably corrosion-protected steel. Plain carbon steel should
not be used for long-term protection. Horizontal wales are generally located in the upper one-third the
wall height above the dredge line. For low bulkheads, they m be at or near the top of the structure. The
wales distribute the anchors, the lateral loads on the structure. An anchor system is not well suited to
sites with buildings close to the shoreline because of the distance needed between the bulkhead and
anchor In that case, brace piles ma be used in lace of anchoring.

Subsurface conditions determine the type of sheet piling that can be used. Steel sheet piling can
be driven into hard soil and some soft rock. Aluminum and timber sheet piling can only by driven or
jetted into softer soil.

The advantages of sheet pile bulkheads are their relatively long and maintenance-free lives, and
their uniform appearance. Their disadvantages include the special pile-driving equipment required to
install them.

Treated Timber. Well-designed and built timber structures have long been recognized as viable
and economical materials for bulkhead construction (Figure 29). Figure 30 illustrates the common types
62
of timber sheeting used. As mentioned earlier, only specially treated timber should be used for marine
construction. A plan view and cross section of a typical timber bulkhead are shown on Figure 31. The
actual dimensions will vary depending on site conditions.

Granular material is preferred for backfill. If anchor piles are used, backfilling should begin over
them, and then proceed to the bulkhead. The joints between sheets should be kept as tight as possible.
The use of filter fabric is advisable as an added precaution to prevent loss of soil through cracks.
Supplemental drain holes should be placed at regular intervals to further facilitate the movement of water
from behind the structure, and these must always be backed with filter cloth or properly graded crushed-
stone filters.

63
64
 Only corrosion-resistant or protected metals should be used for hardware and fasteners. Wrought
iron anchor rods with turnbuckles and bolts have good durability. Galvanized fasteners are also
recommended. Carbon steel should not be used unless protected with special coatings, such as coal-tar
epoxy or other bituminous materials. Minimize the number of washers under bolt heads and nuts to
reduce the length of exposed bolt shanks, and provide a tight fit between bolted timbers so that the bolt
shanks are not exposed in the gaps. Bolt holes should be no more than 1/16 of an inch larger than the
shank to insure a tight fit. Finally, washers should be provided under bolt heads and nuts to insure that
these bear evenly on the timber members.

Figure 31. Plan View and Cross Section of Typical Sheet Pile Bulkhead [American Wood Preservers
Institute (1970)]

Steel. Steel sheet piling, probably the most widely used bulkhead material (Figure 32), can be
driven into hard, dense soil and soft rock. The interlocking feature of the sheet pile sections (Figure 33)
provides a relatively sand-tight fit that generally precludes the need for filters. This close fit may also be
essentially watertight, so regularly spaced weep holes are recommended. These, and lifting holes in the
piling, should be backed with properly graded stone filters or filter fabric to prevent the loss of backfill.

65
 Aluminum. Aluminum sheet pile sections are similar to steel. Design and installation are
accomplished using conventional methods and equipment. Its primary advantages over steel are lighter
weight and superior corrosion resistance. Individual sheets can be carried and maneuvered by one man,
and most drilling and cutting can be performed with simple hand tools. Its main disadvantage, compared
to steel, is that it is less rugged when driven and cannot penetrate logs, rocks or other hard obstructions.
Figure 34 is a Photograph of an aluminum bulkhead.

66
 Asbestos-Cement. Sheet piling made of this material has been tried in several locations.
Indications are that it often suffers significant and rapid deterioration in a marine environment [Watson,
Machemehl, and Barnes (1979)] and should be used with caution when long life is desired.

Post Supported Bulkheads

Post supported bulkheads consist of regularly spaced posts, usually timber, driven into the
ground with an attached facing material that forms a retaining wall. The posts, support c6mponents of
the bulkhead, resist the exerted earth pressures. As with sheet piling, a post supported bulkhead can be
either a cantilever or anchored.

One advantage is that the posts can sometimes be installed using only an auger, and the facing
material can then be placed by hand. The cost of the bulkhead depends on the required spacing of the
posts, and the type of soil being augured.

67
Hogwire Fencing and Stacked Bags

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Hogwire fencing attached to posts can be used to support sand bags stacked on the landward side
of the fence (Figure 35) to form a relatively inexpensive structure. The sand bags are vulnerable to
tearing, however, if after being undercut by toe scour, they slide against the hogwire fencing.

For best performance, use small-mesh wire with a PVC coating, because bare wire fencing tends to
cut the bags. Tearing of the front row of bags can be prevented by filling them with a sand cement
mixture. Burlap bags can be substituted for the more expensive bags when a sand-cement mixture is
used. The material and seams of all sand-filled bags must be resistant to ultraviolet light.

Place the bottom bags and fencing in a trench excavated to at least the depth of anticipated toe
scour. Anchor or brace the posts, or embed them deeply, allowing for loss of support because of toe
scour. Provide adequate drainage of the retained embankment and place stone at the toe of the bulkhead.

Treated Timber

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Horizontal, pressure-treated planks can be spiked to the landward side of posts which are anchored
to deadmen or piles in the backfill. The planks must be backed by filter cloth or graded stone to prevent
soil losses through the cracks. Riprap toe protection should be provided (Figure 36).

68
Untreated Logs

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Horizontal, untreated logs can be attached to the landward side of posts in areas like the Pacific
Northwest where there is an abundance of such logs. The same precautions about adequate toe
protection and filtering also apply. However, the large gaps between logs make adequate filter design
more difficult. If a filter cloth is used, it should follow the log contours so that it is not excessively
stressed by bridging large gaps. However, it is vulnerable to damage or vandalism, which would
jeopardize the entire structure because of the resulting loss of retained fill.

Used Rubber Tires

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Used tires can be strung over two rows of treated posts set in a staggered pattern, with the tires
abutting each other and filled with gravel (Figure 37). The posts can be tied back to logs buried in the
backfill with filter cloth placed behind the tires before backfilling. Under wave action, the gravel tends
to wash out of the tires, and the backfill can then escape. Although used tires can generally be obtained
free, the cost of the structure is probably comparable to other bulkheads because of the required close
post spacing.

69
Railroad Ties and Steel H-Piles

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Steel H-piles can be driven at regular intervals and railroad ties placed between the flanges of
adjacent piles to form a bulkhead (Figure 38). The toe of the structure should be protected by armor
stone, and proper filtering and granular backfill are needed behind the structure. A 12-inch steel channel,
welded to the top of the H-piles, serves to align the piles and retain the railroad ties. The structure has
performed well and would be particularly useful where subsurface rock prevents driving sheet piling.
However, its cost is probably higher than other effective devices.

70
Miscellaneous Bulkheads

Longard Tubes

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

A Longard tube is a patented, woven, polyethylene tube, filled with sand at installation (Figure
39) and available in 40- and 69-inch diameters, and lengths up to 328 feet. Like sand-filled bags,
performance depends on the fabric remaining intact, and the tube completely filled. When filled, the tube
is dense and heavy, yet flexible enough to settle if depressions occur. A properly installed Longard tube
is placed on a woven filter-cloth extending 10 feet seaward of the tube. A small 10-inch tube, factory
stitched to the seaward edge of the filter cloth, settles under wave action to provide toe protection.

The primary advantage of a Longard tube is the ease and speed with which it can be filled once
equipment and materials are in place. Repairs are possible using sewn-on patches. The major
disadvantage is its vulnerability to vandalism and damage by waterborne debris. A sand-epoxy coating
can be applied to dry tubes after filling to provide significantly greater protection by deterring vandals
and preventing puncture holes from enlarging. This coating cannot be applied to wet tubes. However,
the tube must not be allowed to roll after the coating is applied, as uncoated surface areas would then be
exposed, and distortion of the tube may cause the existing coating to flake off. other disadvantages are
that a large supply of good quality sand is required to fill the tube, patented filling equipment must be
used, and only specially licensed contractors can perform the work.

71
 The Longard tube depends on its weight to resist overturning and on friction to maintain its
position. It is designed to protect the toe of the bank from wave attack, and not necessarily to resist earth
pressures. The tube should not be placed directly against the base of a bank or overtopping waves may
continue to cause erosion. It should be placed far enough from the toe so that overtopping waves will
form a sand berm between the tube and the bank. Wave energy will be absorbed by this berm, and
further bank erosion may be prevented. Placement of other devices or another tube on top, to increase
the structure height and prevent overtopping, is not recommended.

Stacked Used Tires

Wave Height Range: Below two feet.

Because used tires are readily available at most sites at no cost, many have tried to use them for
shoreline protection devices. The bulkhead on Figure 40 was made with scrap tires interconnected (both
vertically and horizontally) by galvanized spikes and pushnuts. The tires were stacked in a staggered
pattern over a filter cloth, and granular material was used both as backfill in low areas, and as fill in the
tires. Three rows of galvanized steel anchors secured the structure to the beach. The structure
progressively failed because the interconnections between the tires were inadequate to hold it together.
The gravel washed out of the tires, eventually allowing them to be lifted by waves. This system is not
recommended in view of better and less costly alternatives.

72
 This structure illustrates a common problem with using scrap tires. While their availability is a
strong temptation to use them in shore protection devices, tires are extremely rugged, and usually cannot
be securely fastened together except by considerable labor and expense. In almost all cases, failure
results because interconnections do not perform as expected.

Used Concrete Pipes

Wave Height Range: Below two feet.

This bulkhead is constructed by standing used concrete pipes on end, side-by-side, and then filling
them with granular soil (Figure 41). This bulkhead is economical and practical only when there is an
available supply of used concrete pipes and where a low structure is adequate.

A filter must be provided behind the structure to relieve hydrostatic pressures. If a filter cloth is
used, it should be forced deeply into the grooves between pipes to avoid ballooning and bursting the
cloth. The wall should not be more than two pipe diameters high without an anchoring system. Also, the
pipes should be entrenched to provide stability and toe protection. A continuous concrete cap (not
pictured) could be cast across the tops of all pipes to insure performance as a unit. This type of bulkhead
may not last long because of possible rapid deterioration of the concrete pipes.

73
 REVETMENTS

The armor layer of a revetment maintains its position under wave action either through the weight or
interlocking of the individual units. Revetments may be classified as flexible, semi-rigid, or rigid.
Flexible armors, such as quarrystone, riprap, or gabions, retain their protective qualities even if the
structure is severely distorted, such as when the underlying soil settles, or scour causes the toe of the
revetment to sink. A semi-rigid armor layer, such as interlocking concrete blocks, can tolerate minor
distortion, but the blocks may be displaced if they are moved too far to remain locked to the surrounding
units. Once one unit is completely displaced, such revetments have little reserve strength and
displacement will generally continue to complete failure. Rigid structures may be damaged and fail
completely if subjected to differential settlement or the loss of support by underlying soil. Grout-filled
mattresses of synthetic fabric and reinforced concrete slabs are examples of rigid structures.

Rubble

Rubble revetments are constructed of one or more layers of stone, or concrete pieces derived from
the demolition of sidewalks, streets and buildings. Stone revetments are constructed of either two or
more layers of uniform-sized pieces (quarrystone), or a gradation of sizes between upper or lower limits
(riprap). Riprap revetments are somewhat more difficult to design and inspect because of the required
close control of allowable gradations and their tendency to be less stable under large waves. For that
reason, graded riprap revetments should be used with caution, but they are acceptable for the majority of
low cost shore protection applications. Quarrystone structures are more easily designed and inspected
and are recommended.

74
 The primary advantage of a rubble revetment is its flexibility, which allows it to settle into the
underlying soil or experience minor damage and still continue to function. Because of its rough surface,
it also experiences less wave runup and overtopping than a smooth-faced structure. The primary
disadvantage is that placement of the stone or concrete armor material generally requires heavy
equipment.

To insure good performance, prepare the existing ground to a stable slope. In most cases, the
steepest recommended slope would be 1 vertical on 2 horizontal (1:2). Fill material should be added
where needed to achieve a uniform slope, but it should be free of large stones and should be firmly
compacted before revetment construction proceeds. Properly sized filter layers should be provided to
prevent the loss of the slope material through voids in the revetment stone. If using filter cloth, an
intermediate layer of smaller stone below the armor layer may help distribute the load and prevent
rupture of the cloth.

No individual armor unit should be longer than three times its minimum dimension. In other words,
avoid using plate-like or cylinder-shaped pieces; stones should be angular and blocky, not rounded. The
toe of the revetment should be located one design wave height (but at least three feet) below the existing
grade line to prevent undercutting in lieu of deep burial, a substantialsacrificial berm of additional rubble
(with filtering) should be provided at the toe.

Quarrystone and Riprap

Wave Height Range: Above five feet (Quarrystone).

Below five feet (Riprap).

Stone revetments are a proven method of shoreline protection (Figure 42). They are durable and
can be relatively inexpensive where there is a local source of suitable armor stone. Quarried stone should
be clean, hard, dense , durable, and free of cracks and cleavages. Figure 43 shows a typical cross section
of a stone revetment. The weight of the armor stones should be determined by the following formula as
given in the Shore Protection Manual [U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1977c)].

W = wrH3 / KD(Sr – 1)3 cot θ (17)

Where W = weight of an individual armor stone (pound);

Wr = unit weight (saturated surface dry) of the rock (lbs/ft3)

H = wave height (feet);

Sr = specific gravity of the armor stone (wr/ww); where ww = 64.0 lbs/ft3 for salt water and 62.4

lbs/ft3 for fresh water

Cot θ = slope of the structure expressed as horizontal units/vertical units

KD = Stability coefficient from Table 12.

75
 Table 12

Stability Coefficients for Stone Revetments

Armor Unit
Quarrystone

Smooth rounded 2.1

Rough angular 3.5
Graded riprap 2.2

Tables 13, 14 and 15 contain solutions for Equations 17 with an illustrative example of their use.

If uniform quarrystone is used, the individual stones should range from 0.75W to 1.25W with
75 percent of the stones weighing W or more. For graded riprap, W corresponds to W50 min and the
recommended gradation is 3.6 W50., to 0.22 W50 . Riprap should be limited to areas where the design
wave height is less than five feet.

If a graded stone filter is employed, it may be significantly more fine-grained than the armor layer.
This may require the use of an intermediate layer of stone between the armor and the filter. This layer
should consist of units about 1/10 the weight of stone in the armor layer. This intermediate layer is also
recommended wh6n a filter cloth is employed because it provides bedding and resists tearing or
puncturing of the cloth under the heavy armor stone.

76
77
 Concrete

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

A concrete rubble revetment utilizes a waste product that is otherwise difficult to dispose of in an
environmentally acceptable manner. The concrete should have the durability to resist abrasion by water-
borne debris and ice pressure. In addition, all protruding reinforcing bars should be burned off prior to
placement. Numerous concrete rubble revetments have failed in the past, but this has generally been
attributable to neglect of filter requirements. Figure 44 shows two cross sections that would probably be
more successful than random dumping on a slope. The upper section uses three layers of concrete
rubble, shaped so that the longest dimension is no greater than three times the shortest, thus increasing
stability and minimizing uplift on the slabs from wave forces. The revetment shown on Figure 45 is
similar, except only one layer of rubble was used. It subsequently suffered damages, but more than one
layer of rubble may have improved its performance. The lower section on Figure 44 utilizes shaped-
rubble stacked on a slope to create a stepped face.

78
Concrete Blocks

Concrete blocks for semi-rigid armor layers are designed with various intermeshing or
interlocking features, and many of the units are patented (Figure 46). Blocks have the advantage of neat,
uniform appearance. Many units are light enough to be i stalled by hand once the slope has been
prepared. The disadvantage of concrete blocks is that the interlocking feature between units must be
maintained. Once one block is lost, other units so dislodge, and complete failure may result. A stable
foundation required since settlement of the toe or subgrade can cause displacement of the units and
ultimate failure. Also, some concrete block revetments have smooth faces that can lead to significantly
higher wave runup and overtopping.

79
Gobi (Erco) and Jumbo Blocks and Mats

Wave Height Range: Below five feet (blocks)

Above five feet (mats)

Gobi blocks are patented units that weight about 13 pounds each. Erco blocks are similar but they
are offered by a different licensed manufacturer. Jumbo blocks are large-sized Erco Blocks that weigh
about 105 pounds each. The units are designed hand-placement on a filter cloth or they are factory-glued
carrier strip s of filter cloth. The latter are called Gobimats (Ercomats) or Jumbo Ercomats, depending
on the size of the units If the blocks are glued to both sides of the carrier strip, backto-back, they are
called double Gobimats (Ercomats) or double Jumbo Ercomats. Mats are preferred at sites where
vandalism or theft is possibile. Both single and double mats require machine placement.

80
 Block and mat revetments have generally performed well. A large project on the Gulf of Mexico
in Louisiana has weathered several hurricanes and tropical storms with only moderate damage to the
block sections and little or no damage to the mat portions. Figure 47 is a photograph of an existing
revetment.

81
 Turfblocks or Monoslabs.

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Turfblocks are designed for hand placement on a filter with the long axis parallel to the shoreline
(Figure 48). Each block measures 16 x 24 x 4.5 inches and weighs approximately 100 pounds. Field
installations have not yielded conclusive results, but their performance should be similar to Jumbo Erco
blocks. Their thin, flat shape requires a stable foundation, as any differential settlement beneath the
blocks makes them susceptible to overturning under wave action.

82
 Nami Rings

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

The Nami Ring is a patented concrete block shaped like a short section of concrete pipe, 2.5 feet in
diameter by 1-foot high, and weighing 240 pounds. The rings are placed, side-by-side, on a slope over
filter cloth. Better performance has been observed when the rings are joined together with tie rods. Sand
or gravel caught up in the wave turbulence tends to be deposited inside the rings and in the voids between
adjacent rings, adding to the stability of the section and protecting the filter cloth. Because of their
shape, Nami Rings are susceptible to severe abrasion and damage by water-borne cobbles and, therefore,
should be used primarily in sandy environments.

Control Blocks

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

Control blocks come in various sizes and are similar to standard concrete construction blocks,
except that protrusions in the block ends provide a tongue-and-groove interlock between units. Designed
83
to be hand-placed on a filter cloth with. The cells vertical, the blocks can be aligned with their long axes
parallel to shore, but optimum performance probably results from placement perpendicular to the water's
edge (Figure 49).

Concrete Masonry Blocks

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

Standard construction masonry blocks should be hand-placed on a filter cloth with their long axes
perpendicular to the shoreline and the hollows vertical. Their general availability is a primary advantage,
but they are highly susceptible to theft. They form a deep, tightly fitting section which is stable provided
the toe and flanks are adequately protected. Their primary disadvantage is that standard concrete for
building construction is not sufficiently durable to provide more than a few years service in a marine
environment. Special concrete mixes should be used when possible.

Shiplap Blocks

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Shiplap blocks are formed by joining standard concrete patio blocks with an epoxy adhesive. At
100 pounds or more per unit, they are designed for hand placement on a filter. The same precautions
about concrete mixes apply here. These blocks are discussed in Hall and Jachowski (1964). A
photograph and cross-section of one revetment are shown on Figures 50 and 51.

84
 Lok-Gard Blocks

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Lok-Gard blocks join together using a tongue-and-groove system (Figure 52). The 80-pound,
Patented units are designed to be hand-placed on a filter with their long axes perpendicular to the
85
Shoreline. Since a Lok-Gard revetment has a smooth surface, increased runup heights must be
considered in the design.

Terrafix Blocks

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

Terrafix blocks are patented units that join together with a mortise and tenon system, and have two
cone-shaped projections, which fit holes in the bottom of the adjacent block (Figure 46). In addition,
holes through the center of each block allow for stainless steel wire connection of many individual
blocks. The uniform interlocking of the 50-pound units creates a neat, clean appearance (Figure 53).

Stacked Bags or Mats

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Several manufacturers produce bags and mats in various sizes and fabrics that are commonly filled with
either sand or a lean mixture of concrete for use in revetments. While no special equipment is required
for sand-filled units, a mixer, and possibly a pump, are needed for concrete-filled units. Bags should be
filled and stacked against a prepared slope with their long axes parallel to the shoreline and joints offset
as in brick work (Figure 54). Grout-filled bags can be further stabilized by steel rods driven through the
bags.

86
 The advantage of a bag revetment is its ease of construction and moderate cost. Sand-filled bags
are relatively flexible and can be repaired if some of the original bags are dislodged. In addition, stacked
bags are suitable as temporary emergency protection measures. Among their disadvantages, they are
limited to low energy areas, have a relatively short service life compared to other revetments, and
generally have an unattractive appearance. Since concrete-filled structures are rigid, any movement or
distortion from differential settlement of the subgrade can cause a major failure that would be hard to
repair. Sand-filled bags are highly susceptible to damage and possible failure from vandalism, impact by
water-borne debris and deterioration of material and seams by sunlight. The smooth, rounded contours
of bags also present an interlocking problem and they should be kept flatter and underfilled for stability.

87
 Mattresses are designed to be laid flat on a prepared slope, joined together, and then filled
(Figure 55). They form a large mass of pillow-like concrete sections with regularly spaced filter
meshes for the passage of water. They should always be installed according to the manufacturer's
recommendations.

88
 Bags or mattresses should be placed only on a stable slope. While a stacked bag revetment can
be placed on a steeper slope than a mattress, it should not exceed 1 vertical on 1.5 horizontal. A stacked
bag revetment should be at least two bags thick, preferably with the outside layer concrete-filled and the
interior bags sandfilled. When sand is used as filler material, the bag or mat fabric, and its seams, must
be resistant to ultraviolet light. Figure 56 shows a nonstabilized bag after six months of exposure.
Where vandalism or water-borne debris are likely, only concrete-filled units should be used.

Some form of toe protection should be provided, or the toe should be buried well below the
anticipated scour depth. Also, an adequate filter system, such as a properly installed and sized filter
cloth, should be installed.

Some types of bags and mats which have been used in the past are described below.

Burlap Bags. Burlap bags are recommended only when filled with concrete because of rapid
deterioration in the shoreline environment and the ease with which they can be torn.

Sand Pillows. Sand Pillows are ultraviolet-resistant bags made from a woven acrylic fabric.
They weigh approximately 100 pounds when filled. Because of their resistance to sunlight, they are
suitable for sand-filling in some areas.

Dura Bags. Dura Bags are large (4 x 12 x 1.7 feet), and must be filled in place using a pumped
sand-slurry or concrete. Their large size makes them more resistant to movement under wave attack.
Fabricated of ultraviolet-resistant material, they can be used in installations exposed to sunlight.

Fabriform Nylon Mat. The mat is designed to be filled with a highly fluid, lean-cement mixture.
The exterior cloth envelope serves primarily as a form until the grout hardens. Fabriform is a patented

89
product, available in several fabric styles, including some with filter points (weep holes) to provide slope
drainage. Fabriform mats should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Miscellaneous

Gabions

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

Gabions are rectangular baskets or mattresses made of galvanized, and sometimes PVC-coated,
steel wire, in a hexagonal mesh (Figure 57). , Subdivided into approximately equal sized cells, standard
gabion baskets are 3 feet wide, and available in lengths of 6, 9 and 12 feet and heights of 1, 1. 5 and 3
feet. Mattresses are either 9 or 12 inches thick. At the job site, the baskets are unfolded and assembled
by lacing the edges together with steel wire. The individual baskets are then wired together and filled
with 4- to 8-inch diameter stone. The lids are finally closed and laced to the baskets, forming a large,
heavy mass (Figure 58).

90
 One advantage of a gabion structure is that it can be built without heavy equipment. Gabions are
flexible and can maintain their function even if the foundation settles. They can be repaired by opening
the baskets, refilling them, and then wiring the shut again.

The disadvantage of a gabion structure is that the baskets ma be opened by wave action. Also,
since structural performance depends on the continuity of the wire mesh, abrasion and damage t the PVC
coating can lead to rapid corrosion of the wire and failure of the baskets. For that reason, the baskets
should be tightly packed to minimize movement of the interior stone and subsequent damage to the wire.
Rusted and broken wire baskets also pose safety hazard. Gabion structures require periodic inspections s
that repairs are made before serious damage occurs.

To insure best performance, use properly sized filler rock, interior liners or sandbags to contain
smaller sized material are not recommended. The baskets should be filled tightly to prevent movement
of the stone and they should be refilled as necessary to maintain tight packing.

Gabions should not be used where bombardment by water-born debris or cobbles is present, or
where foot traffic across them is expected.

Steel Fuel Barrels

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

This type of revetment is limited to remote areas with an abundance of used fuel barrels of little
salvageable value (Figure 59). Due to rapid corrosion of the barrels in warm water, the system is only
reliable in arctic regions. The barrels should be completely filled with coarse granular material to

91
preclude damage by floe ice and debris, and the critical seaward barrels should be capped with concrete.
Also, partial burial of the barrels increases stability.

Concrete Slabs

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Photographs of a typical structure were shown on Figure 20. The structure failed for a number of
reasons, including improper filtering, inadequate toe protection, and lack of flank protection. Placed on a
flatter slope, and with due regard for proper design considerations, this type of structure can provide low
cost protection when large slabs are available.

Fabric and Ballast

Revetments using a fabric filter cloth as the slope's armor layer, held in place by some form of
ballast, have not been successful And are not recommended.

BREAKWATERS

Breakwaters are either floating or fixed. Floating breakwaters function at or near the water's
surface and must be firmly anchored to prevent displacement. Fixed breakwaters are constructed on the
bottom and may or may not pierce the water's surface. When they do not, they are called sills. Their
height and porosity determines how effectively they dissipate wave energy.

By trapping sand on their landward side, breakwaters protect the shore while simultaneously
enhancing recreational uses. Unlike groins, they are able to trap sand moving both parallel and
perpendicular to shore. Unfortunately, this sand-trapping (accreting) ability can also cause erosion of

92
downdrift beaches. In most cases heavy construction equipment, often barge mounted, is necessary for
breakwater construction.

Floating Breakwaters

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Floating breakwaters can be constructed of virtually any buoyant material such as rubber tires,
logs, timbers, and hollow concrete modules. Floating breakwaters are particularly advantageous where
offshore slopes are steep and fixed breakwaters would be expensive because of deep water. They can
also be used where the tidal range is large and fixed breakwaters would be subjected to widely varying
degrees of submergence. Floating breakwaters are also excellent for temporary installations, such as
where vegetation requires protection while becoming established.

Floating breakwaters have several disadvantages as well. They are effective only against short-
period waves (less than five seconds), which are those most commonly present in sheltered locations
where low cost protection is most appropriate. Also, they may regarded as eyesores in some areas, they
tend to collect floating debris, and they may require more maintenance than fixed breakwaters.

Rubber Tires. Two possible arrangements are shown on Figure 60. The upper configuration,
known as a Wave-Maze, is patented and cannot be used without payment of royalties (See Other Help
Section). The bottom configuration was developed by the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company for
promotional purposes and may be used without royalties. The use of other configurations is limited only
by the imagination of the designer.

93
94
 The basic elements of design for floating tire breakwaters are listed below.

Length. The length parallel to shore should be sufficient to provide the desired protection and will
vary with the structure's distance from shore.

Width. The width should be chosen to yield a satisfactory decrease in the transmitted wave
height (the wave height behind the structure). No definite criteria would apply, but wave height
reductions of 30 percent may be an acceptable starting point for design. This would reduce the energy
reaching the protected shoreline to about 49 percent of that of the incident waves (0.7 x 0.7=0.49). If
later experience shows this to be an unsatisfactory or excessive level of protection, the breakwater can
be made wider or narrower by adding or removing modules, or its distance from shore or length can be
changed.

The design breakwater width is a function of the wavelength at the site. with a known water
depth and wave period, the wavelength can be found using either Figure 26, or Equation (3). Figure 61
gives the wave transmission coefficient, K as a function of the design wave height. The transmitted
wave height is determined by multiplying the incident wave height by K. For instance, if the local
wavelength, L, is 80 feet, and k breakwater width, W, of 40 feet is proposed, Wsh/L is 0.50, and K, is
0.90. If the incident wave height is 5 feet, the transmitted wave will be 4.5 feet. This wave will contain
0.9 x 0.9, or 81 percent of the energy of the incident wave. This may not be a satisfactory level of
protection in many cases.

Draft. Increased depth of penetration in the water column increases the effectiveness of floating
breakwaters. In general, the draft should be greater than one-half the design wave height.
Two-layer structures or the use of truck or tractor tires will achieve greater draft.

Flotation. The air trapped within the top of vertical tires provides sufficient flotation in most
cases. In quiet water, the air is eventually dissolved by the surrounding water and the structure sinks.
Wave action, however, replenishes the air supply, but care must be taken not to use tires with puncture
holes. More permanent flotation is possible with Styrofoam blocks or foam injected into the crowns of
the tires. In salt water, marine growth that is not periodically removed will eventually sink the structure.
Sand also collects in the tires and can sink them, but this can be prevented by drilling holes in the
bottoms of the tires. In that case, flotation aids such as Styrofoam blocks should be used.

Fastening Materials. Stainless and galvanized steel cable; polypropylene, nylon, Poly-D and
Kevlar rope; galvanized and raw steel chain; and rubber conveyor belt edging have been used for tying
tires together. Davis (1977) presented the results of tests using all of these, and found that conveyor belt
edging was the most satisfactory. The others failed because of either corrosion, abrasion by the tires,
fatigue, or deterioration from other factors. Steel cables sawing through the tires have caused some
devices to fail. Rubber belt edging, a scrap material derived from the manufacture of conveyor belts, is
available from several rubber companies and comes in a wide range of widths and thicknesses. For tire
breakwater construction, the belting should be at least 2 inches wide and 0.375 inches thick.

95
96
 Anchorage. Floating tire breakwaters must be securely anchored to prevent displacement.
Mooring loads can be determined from Figure 62. Danforth and other embedment anchors, as well as
screw anchors and large concrete blocks, have been used with mixed results. They are probably best
suited for seasonal use in a mild wave climate, but they tend to creep over long periods in soft bottoms
and are not always desirable for permanent installations. In those cases, driven piles are generally the
best means of stable anchorage over long periods. Giles and Eckert (1979) provide guidance on
anchorage systems.

Other Materials. Other floating materials can be used in place of scrap rubber tires. Bundles of
logs can be chained together or other barriers can be fabricated from treated timber. Modules of
lightweight concrete filled with flotation foam have also been successful. The proportioning and design
factors presented for rubber tire breakwaters would also apply to these.

Fixed Breakwaters and Sills

An important feature of a fixed breakwater is its height, which determines how much wave
energy passes over the structure. In building a fixed breakwater, some settlement should be anticipated
in the structure's design height, the actual amount being a function of the soil type, the weight of the
structure, and type of foundation.

Longard Tubes

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

The advantages and disadvantages of Longard tube bulkheads generally apply to breakwaters. An
added disadvantage is that the protective epoxy coating cannot be applied to wet tubes so that damages
are more likely. Therefore, they should not be used where the tube may be exposed to vandalism or
water-borne debris. Figure 63 contains before and after views of a Longard tube slashed by vandals,
eventually causing it to entirely deflate.

The tube should be installed over a layer of synthetic filtercloth with factory-sewn, 10-inch
Longard tubes on each edge to reduce the potential for failure due to toe or heel scour. Where a 69-inch
tube cannot provide sufficient height, an alternate breakwater system should be used.

97
98
99
 Sand-Filled Bags

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Sand-filled bag breakwaters are constructed of stacked bags in a staggered pattern (Figure 64). The
integrity of the structure depends on the individual bags remaining in place and intact. T bags and seams
must be resistant to ultraviolet light to preclude deterioration from prolonged sunlight exposure. They
should not used where vandalism is expected or where the structure will exposed to water-borne debris.
Lighter bags (100-pound range) like those used for revetments, are displaced when exposed to ev
moderate waves. Larger units, such as Dura Bags, are recommend even through they are more difficult
to handle and require filling in place.

A filter cloth should be placed under the bags to reduce settlement in soft bottoms (Figure 65).
During construction bag-to-bag abutment should be insured to minimize wave transmission through gaps
between bags.

100
 Grout-Filled Bags

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

The major advantage of grout-filled bags is that the units hold their shape after the fabric
deteriorates or is torn. Again, use of larger bags is recommended because the smaller ones are
susceptible to displacement. In addition, larger units reduce the number of bag contact points where
openings may develop. The recommendations made for sand-filled bags also apply to grout-filled bags,
except that vandalism is not a major concern.

Gabions

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

The same basic design considerations for gabion revetments also hold here. The wire
mesh should be PVC-coated, the baskets should be tightly packed, and a filter cloth should be used
beneath the structure to help control settlement. A gabion mat should be provided around the structure to
protect against scour. Tight packing of the stone is particularly important to avoid large distortion of the
baskets under wave action. A typical cross section and photograph of a gabion breakwater are shown on
Figures 66 and 67.

101
 Z-Wall

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

A Z-Wall is a patented device constructed with reinforced concrete panels set on edge in a zigzag
fashion (Figure 68). The structure is designed for placement close to the shore on the existing bottom
without the use of a filter. A single bolt acts a hinge that interconnects adjacent panels and allows for
non-u form settlement, but with limited tolerance; so that Z-Walls sensitive to bottom conditions. If the
102
tolerable differential settlement is exceeded, the panels tend to lean against or p apart from each other,
causing the concrete to spall in stress areas. The nuts on the connecting bolts tend to unwind under w
agitation, and should be inhibited by the use of double nuts destruction of the exposed threads behind the
nuts. Otherwise, end units ma fall away if the nuts unwind completely.

The Z-Wall performs best at a site with a firm bottom. The six-foot panel height limits its use to
relatively shallow water.

Surgebreaker

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

A Surgebreaker is a modular device constructed with patented 3,700-pound, precast, reinforced

concrete modules (Figure 69) with vent holes to release wave pressure buildup. The triangular modules
are 4 feet high and 7 feet wide. They are designed to placed side-by-side on the existing bottom with the
flatter slope face of the device toward the waves (Figure 70).

103
104
Sandgrabber

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

A patented configuration of interconnected concrete construction blocks (Figure 71), the Sandgrabber is
a device that allows for some differential settlement of the blocks by using U-shaped, galvanized-steel
connecting rods. The hollow blocks allow waves to wash sand through, trapping the coarser, water-borne
particles behind the structure. The Sandgrabber must be installed by a franchised contractor.

The current design does not use any form of toe protection, nor is the structure placed on a filter.
As a result, the structure normally settles unevenly and rotates seaward into a scour trench. Because of
these movements, the allowable amount of differential settlement is sometimes exceeded and the
resulting stress of the U-ties against the concrete blocks may crack or break them. This can eventually
lead to complete collapse of the structure. Weak Concrete hastens the process, so compressive strength
tests should be performed on each batch of blocks before construction. A precaution when using a
Sandgrabber, or any other breakwater, is to avoid downdrift erosion damages. Backfilling with sand
should prevent any potential problems.

Quarrystone

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

A stone breakwater is structurally similar to a stone revetment (Figure 72) and stone sizes should
also be selected by using Equation (17). However, the stability coefficient, KD, should be selected from
Table 16, rather than Table 12.

Table 16

105
 Table 16

KD VALUES FOR STONE BREAKWATERS

Structure
Structure Trunk Head (End) Slope
Armor Layers KD KD cot 0

Quarrystone
Smooth rounded 2 2.1 1.7 1.5 to 3.0

Rough angular 2 3.5 2.9 1.5

2.5 2.0
2.0 3.0

Graded riprap Not Recommended

A major advantage of a quarrystone breakwater is that the structure does not necessarily fail when
differential settlement occurs. Through the years, stone has been used for more breakwater construction
than any other material. It is time-tested and can be quite economical if suitable rock is available locally.

106
 Timber Piles and Brush

Wave Height Range: Below two feet.

A brush breakwater is constructed of two parallel rows of posts driven into the offshore bottom,
connected across the top with timber crossties, and filled with brush. Brush should be cut longer than the
space between the posts and placed parallel to the structure alignment. Not suitable for permanent
protection, this breakwater can be used for temporary sheltering of young vegetation.

Used Tires and Timber Piles.

Wave Height Range: Below two feet.

Timber piles can be driven into the bottom, so that every three piles form a triangular pattern, and
used automobile tires can then be stacked on the piles. Just above the top tires, the triangularly grouped
piles should be interconnected using 2 x 6inch planks bolted to the piles (Figure 73). The structure,
whose stability depends on the depth of pile penetration, has proven effective against mild wave action.

GROINS

Important design considerations for groins include their height, length, spacing (if there are more
than one) and the littoral transport rate. Their height determines how much sand can pass over the
structure. Low groins, which essentially follow a foot or two above the natural beach profile, are widely
used because they stabilize the beach but do not trap excessive amounts of sand and thereby cause
downdrift damages. The groin length should not extend past the breaker zone or else it may force the
107
bypassing sand too far offshore and cause downdrift erosion damages. The groin spacing should
generally be two or three times the groin length.

Groins can be built as sheet pile structures that depend on ground penetration for support, or as
gravity structures that resist movement solely because of their weight. In-either case, it is essential to
prevent or adequately plan for bottom scour. For sheet pile structures, scour reduces their amount of
embedment and makes them vulnerable to tipping. Rigid gravity structures can settle unevenly and be
damaged if undermined by scour.

Stacked Baqs

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

A stacked bag groin is similar to a stacked bag breakwater (Figure 74). The bags can either be
sand or grout-filled. As with breakwaters, larger bags are recommended because lighter, smaller bags are
too susceptible to displacement. The recommendations for bag breakwaters also apply to groins. The
bags in the photo were filled between wooden forms to achieve their blocky shape, but this was
unnecessary. When installed properly, stacked bag groins have performed well; however, they should
only be considered a short-term solution when filled with sand.

Gabions

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

The recommendations for gabion revetments generally apply. The groin should be underlain with
filter cloth to inhibit settlement, and all baskets should be made from PVC-coated wire mesh. Tiers of
108
baskets should be tied together with appropriately sized wire to prevent shifting of upper tiers over lower
tiers, and tight packing is needed to minimize distortion of the baskets and damage to the wire. Adequate
toe protection is required to prevent settlement and basket distortion. Thin gabion mattresses are ideal
for this purpose.

Figure 75 shows a gabion groin.

Steel Fuel Barrels

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

The use of steel fuel barrels for construction is only economical in remote arctic areas where
used barrels are readily available and they have no other salvage value. Barrel groins have worked well
where littoral transport characteristics are suitable for shore stabilization with a low groin. The barrels
should be completely filled with gravel to protect them from crushing by ice floes or from damage due to
floating debris. They should also be capped with concrete for additional strength, and entrenched to
prevent undermining by scour on the downdrift side.

Quarrystone

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

Quarrystone, a durable and time-tested material for shore protection, should always be
considered where locally available. Figure 76 contains a typical cross section and profile of a
quarrystone groin. The stone should be sized using Equation (17) and values from Table 16. Figure 77
is a photograph of a quarrystone groin.

109
110
Longard_Tubes

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Longard tubes have performed fairly well when remaining intact (Figure 78). Failure has usually
resulted from holes or tears in the fabric and loss of sand fill. Longard tubes are probably best as a short
term or emergency measure because of their vulnerability to damage. When used as a groin, the Longard
tube should be underlain by a filter cloth with 10-inch tubes factory-stitched to each side. The filter cloth
helps to prevent settlement, and the small tubes hold the cloth in place.

Sheet Piling

Wave Height Range: Above five feet.

Sheet pile groins, an old and proven means of shore protection, can be constructed of timber,
steel, or aluminum sheeting. Toe protection or adequate embedment is required to insure the structure's
stability. The general recommendations given for sheet pile bulkheads also apply to groins. Figure 79
contains a section and profile, and Figure 80 a photograph of a typical sheet pile groin.

111
112
Timber and Rock

Wave Height Range: Below five feet.

Many structural forms are possible for timber and rock groins. Figure 81 shows a timber crib structure
that retains a stone f ill. Care must be taken to insure that the rock is larger than the gaps between the
timbers. Rock has escaped from the offshore compartment of the groin in the figure for that reason.
Treated timbers should be used; and to insure structural stability, they should be securely fastened
together with long wrought iron or coated steel rods, threaded at the ends to accommodate washers and
nuts.

Alternate arrangements for timber groins are possible. Two rows of round structural piles can be
driven or augured deep into the beach, with timber planking spiked to the piles. The piles can be placed
close together with the planking set in the space between (Figure 82), or the piles can be more widely
separated to form a crib-type structure (Figure 83).

113
BEACH FILLS

Beach fills are constructed by mechanical means such as dredging and pumping from of f shore
deposits, or by overland hauling and dumping by trucks. The resulting beach provides some protection to
the area behind it, while also serving as a valuable recreational resource.
114
 An excess of fill will have to be placed initially because the finer material will be lost from the
beach as the waves sort the deposit. The amount of overfill needed to account for these initial losses
depends on the textural characteristics of the fill and the in-place material. These are compared by using
measures of the mean grain size and sorting of the sand samples as given by Hobson (1977). Sorting is
an indication of the range of particle sizes that are present. A well sorted sample contains particles that
are' approximately the same size. A poorly sorted sample contains a gradation of particle sizes.

Mean grain sizes and sorting are expressed in phi units. These are defined as,

φ = - log2 d(mm) (18)

where, d(mm) = the particle diameter in millimeters. Note,

log2 d(mm) = log10 d(mm) / log10(2).

Therefore

φ = -3.32 log10 d(mm) (19)

Table 17 compares the millimeter and phi size scales.

Table 17

PHI VERSUS MILLIMETER PARTICLE SIZES

D(mm) φ
256 -8
64 -6
8 -3
4 -2
2 -1
1 0
0.5 1
0.25 2
0.125 3
0.0625 4

An estimate of the mean particle size is

M = (φ84 + φ16)/2 (20)

Where φ84 and φ16 are points on the gradation curve than represent the percentage of the sample that is
coarser than the particular phi size. Phi sorting can be estimated by

115
 S = (φ84 - φ16)/2 (21)

Figure 84 provides a fill factor that specifies the amount of fill material needed to produce a given
volume of in-place material. The axes are defined in terms of the mean particle size of the borrow (fill)
and native (in-place) material (Mb, and Mn), and the sorting of the borrow and native material (Sb, and
Sn). For instance, if Mb, = 3.0, Sb, = 2.0, Mn = 3.50 and Sn = 1.00; the fill factor from figure 84 is 1.2.
Therefore, if a beach containing 1,000 cubic yards of sand is desired, it will be necessary to initially
place about 1,200 cubic yards of sand from the borrow source.

Figure 85 illustrates the important design factors to consider when constructing a beach fill. The
berm elevation should be chosen to decrease the likelihood of overtopping by waves during storms. The
berm width is determined by geometry to provide for the volume of fill to be placed, or for the shoreline
use requirements. The beach slope should be chosen to parallel the existing profiles and slopes. This is
based on the assumption that the existing beach is in equilibrium with the wave forces and that the

116
new beach will eventually assume a similar shape. The shaping of the beach fill profile can either be
done by equipment at the time it is placed, or it can be reshaped by waves. The final equilibrium slope
will depend on the texture of the fill material, coarser-grained sand resulting in a steeper beach slope than
previously existed.

If fill is placed over a short length of shoreline, it will create a projection that will be subject to
increased wave attack. Therefore, it is generally preferable to make the transition to the existing
shoreline over a longer distance. This may require a cooperative effort involving a number of
landowners. If this is impractical, protective structures such as groins may be required to retain the fill.

VEGETATION

Vegetation has been used for stabilizing shorelines either as a substitute for, or supplement to,
structures. Vegetation is an inexpensive, and generally easy, approach to providing erosion control.
It is not, however, applicable to all situations. It cannot always prevent erosion, nor can it stop the
recession of bluffs caused by groundwater seepage. In order to confront these types of problems, it is
necessary to consider a combination solution such as a structural device and vegetation.

Vegetation uses are limited by site characteristics such as climate, soil properties, wave exposure,
and salinity regimes. The following discussion will focus on species which may be used for marsh,
beach, dune and slope plantings. For each species, the applicable geographical region and planting
specifications will be described. Further information on these and other species not mentioned in this
117
report can be obtained from county offices of the Soil Conservation Service, state coastal zone
management programs, or Corps of Engineers districts.

Marsh Plants

Coastal marshes are those herbaceous plant communities, which are normally inundated or
saturated by surface or groundwater. They may be narrow fringes along steep shorelines or they may
cover wide areas in shallow, gently sloping shore regions typically found in bays and estuaries (Figure
86). In saltwater marshes, salinity is generally equal to or slightly less than seawater (35 parts per
thousand salt). Freshwater marshes experience water level fluctuations resulting from groundwater table
and seasonal climatic changes.

To establish a coastal marsh, the site must be evaluated based on geographic area, tidal elevation
and range, salinity, fetch length, and soil properties. The vegetation prevalent in three saltwater marsh
regions and the Great Lakes are discussed below. Planting specifications are summarized in Table 18.
The suitability of a site for marsh plantings can be evaluated using Figure 87.

Atlantic Coast Marshes. Common vegetation found in Atlantic coast marshes is described briefly
below.

Smooth Cordgrass (Spartina alternaflora). This is the dominant marsh grass from
Newfoundland to about central Florida. It is well adapted to soils not exposed to air that range from
coarse sands to silty clays. Three distinct height forms are recognized. The tall form is generally found
along tidal creeks and drainage channels, the short form grows on flat or gently sloping areas away from
channels, and the medium form, when present, is found in transition areas between stands of the short
and tall forms.

118
119
 Smooth cordgrass can be planted with a better chance of success than any other coastal marsh
species native to the United States. Its ideal salinity range is 10 to 35 parts per thousand. Two to four
weeks after planting, 30 to 45 lb/ac of a fertilizer which contains equal parts of available nitrogen and
phosphate should be applied.

Saltmeadow Cordgrass (Spartina patens). This species is extensive in the irregularly flooded
high marsh zone along the Atlantic coast. It is able to withstand extended periods of both flooding and
drought, growing in spots where the surface drainage is poor and water ponds during rainy periods. It
cannot, however, tolerate the daily flooding of the intertidal zone. Saltmeadow cordgrass is a valuable
stabilizer in the zone between smooth cordgrass and the upland grass species.

Two to four weeks after planting, 30 to 45 lb/ac of fertilizer containing equal parts of nitrogen and
phosphate should be applied.

120
121
 Black Needle Rush (juncus roemerianus). This species is extensive along the Atlantic coast south
of New England. It is found in high marshes where it is flooded only by winddriven tides or in areas near
the edge of uplands where freshwater seepage regularly occurs. It is a good stabilizer, although difficult
to propagate, yet under favorable conditions it will invade areas already populated by cordgrasses.

Common Reed (Phragmites communis). The common reed grows 4.5 to 12 feet tall and is
widely distributed in brackish (salinity range 1 to 35 ppt) to freshwater areas above the mean high water
level. It is easy to transplant and provides good stability; however, it does tend to compete with other
plants and may become a nuisance by crowding out more desirable species.

Mangroves. Three species of mangrove--black (Avicennia germinans), red (Rhizophora mangle),

and white (Laguncularia racemosa)--occur along the south Atlantic coast, primarily in Florida.
Mangroves are good stabilizers, but they require considerably more time (2 or 3 years) than grasses to
become established. During this time, the plants are susceptible to possible damage from tides, traffic,
and browsing animals. Mangrove seeds, seedlings, or plants are best planted in established cordgrass
stands, which provide stability until the mangroves are established.

Slow-release (e.g., osmocote) or a magnesium-ammonium phosphate fertilizer can be placed in

the planting hole if needed, especially for the larger transplants. Daily watering may be required if
flooding does not occur.

Gulf Coast Marshes. The vegetation found in gulf coast marshes does not substantially differ from
south Atlantic coast marshes. Grasses, primarily saltgrass and gulf cordgrass, are prevalent, while
smooth cordgrass, saltmeadow cordgrass, and black needle rush are also common.

Gulf Cordgrass (Spartina spartinae). Gulf cordgrass is found along the gulf coast from southwest
Louisiana to Texas. It performs well above the mean high water level. It is propagated like saltmeadow
cordgrass, using the same procedure.

Saltgrass (Distichlis spicata) - Saltgrass is generally limited to the more saline, high marshes
along the gulf coast. The plant is usually found in a mixture with saltmeadow cordgrass or black needle
rush, and is rarely the dominant species except in poorly drained areas or in narrow bands. Saltgrass is
more difficult to establish than the cordgrasses and usually is allowed to volunteer into cordgrass
plantings.

Pacific Coast Marshes. Vegetation in marshes along the Pacific coast is more diverse than along the
Atlantic coast.

Pacific cordgrass is found along the central and southern California coasts. Pickleweed, sedges,
arrowgrass, and tufted hair grass are common along the northern Pacific coast.

Pacific Cordgrass (Spartina foliosa). It is similar to smooth cordgrass, but it takes longer to
establish. It dominates below the mean tide level of intertidal marshes. Plants and sprigs should be
inserted by hand in holes made in soft, fine-textured soils. Fertilizers should contain equal quantities of
available nitrogen and phosphate.

Pickleweed (Salicornia spp. ). From mean high water to extreme high tide, various species of
pickleweed can be used upslope of Pacific cordgrass. It will spread both by seeds and vegetatively (by
122
 rhizomes and tillers), but because it is shallow-rooted, it is probably not as useful for stabilization as
Pacific cordgrass. Pickleweed may be easily established by seeding or by transplanted peat-pot
seedlings, and in fact, it often invades disturbed surfaces during the first growing season.

Sedge (Carex lyngbvei). Sedge marshes are usually found in areas such as river deltas where silty soils
exist. They grow above the mean tide level and are not especially salt tolerant. The plant may respond to
nitrogen and phosphorous under deficient conditions. It appears to be one of the best marsh plants available in
the Pacific Northwest.

Tufted Hair Grass (Deschampsia caespitosa). This plant predominates i high marshes subject to flooding
only by higher-high tides. It is a good sediment accumulator and stabilizer once established. It is generally easy
to transplant and quick to establish.

Arrowgrass (Triglochlin maritima). This plant will frequently invade and colonize disturbed marshes,
trapping sediments and debris and helping to create a substrate for other plants. Planting should follow the
method described for sedges.

Great Lakes Marshes. Marshes of the Great Lakes are generally limited in extent, and confined primarily
to the protected shores of bays and inlets of Lakes Huron and Michigan. Establishing fresh water marshes may
not provide as satisfactory a level of erosion prevention as saltwater marshes. The landowner interested in
establishing fresh water marshes should consider the common reed (Phragmites communis), rushes (Scirpus spp.)
such as spike rush, bulrush, and great bulrush, and, in some instances, upland grasses such as reed canarygrass
(Phalaris arundinacea).

Beach and Dune Plants

The protection of the upland portions of sandy shorelines can be accomplished through the creation of
barrier dunes and the stabilization of present dunes. Vegetation used to initiate the building of barrier dunes is
specially adapted to the more severe environment of the beach area (Figure 55). Barrier dune formation can
occur naturally, but it is usually slow and in some areas does not happen. Utilization and proper management of
the natural processes can accelerate the development.

123
 The beach provides a generally harsh environment for plant growth. Plants must tolerate rapid sand
accumulation, flooding, salt spray, sandblasts, wind and water erosion, wide temperature fluctuations, drought,
and low nutrient levels. Plants capable of stabilizing coastal dunes, however, occur in most coastal regions where
there is sufficient rainfall to support plant growth. These regions and several of the most successful species are
discussed below.

Planting specifications for several selected beach grass species are summarized in Table 19.

124
 North Atlantic Region. Extending from the Canadian border to the Virginia capes, American beachgrass
is the dominant dune stabilizing plant in this region; bitter panicum offers promise as a
companion plant.

American Beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata). This species is probably the most widely used for the
initial stabilization of blowing sand because it grows rapidly and can effectively trap sand by the middle of the
first growing season. Once established, it multiplies quickly. It prefers cool weather and plants start growing in
early spring and continue through fall under the most favorable conditions. The grass can be transplanted over a
long planting season with a good chance of survival. American beachgrass is available commercially or may also
be harvested from wild stands. Seedlings are the preferred method of planting. Starting from seed is usually
uneconomical because seed supplies are unreliable and weeds are difficult to control.

Bitter Panicum (Panicum amarum). This grass is indigenous along the Atlantic coast from Connecticut
southward. It is best used as a companion to American beachgrass, especially in those areas where the
beachgrass is subject to severe attack by the disease, soft scale.

South Atlantic Region. This region extends from the Virginia capes to Key West. Sea oats is the
dominant plant; however, both American beachgrass and bitter panicum will successfully establish dunes, when
planted in combination with sea oats, especially in the northern part of the region.

125
 Sea Oats (Uniola paniculata). More persistent than other stabilizing species, sea oats does not provide
much initial protection. It grows slowly, is difficult to propagate, and is not widely available commercially.
However, once established, sea oats provide excellent protection. To provide initial protection, sea oats should
be planted in mixes with American beachgrass and bitter panicum to the Carolinas and with bitter panicum
farther south. As the other grasses thin out, sea oats will spread and dominate the dune.

Saltmeadow Cordgrass (Spartina patens). This plant is more commonly used in marsh plantings (see
prior discussion), but it will frequently invade a beach area and create small dunes, which will support other
vegetation. It is particularly well suited for this use on low, moist sites where periodic salt buildup occurs.

Bermuda Grass (Cynodon dactglon). Although this is not a prominent dune species, it can be used very
effectively in special situations. The coastal hybrid is deep rooting and rapidly establishing and can be used to
revegetate areas where American beachgrass has been killed by insects or disease. Turf hybrids will, when
properly managed, perform well on the dune environment, where they form a more traffic resistant stand than
other types of vegetation.

Gulf Region. The region extends from the gulf coast of Florida to the Mexican border. Sea oats and bitter
panicum are the dominant dune stabilizing species. Other species include railroad vine and saltmeadow
cordgrass. Establishment of sea oats, bitter panicum, and saltmeadow cordgrass should follow prior
recommendations. Local variations exist, and the landowner should consult local agricultural extension agents
and others about differences in technique and management of plantings of these species.

Railroad Vine. (Ipomea pes-caprae). This plant is one of the more prominent pioneer species in this
region. It is not generally planted because it is somewhat less effective in trapping sand than dune grasses. It is,
however, capable of rapidly spreading over foredunes, and transplants of the vine may be included as part of a
grass establishment planting.

North Pacific Region. This region extends from the Canadian border to Monterey, California. European
beachgrass and American dunegrass are the dominant sand stabilizing plants of the region. American beachgrass
may also be applicable in the area.

European Beachgrass (Ammophila arenaria). This plant is inexpensive and used widely in this region.
Although it effectively traps sand, it forms dense stands with little outward spread, causing the resulting dunes to
have steep windward slopes. Another disadvantage is that it will often exclude native species, making it difficult
to establish mixed plantings.

American Dunegrass (Elymus mollis). Although this grass is native to the northwest, it is more difficult
and expensive to propagate than either European or American beachgrass. The grass tends to produce low,
gently sloping dunes, often preferable to those dunes built by European beachgrass.

American dunegrass should be set 12 inches or more deep in moist sand. Satisfactory planting occurs
primarily in the months when the grass is dormant; late November through February in the northern portion of the
region, and not at all in the southern extent. Planting should be limited to temperatures below 55 degrees F.
Planting several stems per hill would be desired; however, due to the expense, a close spacing of 12 inches with
one viable stem makes better use of scarce planting stock. An application of 35 pounds of nitrogen per acre from
a soluble source is recommended to maintain the plants once established.

South Pacific Region. This region extends from Monterey, California, to the Mexican border. While
some of the beach grasses discussed above (e.g. , European beachgrass) are applicable in the northern portions of
126
this region, the dominant plants are forbs such as the Sea Fig (Carpobrotus edulis and C. aequilaterus). These
are effective for sand stabilization but are not good dune builders.

Great Lakes Region. Dune development is mostly confined to the Michigan and Indiana shores of Lake
Michigan; however, the discussion, which follows, is applicable to all the shores of the Great Lakes. American
beachgrass is the dominant species. Native species, especially prairie sandreed, will often invade naturally.
Once the dunes have been stabilized, volunteer or planted species of upland vegetation can be established.
Species of grasses suggested would include reed canarygrass, big bluestem, little bluestem, and switchgrass, all
native to the area. These grasses may be planted from early May to the middle of June at a rate of about 0.5
pounds of seed per 1000 square feet. All require full sun and may be mowed occasionally. Reed canarygrass is
especially useful in wet spots.

Various ground covers may also be planted. The species which may be utilized are best suggested by local
agricultural experts. The same holds true for shrubs and trees.

An additional problem, which landowners in the Great Lakes region have, is the stabilization of bluffs.
Often, structural corrections are required in concert with vegetation. Once the structural stabilization is
accomplished, vegetative cover will aid in preventing erosion, reducing seepage, and slowing runoff.

The type of vegetation, which can be established on bluff slopes, is dependent upon the slope angle.
Slopes steeper than 1 on 1 generally preclude successful vegetation; slopes flatter than 1 on 3 can be planted as a
lawn and maintained in the usual manner. Slopes between 1 on 3 and 1 on 1 can be planted with grasses which
will not be mowed, ground covers, trees and shrubs, or combinations of these three. As mentioned before, local
expertise (e.g., agricultural extension agents) can aid the landowner in selecting suitable species, and in
describing the most practical methods of establishment and maintenance.

PERCHED BEACHES

Perched beaches are constructed by placing sand fill behind a low breakwater or sill. Sills can be
constructed of virtually any material described earlier for fixed breakwaters. Beach material should be chosen in
accordance with guidelines previously given for beach fills. Proper filtering should be provided beneath and
behind the sill to prevent settlement and loss of retained fill. In some cases, navigation markers may be required.

Sheet Piling. Sheet pile sills are similar to bulkheads. Timber sheet piling will generally require filter
cloth backing on the shoreward face to prevent loss of the retained sand backfill through joints in the structure.
This is not generally a problem with steel or aluminum sheet piling. Sheet pile sills also form an abrupt step to
deeper water, which would definitely be hazardous to bathers, particularly children.

The same precautions regarding adequate ground penetration and toe protection for a bulkhead also apply
to a sheet pile sill.

Concrete Boxes. Precast, open concrete boxes (for use in drainage structures) can be placed side by side
and filled with sand to form a sill (Figure 57). During placement, the gaps between adjacent boxes must be
minimized to prevent excessive wave transmission through the structure and to help retain the perched beach.
Filter cloth backing is required and toe protection
should be provided on the offshore side.

127
128
 PROPRIETARY DEVICES AND SPECIALTY MATERIALS

The devices and many materials in this report are not generally available or familiar to local suppliers.
Table 7 covers principal manufacturers that are active nationwide. Inclusion of manufacturers in this directory
does not necessarily represent endorsement or recommendation by the government. In fact, some items listed
herein were not recommended for specific applications in this guidebook. (WARNING! The accuracy of the
following information has not been verified since the original publication of this document.)

Table 20

Erco Blocks Erosion Control Systems, Inc.

Ercomat 3349 Ridgelake Drive
Suite 101-B
Metairie, Louisiana 70002
504/834-5650

Fabric Bags Advance Construction Specialties, Inc.

Advance P. 0. Box 17212
Memphis, Tennessee 38117
901/362-0980

Acrylic Sand Pillows Monsanto Textiles Company

Customer Service Center
P.0. Box 5564, Station B Greenville,
South Carolina 29606
803/242-6700

Dura Bags Erosion Control, Inc.

205 Datura Street
Suite 319
West Palm Beach, Florida 33401
305/655-3651

Fabriform Construction Techniques, Inc.

11900 Shaker Boulevard
Cleveland, Ohio 44120
216/623-0679

Filter Cloth Advance Construction Specialities, Inc.

P.O. Box 17212
Memphis, Tennessee 38117
901/363-0980
(Woven and Nonwoven)

129
 Carthaqe Mills
124 West 66th Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45216
513/242-2740
(Woven)

Celanese Fibers Marketing Company Department CE0504

1211
Avenue of the Americas New York, New York 10036
800/223-9811 (exc. New York, Alaska, Hawaii)
212/764-8224
(Nonwoven)

DuPont Company
Room 38095
Wilmington, Delaware 19898
(Nonwoven)

Menardi-Southern
Division of United States Filter
Soil and Erosion Control Department
Headquarters
3908 Colgate
Houston, Texas 77017
713/643-6513
(Woven and Nonwoven)

Nicolon Corporation
Erosion Control Products
Suite 1990
Peachtree Corners Plaza
Norcross (Atlanta), Georgia 30071
404/447-6272
800/241-9691
(Woven)

Erosion Control Products, Inc.

Route 5
Box 406
Daphne, Alabama 36526
205/626-3510
(Woven and Nonwoven)

130
 Gabions Terra Aqua Corporation
Division of Bekaert Steel Wire Corporation
P. 0. Box 7546
Reno, Nevada 89510
702/329-6262

Maccaferri Gabions, Inc.

P.O. Box 43A
Williamsport, MD 21795
301/223-8700

Gobi Blocks Nicolon Corporation

Gobimat Erosion Control Products
Suite 1990
Peachtree Corners Plaza
Norcross (Atlanta), Georgia 30071
404/447-6272
800/241-9691

Jumbo Blocks Erosion Control Systems, Inc.

Jumbo Ercomats 3349 Ridgelake Drive
Suite 101-B
Metairie, Louisiana 70002
504/834-5650

Lok-Gard Blocks Coastal Research Corporation

1100 Crain Highway, S.W. Glen
Burnie, Maryland 21061
301/761-0584

Longard Tube Edward E. Gillen Company

218 West Becher Street
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53207
414/744-9824

Nami Ring Robert Q. Palmer

5027 Justin Drive, N.W.
Alburquerque, New Mexico 87114

Sandgrabber Sandgrabber, Inc.

3105 Old Kawkawlin Road
Bay City, Michigan 48706
517/686-6601
131
Surgebreaker Great Lakes Environmental Marine, Ltd.
39 South LaSalle Street
Chicago, Illinois 60603
312/332-3377

Terrafix Blocks Erosion Control Products, Inc.

9151 Fairgrounds Road
West Palm Beach, Florida 33411
305/793-5650

Turfblock (Monoslab) Anchor Block Company

P. 0. Box 3360
St. Paul, Minnesota 55165
612/777-8321

Wave-Maze Robert L. Stitt

10732 E. Freer Street
Temple City, California

Z-Wall The Fanwall Corporation

670 Old Connecticut Road
Farmingham, Massachusetts 01701
617/879-3350

132
 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN PROBLEM

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SITE

The site to be considered is a sheltered location within an estuary. The shoreline is a low bluff about 9
feet high. At mean low water (MLW), it is fronted by a 15 ft. wide beach. The Stillwater level is at the toe of the
bluff at mean high water (MHW). The bluff slope is approximately 1:1, and the soil is fine-grained, mostly sand
and silt, with a heavy overgrowth of brush and other plants. The number of trees standing in the water and lying
on the beach is evidence of a long-term and chronic erosion problem. The beach itself consists of fine to coarse
grained material, mostly sand, but with s significant fraction of gravel and cobbles. The offshore bottom slope is
approximately 1 on 33.

WATER LEVELS

The spring tide range and the mean tide level were determined by reference to Tide Tables [US
Department of Commerce (1976)]. Local experience indicated that 2 feet of storm setup was appropriate. The
site profile and water levels are summarized on Figure 91.

133
WAVE CONDITIONS

The fastest-mile wind speed for the site is:

10-year: 65 mph

Fetch lengths at the site were displayed earlier on Figure 17. This is reproduced as figure 92 for the
convenience of the reader.
Fetch Line 1
Length: 2.80 nm x 1.15 = 3.22 mi
2.80 nm x 6080 = 17, 025 ft

Average Depth: 7.2 ft at MLW

10.8 ft at design Stillwater level

Fetch Line 2
Length: 2.10 nm x 1.15 = 2.41 mi
2.10 nm x 6080 = 12,770 ft

Average Depth: 11.6 ft at MLW

15.2 ft at design Stillwater level

Using tables 5 to 9, or equations 5 and 6, find the design wave height and period (10 year return period).
134
135
 Fetch Line 1 with F = 3.2 mi and WS = 65 mph:

Table 6: d = 10 ft; H = 3.0 ft; T= 4.0 sec

Table 7: d = 15 ft; H = 4.0 ft; T= 4.0 sec

Fetch Line 2 with F= 2.4 mi and WS = 65 mph:

Table 6: d = 15 ft; H = 3.5 ft; T= 4.0 sec

Table 7: d = 20 ft; H = 4.0 ft; T= 4.0 sec

Therefore, by interpolating for d = 10.8 ft; H = 3.2 ft; amd T = 4.0 sec.

Fetch line 2 is more critical for design. Therefore, use H= 3.5 ft and T = 4.0 sec.

This value should be checked against the maximum breaking wave at the site or just offshore. (Recall
that Fetch Line 1 crosses a shoal area near cedar point where the depth is approximately 3 feet under the design
Stillwater level. Fetch Line 2, however, was more critical for design purposes). With the design Stillwater
condition, the depth at the bluff toe, ds = 3.2 feet (Figure 90).

From Figure 18 with,

Ds/gT2 = (3.1)/32.2 (4.0)2 = 0.0060,

and m = 0.03, Hb/ds = 0.98

Therefore, Hb = 3.1 x 0.98 = 3.0 ft.

Therefore, for shoreline protection, use a design wave height of 3.0 ft, because that is the maximum that
can occur at the site under design water level conditions. For any offshore structures, such as breakwaters or
perched beach sills, the maximum breaker height should be checked based on design depth at the toe of the
structure.

SELECTION OF DEVICES

Landowner’s Criteria
1. No recreational use of the beach for bathing or fishing is anticipated.
2. The owner eventually hopes to extend an existing dock to deeper water for berthing a pleasure
boat.
3. No structures are planned at eh top of the bluff that would interfere with any shore protection
devices.
4. The shore protection plan should provide about 10 years of protection with minimal maintenance
requirements.

136
Alternatives

No Action Inappropriate. Unacceptable to the landowner. Current erosion

rates represent a considerable financial loss at prevailing real estate
prices.

Relocate Inappropriate. The land is now undeveloped. The owner will build a
retirement home with large setback from the shore. He desires to
stop erosion now.

Bulkhead Appropriate. Equipment access to the job sit presents no problems.

Steps can be added late for access to the dock. Recreational use of the
beach is not a high priority.

Revetment Appropriate. There is sufficient room for a regarded slope.

Breakwaters Inappropriate. Scour at the bluff toe would not be positively prevented.

Groins Inappropriate. There is little sand-sized material in alongshore

transport at the site.

Beach Fill Inappropriate. Fill provides no positive protection against toe scour.
No recreation beach is desired. The plan must have minim maintenance
requirements.

Vegetation Inappropriate. Plantings provide no positive protection to the bluff

toe. Coarse soils are not suitable for plantings.

Infiltration and Inappropriate. Drainage and infiltration are not problems at this site.
Drainage Controls

Slope Flattening Inappropriate. Suitable only in combination with a revetment. Slope

stability is not a basic problem.

137
 PERMIT REQUIREMENTS

Federal, state, and possibly local permits are required for construction in, across, under, or on the banks
of navigable waters of the United States. Federal permits are coordinated by the applicant and the states through
division and district offices of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. The authority for the Corps' permit program is
derived basically from two laws: Section 10 of the River and Harbor Act of 1899 and Section 404 of the Clean
Water Act of 1977, as amended. Section 10 of the 1899 Act requires permits for structures and dredging in
navigable waters of the United States, which are those coastal waters subject to tidal action shoreward of the
mean high water line, and inland waters that have been used, are now used, or may be used in the future for
interstate or foreign commerce. In tidal areas, this includes all land below the mean high water line.

On the Great Lakes, permits are required under this section for construction lakeward of the highwater
mark, the definition of which varies from state to state, and often with the federal definition. Where doubt exists,
an appropriate local state agency or Corps district office can provide assistance.

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act mandates a Corps permit for placement of dredged or fill material in
waters of the United States, which includes navigable waters as under Section 10 permits, as well as tributaries
and wetlands adjacent to navigable waters of the United States. Jurisdiction extends inland to the headwaters of
streams at a point where the average flow is five cubic feet per second. Wetlands are defined as “those areas that
are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and than
under normal conditions do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil
conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas” [U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers (1977b)].

A standard application form (ENG Form 4345) must be obtained from the local Corps district office. The
application must include a description of the proposed construction, including "necessary drawings, sketches, or
plans; the location, purpose, and intended use of the proposed activity; scheduling of the activity; the names and
addresses of adjoining property owners; the location and dimensions of adjacent structures; and the approvals
required by other federal, interstate, state or local agencies for the work, including all approvals received or
denials already made" [U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers (1977b)].

Upon the receipt of the application, a public notice inviting comments on the application is normally
issued. The comment period is generally 30 days, although it may be longer or shorter depending on the
circumstances. Applications are generally coordinated with the appropriate federal, state, and local agencies as
well as adjoining property owners sometimes leading to comments that require modification of the original
proposal. Beyond these possible modifications, if the comments received and the study conducted by the Corps
reveal no overriding public interest or environmental problems, the application would then be approved and a
permit issued. Although variations exist, the process normally requires 75 to 90 days for routine applications
Controversial applications can take considerably longer.

The Corps has adopted a number of conditional general permits on a regional and nationwide basis to
reduce red tape and paperwork. No separate application is required for activities where general permits have
been issued. Applicants should check with the local District Engineer to determine if the proposed work is
covered by a general permit and what conditions may apply.

Additional information pertinent to local areas is available -through Corps of Engineers' district offices or
certain state and local agencies. Permit applications should be initialed early to avoid unnecessary delays later.
138
 OTHER HELP

CORPS OF ENGINEERS OFFICES

Permits are coordinated through district of f ices of the Corps of Engineers. Corps offices are also possible
sources of information on water levels, wave climate, and other physical site conditions. Mail addresses,
office locations, and phone numbers for Corps personnel familiar with coastal processes are given in Table
21. (WARNING! The following information has not been verified since the original publication of this
document)
Table 21
CORPS OF ENGINEERS OFFICES

Address Phone Jurisdiction

U. S. Army Engineering Division, New England 617/894-2400 X-554 Atlantic coast from Maine to the Connecticut-
424 Trapelo Road New York Line
Waltham, Massachusetts 02154

U. S. Army Engineering District, New York 212/264-5174 Atlantic coast of New York and the New
26 Federal Plaza Jersey coast north of Manasquan Inlet
New York, New York 10007

U. S. Army Engineering District, Philadelphia 215/597-4714 Atlantic coast of New Jersey and Delaware
U. S. Custon House from Manasquan Inlet, south to the Delaware-
2nd and Chestnut Street Maryland Line, including Delaware Bay and
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106 the C&D Canal

U. S. Army Engineering District, Baltimore 301/962-2545 Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay shorelines of
P. 0. Box 1715 Maryland
Baltimore, Maryland 21203
Office Location: 31 Hopkins Plaza
Baltimore, Maryland 21201

U. S. Army Engineering District, Norfolk 804/441-3764 Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay shorelines of
803 Front Street Virginia
Norfolk, Virginia 23510

U. S. Army Engineering District, Wilmington 919/343-4778 Atlantic coast and interior bays and sounds
P. 0. Box 1980 of North Carolina
Wilmington, North Carolina 28402
Office Location: 308 Federal Building
Wilmington, North Carolina

U. S. Army Engineering District, Charleston 803/724-4248 Atlantic Coast of South Carolina

P. 0. Box 919
Charleston, South Carolina 29402
Office Location: Federal Building
334 Meeting Street
Charleston, South Carolina 29402

139
Address Phone Jurisdiction

U. S Army Engineering District, Savannah 912/944-5502 Atlantic coast of Georgia

P. 0. Box 889
Savannah, Georgia 31402
Office Location: 200 E Saint Julian Street
Savannah, Georgia 31402

U. S. Army Engineer District, Jacksonville 904/791-2204 Atlantic coast of Florida and Gulf coast of
P. 0. Box 4970 Florida to the St. Marks River
Jacksonville, Florida 32201
Office Location: 400 West Bay Street
Jacksonville, Florida 32202

U. S. Army Engineering District, Mobile 205/690-3482 Gulf Coast of Florida from the St. Marks
P. 0. Box 2288 River west Louisiana-Mississippi line
Mobile, Alabama 36628
Office Location: 109 St. Joseph Street
Mobile, Alabama 36602

U. S. Army Engineering District, New Orleans 504/838-2480 Gulf coast of Louisiana

P. 0. Box 60267
New Orleans, Louisiana 70160
Office Location: Foot of Prytania Street
New Orleans, Louisiana 70160

U.S. Army Engineering District, Galveston 713/764-1211 X -314 Gulf coast of Texas
P.0. Box 1229
Galveston, Texas 77553
Office Location: 110 Essayons Boulevard
400 Barracuda Avenue
Galveston, Texas 77550

U.S. Army Engineering District, Los Angeles 213/688-6400 Pacific coast of CA

P.0. Box 2711 from the Mexican border
Los Angeles, California 90053 North to Cape San Martin
Office Location: 300 North Los Angeles Street
Los Angeles, California 90012

U. S. Army Engineering District, San Francisco 415/556-5370 Pacific coast of CA from

211 Main Street Cape San Martin north to the
San Francisco, California 94105 CA-OR line including
San Francisco Bay

U.S. Army Engineering District, Portland 503/221-6477 Pacific coast of Oregon

P.0. Box 2946
Portland, Oregon 97208
Office Location: Mulnomah Building
319 S.W. Pine
Portland, Oregon 97204

140
Address Phone Jurisdiction

U.S. Army Engineering District, Seattle 206/764-3555 Pacific coast of Washington

P.0. Box C-3755 and Puget Sound
Seattle, Washington 98124
Office Location: 4735 East Marginal Way South
Seattle, Washington

U.S. Army Engineering District, Alaska 907/752-3925 Coast of Alaska

P.0. Box 7002
Anchorage, Alaska 99510
Office Location: Building 21-700
Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska

U. S. Army Engineering Division, Pacific Ocean 808/438-2837 Hawaii and the Pacific
Building 230 Trust Territories
Ft. Shafter, Hawaii 96858

U.S. Army Engineering District, Detroit 313/226-6791 U.S. shorelines of Lakes

P.0. Box 1027 Superior, Huron and
Detroit, Michigan 48231 St. Clair; the Lake Michigan
Office Location: Patrick V. McNamara Building R Shoreline except in IL and
477 Michigan Avenue IN, Lake Erie shoreline of MI
Detroit, Michigan 48226

U. S. Army Engineering District, Chicago 312/353-0789 Lake Michigan shoreline of

219 S. Dearborn Street IL and IN
Chicago, Illinois 60604

U. S. Army Engineering District, Buffalo 716/876-5454 x-2230 U.S. shorelines of Lake

1776 Niagara Street Ontario and Erie except
Buffalo, New York 14207 in Michigan

STATE COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT OFFICES

State coastal zone management offices can also be sources of information and assistance. Table 6
contains addresses and phone numbers of offices for states that operate coastal zone management programs.
(WARNING! The accuracy of the following information has not be verified since the original publication of
this document.)

Table 22

STATE COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM OFFICES

State Office Address and Phone Number

Alabama Coastal Area Board

P. 0. Box 755
Daphne, Alabama 36526
205/626-1880

141
 State Office Address and Phone Number

Alaska Division of Policy Development and

Planning
Office of the Governor
Pouch AP
Juneau, Alaska 99801
907/465-3541

California California Coastal Commission 631

Howard Street, Fourth Floor San Francisco,
California 94105

Connecticut Director, Coastal Area Management

Program Department of Environmental
Protection 71 Capitol Avenue
Hartford, Connecticut 06115
203/566-7404

Delaware Coastal Management Program

Office of Management, Budget, and
Planning
James Townsend Building
Dover, Delaware 19901
302/736-4271

Florida Office of Coastal Zone Management Department of

Environmental Regulation Twin Towers Office
Building 2600 Blair Stone Road
Tallahassee, Florida 32301
904/488-8614

Georgia Coastal Resources Division

Department of Natural Resources
1200 Glynn Avenue
Brunswick, Georgia 31520
912/264-4771

Hawaii Department of Planning and Economic

Development
P. 0. Box 2359
Honolulu, Hawaii 96804
808/548-4609

Illinois Illinois Coastal Zone Management

Program 300 North State Street, Room
1010 Chicago, Illinois 60610
312/795-3126

Indiana State Planning Services Agency

143 West Market Street
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
317/232-1482
142
State Office Address and Phone Number

Louisiana Coastal Management Section

Department of Natural Resources
P. 0. Box 44396
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70804
504/342-7898

Maine State Planning Office

Resource Planning Division
189 State Street
Augusta, Maine 04333
207/289-3155

Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Tidewater Administration
Tawes State Office Building
Annapolis, Maryland 21401
301/269-2784

Massachusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs

100 Cambridge Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02202
617/727-9530

Michigan Department of Natural Resources

Division of Land Use Programs
Stephens T. Mason Building
Lansing, Michigan 48926
517/373-1950

Minnesota State Planning Agency

550 Cedar Street, Room 100 St. Paul,
Minnesota 55155
612/296-2633

Mississippi Bureau of Marine Resources Department of Wildlife

Conservation
P. 0. Box Drawer 959
Long Beach, Mississippi 39560
601/864-4602

New Hampshire Office of State Planning

2-1/2 Beacon Street
Concord, New Hampshire 03301

New Jersey Bureau of Coastal Planning and Development

Dept. of Environmental Protection
P. 0. Box 1889
Trenton, New Jersey 08625
609/292-9762

143
State Office Address and Phone Number

New York Coastal Management Unit

Department of State
162 Washington Street
Albany, New York 12231
518/474-8834

North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community

Development Box 27687
Raleigh, North Carolina 27611
919/733-2293

Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division

of Water 1930 Belcher Drive, Fountain
Square Columbus, Ohio 43224
614/466-6557

Oregon Land Conservation and Development

Commission 1175 Court Street, NE
Salem, Oregon 97310
503/378-4097

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources

Third and Reily Streets
P. 0. Box 1467
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120
717/783-9500

Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Program Washington

County Government Center
Tower Hill Road
South Kingstown, Rhode Island 02879 401/789-3048

South Carolina South Carolina Coastal Council Wildlife and Marine

Resources Department 1116 Bankers Trust Tower
Columbia, South Carolina 29201
803/758-8442

Texas Natural Resources Division

Texas Energy and Natural Resources
Advisory Council
E.R.S. Building
200 East 18th Street
Austin, Texas 78701
512/475-0773

144
State Office Address and Phone Number

Virginia Council on the Environment

Ninth Floor, Ninth Street Office Building Richmond,
Virginia 23219
804/786-4500

Washington Department of Ecology

State of Washington
Olympia, Washington 98504
206/753-4348

Wisconsin Office of Coastal Management

Department of Administration
General Executive Facility 2
101 South Webster Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53702
608/266-3687

145
 OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Hydrographic Charts

Hydrographic charts are available for a small fee for all U.S. coastal waters. These provide information
on water depths and fetch lengths to determine exposure of a site to wave action. Identification of a specific
chart and important information about the available chart series are in the following Nautical Catalogs.
(WARNING! The accuracy of the following information has not been verified since the original publication of
this document.)

Catalog No. 1 - Atlantic and Gulf Coasts

Catalog No. 2 - Pacific Coast and Hawaii
Catalog No. 3 - Alaska
Catalog No. 4 - Great Lakes

For information or mail orders write to:

Distribution Division, C44

National Ocean Survey
Riverdale, Maryland 20840
301/436-6990

Counter sales are also available at that location as well as regional offices of the National Ocean Survey at:

439 West York Street

Norfolk, Virginia 23510 and

1801 Fairview Avenue East

Seattle, Washington 90102

Charts can also be obtained from the U. S. Coast Guard at the

locations below.

3rd District
Governors Island
New York, New York 10004

9th District
1240 East 9th Street
Cleveland, Ohio 44199

Water Levels

Tide Tables are available for all coastal areas of the United States. These contain predictions of high and
low tide elevations and their time of occurrence for one calendar year at primary tide stations. Values of time
146
and elevation differences from the primary station are also given for numerous secondary stations, as are normal
and spring tide ranges for all stations. Tide Tables are available from the Distribution Division, National Ocean
Survey, at the address above.

Lake levels are also available in summary form through the Monthly Bulletin of Lake Levels for the
Great Lakes. This contains the current level for each lake, a six-month projection of future lake levels, and
historic high and low lake levels. The Monthly Bulletin is available, free, from the:

Department of the Army

Detroit District, Corps of Engineers
P. 0. Box 1027
Detroit, Michigan 48231

SUGGESTED READING

Numerous booklets, brochures, and reports, many of them free, are available for further study in
selected topics and subjects presented in this report. Most government reports include either their NTIS
or GPO accession numbers. Use the NTIS number to order documents from:

National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
(703) 605-6000
http://www.ntis.gov/

Use the GPO number to order documents from:

Superintendent of Documents
US Government Printing Office (GPO)
PO Box 371954
Pittsburg, PA 15250-7954
(866) 512-1800 (toll free)
http://www.gpo.gov

Shore and Lake Processes

Beach Processes and Sedimentation, Komar, P., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1976, 464 pp.

Coastal Processes and Beach Erosion, Caldwell, J. M., Reprint 1-67, U. S. Army Coastal Engineering Research
Center, January 1967, (NTIS #652 025).

Ebb and Flow: The Tides of Earth, Air and Water, Defant, A., Ann Arbor Science Library Series, University of
Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1958.

Land Against the Sea, Rayner, A. C., editor, Miscellaneous Paper 4-64, U. S. Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center, May 1964, (NTIS #453 227).

147
Our New Beach: How It Works, Dade County Beach Erosion Control and Hurricane Protection Project, U. S.
Army Engineer District, Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida, 20 pp., (free).

A Primer of Basic Concepts of Lakeshore Processes, Duane, D. B., et. al., Miscellaneous Paper 1-75, U. S. Army
Coastal Engineering Research Center, January 1975, (NTIS# A008 010).

Waves and Beaches: The Dynamics of the Ocean Surface, Bascom, W., Anchor Books, Garden City, New York,
1964.

Shore Protection (General)

Consumer Investment in Shoreline Protection, Braden, P., Michigan Sea Grant Program, 2200 Bonisteel
Boulevard, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109.

Harmony With the Lake: Guide to Bluff Stabilization, Division of Water Resources, Illinois Department of
Transportation, Room 1010, Marina City Office Building, 300 North State Street, Chicago, Illinois 60610, (free).

Help Yourself, North Central Division, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, 536 South Clark Street, Chicago, Illinois
60605, (free).

Low Cost Shore Protection: Final Report on the Shoreline Erosion Control Demonstration Program, Office,
Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D. C., (1981).

The Michigan Demonstration Erosion Control Program in 1976, Brater, E. F., et al., University of Michigan
Coastal Zone Laboratory, Michigan Sea Grant Technical Report No. 55, February 1977.

Shore and Beach, American Shore and Beach Preservation Association, P. 0. Drawer 2087, Wilmington, North
Carolina 28401, (published quarterly; $20 annually).

Shore Erosion Control: A Guide for Waterfront Property Owners in the Chesapeake Bag Area, Baltimore
District, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, P. 0. Box 1715, Baltimore, Maryland 21203, 62 pp., (free).

Shoreline Erosion Control, Philadelphia District, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Attention: NAPEN-P
(SECDP), Custom House, Second and Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106, (free).

Shore Protection Guidelines: National Shoreline Study, office, Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Washington, D.C., August 1971, 59 pp.
Shore Protection Manual (Vols. I, II, and III), U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, 1977, (GPO Stock No. 008-022-00113-1).

Waves Against the Shore: An Erosion Manual for the Great Lakes Region, Lake Michigan Federation, 53 West
Jackson Boulevard, Suite 1710, Chicago, Illinois 60604, January 1978.

What You May Need to Know About Owning Shore Property, Great Lakes Communicator, Volume II, No. 5,
February 1981.

Shore Protection Design

148
AWPI Technical Guidelines for Pressure-Treated Wood (1970).
S2 Bulkheads: Design and Construction - Part I
S3 Bulkheads: Design and Construction - Part II
S4 Bulkheads: Design and Construction - Part III
S5 Bulkheads: Hardware and Fasteners
Pl Timber Piling

American Wood Preservers Institute, 1651 Old Meadow Road, McLean,

Virginia 22101.

Building Salt Marshes Along the Coast of the Continental United States, Woodhouse, W. W., Special Report 4,
U. S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, May 1979, (GPO #088-022-00133-6).

Concrete Shore Protection, Portland Cement Association, 33 West Grand Avenue, Chicago, Illinois, 1955.

Designing for Bank Erosion Control with Vegetation, Knuston, P. L., Reprint 78-2, U. S. Army Coastal
Engineering Research Center, February 1978, (NTIS #AO51 571).

Designing Retaining Walls, Bulkheads and Seawalls of Treated Timber, American Wood Preservers Institute,
(address given above).

Factors Affecting the Durability of Concrete in Coastal Structures, Mather, B., Technical Memorandum 96, U. S.
Army Beach Erosion Board, June 1957, (NTIS #158 634).

How to Build a Floating Scrap Tire Breakwater, Kowalski, T., Ross, N., Marine Advisory Service, University of
Rhode Island, Narragansett Bay Campus, Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882.

Planning Guidelines for Residential and Path Development in Michigan’s Sand Dunes and Wetlands, Michigan
Coastal Zone Management Program, Water Development Services Division, Michigan Department of Natural
Resources, Lansing, Michigan.

Planting Guidelines for Marsh Development and Bank Stabilization, Knuston, P. L., Coastal Engineering
Technical Aid 77-3, U. S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, August 1977, (NTIS #AO46 547).

The Role of Vegetation in Shoreline Management, Great Lakes Basin Commission, P. 0. Box 999, Ann Arbor,
Michigan 48106, (single copies, free).

Permits and Regulations

Permit Program: A- Guide for Applicants, EP 1145-2-1, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D. C.

Regulations to Reduce Coastal Erosion, Wisconsin Coastal Zone Management Program, State Office of Planning
and Energy, GEF II, 101 South Webster Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53702, (free).

149
 GLOSSARY

Accretion - Accumulation of sand or other beach material at a point due to natural action of waves, currents and
wind. A build-up of the beach.

Alongshore - Parallel to and near the shoreline; same as LONGSHORE.

Backhoe - Excavator similar to a power shovel except that the bucket faces the operator and is pulled toward him.

Bar - Fully or partly submerged mound of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material built on the bottom in
shallow water by waves and currents.

Beach - Zone of sand or gravel extending from the low water line to a point landward where either the
topography abruptly changes or permanent vegetation first appears.

Beach Fill - Sand or gravel placed on a beach by mechanical methods.

Beach, Perched - See PERCHED BEACH.

Bluff - High, steep bank at the water’s edge. In common usage, a bank composed primarily of soil. See CLIFF.

Boulders - Large stones with diameters over 10 inches. Larger than COBBLES.

Breaker - A wave as it spills, plunges or collapses on a shore, natural obstruction, or man-made structure.

Breaker Zone - Area offshore where waves break.

Breaking Depth - Stillwater depth where waves break.

Breakwater - Structure aligned parallel to shore, sometimes shore connected, that provides protection from
waves.

Bulkhead - A structure that retains or prevents sliding of land or protects the land from wave damage.

Clay - Extremely fine-grained soil with individual particles less than 0.00015 inches in diameter.

Cliff - High steep bank at the water's edge. In common usage, a bank composed primarily of rock. See BLUFF.

Cobbles - Rounded stones with diameters ranging from 3 to 10 inches. Cobbles are intermediate between
GRAVEL and BOULDERS.

Crest - Upper edge or limit of a shore protection structure.

Cross Section - View of a structure or beach as if it were sliced by a vertical plane. The cross section should
display structure, ground surface, and underlying material.

Culm - Single stem of grass.

Current - Flow of water in a given direction.

150
Current, Longshore - Current in the breaker zone moving essentially parallel to shore and usually caused by
waves breaking at an angle to shore. Also called alongshore current.

Deep Water - Area where surf ace waves are not influenced by the bottom. Generally, a point where the depth is
greater than one-half the surface wavelength.

Diffraction- Progressive reduction in wave height when a wave spreads into the shadow zone behind a barrier
after the wave has passed its end.

Diurnal - Period or cycle lasting approximately one day. A diurnal tide has one high and one low in each cycle.

Downdrift - Direction of alongshore movement of littoral materials.

Dune - Hill, bank, bluff, ridge, or mound of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand.

Duration - Length of time the wind blows in nearly the same direction across a FETCH (generating area).

Ebb Tide - Part of the tidal cycle between high water and the next low. The falling tide.

Equilibrium - State of balance or equality of opposing forces.

Erosion - Wearing away of land by action of natural forces.

Fetch - Area where waves are generated by wind, which has steady direction and speed. Sometimes called
FETCH LENGTH.

Fetch Length - Horizontal direction (in the wind direction) over which a wind generates waves. In sheltered
waters, often the maximum distance that wind can blow across water.

Filter Cloth - Synthetic textile with openings for water to escape,

but which prevents passage of soil particles.

Flood Tide - Part of the tidal cycle between low water and the next high. The rising tide.

Glacial Till - Unstratified glacial drift consisting of unsorted clay, sand, gravel, and boulders, intermingled.

Longshore - Parallel to and near the shoreline: same as ALONGSHORE.

Longshore Transport Rate - Rate of transport of littoral material parallel to shore. Usually expressed in cubic
yards per year.

Low Tide - Minimum elevation reached by each falling tide.

Low Water Datum (LWD) - The elevation of each of the Great Lakes to which are referenced the depths shown
on navigation charts and the authorized depths of navigation projects.
Marsh - Area of soft, wet, or periodically inundated land, generally treeless, and usually characterized by grasses
and other low growth.

151
Mean Higher High Water (MHHW) - Average height of the daily higher high waters over a 19-year period. Only
the higher high water of each pair of high waters of a tidal day is included in the mean.

Mean High Water (MHW) - Average height of the daily high waters over a 19-year period. For semidiurnal or
mixed tides, the two high waters of each tidal day are included in the mean. For diurnal tides, the single daily
high water is used to compute the mean.

Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) - Average height of the daily lower-low waters of a 19-year period. Only the
lower low water of each pair of low waters of a tidal day is included in the mean. Long used as the datum for
Pacific coast navigation charts, it is now gradually being adopted for use across the United States.

Mean Low Water (MLW) - Average height of the low waters over a 19-year period. For semidiurnal and mixed
tides, the two low waters of each tidal day are included in the mean. For a diurnal tide, the one low water
of each tidal day is used in the mean. Mean Low Water has been used as datum for many navigation charts
published by the National Ocean Survey, but it is being phased out in favor of Mean Lower Low Water for all
areas of the United States.

Mean Sea Level - Average height of the sea surface over a 19-year period. Not necessarily equal to MEAN TIDE
LEVEL.

Mean Tide Level - Plane midway between MEAN HIGH WATER and MEAN LOW WATER. Not necessarily
equal to MEAN SEA LEVEL. Also called half-tide level.

Mixed Tide - A tide in which there is a distinct difference in height between successive high and successive low
waters. For mixed tides there are generally two high and two low waters each tidal day. Mixed tides may be
described as intermediate between semidiurnal and diurnal tides.

Module - A structural component, a number of which are joined to make a whole.

Neap Tides - Tides with decreased ranges that occur when the moon is at first or last-quarter- ;4nl in opposition
to each other. The neap range is smaller than the mean range for semidiurnal and mixed tides.

Nearshore - In beach terminology, an indefinite zone extending seaward from the shoreline well beyond the
breaker zone

Nourishment - Process of replenishing a beach either naturally by longshore transport or artificially by delivery
of materials dredged or excavated elsewhere.

Offshore - (1) (Noun) In beach terminology, comparatively flat zone of variable width extending from the breaker
zone to the seaward edge of the Continental Shelf. (2) (Adjective) Direction seaward from the shore.

Overtopping - Passing of water over a structure from wave runup or surge action.

Peat - Residual product produced by partial decomposition of organic matter in marshes and bogs.
Peat Pot (vegetation) - Pot formed from compressed peat and filled either with soil or peat moss in which a plant
or plants, grown from seed, are transplanted without being removed from the pot.

Perched Beach - Beach or fillet of sand retained above the otherwise normal profile level by a submerged dike or
sill.
152
Permeable - Having openings large enough to permit free passage of appreciable quantities of (1) sand or (2)
water.

Pile - Long, heavy section of timber, concrete or metal driven or jetted into the earth or seabed as support or
protection.

Pile, Sheet - Pile with a generally slender, flat cross section driven into the ground or seabed and meshed or
interlocked with like members to form a diaphragm, wall, or bulkhead.

Piling - Group of piles.

Plug - Core containing both plants and underlying soil, usually cut with a cylindrical coring device and
transplanted to a hole cut by the same device.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) - Plastic material (usually black) that forms a resilient coating suitable for protecting
metal from corrosion.

Profile, Beach - Intersection of the ground surface with a vertical plane that may extend from the top of the dune
line to the seaward limit of sand movement.

PVC - See POLYVINYL CHLORIDE.

Ravelling - Progressive deterioration of a revetment under wave action.

Refraction (of water waves) - (1) Process by which direction of a wave moving in shallow water at an angle to
the contours is changed. Part of the wave advancing in shallower water moves more slowly than the part still
advancing in deeper water, causing the wave crest to bend toward alignment with the underwater contours. (2)
Bending of wave crests by currents.

Revetment - Facing of stone, concrete, etc., built to protect a scarp, embankment, or shore structure against
erosion by waves or currents.

Rhizome - Underground stem or root stock. New shoots are usually produced from the tip of the rhizome.

Riprap - Layer, facing, or protective mound of stones randomly placed to prevent erosion, scour, or sloughing of
a structure or embankment; also, the stone so used.

Rubble - (1) Loose, angular, waterworn stones along a beach. (2) Rough, irregular fragments of broken rock or
concrete.

Runup - The rush of water up a structure or beach on breaking of a wave. Amount of runup is the
vertical height above stillwater level that the rush of water reaches.

Sand - Generally, coarse-grained soils having particle diameters between 0.18 and approximately 0.003 inches.
Sands are intermediate between SILT and GRAVEL.

Sandbag - Cloth bag filled with sand or grout and used as a module in a shore protection device.

153
Sand Fillet- Accretion trapped by a groin or other protrusion in the littoral zone.

Scour - Removal of underwater material by waves or currents, especially at the base or toe of a shore structure.

Screw Anchor - Type of metal anchor screwed into the bottom for holding power.

Seawall - Structure separating land and water areas primarily to prevent erosion and other damage by wave
action. See also BULKHEAD.

Semidiurnal Tide - Tide with two high and two low waters in a tidal day, each high and each low approximately
equal in stage.

Setup, Wind - Vertical rise in the Stillwater level on a body of water caused by piling up of water on the shore
due to wind action. Synonymous with wind tide and STORM SURGE. STORM SURGE usually pertains to the
ocean and large bodies of water. Wind setup usually pertains to reservoirs and smaller bodies of water.

Shallow Water - Commonly, water of such a depth that surface waves are noticeably affected by bottom
topography. It is customary to consider water of depths less than one-twentieth the surface wavelength as
shallow water.

Sheet Pile - see PILE, SHEET.

Shoot - Collective term applied to the STEM and leaves, or any growing branch or twig.

Shore - Narrow strip of land in immediate contact with the sea, inc uding the zone between high and low water
lines. A shore of unconsolidated material is usually called a beach.

Shoreline - intersection of a specified plane of water with the shore or beach (e.g., the high water shoreline would
be the intersection of the plane of mean high water with the shore or beach). Line delineating the shoreline on
National Ocean Survey nautical charts and surveys approximates the mean high water line.

Sill - Low offshore barrier structure whose crest is usually submerged, designed to retain sand on its landward
side.

Silt - Generally refers to fine-grained soils having particle diameters between 0.003 and 0.00015 inches.
Intermediate between CLAY and SAND.

Slope - Degree of inclination to the horizontal. Usually expressed as a ratio, such as 1:25 or 1 on 25, indicating
1-unit vertical rise in 25 units of horizontal distance; or in degrees from horizontal.

Specifications - Detailed description of particulars, such as size of stone , quality of materials, contractor
performance, terms, and quality control.
Sprig - Single plant with its roots relatively bare, as pulled apart from a clump and used for transplanting.

Stem - Main axis of a plant, leaf-bearing and flower-bearing, as distinguished from the root-bearing axis.

Stillwater Level - Elevation that the surface of the water would assume if all wave action were absent.

154
Storm Surge - Rise above normal water level on the open coast due to action of wind on the water surface. Storm
surge resulting from a hurricane also includes the rise in level due to atmospheric pressure reduction as well as
that due to wind stress. See SETUP, WIND.

Swell - Wind-generated waves traveling out of their generating area. Swell characteristically exhibits a more
regular and longer period, and has flatter crests than waves within their fetch.

Tidal Ranqe - Difference in height between consecutive high and low or higher high and lower low) waters. The
mean range is the difference in height between mean high water and mean low water. The diurnal range is the
difference in height between mean higher high water and mean lower low water. For diurnal tides, the mean and
diurnal range are identical. For semidiurnal and mixed tides, the spring range is the difference in height between
the high and low waters during the time of spring tides.

Tide - Periodic rising and falling of water resulting from gravitational attraction of the moon, sun and other
astronomical bodies acting upon the rotating earth. Although the accompanying horizontal movement of the
water resulting from the same cause is also sometimes called tide, it is preferable to designate the latter as tidal
current, reserving the name TIDE for vertical movement.

Tide Station - Place at which tide observations are being taken. A primary tide station is a location where
continuous observations are taken over a number of years to obtain basic tidal data for the locality. A secondary
tide station is operated over a short period of time to obtain data for a specific purpose.

Tie Rod - Steel rod used to tie back the top of a bulkhead or seawall. Also, a U-shaped rod used to tie
Sandgrabber blocks together, or a straight rod used to tie Nami Rings together.

Tiller - A plant SHOOT which springs from the root or bottom of the original plant stalk.

Topography - Configuration of a surface, including relief, position of streams, roads, buildings, etc.

Transplant - SHOOT or CULM removed from one location and replanted in another.

Trough of Wave - Lowest part of a waveform between successive crests. Also, that part of a wave below
stillwater level.

Updrift - Direction opposite the predominant movement of littoral materials in longshore transport.

Wake (boat) - Waves generated by the motion of a vessel through water.

Wale - Horizontal beam on a bulkhead used to laterally transfer loads against the structure and hold it in a
straight alignment.

Waterline - Juncture of land and sea. This line migrates, changing with the tide or other fluctuation in water
level. Where waves are present on the beach, this line is also known as the limit of backrush. (Approximately,
the intersection of land with Stillwater level.)
Wave - Ridge, deformation, or undulation of the surface of a liquid.

Wave Climate - Normal seasonal wave regimen along a shoreline.

155
Wave Crest - Highest part of a wave or that part above stillwater level.

Wave Diffraction - See DIFFRACTION.

Wave Direction - Direction from which a wave approaches.

Wave Height - Vertical distance between a crest and the preceding trough.

Wavelength - Horizontal distance between similar points on two successive waves measured perpendicular to the
crest.

Wave Period - Time in which a wave crest traverses a distance equal to one wavelength. Time for two successive
wave crests to pass a fixed point.

Wave Refraction - See REFRACTION (of water waves).

Wave Steepness - Ratio of wave height to wavelength.

Wave Trough - Lowest part of a wave form between successive crests. Also, that part of a wave below that part
of a wave below Stillwater level.

Weep Hole - Hole through a solid revetment, bulkhead, or seawall for relieving pore pressure.

Wind Setup - See SETUP, WIND.

Windward - Direction from which wind is blowing.

Wind Waves - (1) Waves being formed and built up by wind. (2) Loosely, any waves generated by wind.

Wave Direction - Direction from which a wave approaches.

Wave Height - Vertical distance between a crest and the preceding trough.

Wavelenth - Horizontal distance between similar points on two successive waves measured perpendicular to the
crest.

Wave Period - Time in which a wave crest traverses a distance equal to one wavelength. Time for two successive
wave crests to pass a fixed point.

Wave Refraction - See REFRACTION (of water waves).

Wave Steepness - Ratio of wave height to wavelength.

Wave Trough - Lowest part of a wave form between successive crests. Also, that part of a wave below the
Stillwater level.

156
Weep Hole - Hole through a solid revetment, bulkhead, or seawall for relieving pore pressure.

Wind Setup - See SETUP, WIND.

Windward - Direction from which wind is blowing.

Wind Waves - (1) Waves being formed and built up by wind. (2) Loosely, any waves generated by wind.

157
 LITERATURE CITED

American Wood Preservers' Association, "Standard C18-77: Standard for Pressure Treated Material in
Marine Construction", 1977.

American Wood Preservers Institute, "AWPI Technical Guidelines for Pressure Treated Wood - S2
Bulkheads: Design and Construction -Part I", 1970.

Bertram, G. E., "An Experimental Investigation of Protective Filters", Harvard University Publication
267, January 1940.

Davis, A. P., Jr., "Evaluation of Tying Materials for Floating Tire Breakwaters", Marine Technical
Report 54, University of Rhode Island, April 1977.

Giles, M. L. and Eckert, J. W., "Determination of Mooring Load and Transmitted Wave Height for a
Floating Tire Breakwater", CETA 79-4, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, September 1979.

Hall, J. V., Jr., and Jachowski, R. A., "Concrete Block Revetment Near Benedict, Maryland", MP 1-64,
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers,

Coastal Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, January 1964.

Harris, D. L., "Tides and Tidal Datums in the United States", SR 7, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Coastal Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, February 1981.

Hobson, R. D., "Review of Design Elements for Beach Fill Evaluation", TP 77-6, U. S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, June 1977.

Lambe, T. and Whitman, R. W., Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1969.

Mather, B., "Factors Affecting the Durability of Concrete in Coastal Structures", TM-96, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Beach Erosion Board, Washington, D. C., June 1957.

Neill, C. R., "Dynamic Ice Forces on Piers and Piles: An Assessment of Design Guidelines in Light of
Recent Research", Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 3, 1976, pp. 305-341.

Seelig, W., "Estimation of Wave Transmission Coefficients for Overtopping of Impermeable

Breakwaters", CETA 80-7, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Ft.
Belvoir, Virginia, December 1980.
Stoa, P. N., "Revised Wave Runup Curves for Smooth Slopes", CETA 78-2, U. S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, July 1978.

Stoa, P. N., "Wave Runup on Rough Slopes", CETA 79-1, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, Ft. elvoir, Virginia, July 1979.

Thom, H.C.S., "New Distributions of Extreme Winds in the United States", Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, No. ST7, July 1968, pp. 1787-1801.
158
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Plastic Filter Fabric", civil works Guide Specification CW 02215,
Office, Chief of Engineers, Washington, D. C., 1977a.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Regulatory Program of the Corps of Engineers", Federal Register, Vol.
42, No. 138, Washington, D. C., Tuesday, 19 July 1977b.

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Shore Protection Manual", Coastal

Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, 1977c.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Geneva State Park, Ohio, Shore Erosion Control Demonstration
Program, Preconstruction Report", Engineer District, Buffalo, February 1978a.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Pickering Beach, Delaware: Preconstruction Report", Engineer District,
Philadelphia, April 1978b.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Kitts Hummock, Delaware: Preconstruction Report", Engineer District,
Philadelphia, April 1978c.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Help Yourself: A Discussion of Erosion Problems on the Great Lakes
and Alternative Methods of Shore Protection", Engineer Division, North Central, September 1978d.

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Bank Erosion Control with Smooth Cordgrass and Saltmeadow
Cordgrass on the Atlantic Coast", TN-V-2, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia,
March 1980a.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Engineering and Design: Ice Engineering", Engineering Circular 1110-
2-220, Washington, D. C., October 1980b.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Monthly Bulletin of Lake Levels for the Great Lakes", Engineer
District, Detroit, March 1981a.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Method of Determining Adjusted Windspeed, U,, for Wave
Forecasting", CETN-I-5, Coastal Engineering Research Ceneer, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, March 1981b.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Revised Method for Wave Forecasting in Shallow Water", CETN-I-6,
Coastal Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, March 1981c.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Low Cost Shore Protection: Final Report on the Shoreline Erosion
Control Demonstration Program," Office, Chief of Engineers,, Washington, D.C., 1981d.

U. S. Department of Commerce, "Tide Tables: High and Low Water Predictions", NOAA, National
Ocean Survey, Washington, D. C., 1976.

159
U S. Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, "Soil Mechanics, Foundations and Earth Structures,"
NAVFAC DM-7, Washington, D. C., 1971.

United States Steel Corporation, 11 Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual", Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1975.

Watson, L., Machemehl, J. and Barnes, B., "Deterioration of Asbestos Cement Sheet Material in the
Marine Environment", Proceedings of the Coastal Structures 179 Conference, Vol. I., pp. 230-249,
1979.

Weggel, J. R., "Maximum Breaker Height", Journal of the Waterways, Harbors and Coastal Engineering
Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. WW4, Paper 9384, 1972.

Wiegel, R. L., "Waves, Tides, Currents, and Beaches: Glossary of Terms and List of Standard Symbols",
Council on Wave Research, The Engineering Foundation, University of California, 1953.

Winterkorn, H. F., and Fang, H. Y., Foundation Engineering Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York, 1975.

Wortley, C. A., "Ice Engineering Guide for Design and Construction of Small Craft Harbors", Advisory
Report No. WIS-SG-78-417, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1978.

160