Extension 1: For Years 11 12

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EXTENSION 1
FOR YEARS 11 & 12
THIRD EDITION
J.B. FITZPATRICK
BOB AUS
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Copyright © Bernard Fitzpatrick and Bob Aus 2019
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Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following teachers for their reviews:
Jenny Bucco, David Coffey, John Ham ilton, Gareth Thompson, Roger Walter.
Attributions
COVER; Marina Sun/ Shutterstock
NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA): Mathematics Extension I Stage 6 Syllabus 20 17 © NS\-V Education Standards Authority fo r and on behalf of the
Crown in right of the State of New South \Vales, 2017, pp. 375- 6.
J.B. Fitzpatrick
It is interesting to wonder ,vhether J.B. Fitzpatrick ('Bernie') realised in 1983 just how popular
his book New Senior Mathematics would be. That first edition of Ne1v Senior Mathematics was
to remain in print for ahnost 30 years. It has stood the test of time thanks to the quality, rigour
and variety of its questions, its accuracy and its high n1athen1atical standards.
As Fitzpatrick wrote in 1983: 'Mathen1atics, like 1nany other things, is best learnt by doing.
A student begins to appreciate the po,ver of n1athen1atics when he or she has achieved
a 1nastery of basic techniques, not after reading lengthy explanations ... The emphasis
throughout the book is on the understanding of n1athen1atical concepts' (Introduction,
New Senior Mathematics 1984).
f. B. Fitzpatrick passed away in 2008. Fitzpatrick was a respected author, teacher and figurehead
of mathematics education.
Bob Aus
Bob Aus taught in New South Wales high schools for 40 years, retiring in 2007. During that
tin1e Bob taught all courses fro1n Years 7 to 12 up to Level 1 / 4-unit I Extension 2. He has
1narked HSC examination papers and has been involved in the standards setting process
as judge and chief judge for the three Calculus-based courses over four years. He has also
con1pleted review ,vork for the NSW Board of Studies and represented NSW at a ,veek-long
review and standards setting of the upper level course fron1 each state prior to the develop1nent
of the Australian National Curriculu1n for senior students.
Bob spent tilne as Regional Vocational Education Consultant in the North Coast region and
,vas a Mathematics consultant in the Hunter region. When he retired he was Head Teacher
Mathen1atics at Merewether High School and enjoyed teaching an Extension 2 class ,vith
24 students.
Bob's first publication was in 1983 and he has been involved with writing a range of textbooks
and study guides since then, including revising and updating the New Senior Mathematics
series 2nd edition in 2013.
Bob has presented talks on the three Calculus-based courses throughout the state. He has
co-written the Years 6- 9 Mathe1natics syllabus for the Abu Dhabi Education Authority, as
,veil as managing the writing project for support 1naterial for this course. He also ,vrote the
Years 10- 12 syllabus for their Calculus-based course.
This third edition of New Senior Mathematics updates it for the new Stage 6 HSC courses in
NSW to be ilnple1nented in Year 11, 2019.
• ••
Introduction and dedication 111
E ENI
THIRD EDITION
New Senior Mathematics Extension I for Years I I & I 2 is part Student Worked Solutions
of a new edition of the well-known Mathematics series for
The New Senior Mathematics Extension I for Years I I & 12
New South Wales. The series ha.s been updated to address
Student Worked Solutions contains the full y worked solutions for
all requirements of the new Stage 6 syllabus. We have
every second question in New Senior Mathematics Extension I
maintained our focus on mathematical rigour and challenging
for Years I I & 12.
student questions, while providing new opportunities for
students to consolidate their understanding of concepts and
idea.s with the aid of digital resources and activities.
Student Book
The first three chapters of the first student book contain
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revision material that provides the necessary foundation for
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edit ion you'll also find:
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YEAR12
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Features of the third edition Student book/Reader+ V

Introduction and dedication . .... . . . .... .... . . . ... ..... . ........ . iii
YEAR 11
SYLLABUS
REFERENCE
CHAPTER 1 Further work with functions 1 ME-F1.2

1.1 Quadratic inequalities ... . ..... . ...... . ...... . ...... . . . ......... 1
1.2 Rational function inequalities (x in denominator) . ...... . ...... . .. 3
1.3 Inequalities involving absolute value and square roots ... . ...... . ..6
1.4 Circular and simultaneous inequalities .......... . ...... . .........9

Chapter review 1 ... . . . ........ . . . .... .... . . . ... ..... . ......... 12
CHAPTER 2 Polynomials 13 ME-F2.1, 2.2

2.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Division of polynomials and the remainder theorem . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 The factor theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.4 Relationship bet<.veen roots and coefficients . . . ..... ... . ...... 20
2.5 Multiple roots of a polynomial equation ... . . . ..... ... . ...... 24

2.6 Polynomial functions ... . ... ... . . . ... ... . . . ..... ... . ...... 26
Chapter review 2 ... . . . .... .... . . . .... .... . . . ... ..... . ........ . 32
CHAPTER 3 Graphing functions 34 ME-F1 .1, 1.4

3.1 Reciprocal functions ..... . . . .... .... . . . ... ..... . ......... 34
3.2 Square root functions ..... . . . .... .... . . . ... ..... . ........ . 41
3.3 Absolute value functions . . . . .... .... . . . ... ..... . ........ . 51
3.4 Graphing polynomials by adding ordinates ... ..... . ......... 58

3.5 Graphing polynomials by multiplying ordinates ... . ......... 61
3.6 Parametric form of a function or relation . ... ..... . ........ . 66

Chapter review 3 ...... .... ....... .... ....... ... ..... . ......... 70
•
VI New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12
CHAPTER 4 Further trigonometric identities 72 ME-T2
4.1 Sum and difference of two angles . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . . 72
4.2 Double angle formulae ................. . . . ........ . ...... 75
4.3 Half-angle formulae- the t formulae ....................... 78
4.4 Using identities to simplify expressions and prove results . . . . . 80
4.5 Trigonometric products as sums or differences ........ . . . .... 82
4.6 Overview of trigonometric equations ..... . . . ........ . . . .... 85
4. 7 Simple trigonometric equations . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . 89
4.8 Trigonometric equations involving angle formulae ..... . . . .... 91
Chapter review 4........................................ . ...... 93
CHAPTER 5 Inverse functions 94 ME-F1.3/T1

5.1 Inverse functions . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . . 94
5.2 Inverse trigonometric functions .......... . . . ........ . ..... 102
Chapter review 5 ............................ . . . ........ . ..... 111
CHAPTER 6 Permutations and combinations 112 ME-A1

6.1 Fundamental counting principle ......... . . . ........ . ..... 112
6.2 Pigeonhole principle . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . 114
6.3 Permutations ..................................... . ..... 116
6.4 Arrangement of n objects when some are identical..... . ..... 121
6.5 Combinations ... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . 123
6.6 Counting techniques in probability ...... . . . ........ . ..... 130
6.7 Expansion of (1 + x)", Pascal's triangle .... . . . ........ . ..... 138
6.8 More Pascal's triangle expansions . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . 141
6.9 Pascal's triangle relations and the binomial theorem ... . .. . . . 143
Chapter review 6....... . . . ........ . . . ........ . ........ . . . ..... 147
Contents
..
VII
CHAPTER 7 Rates of change and their application 149 ME-C1
7 .1 Rates of change with respect to time .. . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 149
7.2 Velocity and acceleration as rates of change ........ . ........ 151
7 .3 Exponential growth and decay . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 155

7 .4 Harder exponential growth and decay . . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 161
7 .5 Related rates of change ... . . . ........ . . . ........ . ........ 167

Chapter review 7.... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 174
YEAR12
SYLLABUS
REFERENCE
CHAPTER 8 Trigonometric equations 176 ME-T3

8.1 Solving trigonometric equations using the auxiliary angle
method . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 176
8.2 Solving quadratic trigonometric equations ................. 180

8.3 Solving equations using angle formulae, including the t
formulae ............................................... 181
Chapter review 8 ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 185
CHAPTER 9 Proof by mathematical induction 186 ME-P1

9.1 Mathematical induction involving series . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 186
9.2 Proving divisibility by induction ...... . . . ........ . ........ 190

9.3 When induction doesn't work ....... . . . ........ . ........ 193
Chapter review 9 ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 194
...
VIII New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12
CHAPTER 10 Vectors in two dimensions 195 ME-V1
10.1 Introduction to vectors . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . 195
10.2 Vectors in t\vo dimensions ... . . . ........ . . . ........ . ..... 201
10.3 Vectors in component form .. .. . ........ . . . ........ . ..... 206
10.4 Scalar product of vectors ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . 214
10.5 Projections of vectors .......... . ........ . . . ........ . ..... 219
10.6 Vectors in geometric proofs .. .. . ........ . . . ........ . ..... 222
Chapter review 10 . . ........ . . . ....... . . . . ..... . .. . . . ..... . .. . . . 226
CHAPTER 11 Applications of calculus 230 ME-C2/C3

11.1 Volumes of solids of revolution .. . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . 230
11.2 Indefinite integrals and substitution ...... . . . ........ . ..... 240
11.3 Definite integrals and substitution ....... . . . ........ . ..... 243
11.4 Integration of sin2 x and cos 2 x .. . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . 246
11.5 Integrals of the type f f (x)(f(x) )" dx .... ...... ..... . .... . 248
11.6 Integrals involving trigonometric substitution ........ . ..... 250
11. 7 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions .... ... . . . 252
11.8 Integration involving inverse trigonometric functions .. ...... 257
Chapter review 11. ............................................. 261
CHAPTER 12 Differential equations 264 ME-C3.2

12.1 Introduction to differential equations .... . . . ........ . ..... 264
12.2 Direction fields .. ... . . . ........ . . . ........ . . . ..... . .. . . . 270
12.3 Solving differential equations of the form i = f (x) ... . ..... 277
12.4 Solving differential equations of the form i = g(y) ... . .. . . . 282
12.5 Solving differential equations of the form i = f (x)g(y)

using separation of variables .. ....... .... ...... ..... ...... 287
12.6 Modelling with first-order differential equations . ..... . .. . . . 293
Chapter review 12 ..... . . . . . . . . . . .. ............ . . . . . . . . . . 305
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Contents IX
CHAPTER 13 Motion, forces and projectiles 310 ME-V1.3
13.1 Problems involving displacement and velocity ..... . .. . . . ... 310
13.2 Problems involving forces . .. . ........ . .......... . ........ 314

13.3 Projectile motion ........ . . . ........ . . . ........ . ........ 321
Chapter review 13 . . ... . .. . . .. . . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... . .. 333
CHAPTER 14 The binomial distribution 335 ME-S1

14.1 Bernoulli trials .. . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 335
14.2 Binomial distribution ........................ . .. . .. 336

14.3 Mean and variance of the binomial distribution .... ...... ... 343
14.4 Normal approximation for the sample proportion .. ... . . . ... 346
Chapter review 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 5
Summary .................................................. 357
Mathematics Extension 1 course outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Glossary ................................................... 442
x New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12

1.1 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
Here are some of the 1nain properties of inequalities. In particular, you should note the operations that reverse the
inequality sign.
• Adding or subtracting the san1e nu1nber from both sides does not alter an inequality.
• Multiplication by a positive nun1ber does not alter the direction of the inequality.
• Multiplying both sides of an inequality by a negative nu1nber reverses the direction of the inequality:
e.g. 3 > 2 but -6 < -4 after n1ultiplying by -2.
• Taking the reciprocal of both sides of an inequality reverses its direction when both sides have the
same sign, but not if the signs are different:
e.g. 5 < 7 but ~ > }
3>-4 and l > - l
3 4
It is interesting to prove this result, as follo\vs:
Let a > b, where a, b have the same sign. Let a> b, \Vhere a, b have different signs.
Divide both sides by ab, which 1nust be positive Divide both sides by ab, \Vhich 1nust be negative
as a, b have the same sign: as a, b have different signs:
:b > :b :b < :b (inequality changes)
l >l l< l
b a b a
. l <l · l>l
a b a b
• Squaring both sides of an inequality produces a positive nu1nber on both sides, so the direction of the
inequality a 2 S b2 depends on \Vhich oflal and lbl is larger.
2 2
Thus, if a and bare positive and a > b then a > b (i.e. you can square both sides of an inequality without
changing direction if both sides are kno\vn to be positive).
This can be proved as follows:
Let a > b and a, b both be positive.
2
Multiply the original inequality by a, which is positive: a >ab
2
Multiply the original inequality by b, which is positive: ab> b
2 2
Link the t\vo results together: a >ab> b
. a2 > b2
• Square root ofboth sides of an inequality is only defined if both sides of the inequality are non-negative.
The direction of the inequality does not change (i.e. if a > b then ✓a> ./b, provided a is positive and b is
positive or zero).
So1ne 1nethods for solving harder inequalities \vill no\v be looked at.
Chapter 1 Further work with functions 1

YEAR 11
Quadratic inequalities
Example 1
2
Solve x - 4x > 0.
Solution
To solve a quadratic inequality you 1nust not silnply factorise it like a quadratic equation, as this is ,vrong:
x(x-4)>0
x>O,x-4>0
x>0,x>4
If you now substitute any negative number for x in the origin al inequality, you will see that it is a solution,
so x > 0, x > 4 1nust not be the complete answer. Similarly, x = 1 is not a solution even though it is included in
x > 0, x > 4, so this method 1nust be ,vrong. What has happened? Where is th e error?
The answer is that for x(x-4) > 0 to be true (Le. for the product of two factors to be positive), both x and
x - 4 n1ust be positive or both factors 1nust be negative.
The solution can proceed as follows:
x(x-4)>0
x>O and x-4>0 or x<O and x-4 <0
x>O and x>4 x<O and x<4
For both x > 0 and x > 4 to be true: For both x < 0 and x < 4 to be true:
x>4 x<O
Hence the correct solution is x < 0, x > 4 (which is read as 'x < 0 or x > 4').
Alternatively, a graphical method can be used:
2
• Sketch the parabola y = x - 4x
(concave up, cuts the x-axis at O and 4).
• Identify the x values for which the parabola is
above the x-axis (because you are looking for the places
,vhere y > O). These values are the solution. 0 X
The graph sho,vs that the solution is x < 0 or x > 4.
The graphical n1ethod in Example 1 has the advantage of providing a visual picture. It is also an easy n1ethod for
higher-degree inequalities.
Polynomial inequalities
• Use the factored fonn of the polynomial to sketch the graph of the function.
• Use the graph to identify the x values for ,vhich the graph is above (or below) the x-axis (depending on the
inequality). These values are the solution.
• If the inequality is< or>, be careful to include the values ,vhere the graph cuts or touches the x-axis.
)'
Example 2
2 y = x 1(x - 2)(x+ I)
Solve x (x- 2)(x + 1) > 0.
Solution
Sketchy= x2(x - 2)(x + 1), noting the double zero at x = 0
(a turning point on the x-axis), and zeros at x = 2 and x = - 1. - 1 0 X
Find ,vhere the graph is on or above the x-axis. The solution is

x<-l, x=O,x>2.
2 New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12

YEAR 11
EXPLORING FURTHER
Quadratic inequalities
Use tech nology to solve quadratic inequalities graphically.
EXERCISE 1.1 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

For questions 1 to 11 , solve the following inequalities.
1 x(x- 1) <0 2 x 2 -2x-15<0 2

3 4x - 12x + l0>0 4 x(x-1)<6
2 ,
5 (x- l )(x + 3)(x-2) <0 6 -3x + 10x + 8<0 7 x-(x- 1)<0 8 (2-x)(x-S)(x + 1) > 0
9 22x - 5 (2x) + 4 < 0 11 l-x<2x + l<x + 4
1.2 RATIONAL FUNCTION INEQUALITIES (x IN DENOMINATOR)
Example 3
Solve 1 > - 1.
x- 2
Solution
There are t\vo iinportant things to note here:
1
• x -:t. 2, as the function f (x) = does not exist where x = 2
x- 2
• if you n1ultiply both sides by (x- 2), you don't kI10,v ,vhether (x- 2) is positive or negative, so you don't
kI1ow whether to reverse the m equality or not.
There are several possible methods to solve an inequality like this (see below). You should n1em orise the one
or t\vo 1nethods that you find easiest an d 1nost useful, but you should be a,vare of the other 1nethods too.
Method l (algebraic method requiring consideration of all possible cases)

1 >- 1
x- 2-
If x > 2, 1nultiply by (x - 2), which is positive: If x < 2, m ultiply by (x - 2), which is negative:
1 > -(x- 2) 1 < -(x - 2) (note chan ge of inequality)
1 >-x + 2 1 <-x + 2
- 1 >-x -1 <-x
l<x (m ultiplying by-1) l>x (multiplying by -1)
x>l x<l
Both x > 2 and x > 1 n1ust be true. Both x < 2 and x < 1 n1ust be true.
This requires x > 2. This requires x < 1.
Thus the complete solu tion is x > 2, x < 1.
Method 2 (algebraic n1ethod avoiding the need to consider different cases)

1 >- 1 Note that x -:t. 2.
x- 2-
Multiply both sides by (x - 2) 2. which is known to be positive (so the inequality does not change):
X - 2 > - (X - 2) 2
X - 2 > -x2 + 4x - 4
x 2 -3x + 2 > 0

YEAR 11
You can now solve this quadratic inequality using the graphical 1nethod )'
(as sho\vn in Exa1nple 1).

The graph (at right) is on or above the x -axis for x < 1, x > 2. However, x -:I: 2,
so the solution is x < 1, x > 2.
y=x1 - 3x+2
Method 3 (variation on Method 2, producing an inequality in factorised fonn)
1 > - 1 Note that x -:I: 2. 0 I 2 X
x- 2-
Make the right-hand side becon1e zero, then si1nplify the resulting left-hand side:
l + 1> 0
x-2
l +(x-2 ) > O
x-2 -
x-l>O
x-2 -
Multiply both sides by (x- 2)2:
(x-l)(x-2) >0
This is the factorised forn1 of the quadratic inequality obtained in Method 2. Fro1n this point on, the solution
is identical to Method 2.
Method 4 (graphical method) y
1 >-1
x- 2-
Sketch a graph of y
1
= x- 2 : it is a hyperbola with vertical asyn1ptote y= - I
x- 2
at x =2 and horizontal asyn1ptote at the x -axis. 0

Also graph the horizontal line y =-1. y= _, _, X
Use the graph to find the x values for which the hyperbola is on or above
the horizontal line y = - 1. You can see that this happens for all x values
fron1 point A back to the left, including point A, and for all
x values to the right of the asyinptote.
1
To find the x-coordinate of the point A, solve = - 1: the solution is x = 1. Thus the solution is x < 1, x > 2.
x- 2
Method 5 (like the graphical method, but \Vithout drawing the graph)
1 >-1
x- 2-
List all the x values that are excluded because they 1nake the denon1inator beco1ne zero:
x -:I: 2 (the vertical asyn1ptote)
Solve the inequality's corresponding equation:
1
--= - 1
x- 2
1 =-x + 2
1
x= 1 This is the x-coordinate of the point of intersection of y = and y = -1.
x- 2
The x values found by these two steps are 'critical values: to be n1arked ◄•--<l>----<---1---1-_,,
,>--_92>----+I-•
on a number line. Use open circles to mark the excluded (asymptotic) -3 -2 -1 o 1 2 3
values. If the inequality is< or>, use open circles to mark the x values
fron1 solving the equation; if the inequality is <or>, use filled circles.

YEAR 11
Now choose representative x values from each section of the nu1nber line and test to see whether the x values
satisfy the original inequality:
,,.,esx=
t O: 1 > 11
Is(0- ves
2) _ - . "
1
Test x = 1 ~: Is 1i -2 -> - 11. No
2
This finds \Vhere the graph of y = 1 is above the line y = -1.
Test x= 3: 1 > 11
Is (3-2) ves 2
- - . " Thus the solution is x < 1, x > 2. x -
Example 4
1 1
Solve 2
> 2
.
X -X X - 1
Solution
Using Method 3 (fro1n Example 3): Using Method 5 (from Example 3 ):
1 1 x;c0,1,-1
- - - > - - - - -, sox;cO, 1,-1
x(x-1) (x- l)(x+l) 1 1 2 2
Solve 2 - x - 1= x - x
:
1 X -X x2 - 1
1 >0 x= l
x(x - 1) (x - l )(x + 1)
Critical values are 0, 1, - 1; all must be not included
(x+l)-x >O
(i.e. open circles on nun1ber line)
x(x - l )(x + 1)
• I (jl (jl (jl I •
1 >0 -2 _, 0 I 2
x(x - l )(x + 1)
Testx=-2:
2
Multiply by x (x- 1)2(x+ 1)2: I 1 1 1 No
x(x- l )(x+ 1) > 0 s ((-2) 2 -(-2)) > ((-2) 2 - 1).
)' Testx= -t:
I 1 1 1 Yes
s (<-~>2-(-~)) > (<-~>2-1).
Testx = t:
X
I 1 1 1 No
s ((~)2 -(~)) > ((1)2-1).
The graph is above the x-axis for -1 < x < 0, x > 1, Testx=2:
which is the required solution. I 1 1 1 Yes
2
s ((2)2-(2)) > ((2) - 1).
The solution is - 1 < x < 0, x > 1.
EXERCISE 1.2 RATIONAL FUNCTION INEQUALITIES (x IN DENOMINATOR)
1 When asked to solve x ~ < ~, four students began their solutions as follows:
1 ,
StudentA: 4<x-l Student B: 4(x- l )<(x- l )"
Student C: x- 1 > 2 Student D: 4(x - 1) < (x - 1)2 noting that x ;c 1

2 -
(a) Which student has started their solution correctly?
(b) Explain the errors n1ade by the other students.

YEAR 11
For questions 2 to 11 , solve the following inequalities.
4 4x-3 < 3 2 >-1

2 x-3>0 3 x-2 > - 2 5
x+l x +3 2x + l - 1-x
1
6 2x-3 + 2 <O
X
7 <-1 8 7 >- 1 9 <0
4x-5 (x - l )(x - 3) - (3-x)(x+3) 2
x - 1
10 2x-4 > x+2 y

x+3 2x+6
11 (a) Show that f (x ) = 2
x is an odd function.
X - 4
(b) Copy and con1plete the graph of y = 2
x (as shown at right). 0 2 X
-4 '
!. X
(c) Hence solve 2x <
X - 4
1.3 INEQUALITIES INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE AND SQUARE ROOTS
Example 5
Solve lx-21<;.
Solution
Fron1 the definition of absolute value, you know that Ix - 21is sin1ply
equal to x - 2 where x > 2, but it is equal to -(x - 2) ,vhere x < 2.
Using graphical method (Method 4 fron1 Exa1nple 3):
Graphy= lx - 2land y= ;.
Note that the 'V'-shaped absolute value graph consists of the 2 X
y =0.Sx
ray y = 2 - x for x < 2 an d the ray y = x - 2 for x > 2.
The solution of the inequality Ix - 21< ; is shown on the graph where the 'V' -shaped absolute value graph is
below the straight line y = ; . You need to find the x-coordinates of the points of intersection A and B.
• At A, y = 2 - x and y = ; intersect. Solving these: x = j

• At B, y = x - 2 and y = ; intersect. Solving these: x = 4
Thus the solution is: j<x<4

Using analytical method (Method l fro111 Example 3):
For x > 2: x - 2< E For x < 2: 2-x< -X
2 2
.:!. <2 2 < 3x
2 2
x<4 x>4
3
Both x > 2 and x < 4 1nust be true. Both x < 2 and x > j n1ust be true.
: . 2 <x<4 :. j <x<2
Thus the con1plete solution is j < x < 4.

YEAR 11
Example 6
Solve lx-41+1x + 21> 7.
Solution
Although it is possible to solve this analytically, a graphical approach is easier.
• First sketch y= Ix - 41and y = Ix + 21on the same axes, writing the equations of their rays.
Ren1ember that y = lx-41is made up of the ray y = x - 4 (\vith positive gradient) and y = 4 - x.
Siinilarly, y = Ix+ 21is made up of y = x + 2 and y = -x - 2.
Note that the graphs have the bases of their 'V' -shapes at x = 4 and x = -2.
Next, sketch y= Ix - 41+ Ix + 21by detern1ining the equations of each of its three parts:
• For x < -2, find the equation by adding the ordinates (y values) that apply. Over this domain the
two rays that apply are y = -x- 2 and y = 4-x, so the equation is y = (-x- 2) + (4-x), i.e.
y = -2x + 2. This can easily be sketched. At x = -2, y = -2(-2) + 2 = 6, so the ray starts at (-2,6) and is
drawn back to the left with a gradient of -2 (\vhich is steeper than the existing rays on the diagram).
• For -2 < x< 4, the two rays that apply are y = -x- 2 and y = x - 4, so the equation is
y = (-x- 2) + (x- 4), i.e. y = 6. Add this horizontal interval to the graph.
• For x > 4, the hvo rays that apply are y = x + 2 and y = x - 4, so the equation is y = (x + 2) + (x - 4),
i.e. y = 2x - 2.
Draw this ray on the graph. It starts at (4, 6) and proceeds to the right with a gradient of 2.
You have now sketched the 'trough' -shaped graph of y = Ix - 41+ Ix + 21and found the equations of each of its
three parts.
• Draw the horizontal line y = 7 on the graph and label points A and B where y = Ix - 41+ Ix+ 21and
y = 7 intersect.
)'
y=(4- x)+(- x - 2) y= (K - 4)+(x+2)

y=- 2x+ 2 y= 2x- 2
·- • • .
- ---· 2
•
y= 4 - x '"' ....
•• A 7 y=7
--- B
-- y=x+
•
• 6 - -
••
. •.
• •
-- --
y= (4- x) + (x+ 2)
•
-
y=6
- -
• . --- -
• • 4
•
.• r= - x - 2
-- -- •
-- -
• •
•
••
---2 - •
•
•
••
- --...
y -
=x - 4
. --- -- -
•
• . ----
• • •
•• •
•
-2 0 4 X
To solve lx - 4l+ lx+ 21> 7, you need to find the x values for which the graph is above the horizontal line y = 7,
which means you need to find the x-coordinates of A and B.
• To find A, solve siinultaneously y = -2x + 2 and y = 7: x = - ~
• To find B, solve sin1ultaneously y = 2x - 2 and y = 7: x = ~
Hence the solution is x < - ~, x > ~.

YEAR 11
Inequalities involving square roots
Example 7
(a) Sketchy = ✓1 - x 2 and state the don1ain of this function.
(b) On the san1e diagran1 sketch y= Ix -11. (c) Hence, or otherwise, solve Ix - 11> .J1 - x 2 •
(d) Solve x-1 > ✓l -x 2 •
y
Solution
(a) The sketch is shown at right. (b) , ,
'' ,
The don1ain is - 1 < x < 1. '' ,,
'' r=lx- ~ ,'
'' ' ,,
~
.1_'1<--
' , ,'
' ,
'' , ,
'' ,
' ,,
' ,
-I
0 I X
(c) To solve Ix - 11> ✓1- x 2 you need to state the x values for which the 'V' -shaped absolute graph is on
or above the semicircle. The graphs intersect at x = 0 and x = 1. Also ren1ember the domain from (a),
i.e. that the only applicable x values are between -1 and 1. Thus the solution is -1 < x < 0, x = 1.
Alternatively:
In this inequality, both sides are known to be non-negative
(as ✓1 - x 2 means the positive square root), so you can square y=x' - x
both sides and know that the inequality ,viii not change.
2
2
(lx- 11)2 > (./1 -x )
x2-2x + l>l-x2
2x2 -2x>O
x 2 -x>O
-I 0 I X
2
Graphing y = x - x:
The parabola is on or above the x-axis for x < 0, x > 1.
But the don1ain is restricted to - 1 < x < 1, so the solution
is-1 <x<O,x = 1.
(d) Graphing y = ✓l -x and y = x- 1:

2 y
The only point of intersection is at x = 1. , ,

,
You no,v find the x values for ,vhich the straight line is on y=x - 1 , , '
, ,
or above the semicircle, keeping in mind that x values I ,
, ,
must be between - 1 and 1. y=JI - x' , ,
, ,
,
Thus the solution is x = 1.
-I
0 ,, I X
, ,,
,
-I ,
, ,,
, ,,
,

YEAR 11
EXERCISE 1.3 INEQUALITIES INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE AND SQUARE ROOTS
1
1 R <3 (Hint: The deno1ninator is known to be non-negative.)
2 (a) On the saine axes sketchy= 1 - lxl and y = 3x. (b) Hence solve lxl + 3x > 1.
3 (a) On the saine axes sketchy= Ix - 21ai1d y = 2x. (b) Hence solve lx-21< 2x.
4 Solve :x?- - lxl > 0.
5 (a) On the saine axes sketchy= Ix - 21md y = .!._ (b) Hence solve Ix - 21> .!._
X X
6 Solve x < 1. (Note: This looks like a standard problem, but in fact requires son1e malysis, depending on
x+ 1
which method you use.)
7 Solve ix-:l > 1. (Hint: l2x + 11is known to be non-negative.)
8 Solve Ix+ 11- lx- 21> 2.

9 (a) On the sa111e axes sketchy= Ix + 11md y = Ix-S I. (b) Hence graph y = Ix+ 11+ Ix-S I.
(c) Solve lx+ll+ lx-51> 7. (d) Solve Ix+ 11+ Ix -SI= 6.
1.4 CIRCULAR AND SIMULTANEOUS INEQUALITIES
A circle divides the number plane into two regions, a finite region called its interior md ai1 infinite region called its
exterior, as \veil as the set of points that n1ake up the circle.
A parabola, cubic, quartic or hyperbola curve divides the nu1nber plai1e into hvo infinite regions, as well as the set of
points that 1nake up the curve.
Points inside and outside a circle
A circle divides the number plane into three sets of points: the sets of points on the circle, inside the circle
ai1d outside the circle. The set of points on a circle of centre C(h,k) md radius r is given by the equation
(x-h)2 + (y-k) 2 = r2.
A point P(x, y) lies on this circle if CP = r.
If CP < r, the point Pis inside the circle. If CP > r, the point Pis outside the circle.
)' )'
, , ,- - - - 1'~<.y) ,,
... -- - -, , P(x,y)
, ,
,
I Ci] B\j c .dB
'' (h, k)
'' ( h, k)
,' ,'
'
0
'
--- - .. ,
X 0 -.. - - .. , X
2 2 2
The graph of (x - h) + (y- k) < r2 gives the The graph of (x - h)2 + (y - k) > r2 gives the
interior of the circle. exterior of the circle.
Regions involving simultaneous inequalities
Example 8
For the circle with centre (O, 0) and radius 3 units, sketch the region of the Cartesian plme that includes
all points on or inside the circle that are also:
(a) to the left of the line x = 2 (b) on or above the line x + y = 3.
In each case give the inequalities that define the region.

YEAR 11
Solution
, 2
(a) y (b) )' x- + y <9,x+y>3
3 3
-3 0 ,2 X -3 0 3 X
'
-3 -3
Example 9
Sketch the region defined by y > x2 and y < 2x + 3. Describe this region in words.
Solution
To find the points of intersection, solve si1nultan eously )' )'
the equations y = x2 and y = 2x + 3.

2
This gives: x =2x + 3 ys 2x + 3
2 3
X -2x-3=0
Factorise: (x + l )(x-3) =0 X
0 X
Solve: x=-1, 3 2
Substitute into y = 2x + 3: x = -1, y = l ; x = 3, y = 9 )'

(3,9)
Hence the points of intersection are (-1, 1) and (3, 9).
The shaded region is the points on and above the parabola
y = x2 that are also on or belo,v the line y = 2x + 3.
Example 10
2
Describe the region of the x-y plane whose points satisfy the inequalities y < 2 + x - x and y + 2x < 2.
Solution
2
The graph of y =2 + x - x can be obtained by con1pleting a table of values and then plotting points.
It can also be obtained by co1npleting the square for x and then graphing accordin g the shape and
2 2 2
properties of y = x : 2 + x - x = 2 - ( x - x)
= 2 + ! - (x 2 - X + ! )
2
=2¼ - (x - ½)
Hence you can graph y = 2 ! - (x - 1)2, which is the graph of y = x turned

2 )'
, '
upside down, n1oved 0.5 units to the right an d 1noved 2.25 units up: (0)2), \
2
y < 2 + x - x is the region belo,v this curve. ' ''
,o '
y + 2x < 2 is the region on or below the line y + 2x =2. • X
'' '
'
As shown in the diagram , the required region is the region on or below
2
the lin e y + 2x = 2 that is contained between the 'anns' of y = 2 + x- x • '' '
'
'

YEAR 11
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Simultaneous inequalities
Use technology to solve simultaneous inequalities graphi cally.
EXERCISE 1.4 CIRCULAR AND SIMULTANEOUS INEQUALITIES
1 Sketch the region defined by each inequality.

2 2 2 2
(a) x + y > 16 (b) x + y < 4
2
2 Which diagra1n shows the region satisfying y < 1 - x and y > lxl - 1?
A r B r C r D
I
X X X X
3 Sketch the region defined by each inequality.

2
(a) (x + 3)2 + y < 1 (b) y < x2 + 1 (c) y>9-x
2
(d) y> lx l (e) y<2x + 4 (fl y< l2x+41

4 Sketch the region defined by the given inequalities.
2 2
(a) x +y <1,x>O,y>O (b) (x-1)2+(y-1)2< 1, x>0, y >0
2
(c) y<4-x ,y >O (d) y< lx l,y> O, 1 <x<2
~ ~ +/ <4,y>x + 2 ffl y>~ -~x +y<2
(g) y > Ix - 21, y > 3 (h) y < 1 - x 2, y > 0
(i) x 2 +y2 <1,y<2x,x>O 0) (x-1)2+y2 > 1,x>O,y< l
2
5 Which graph represents the region defined by (x - 3) + (y + 4)2 < 25?
A Y B r C .---y D y
0 0 8 8
6 X X
-6
-8 -8 -6--~ Q X 0 6 X
6 Sketch the region of the Cartesian plane whose boundary consists of:
(a) the curve y = x2, the ordinates at x = 1 and x = 2 and the x-axis
(b) the lines y = 1 and y = 3 and the circle with centre (O, 2) and radius 2 units
(c) the circle (x - 3)2 + (y - 4)2 = 25 and the y -axis
2
(d) the arc of the parabola y = 4 - x bet\veen x = 2 and x = -2 and the x-axis
(e) the graph of y =Ix - 11, the x-axis and the y-axis
2 2
(f) the circle x + y = 36 and the lines y = 6 and x = 6
(g) the circle centred at (-2, O), radius 2 units, and the circle centred at (-2, O), radius 1 unit
(h) the parabola y = x 2 - 2 and the line y = x
(i) the curve y = ✓ x , ✓e y -axis and the line y = 2
0) the semicircle y = 1- x 2 and the x-axis.

YEAR 11
7 For the shaded region in the diagran1, state whether each staten1ent is correct or incorrect.
2 2
(a) The shaded region is defined by y < lx l and x + y < 4.
(b) The shaded region is the part of the interior of the circle of centre (O, O) and (- 2,2)
radius 2 that is below the lines given by y = Ix 1-

2 2
(c) The shaded region is defined by y > lx l and x + y < 4. -2 0 2 X
(d) The shaded region is the part of the circle \Vith centre (O, O) and radius 2,
and its interior, that is on or belo\v the lines given by y = lx l. -2
CHAPTER REVIEW 1
y
1 The diagra1n shows the graphs of y = Ix+ 21and y = ✓4 - x 2
• r= lx+2I
The solution of ✓4 -x 2 < Ix+ 21 is: 2
A O<x<2
B -2<x<O y =J4 - x'
C x=-2, 0 <x<2
D x>O -2 0 2 X
2 Solve the following inequalities.

(a) 2 >1 (b) 1 <.±. ( ) 1 > 1
1-x x +3 - x c lx-11 lx+ll
(e) 4x <1 (f) x <0 (g) lx -ll+ lx +3l >6
2
(h) x < l2x-ll
x 2 -x-6 x-1
3 Sketch the region of the Cartesian plane bounded by curves y = ! ,x = 1, x = 3 and the x-axis.
2
4 Sketch the region of the Cartesian plane that satisfies y > x - 1 and y < 1 - lx l.
2 2
5 Sketch the region of the Cartesian plane bounded by the curves y > x - 4 and y < 4 - x •
6 Show that the straight lines 2x+ y = 20 and x + y = 14 intersect at (6, 8). Hence sketch the region of the
Cartesian plane for \Vhich y > 20 - 2x, y < 14 - x and y > 0 are all true.
7 Sketch the region in the number plane defined by (x - 1) 2 + (y- 1) 2 < 1 and x > 1.
2
8 Sketch the region of the Cartesian plane bounded by the curves y = x - 4 and y = lx l + 1.

2.1 POLYNOMIALS
A real polynonlial P(x) is an algebraic expression of the forn1 P(x) =a,/!'+ a11 _ 1x1•- 1 + ... + a 1x + a0 , ,vhere n, n - I, ...
are all positive integers and a., a11 _ 1, ••• are the coefficients, which for convenience ,viii usually be chosen as real integers.
The tern1 a11x'' is the leading term. If a11 * 0, the polyno1nial is said to be of then-th degree, or 'degree n'.
5 4 2
e.g. P(x) = 4x - 2x + x + 5x - 6 is a polynomial of degree 5.
A real polyno1nial P(x) is defined for all real x and is a continuous and differentiable function of x.
P(x) = 0 is a polynon1ial equation of degree n. Real nu1nbers x that satisfy this polynon1ial equation are called the
real roots of the equation or the real zeros of the corresponding polynon1ial.
In the Mathematics Advanced course (see New Senior Mathematics Advanced for Years 11 & 12) you have already
2
investigated the roots of the quadratic equation ax + bx + c = 0 and found that there are at 1nost two real roots, but
there n1ay be only one or none.
Similarly, any polynon1ial equation a,.x" + a11 _ 1x"- 1 + ... + a 1x + a0 = 0 will have at n1ost n real roots. (Finding these
real roots ,viii become easier after you study the factor theore111.)
3 2
• 2x + 4x - 3x - 5 is a polynomial of the 3rd degree in x, because the highest po,ver of x is 3.
• x 4 - 2x + 7 is a polyno1nial of the 4th degree in x.
• x½ + 2 + x and .!. + 2x- 3 are not polynomials, because they include powers of x that are not positive integers.
X
4
When the leading coefficient a,.= 1, the polynon1ial is said to be monic. x - 2x + 7 is a n1onic polynomial.
A polynon1ial can also be described according to the subset of real numbers that contain the coefficients
a,,, an - I' ... , QO.
• 2x2 - 7x + 1 is a 2nd-degree polynomial over the integers.
• ix 5
+ 2x + ~is a 5th-degree polynomial over the rational numbers (or 'the rational nun1ber field').
• ✓3x - ✓6 is a 1st-degree polynon1ial over the irrational numbers.
• 4x 2 + 11:x -1 is a 2nd-degree polynon1ial over the real nun1bers.
Example 1
Express the polyno1nial P(x) = x x 4 + 6x2 in standard form. Then ,vrite:
3
-
(a) its degree (b) the constant tern1 (c) the coefficient of x 2 (d) the leading tern1
(e) the greatest nun1ber of real zeros possible. (f) Hence solve the equation P(x) = 0.
Solution
P(x) = -x4 + x 3 + 6x2• In standard form (fully expanded): P(x) = -x4 + x3 + 6x2 + Ox+ 0
2 4
(a) degree= 4 (b) constant tenn = 0 (c) coefficient of x = 6 (d) leading tenn = -x
(e) The polynon1ial is of degree 4, so there are at (f) -x4 +x3 + 6x2 =0
-X (x - X - 6) = 0
2 2
most four zeros.
2
x (x - 3)(x + 2) = 0
:. x= 0, 3, -2
The equation has three real roots. x = 0 is a double root.
A graph of y = x3 - x 4 + 6x2 sho,vs that at x = 0, the curve touches the x-axis.
Chapter 2 Polynomials 13
YEAR 11
Operations with polynomials

You have added, subtracted and 1nultiplied sin1ple algebraic expressions before. With 1nore complicated polynon1ials
the only difference is that 1nore tern1s are involved, so you must be more careful that you don't n1iss any terms.
Example 2
If A(x) = x 2 + 2x + 3, B(x) = 2x - 5, C(x) = 3x4 - 3x2 + 5x + 6 and D(x) = xs - 3x2 + 1, sin1plify:
(a) A(x) + C(x) (b) B(x) x D(x) (c) D(x) - C(x) (d) A(x) x D(x) (e) A(x) + 2C(x) - 3B(x)
Solution
(a) A(x) + C(x) =x 2 + 2x + 3 + 3x4 - 2
3x + 5x + 6 (b) B(x) x D(x) = (2x - 5)(xs - 3x2 + 1)
4 2 6 3 S 2
=3x -2x + 7x+ 9 =2x -6x + 2x-5x + 15x -5
6 S 3 2
=2x -5x -6x + 15x + 2x-5
(c) D(x) - C(x) = xs - 3x2 + 1 - (3x4 - 3x2 + 5x + 6)
=x S - 3x2 + 1 - 3x4 + 3x2 - 5x - 6
=xs- 3x4 -5x-5
(d) A(x) X D(x) = (x2 + 2x + 3)(xs - 3x2 + 1)
=x7 - 3x4 + x2 + 2x6 - 6x3 + 2x + 3xs - 9x2 + 3
=x7 + 2x6 + 3xs - 3x4 -6x3-8x2 + 2x+ 3
(e) A(x) + 2C(x) - 3B(x) = x 2 + 2x + 3 + 2(3x4 - 3x2 + 5x + 6) - 3(2x - 5)
=x 2 + 2x + 3 + 6x4 - 6x2 + l Ox + 12 - 6x + 15
= 6x4 - 5x2 + 6x + 30
EXERCISE 2.1 POLYNOMIALS
1 For the polynomial P(x) = 3x4 + 2x3 + 7, which staten1ent is correct?

A degree = 3 B leading tenn = 3 C leading coefficient= 3 D constant tern1 = 3
2
2 Express the polynomial P(x) = x - x 3 + 6x in standard forn1. Then write:
2
(a) its degree (b) the constant tenn (c) the coefficient of x (d) the leading tern1
(e) the greatest nun1ber of real zeros possible. (f) Hence solve the equation P(x) = 0.
3 Write the follo\ving poly1101nials in standard form and then state:
2
(i) the degree (ii) the constant tern1 (iii) the coefficient of x
(iv) whether or not it is monic (v) the greatest nu1nber of real zeros possible.
(a) x2 + 5x3 + 7 - 6x (b) 27 - x3 (c) ax3 + bx + cx2 - d
(d) x(5x3 - 3x2 + 2) (e) (3x + 1)(2x3 - 5) (f) (3x2 - 2)2
4 State whether each expression is a polynomial or not. If it is not a polyno1nial, explain why.
(a) x2 -6x+3 (b) x+4 (c) ✓ Jx-4 (d) x9 + 1 (e) 4-.!.
I X
(f) 6 x+ 2 (g) x + 3x2 - 4x- 1 (h) 3x + 2
2 (i) 2x + 3x - 5
3 3x- l
2 4 2
5 If A(x) = x - 5x + 1 and B(x) = 3x - 2x + 5x + 3, then B(x) - A(x) = ...
A -3x4 + 3x2 -10x-2 B 3x4 -3x2 + 2 C 3x4 -3x2 -10x + 2 D 3x4 -3x2 +10x + 2
6 If A(x) = 3x2 - 2x + 1, B(x) = 5x- 2, C(x) = 2x4 - 5x2 + 3x + 4 and D(x) = 2x5 - 4x2 - 3, sim plify:
(a) A(x) + C(x) (b) B(x) x D(x) (c) D(x) - C(x)
(d) A(x) x B(x) (e) A(x) - 3C(x) + 2B(x)
7 If E(x) = x 2 - 3, F(x) = 3x + 2, G(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 and H(x) = x 2 - 3x + 2, find the polynon1ial for:

(a) E(x) x F(x) (b) F(x) x G(x) (c) 3G(x) - 4H(x)
(d) (x- 3)G(x) (e) [F(x))2 (f) E(x) x G(x) + F(x) x H(x)

YEAR 11
2.2 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS AND THE REMAINDER THEOREM

2
If P(x) = 3x + 7x + 4, then P( 1) is the value of P(x) when x = 1, which is found by substituting x = 1 into the
polyno1nial. For exan1ple:
P(l)=3+7+4=14
P(-1) = 3 X (-1) 2 + 7 X (-1) + 4 = 0
P(a)=3a2 + 7a+4
You already kI10,v how to perforn1 long division using integers (e.g. 532 + 19 = 28). You can also perfonn long
division of a polynon1ial by a linear expression or by another polyno1nial. For exan1ple:
2
X +7x + l2,X:;c-3
x+3
2
(x + 7x + 12) + (x+3),x:;c-3
The t\vo ,vays of writing the division above are equivalent.
Example 3
2
Find x + 7 x+l 2 ,x:;c-3.
x+3
Solution
The condition x :;1: -3 exists because it cannot be divided by zero.
2
Divide the leading tenn of the dividend (x ) by the leading term of the divisor x + 4
2
(x) and write the ans,ver (x) above the x • x+3)x 2 +7x + l2
2 2
Multiply the divisor (x + 3) by the result of x + x (i.e. x) to obtain x + 3x. x 2 +3x
2 2
Subtract (x + 3x) fro1n (x + 7x) to get 4x, then bring down the + 12 fron1 above. 4x+ l 2
Divide this new leading term (4x) by x and write the answer (+4) above 7x. 4x+ l 2
Multiply (x + 3) by 4 to obtain 4x + 12. 0
Subtract the last two lines to get a rem ainder of 0, co1npleting the division.
2
H ence you h ave x +7x+ l 2 = x + 4 , W1.th no ren1a1n
. d er.
x+ 3
You could also ,vrite x2 + 7x + 4 = (x + 3)(x + 4) + 0:
Dividend = Divisor x Quotient+ Rem ainder
Example 4
If P(x) = 3x3 - 7x2 + 2x + 4, divide P(x) by x - 3.
Solution
Divide 3x3 by x and ,vrite the answer (3x2) above the 3x3•
2 3 2 3 2
Multiply (x - 3) by 3x to obtain 3x - 9x and write it under 3x - 7x •
Subtract (3x
3
-
2
9x ) from (3x
3
-
2 2
7x ) to get 2x , then bring down the +2x from above. 3x 2 + 2x + 8
Divide (2x2 + 2x) by x and write the an swer (+2x) above -7x2. x-3 )3x 3 -7x 2 + 2x + 4
2 2
Multiply (x - 3) by 2x to obtain 2x - 6x and write it under 2x + 2x. 3x3 -9x 2
Subtract (2x2 - 6x) fron1 (2x2 + 2x) to get Bx, then bring do,vn the +4 fron1 above.
2x 2 +2x
Divide Bx by x and write the answer (+8) above +2x.
2x 2 -6x
Multiply (x - 3) by 8 to obtain Bx - 24 and write it under Bx+ 4.
8x+4
Subtract (Bx - 24) fro1n (Bx+ 4) to get 28.
8x-24
28
YEAR 11
The nu1nber 28 is a constant with a degree less than the divisor, so it is not divisible by (x - 3).
Thus the ren1ainder is 28.
3 2
Hence: 3x -7x + 2x + 4=3x2 + 2x + 8 + 28
x-3 x-3
or 3.x3 - 7x2 + 2x + 4 = (x - 3)(3x2 + 2x + 8) + 28
1.e. P(x) = (x - 3)Q(x) + R
where Q(x) is the quotient and R is the re1nainder (i.e. in this case, 28). Note:
The degree of the remainder< the degree of the divisor.

The degree of the quotient < the degree of the dividend.
When the divisor is a linear function (first degree), the re1nainder \Viii be a constant.
Note also that P(x) = (x - 3)(3x2+ 2x + 8) + 28, so:
P(3) = (3 - 3) X Q(3) + 28 = 0 + 28 = 28
This suggests that the ren1ainder of division by (x - 3) could be found just by finding the value of P(3), \Vithout
doing the long division.
Example 5
3
Divide 4x - 19x + 9 by 2x- 3.
Solution
When writing out the dividend, include all 1nissing tenns by writing the1n \Vith zero coefficients.
The quotient is 2x2 + 3x - 5 and the ren1ainder is --6.

3
3 2
2x - 3)4x +0x - 19x + 9 4x -19x + 9 = 2x 2 + 3x-S- 6
2x-3 2x-3
4x 3 - 6x 2 or (4x3 - 19x + 9)=(2x-3)(2x2 +3x-5)-6
6x 2- 19x P(x) =(2x-3) x Q(x)-6
6x 2 - 9x If2x- 3 = 0 then x = ~.
- l Ox + 9 P(~)=o x Q(~) - 6=--6
- l Ox + lS This again suggests a siinpler method for finding the re1nainder.
--6
Example 6
Divide x 4 + x3 - 7x2 - x + 6 by x2 - 1.
Solution
x 2 +x - 6
- x2
- 6x 2 +6
The remainder is zero, so this 1neans that (x2 - 1) is a factor of
--6x2 +6 x 4 + x3 - 7x2- x + 6. This then n1eans that (x + 1) and (x - 1)
0 are also factors of x 4 + x3 - 7x2 - x + 6.

YEAR 11
The remainder theorem

If a polynomial P(x) is divided by (x - a) until the remainder R does not contain x, then R = P(a).
For any polynomial, P(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + R, \Vhere Q(x) is a polyno1nial.

Thus P(a) = (a - a)Q(a) + R
i. e. P(a) = 0 x Q(a) + R
· R =P(a)
Important considerations:
1 If P(x) is divided by x + a, as x + a= x- (-a), th en R = P(-a).
2 If P(x) is divided by ax - b, as ax - b = a( x - !), then R = P( !).

Example 7
Find the remainder when P(x) = 2x
3
- 6x2 + 4x + 3 is divided by the following.
(a) x - 2 (b) x + 3 (c) 2x - 1 (d) 3x + 2
Solution
3 2
(a) R = P(2) = 2 X 2 - 6 X 2 + 4 X 2 + 3 = 16 - 24 + 8 + 3 = 3
(b) R =P(-3) = 2 x (-3) 3 -6x (-3) 2 +4x (-3) + 3 =-54- 54-12 + 3 =-117
3 2
(c) R =P(l. )= 2x(l.) - 6x(l.) +4x l. +3= l. _ l. + 2 + 3= 32
2 2 2 2 4 2 4
3 2
(d) R=P(- l)=2 x(- l) -6x(- l) +4x(- 1 )+3= - l.Q. - ~-~ + 3= - 79
3 3 3 3 27 3 3 27
EXERCISE 2.2 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS AND THE REMAINDER THEOREM
1 Perfonn the following long divisions.

2 3 2
(a) (3x -2x + 5)+(x-2) (b) (x -x +x-l)+(x-l)
(c) (4x3 - 8x2 + Bx- 1) + (2x + 1) (d) (2x4 - 3x3 + 6x2 - 5x - 4) + (2x - 3)
(e) (x3 - 27) + (x - 3) (f) (x4 + 3x3 + 5x2 - 6x - 8) + (x + 2)
3 2
(g) (-2x + 7x -7x+l)+(2x + 3) (h) (x4 -3x2 + 2)+(x-l)
(i) (x3 + 3x2 - 2x + 1) + (x2 - 1) 0) (x4 + 2x3 - 3x2 + x) + (x2 + 1)
(k) (x3 -4x2 + 2x + 3)+(x2 -x+l) (I) (x4 + 5x3 -x-5)+(x2 + x + l )
2 If P(x) = 2x3 - 4x2 + 2x- 1, find P( l ), P(-3), P(a), P(-2).
3 If P(x) = x 4 - 2x3 + x 2 - 4, find P(2), P(-1), P(a).

3 2
4 If P(x) = x - 3x + kx- 7 and P(2) = 0, then k = ...
A 5.5 B O C -5.5 D -6.5
4 3 2
5 P(x) =x -x + px - 4x + q. Find p and q if P(O) = 3 and P(-1) = 11.
3 2
6 P(x) = ax - 2x + bx + c. Find a, band c if P(O) = 12, P(-1) = 3 and P(2) = 36.
7 Using the ren1ainder theoren1, find the remainder when:

(a) x 3 + 3x2 + 2x - 7 is divided by (x + 2) 2
(b) 3x + 7x - 2 is divided by (x - 4)
3 2 4 3 2
(c) 2y + y - 2y + 3 is divided by (y + 1) (d) x - 3x + 5x - 2 is divided by (x-4)
(e) x 4 + 2x2 - 13x - 60 is divided by (2x + 3) (f) x 4 - 3x3 + x + 1 is divided by (2x- 1).
3 2
8 When x + 3x + 7x- bis divided by (x- 2) the ren1ainder is 20. Find b.
YEAR 11
9 When x 4 + sx3 - ax + band a:x? + bx - 1 are each divided by (x + 1), the remainders are 7 and -6 respectively.
Find a and b.
10 When the polyno1nial x3 + 3x2 - mx + n is divided by (x + 2) the ren1ainder is 9; when divided by (x - 3) the
re1nainder is 49. Find m and n.
11 If x3 + 2:X: + 3x + p and x3 + :x? + 9 have the same remainder when divided by x + 2, find p.
12 When 3x3 - ax2 - bx + 1 is divided by (x- 2) the ren1ainder is 5; when divided by (x - 1) there is no
re1nainder. Find a and b.
3 2
13 When 2x + 7x + ax+ b is divided by (x - 3) the remainder is 120; when divided by (x + 1) the remainder is -8.
Find the values of a and b.
3 2
14 Let P(x) = x - ax + x be a poly1101nial, \Vhere a is a real number. When P(x) is divided by (x - 2) the
re1nainder is -2. Find the ren1ainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 1).
2.3 THE FACTOR THEOREM

When the ren1ainder of a division is zero, the divisor is a factor of the expression bein§ divided. For exainple, 2 is a
2
factor of 14 because 14 = 2 x 7 + 0. Silnilarly, (x + 3) is a factor of x + 4x + 3 because x + 4x + 3 = (x + 3)(x + 1) + 0.
The factor theorem states:
For a polyno1nial P(x) , if P(a) = 0 then (x - a) is a factor of P(x).
The converse of this result is also true:
If (x - a) is a factor of P(x) then P(a) = 0.
By finding the zeros of a poly1101nial (i.e. values of a, such that P(a) = O), you cai1 factorise the polynon1ial. The first
factor can usually be found by trial and error, and then by long division you can find the quotient, which will have
a degree of one less than the original polyno1nial. You may then be able to find factors of the quotient, which 1nust
also be factors of the original polynon1ial.
For exa1nple, if the original poly1101nial is cubic, then the quotient \viii be a quadratic polynomial, which you can
then factorise into real factors (if they exist). For higher degree polynomials, further trial and error ,nay be needed
after long division until you can reach a factorisable quotient.
Example 8
3 2
P(x) = x - x - 14x + 24. Find one zero of the polynon1ial and then express P(x) as a product of linear factors.
Solution
3 2
P(x) = x -x 14x + 24 is 1nonic, so the factors of24 can be regarded as the only possible zeros, nan1ely
-
+ 1, +2, +3, +4, ±6, +8, + 12, +24:
P(l) = 1-1-14+24= lO;t:O, (x- 1) is not a factor
3
x-2 )x - x 2 - 14x + 24
P(-1) = -1 - 1 + 14 + 24 = 36 ;t: 0, (x + 1) is not a factor
x 3 - 2x 2
P(2) = 8 - 4 - 28 + 24 = 0, (x - 2) is a factor
Hence P(x) = (x - 2)(x2 + x - 12) x 2 - 14x
= (x - 2)(x + 4)(x - 3) x
2
- 2x
The factor theoren1 could also have been used to find the zeros 3 - 12x+24
and -4. You should use the 1nethod that you find easiest and quickest - 12x + 24
in each case.
0

YEAR 11
Example 9
Find the linear factors of x 4 +,? - 7x2 - x + 6.
Solution
P(x) = x 4 + x3 - 7x2 - x + 6
x 2 - l )x4 +x3 -7x 2 -x+6
P( 1) = 1 + 1 - 7 - 1 + 6 = 0 Hence (x - 1) is a factor.
x4 - xi
P(-1)= 1-1-7 + 1 +6=0 Hence (x + 1) is a factor.
3
You now know that (x - 1)(x + 1) = x2 - 1 is a factor, so you can use X - 6x 2 -X
this as the divisor in the long division. x3 - x
Hence P(x) = x 4 + x3 - 7x2 - x + 6 = (x - l )(x + l)(x2 + x- 6)
-6x 2 +6
= (x- l)(x + l)(x + 3)(x- 2)
-6x 2 +6
0
EXERCISE 2.3 THE FACTOR THEOREM

2
1 If P(x) = x + x
4
- 2, indicate whether each staten1ent is correct or incorrect.
(a) P( l )= O (b) P(2) =0 (c) P(-1) = 0 (d) P(-2) =0
2 Use the factor theoren1 to factorise each polynon1ial over the rational nun1bers.
3 2 3 2 3 2
(a) x + 4x -7x-10 (b) x +2x -4 lx-42 (c ) 2x +x -22x+24
2
3
(d) 6x - 5x - 12x - 4 (e) 3x3 + 10x2 + 9x + 2 (f) 2x3 + 7x2 - l Ox - 24
3 Use the factor theoren1 to find the linear factors of each polynon1ial over the rational nun1ber field.
(a) 5 - 6x - 29x2 + 6x3 (b) 4x3 + 12x2 - x - 3 (c) 6x3 + 35x2 + 34.x - 40
(d) 6x3 - 29x2 - 40x - 12 (e) x3 - 5x2 + 6x (f) x 3 + 2x2 - 4x - 8
4 Use the factor theoren1 to find the linear factors of each polynon1ial over the rational nun1ber field.
(a) 6x3 -Sx2 -2x+l (b) 3x+7x2 -6x3 (c) 2x3 -7x2 +7x-2
3 2
(d) 2x + 3x -9x (e) 6 +5x -2x2 -x3 (f) x 3 -x2 -10x-8
3
5 The only linear factor of x - 8 is: A x-1 B x+4 C x+2 D x-2
6 Find the values of a and b that 1nake x 4 + 4x3 + ax2 - b divisible by (x- 1) and (x + 2).
7 Given that (x - 3) and (x + 2) are factors of x 3 - 6x2 + px + q, find the values of p and q.
8 If Sx2 - 6x - 56 and 3x2 - 14.x + a have a co1n1non factor (x + b), find the values of a and b.
9 Given that (x - 1) and (x + 2) are factors of 6x4 + ax3 - l 7x2 + bx - 4, find a and band the other two factors.
10 Find the values of a and b that 1nake 2K + ax2 - l 3x + b exactly divisible by x2 - x - 6.

3 2
11 Find the linear factors over the real nu1nber field of x - 3x - Bx + 4.
12 Let P(x) = (x - l)(x + 3)Q(x) +ax+ b, where Q(x) is a polynon1ial and a and bare real numbers. The
polynomial P(x) has a factor of (x + 3). When P(x) is divided by (x- 1) the re1nainder is 8.
(a) Find the values of a and b. (b) Find the re1nainder when P(x) is divided by (x - l)(x + 3).
3 2
13 The polynon1ial P(x) is given by P(x) = ax + 12x + ex- 60, where a and care constants. The three zeros of
P(x) are 2, -3 and /1 Find the value of {3.
2
14 When the polyno1nial P(x) is divided by x - 1 the remainder is 3x - 1. What is the remainder when P(x) is
divided by x - 1?
YEAR 11
2.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS
Quadratic equations
2
The general quadratic equation is: ax + bx + c = 0, a -:i:- 0
Dividing both sides by a: X

2
+-b x+ -C =0 (1)
a a
Let the roots of this equation be a and /3.
Hence: (x - a)(x - /3) = 0
x2 -(a + f3)x + a/3= 0 (2)
i.e. x2 - (su1n of roots)x + (product of roots)= 0

Equating the coefficients of like powers of x in [1) and [2):
Su1nofroots: a + /3=-b (3)

a
Product of roots: a/3 = ~ [4)
The equations (3) and (4) show the relationships behveen the roots a, f3 and the coefficients a, b, c of a quadratic
equation.
Example 10
2
Write the quadratic equation with roots that are the squares of the roots of 2x + 3x + 5 = 0.
Solution
This can be ans\vered without solving the origin al equation.
2
Let the roots of2x + 3x + 5 = 0 be a and /3.
Now' a=2 ' b=3 ' c=5·. a+/3= - land
2 a/3=~2
2 2 2 2 2
The new equation is of the forn1: x - (a + f3 )x + a /3 = 0
2
2 2
But a + /3 = (a+ /3)
2
- 2af3, so a + /3 = (- 2 )
2 2
-2 x 1 = 2.4 _ 5 = _.!..!.
2 2 4
and a 2132 = 25
4
2 25
Hence the required equation is: x + .!..!.x + =O
4 4
1.e. 4x2 + l lx + 25 =0
Two useful identities:

2 2
1 a + /3 = (a+ /3) 2 - 2af3
2 a 3 + /3 3 = (a+ /3) 3 - 3af3(a+ /3)
Cubic equations
3 ,
The general cubic equation is: ax + bx- + ex + d = 0, a -:i:- 0
Dividing both sides by a: x 3+-b x 2+-C x+ -d =0 (1)
a a a
Let the roots of this equation be a, f3 and r
Hence: (x - a)(x - /3)(x - r) =0
x3 - (a+ f3 + y)x2 + (a/3 + ay+ /3r)x - af3y = 0 (2)

YEAR 11
i.e. :X: - (su1n of roots).x2 + (sum of products of each pair of roots)x - (product of roots)= 0
Equating the coefficients of like po\vers of x in [l) and [2):
Sun1 of roots: a + f3 + r = _.!!_ [3)

a
Sum of products of each pair of roots: af3 + ay+ f3y = £ [4)
a
Product of roots: af3r= - d [5)
a
The equations [3], [4) and [5) show the relationships between the roots a, /3, y and the coefficients a, b, c, d of a
cubic equation.
Note: These relationships bet\veen the roots and the coefficients are not enough to find the roots of an equation
\vithout so1ne additional inforn1ation.
Example 11
Show that a 2 + /32 + y 2 = (a + f3 + y)2 - 2(af3 + ay+ f3y).
Solution
RHS = (a + f3 + r>2 - 2(af3 + ay+ f3r)
= a 2 + af3 + ay + af3 + /32 + f3r + ay + f3r+ y 2 - 2(af3 + ay + f3r)
= a 2 + /3 2 + y 2 + 2af3 + 2ay + 2f3y- 2(af3 + ay + f3r)
= a 2 + 132+ y 2= LHS
Example 12
3 2
If a, f3, y are the roots of the equation x + 2x + 3x + 4 = 0, find the value of the follo\ving.
(a) a + f3 + r (b) af3 + ay + f3r (c) af3r (d) (a - 1)(/3- l )(y-1)
(e) ..!. + ..!. + .!. (f) a 2 + 2 + r2 (g) _1_ + _1_ + _1_
a f3 r
13 af3 ar f3r
Solution
(a) Sun1ofroots = a + f3 + y =- b = -2
a
(b) Sun1 of products of pairs of roots = af3 + ay+ f3y = ~ = 3
d
(c) Product of roots= af3r= - - = -4
a
(d) (a- 1)(/3- l )(r- 1) = af3r- (a/3 + ay+ f3r) + (a + /3 + r ) -1 (e) 1 1 /3r + ay + af3
1
a + f3 + r = af3y
= -4-3-2-1
= - 10 =- l4
(f) a2 + f32 + i = (a + f3 + r>2 - 2(af3 + ay+ f3r) 1 1 y +f3 +a

1
(g) af3 + ay + f3r = af3y
= (-2}2-2x3
= -2 = -- 2
-4
= -1
2
YEAR 11
Another useful identity:
a2 + {32 + r2 = (a + f3 + r)2 - 2(af3 + ay+ f3r)
Example 13
3 2
Solve the equation 2x - 7x - 12x + 45 = 0, given that two of its roots are equal.
Solution
Let the roots be a, a, {3.
Sun1 of roots: 2a+f3=l [l]
2
Sum of products of pairs of roots:
2
a +2a.f3=-6 [2]
Product of roots: a2f3=-45 131
From [l ]: f3= i -2~
Substitute into [2]: 2
a +2a(i-2)=-6
a 2 + 7a-4a 2 =-6
2
3a -7a-6=0
(3a+ 2)(a- 3) =0
a=3 or - ~
Substitute into [ 1]: f3= - ~ or 22
Substitute a= 3, f3 = - ~ into [3]: 2
LHS = 3 x(-~)=- 4i5 = RHS
2
Substitute a=- ~,{3= 2 into [3]: LHS=(-1) x 29 = - 58 ;tRHS
3 6 27
2
Therefore, the roots of the equation are 3, 3, -2.5.
Example 14
If the roots of the equation x 3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 are consecutive tenns of an arithmetic series, find an equation
linking p, q and r.
Solution
Let the roots be a - {3, a, a+ f3 (i.e. three terms with the common difference {3).
Sun1 of roots: 3a=-p [l]
Sun1 of products of pairs of roots: a(a- {3) + a(a+ {3) + (a- {3)(a+ {3) = q
3a 2 -{3 2 =q [2]
Product of roots: a(a 2 - {32 ) =-r [3]
Fron1 [l]: a=-p
3
p2
Substitute into [2]: - -ff=q
3
2 p2
f3 = 3 - q

YEAR 11
Substitute into [3]: _p(p -(p -q))-

3 9
2
3
2
- -r
P(~2 -~2 +q)=3r

p(p
2
- 3p2 + 9q) = 27r
2
p(9q - 2p ) = 27r
Quartic equations (4th degree)

4 3 2
The general quartic equation is: ax + bx + cx + dx + e = 0, a* 0
Dividing both sides by a: x 4 + £x 3 + £ x 2 + d x+~ = O [1]
a a a a
Let the roots of this equation be a, {3, yand 8.
Hence: (x - a)(x - /3)(x - y)(x - 8) = 0
x4 -(a+ {3+ r+ 8)x3 + (a/3 + ay+ a8+ f3y+ {38 + y8)x2 - (af3r+ af38+ ay8+ f3r8)x+ af3r8= O [2]
1.e. x 4 - (sum of roots)x3 + (sun1 of products of each pair of roots)x2
- (sun1 of products of each triplet of roots)x + (product of roots)= 0
Equating the coefficients of like powers of x in [l] and [2]:

Sun1 of roots: a+ {3 +y+ 8=-£ [3]
a
Su1n of products of pairs of roots: a.[3 + ay+ a8+ f3r+ {38+ y8= £ [4]
d a
Su1n of products of triplets of roots: af3y+ a.[38 + ay8 + f3y8 = - - [5]
a
e
Product of roots: af3y8 = a [6]
EXERCISE 2.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS
1 If a and f3 are roots of the equation x2 + Bx - 5 = 0, find the quadratic equation \Vhose roots are f3 and ~ .
2
2 If a and f3 are roots of the equation x + 4x + l = 0, find the value of:
(a) a+ f3 (b) af3 (c) a 2 + {3 2 (d) a 3 + {3 3
2 2 2
3 If a and f3 are roots of the equation x + mx + n = 0, find the roots of nx + (2n - m )x + n = 0 in terms of
a and {3.
4 If a and f3 are roots of the equation px2 + qx + r = 0, find the following in tern1s of p, q and r.
(a) _!_ +_!_ (b) _l +-!,
a f3 a2 13-
5 If a and f3 are roots of the equation x2 + 5x + 7 = 0, the quadratic equation whose roots are (a- {3)2 and
(a+f3)2 is:
, , ,
A
2
x + 22x+75=0 B x- + 22x - 75 = 0 C x- - 22x - 75 = 0 D x- - 22x + 75 = 0
6 Solve the equation x3 - 3x2 - 4x + 12 = 0, given that the sun1 of t\vo of its roots is zero.
3 2
7 Solve the equation 2x - 2lx + 42x - 16 = 0, given that the roots are consecutive terms of a geon1etric series.
(Hint: Let the roots be a, af3.)f3,
3 2
8 Solve the equation 4x + 32x + 79x + 60 = 0, given that one root is equal to the sum of the other two roots.
3 2
9 Solve the equation 3x - l 7x - Bx + 12 = 0, given that the product of two of the roots is 4.
YEAR 11
10 If the roots of the equation :JC + p:1 + qx + r = 0 are consecutive tenns of a geometric series, prove that q3 = p 3r.
Show that this condition is satisfied for the equation 8x3 - 100:1 + 250x - 125 =0 and solve this equation.
3 2
11 Find two values of m , such that the roots of the equation x + 2x + mx - 16 = 0 are a, /3, a/3. Using these
values of m, find a and /3.
12 If the roots of the equation 24x4 - 52x3 + 18x2+ l 3x - 6 = 0 are a, -a, /3, 1•
find the values of a and /3.
3 3 2
13 If two of the roots of the equation x + qx + r = 0 are equal, show that 4q + 27r = 0.
3 2
14 If the roots of the equation x + 3x - 2x + 1 = 0 are a, /3, r, find the value of:
(a) a2(/3 + y) + /3 2(y+ a)+ y2(a + /3) (b) a 2/3 2+ /32r 2 + r 2a 2
15 Solve the equation 4x3 - 12x2 + 9x - 2 = 0, given that two of its roots are equal.
3 2
16 Solve the equation 6x - l lx - 26x + 22x + 24 =0, given that the product of hvo of the roots is equal to the
4
product of the other two roots.

3 2
17 Solve the equation 6x - 29x + 40x - 7x - 12 = 0, given that the product of hvo of the roots is 2.
4
3 2
18 Solve the equation 32x - 48x + 22x - 3 =0, given that the roots are consecutive tenns of an arith1netic series.
19 Solve the equation 8x4 - 2:K - 27x2+ 6x + 9 =0, given that the sum of two of its roots is zero.
3 2
20 If a, /3, yare the roots of3x + 8x - 1 = 0, find the value of: ( /3 + ~ ) ( y +~)(a + /3 ).
21 Solve the equation x 4 - 2x3 - 3x2 + 4x + 2 =0, given that the sun1 of hvo of its roots is zero.
22 If the roots of the equation x4 - 6x3 + 3x2+ 12x + 4 = 0 are a, 2a, /3, 2/3, find the values of a and /3.
2.5 MULTIPLE ROOTS OF A POLYNOMIAL EQUATION

A polyno1nial of degree n has n zeros, but they are not necessarily all different. You say that c is a zero of 1nultiplicity
r(r > 1) \Vhen the factor (x - c) occurs r times.
For exa1nple, if P(x) = (x - 1)3(x- s )2(x - 6), then 1 is a zero of 1nultiplicity three, 5 is a zero of 1nultiplicity two and
6 is a zero of multiplicity one.
Furthermore, if x = c is a zero of 1nultiplicity r of the real polyno1nial P(x), then x = c is also a zero of n1ultiplicity
(r- 1) of the derived polynomial P'(x), a zero of multiplicity (r - 2) of the second derived polynon1ial P"(x), and so
on. The proof of this result follo\vs.
If P(x) = (x - c)' S(x), where r > 0, S(c) -:/:. 0
then P'(x) =r(x - c)' - 1 S(x) + (x- c)' S'(x)
=(x -c)' - 1 [rS(x) + (x - c)S'(x)]
=(x-c)' - 1Q(x) [l]
i.e. the polynon1ial P ' (x), has a zero x = c of multiplicity (r- 1).
Applying the product rule to P ' (x) in [l ] produces the polyno1nial P"(x) \Vith a zero x = c of n1ultiplicity (r - 2).
If P(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then P'(x) must be a polynon1ial of degree (n - 1), P"(x) a polynon1ial of degree
(n - 2), and so on. This property allows us to use calculus techniques to solve equations that are known to have
multiple roots.
Example 15
3 2
Solve x - 4x - 3x + 18 =0, given that it has a root of multiplicity 2.

YEAR 11
Solution
3 2
Consider the polyno1nial P(x) = x - 4x - 3x + 18
Differentiate: P'(x) = 3x2 - Bx- 3
Factorise: P'(x) = (3x + l )(x - 3)
Solve: P ' (x) = 0: x = - !,3
As P(x) = 0 has a root of m ultiplicity 2 (i.e. a double root), the solution must be either x = - ~ or x = 3, b ut not both.
Evaluate· P (-1) =- - 1 - -4 +1+18=17-14 ;cO

. 3 27 9 27
P(3) = 27 - 36 - 9 + 18 = 0. Thus x = 3 is a dou ble zero.

: . P(x) = (x - 3)(x - 3)(x - a)
As P(O) = 18: (-3) X (-3) X (-a)= 18
a=-2
Thus P(x) = (x - 3/(x + 2)
The roots of the equation are x =-2, 3, 3.
EXERCISE 2.5 MULTIPLE ROOTS OF A POLYNOMIAL EQUATION
1 The polynon1ial x 3 - x 2 - 5x - 3 has a dou ble root at x = a. What is the value of a?

A i B -1 C 1 D ~
3 2
2 If P(x) = x
4
- 4x + 6x - 4x + 1, then:
(a) show that x = 1 is a zero of m ultiplicity 4 (b) fully factorise P(x).
3 If P(x) = x 4 + x3 - 3x2 - Sx - 2, then:
(a) show that P(x) has a zero of 1nultiplicity 3 (b) fully factorise P(x) (c) solve the equation P(x) =0.
3
4 If P(x) =x - x2 - Bx + 12, then:
5 If P(x) = 3x4 - 8x3 + 6x2 - 24x + 40, then:
4 3 2
6 The polynon1ial P(x) = ax + bx + cx + e has re1nainder -4 when divided by (x + 1). The polynom ial has a
double root at x = 1.
(a) Show that 2a + c = -3.
(b) Hence, or other\vise, find the slope of the tangen t to the graph y = P(x) where x = -1.
7 Let P(x) =x 3 + ax2 + bx - 4, where a and bare real n un1bers. If (x - 2) 2 is a factor of P(x) , find the values of
a an d b.
3
8 The polynon1ial P(x) = ax +bx + c has a 1nultiple zero at -1 and has rem ainder 8 when d ivided by (x - 1).
If a, b and c are real, find their values.
9 Solve each equation using the properties of polyno1nials.
3 2
(a) 4x - 8x + Sx - 1 = 0, given that it has a root of 1nultiplicity 2.
4 3
(b) x + 4x - 16x - 16 = 0, given that it has a root of n1ultiplicity 3.
10 Solve each equation using the properties of polyno1nials.
(a) 9x3 + 12x2 - l lx + 2 = 0, given that it has a root of n1ultiplicity 2.
(b) 2x4 + sx3 + 3x2 - x - 1 = 0, given that it has a root of n1ultiplicity 3.
YEAR 11
2.6 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

11 1
The function f, \Vhere f(x) = a11x + a,, _1x" - + ... + a 1x + a 0 (a11 ':/= O), is called the general polynomial function. This
function is defined for all real values of x and is continuous and differentiable. Following the earlier notation, P(x) is
often \vritten instead off(x) when defining rules for polynom ial functions. For a ':/= 0, there is:
• f(x) =ax + b (general linear function)
• f(x) = ax2 + bx+ c (general quadratic function)
• f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + ex + d (general cubic function)
If the coefficient of the highest power of xis unity (1), the polyno1nial is said to be n1onic.
Graphs of polynomial functions

The simplest polynomial function of degree n is f(x) = x". Graphs of these basic polynon1ials for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are
shown below (with n = 1, 3, 5 on the left and n = 2, 4 on the right).
n= l
)' )' 1J =2
n=4
( 1, 1) (- 1, I) (I, I)
X 0 X
(- 1, - 1)
Odd functions f(-x) = -f(x) Even functions f (-x) = J(x)

Important features of f(x) = x "
1 The x-axis is a tangent to each graph at the origin (n ':/= 1).
2 fl..x) = x' for even values of n defines even functions (see above right).
For even functions,f(-x) = f(x) , so their graphs are syn1n1etrical about the y-axis.
For exan1ple, ifj(x) =x4.f(-x) = (-x) 4 =x4 = f(x).
3 f(x) = x" for odd values of n defines odd functions (see above left).
For odd functions,f(-x) = -f(x). Because f(-x) and f(x) are opposite in sign, the graph offfor x < 0 can be
obtained by rotating the graph off for x > 0 through 180° about the origin.
For exan1ple, iff(x) = x 3,f(-x) = (-x)3 = -x3 = -f(x).
4 Recognising that a function is odd or even 1neans that you only need to draw half of the graph in detail.
The other half can then be drawn using the syn1n1etry properties.
5 Odd functions will have an inverse function, although som e may require a restriction on the do1nain.
6 Even functions will not have a single inverse function, but can be split into two parts (by restricting the
don1ain), so that each part has an inverse function. (Inverse functions are covered in Chapter 5.)
7 Note that m ost functions are neither even nor odd, e.g. f(x) = x2 + x , f(x) = ti'.
Graphs and graphing software

It is a good idea to use graphing software to check your sketches. Software-generated graphs will also allow you to
200111 in and to easily find the coordinates of iinportant poin ts.
Example 16
Sketch the graph of the following.
(a) f(x) = x3 (b) f(x) = (x- 2) 3 (c) f(x)=(x-2) 3 + 1

YEAR 11
Solution y
3
(a) f(x) = x = 0 for x = 0
For all x < O,f(x) < 0
For all x > O,f(x) > 0 0 X
J(-a) = (-a)3,J(a) = a 3
:. f(-x) =-f(x), so the function is odd.
(b) J(x) = (x - 2)3 )'
J(x) = 0 at x = 2
The graph off(x) = (x - 2) 3 can be obtained fron1 the graph off(x) = x3
by a translation of 2 units to the right, parallel to the x-axis. 2 X
For all x < 2,f(x) < 0

(0, - 8)
For all x > 2,f(x) > 0
The function does not pass through the origin, so it cannot be odd.
(c) J(x) = (x- 2)3 + 1 )'
J(x) = 0 at x = 1
The graph of[(x) = (x - 2)3 + 1 can be obtained fron1 the graph of
f(x) = (x - 2) by a translation of 1 unit upwards, parallel to the y -axis. O I ,2 X
'
In general, the graph off(x) =(x + b)" + c will have the sam e general shape (0, - 7) ''
as the graph of f(x) =x". '
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Graphing polynomial functions

Use graphing software to construct graphs of polynomial functions.
Cubic functions
3 2
A general cubic function is a polynon1ial function f of the 3rd degree, defined by f(x) = ax + bx + ex+ d, ,vhere
a, b, c, dare constants and a -:I: 0. Every cubic polynomial has at least one linear factor of the forn1 (x + a), where
a is a real number. Factors like this can be found using the factor theoren1.
Example 17
Sketch the graph off, where f(x) = (x + l )(x - 2)(x - 3).
Solution
At the points where the graph offcrosses the x-axis, f(x) = 0:
1.e. (x + l )(x - 2)(x - 3) = 0
X =-1, 2, 3
The function value will change sign fron1 positive to negative or from negative to positive
at these points (x = - 1, x = 2, x = 3).
• For all x < - 1, each of the three factors is negative, so f(x) < 0. e.g. X = -2: j(-2) = -20 < 0
• For -1 < x < 2, the factors (x + 1) > 0, (x - 2) < 0, (x- 3) < 0, so f(x) > 0. e.g. x = 0: f(O) = 6 > 0
• For 2 < x < 3, the factors (x + 1) > 0, (x- 2) > 0 and (x- 3) < 0, so f(x) < 0. e.g. X= 2.5: j(2.5) = -0.875 < 0
• For all x > 3, each of the factors is positive, so f(x) > 0. e.g. x=4: f(4)=20>0
YEAR 11
This infonnation can be summarised in a sign diagrrun:
.
+
0 I
.. X
At the point where the graph off crosses the y-axis, x = 0, )'
sof(O) = 1 x (-2) x (-3) =6. Thusthegraphcrossesthey-axis at (0,6).
(0, 6)
3
Note: this cubic equation has a positive coefficient of x , so that as x
in creases, y also increases (except in the don1ain between the two turning
points). For x > 3,f(x) > 0 for all values of x.
Example 18
Sketch the graph off, where f (x) = 2x3 - x 2 - 13x - 6, an d find the values of x for which 2x3 -x2 - 13x - 6 > 0.
Solution
It is useful to find the linear factors of2x3 -x2 - 13x- 6. (Re1nen1ber there will always be at least one.)
f( l ) =2-1- 13-6=-18,;tO so (x- 1) is not a factor
f(- 1) =-2-1 + 13-6=4;t0 so (x + 1) is not a factor
f(2) = 16-4-26-6=-20-:/:. 0 so (x - 2) is not a factor
f (-2) =-16-4 +26-6 = 0 so (x + 2) is a factor
3 2
To get the other linear factors (if any), you cru1 divide 2x - x - 13x - 6 by (x + 2) md then factorise the quotient.
2x 2 - 5x - 3 The factors of2x2 - 5x- 3 are (2x + 1) and (x - 3):
x+2)2x 3- x 2-13x-6 · f(x)=(x + 2)(2x + l)(x-3)
2x 3+ 4x 2 f(x) =Oatx=-2, 3 -1,
-5x 2 -13x • For all x< -2,f(x) < 0 e.g . x=-3: f(-3) = -30 < 0
-5x 2 - l Ox • For-2 <x< - 1 ,J(x) > 0 e.g . x=-1: f(-1) =4 > 0
- 3x-6 • For -1< x < 3,f(x) < 0 e.g . x=O: f(O) =-6 <0
- 3x-6 • For all x > 3,f(x) > 0 e.g . x=4: f(4)=54>0
0
This infonnation is sun1n1arised in the following sign diagrm1.
l. . __~ ___1_ _ _2_ __.13

: -21 -l-½
..
X
Hence f(x) > 0 for -2 < x < -1an d for x > 3.

At x = O,f(O) = -6, so th e graph crosses the y-axis at (O, -6).
3 X
Note that this cubic equation has a positive coefficient of x , so that as I 2
x increases, y also increases (except in the don1ain between the two
ft.x)=2x3 - x 2 - 13x - 6
turning points). For x > 3,f(x) > 0 for all values of x.

YEAR 11
Example 19
Without showing too 1nuch detail, sketch graphs of the polynomial functions defined by the following rules.
(a) y= (x+2)(x- 1)2(x + 1) (b) y=x2 (x-3)(x+ 1)3
Solution
4
(a) y=(x+2)(x- 1)2(x + 1). When lx lislarge,ybehaveslikex • )'
(x - 1)2 > 0, so the sign of y is detern1ined by (x + 2)(x + 1).

Hence y > 0 for x < -2 and for x > - 1 (equality at x = l);
y< 0 for-2 <x<-1.
Near x = -2, y behaves like a n1ultiple of (x + 2) an d cuts
the x -axis like a straight line at x = -2. Si1nilarly at x = - 1.
Near x = 1, y behaves like a 1nultiple of (x- 1)2, so that
I 0 X
x = 1 is a stationary point (miniinum turning point) and I
the x -axis is a tangent to the curve at x = 1.
(b) y = x 2(x - 3)(x + 1) 3• When lx l is large, y behaves like x 5•

x2 > 0, (x + 1)2 > 0, so the sign ofy is determ ined by (x - 3)(x + 1).
Hence y > 0 for x < -1 and for x > 3 (equality at x = -1 and x= 3);
y< 0 for- 1 <x<3 (equalityatx=O).
Near x = 3, y behaves like a 1nultiple of (x - 3) and cuts the x -axis like a straight line at x = 3.
2
Near x = 0, y behaves like a 1nultiple of x an d the graph touches the x-axis at x = 0.
3
Near x = -1, y behaves like a n1ultiple of (x + 1) and the y
graph cuts the x-axis at x = -1 like a basic cubic curve,
i.e. with a horizontal point of inflection.
This sketch is not dra,vn to scale. The 1ninin1u1n behveen
0 X
x = -1 and x = 0 cannot be sho,vn at a reasonable scale -2 -1 2 4
without the other 1ninin1um being belo,v the page.

You can use graphing software to draw this graph. As you zoom
out to find the n1iniinu1n turning point between x = 0 and
x = 3, the curve between x = - 1 and x = 0 appears to becon1e
a straight line.
Summary of polynomial functions

1
If P(x) = a,,x" + a11 _ 1x"· + ... + a 1x + a 0, a11 ;t; 0, then:
11
1 For very large lx l, P(x),., a11x •
2 A polynomial of odd degree always has at least one real zero (i.e. its graph cuts the x-axis at least once).
3 At least one 1naxin1u1n or miniinun1 value of P occurs between any two distinct real zeros.
4 For a polynomial of odd degree, the ends of the graph go in opposite directions.
5 For a polynomial of even degree, the ends of the graph go in the sa1ne direction.
6 When the graph of a polynon1ial function n1eets the x-axis, it may cut it (single zero), touch it (double zero)
or cut it at a point of inflection (triple zero).
YEAR 11
Polynomial graphs, standard forms

Degree O (constant) y Degree 1 (linear) y
P(x) = c C P(x) = mx+ b

b
Does not cut Cuts once
0 0 One zero
X
No zeros X
Degree 2 (quadratic)
,
P(x) =ax- + bx+ c
a > 0:
y
2 )' )'
Cuts t\vice 6 Touches 6 Does not cut
- - 2 - 120 I X ,6. > 0 .6. = 0 4 .6.<0
-4 Two zeros Double zero No real zeros
0 2 X
I X -2 - 1 I
a < 0:
y y
2 y
4 Cuts twice Touches ---+-+-+""o+-+- x Does not cut
-3 - - 1 0 I X - 2 - ,I.'f+'- 1 2
2 .6. > 0 -2 .6. = 0 /- .6.<0
Two zeros -4 Double zero -4 No real zeros
- 2 _, 0 I X
-2 -6 -6
A quadratic polynon1ial n1ay have two, one or no real zeros.

Degree 3 (cubic)
3 2
P(x) =ax + bx + ex+ d
a > 0:
y y y )'
2 2
0 I
I 2 -2 I 2
X
_, X
-2 _, l 2 X
-2 -2 -2
-2 I O
_, I 2 X
Cuts once Cuts three tin1es Cuts once and touches Cuts once
Triple zero Three zeros One zero, one double zero One zero
a < 0:
y y y )'
2 2 2 I
1 1 I
X
-2
-2 _, 0 2 X -2 _, 0 -2 I 2 X
- 1 1
-2 -2
Cuts once Cuts three tin1es Cuts once and touches Cuts once
A cubic polynon1ial may have one, t\vo or three real zeros.

A cubic polynon1ial ahvays has at least one real zero.
YEAR 11
D egree 4 (quartic)
P(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e
a > 0:
)' y
3
2
2
1 1
-3 2 I 1 2 X
- 1
-2 -1 O l 2 X
- 1 _, 0 1
X -2
Touches Touch es twice Touches on ce, cuts twice

Quadruple zero Two double zeros Two zeros, one dou ble zero
)' )' y
2
I
0 X
-3 - 1 2
- _,
- 1 l X
-2
-2 -3
-2 - 1_,0 I 2
X
Cuts hvice Cu ts four tim es Does not cut

O n e zero, on e triple zero Fou r zeros No real zeros
The addition of an appropriate constant to each equation can create a polynomial with n o real zeros.
a < 0:
A negative a inverts each of the six graphs above so that they open do\vnwards, with the properties of their zeros the san1e.
Summary of quartic polynomials

1 A quartic polynon1ial n1ay have four, th ree, two, one or no real zeros.
2 If a quartic polyn on1ial h as only one real zero, then it 1nust be a quadruple zero.
3 If a quartic polyn on1ial h as only hvo d istin ct real zeros, then they are either a triple zero and a single zero or
they are both double zeros.
4 If a quartic polynonlial has only three d istinct real zeros, then they are a double zero and two single zeros.
5 If a quartic polyn on1ial h as four distinct real zeros, then it can be factorised into four real linear factors.
6 If a quartic polyn on1ial h as no real zeros, then it cannot be factorised in to any real linear factors.
EXERCISE 2.6 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
1 Sketch the graph of each function and fin d the values of x for which: (i) J(x ) =0 (ii) f(x) > 0
(a) f(x) = x(x - 2)(x + 3) (b) f(x) = 2(x - ~)(x + 1)(2x + 3) (c) f(x) = x(x - 2) 2
2 Sketch the graph offwheref(x ) is the polyno1nial given. D raw a sign diagrrun ru1d label your sketch sh owing
the poin ts of intersection with the axes. Find the values of x for which f(x) > 0.
3 3 2 2 3 3 2
(a) f(x) = x - 4x (b) f(x) = x + 4x + 4x (c) f(x) = 2x - x (d) f(x) = x - x - l Ox - B
2 3
3 (a) Find the linear factors of 6 + Sx - 2x - x •
2 3 2 3
(b) Fin d the values of x for which : (i) 6 + Sx - 2x - x = 0 (ii) 6 + Sx - 2x - x >0
2 3
(c) Sketch the graph offwhere f(x) =6 + Sx - 2x - x •
4 (a) Find the linear factors of x3 - sx2 + Bx - 4.

(b) Fin d the values of x for which: (ij x 3 - sx2 + Bx - 4 = 0 (ii) x 3 - sx2 + Bx - 4 > 0
(c) Sketch the graph offwhere f (x ) = x - sx2 + Bx - 4.
3
YEAR 11
5 (a) Find the linear factors of -x3 + 2x!- + x - 2.

(b) Draw a sign diagran1 to find the values of x for which -x3 + 2x!- + x - 2 > 0.
(c) Sketch the graph off where f(x) =-x3 + 2x!- + x - 2.
6 The number of zeros of the polynon1ial f(x) = x3 - xis:
A O B l C2 D 3
7 Describe how the graph off(x) =x3 can be transfonned into the graph of the follo\ving.
(a) f(x) = (x + 3)3 (b) f(x) = (x + 3)3 - 2
8 Sho\v that the graph off, where f(x) = x3 - 8, cuts the x-axis at one point only.
9
3
Show that the graph off, where f(x) = x - x 2 - Bx + 12, cuts the x-axis at one point and touches it at anoth er.
Find the values of x at these points.
10 Show that the graph off, where f(x) = x3 - 4x2 + Bx - 8, cuts the x-axis at one point only.
11 Sketch graphs to show the general form of the following functions.

,
(a) y=(x + l)(x-2)(x + 3) (b) y=x(x- l)(x-2)(x-3) (c) y=x(x- 1)2 (d) y =x· (x- 1)
2 3
(e) y = x(x + 3)2(2 - x) (f) y = (x - 1)(2x - 3)(x + 4) (g) y=x(2x- l )(x-1)
(h) y = x(x + 2)(x- 1)4 (i) y = (3x- 5) 3 (x- 1)2 (j) y =x(x- 1)2(2 - x) 3
12 Part of the graph of y = P(x) is shown, where P(x) is a polynon1ial of degree four:
Which of the following could be the polynon1ial P(x)?
A P(x)=x2 (x + 2)2 B P(x)=(x-2) 4
C P(x)=x(x-2) 3 D P(x)=(x-1) 2(x + 2)"'
1.8
1':::::---r-
1.9 2 2.1 2.2
•
X
13 Sketch graphs to show the basic features of the following functions.

4 2 2
(a) y=x(x-2/(x+ 1) (b) y=x(x - l )(x-1)
(c) y = (3 -x)( l -x) 4(x + 2) (d) y = (2 - x) 3(1 + x)2(x- 3)
CHAPTER REVIEW 2
1 Perform the following polynon1ial divisions.

(a) (x3 + 2x2 -3x + 4)+(x-l) (b) (4.x4 -6x2 + 10x-40)+(x+3)
2 Use the ren1ainder theorem to find the re1nainder of the follo\ving.
(a) x3 - 4.x2 + 3x- 5 divided by (x- 2) (b) x 4 + x3 - 5x2 + 4.x- 2 divided by (x + 1)
3 Use the factor theore1n to find the linear factors (over the rational nu1nber field) of each polynon1ial.
(a) x3-2x2 -5x+6 (b) x3+7x2 + 14x+8 (c) x3 + sx2-x-5 (d) x4 -K-16x2 + 4.x + 48
4 Let P(x) = (x - l)(x + 2)Q(x) + ax + b, \Vhere Q(x) is a polynomial and a and bare real nun1bers. The
polynon1ial P(x) has a factor of x + 2. When P(x) is divided by x - I the re1nainder is 6.
(a) Find the values of a and b.
(b) Find the ren1ainder when P(x) is divided by (x - l )(x + 2).
3 2
5 Let P(x) =x + ax - x + I be a polyno1nial \Vhere a is a real nun1ber. When P(x) is divided by x - 2 the
re1nainder is 15. Find the ren1ainder when P(x) is divided by x + 3.
6 The polyno1nial P(x) =x3 + ax- b has a re1nainder of 5 when divided by (x + 1) and a ren1ainder of 2 when
divided by (x - 2). Find the values of a and band hence find the re1nainder when P(x) is divided by (x - 3).
3 2
7 The polyno1nial P(x) is given by P(x) = ax + 15x + ex - 72, where a and care constants. The three zeros of
P(x) are -3, 2 and a. Find the value of a.

YEAR 11
8 The cubic polynomial P(x) =x3 + bx2 +ex+ d (where b, c, dare real nu1nbers) has three real zeros: -1,
a and-a.
(a) Find the value of b. (b) Find the value of c - d.
9 The polynon1ial P(x) =x - 4.x + kx + 12 has zeros a, {3, r

3 2
(a) Find the value of a+ f3 + r (b) Find the value of af3r

(c) Two of the three zeros are equal in n1agnitude but opposite in sign. Find the third zero and hence find the
value of k.
10 Sketch graphs of each function. For what values of xis each function positive?
(a) y=(x-l)(x+2)(x-3) (b) y=(x-2)(x + 2) 2 (c) y=x(x2- l )(x + 2) (d) y=x2(x-2)2
In the Mathen1atics Advanced course, you looked at the graphs of linear, quadratic, cubic and quartic polynon1ials.
In this section you are going to look at the effects of applying other function rules to linear, quadratic and cubic
polynomials and drawing their graphs.
3.1 RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS

Given the graph ofy = fix), the graph of y = f tx) is the reciprocal function of fix) .
When graphing reciprocal functions, it is important to find where f(x) = 0, as these x values ,viii give vertical
asymptotes for the reciprocal function.
It is also important to note that ,vherefix) ➔+ 00, ftx) ➔ 0.
Example 1
In each part, use the graph of the given function to dra,v the graph of y = f tx )"
(a) Given y = x, draw (b) Given y = 2x + 1, dra,v (c) Given y = 1 - x, draw

y= -1 . 1 1
X y= 2x+r y=l-x
y
)' y
4
4 4
3
3 3
2
2 2
I
I y=l - x
-4 - 3 - 2 X 0 X
-4 - 3 - 2 - I 2 3 4 - 4 - 3 - 2 - !.1 I 3 4
-2
-2
-3
-3 -3
-4
-4 -4
Solution
y ,
(a) The graph of y = .!. is undefined at x = 0, so x = 0 is a vertical y=x, ~
X 3 , ,
asY1nptote. , ,
2 ,
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n above as x ➔ oo. ,,
I I
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n below as x ➔ -oo. ,, y= X
y = 0 is the horizontal asY111ptote. ,'

X
-3 - I ,0 I 2 3
x = .!. where x = + 1, hence the curves intersect at ,
, I
X
, ,
(-1,-1) and ( 1, 1). , ,
, ,
-3
,,

YEAR 11
(b) The graph of y =

1 is undefined at x = _.!., . ' = 2x+ 1
1y
2 x+ 1 2 ~ I '
••
so x = - 1s a vertlca1asyinptote.
1. .
2i. ''
2 . I
I
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n above as x ➔ oo. 1: 1

:,: ' y= 2x +1
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n belo,v as x ➔ --oo.
y = 0 is the horizontal asyinptote. -3 -2
,o
/ 1: 1 2 3
X
2x + 1 =
1 where x = - 1, 0. Hence the curves intersect at ' .,:••
2x+ l '
I
...
(-1, -1) an d (O, 1). I
I
I
.
I
I
(c) The graph of y = 1 is undefined at x = 1. ''

)'
1-x ' 3
y= l - x' '
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n belo,v as x ➔ oo. ''
'2
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n above as x ➔ --oo. ''
1'
1 - x = 1 ,vhere x = 0, 2. The curves intersect at (O, 1) ''
'
1-x .'
and (2, - 1). -3 -2 - 1- 10 1 ' ,2
x = 1 is the vertical asyinptote an d y = 0 is the horizontal ''
-2 '
'
asyinptote. '
'
-3 '
y= -1-1x
All these reciprocal functions are rectangular hyperbolas.
Example 2
2
(a) Given the graph of y = x , (b) Given the graph of y = (x - 2)2, (c) Given the graph of y = (x + 2)(1 - x),
1 1 1
draw y= -
X
2
• dra,v y =
(x-2) 2
• dra,vy= ( x + 2)( 1-x r
y ) )'
4 y =x' 4 4
y= (x - 2) 2
3 3 3
2 2 .,.,...~- y = (x + 2)( 1 - x)
1 1 1
X
-4 -3 - 2 - 1 O l 2 3 4 X - 4 - 3 -2 - 1 O 1 2 3 4 -1 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
. .
Solution 1
y= x2r'
1
s
(a) The graph of y = _l_ is undefined at x = 0. ' '
x2 ' 1 ''
1
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n above as x ➔ oo.

1
''
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n above as x ➔ --oo. '
'
\ I
The function is never negative. '1

I '
' ' I
x2 = -\-where x = +1. The curves intersect at (-1, 1) and (1, 1). - 5 -4 - 3 - 2 - 1 O 1 2 3 4 S

X
X -1
x = 0 is the vertical asyinptote an d y = 0 is the horizontal asyinptote. -2
-3
Chapter 3 Graphing functions 35

YEAR 11
1 :r ...
• .
(b) The graph ofy = is undefined at x = 2. ... '
(x-2) 2 s
...
The graph approaches y =0 from above as x ➔ oo. y= (x - 2) 2 4 ... I '
... ,,'
The graph approaches y =0 from above as x ➔ - oo. 3
..•
The function is never negative. 2 ... '
I ... '
(x - 2)2 = 1
2
\Vhere x = 1, 3. The curves intersect at y= (x - 2) 2 I
\ .. , '
( x -2) '
X
(1, 1) and (3, 1). -s -4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0
-1
I i 3 4 s
x = 2 is the vertical asyn1ptote and y = 0 is the horizontal -2
asyinptote. -3
x =2 is an axis of syin1netry.
(c) The graph ofy = ( Ic ) is undefined at x = -2, 1.

x+ 2 1-x s
y
The graph approaches y =0 from below as x ➔ oo. 4

The graph approaches y =0 from below as x ➔ -oo. 3
The m axiinum value of (x + 2)( 1 - x) is 2. and occurs , ,; \
1 4 .' I \
y = (x+2)( 1 - x)
I
at X =2 . .: '
.
Thus the least positive value of ( ~( ) is
4
and
-s -4 - 3 2 -1 0
-1 .:•i•' 2 3 4 5 X
x + 2 1-x 9
-2 : '
occurs at x = ;- ' : '\ y =(x + 2)( 1 - x)
' -3 ·
1 1 4 -4 ''
x < -2, ( x + 2 )( 1- x ) < O; -2 < x < 1, ( x + 2 )(1-x) > -9;
' -s
1 .'' '
'
x> 1, ( x+ 2)(1-x) < 0.
x = -2 and x = 1 are the vertical asy1nptotes, y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.
x =- ; is an axis of syinm etry.
Each of these graphs has a vertical axis of syn1n1etry.
Example 3
(a) Given the graph of y = x3, draw y = -¼-- (b) Given the graph of y = x (x + l )(x - 2),
x 1
y draw the graph of y = x(x + l)(x _ 2 )"
4 y =r'
)'
3 4
2
3
I 2
I
-4 - 3 - 2 - IO I 2 3 4 X
X
-2 -4 - 3 - 2 I 0 I 3 4
-1
-3 -2
-4 y = x(x+ l )(x - 2)
-3
-4

YEAR 11
(c) Given the graph of y = (2 - x )(x + 1)2, (d) Given the graph of y =,2 + 2x
2
+ 1,
1 1
draw the graph of y = • draw the graph of y = 3 2
•
(2-x) (x + 1)2 X + 2x + 1
)'
y y =(2 - x)(x + 1) 2 4
3
2
y=x3 +2x'+ I
1
X
0 1 3 4 X -4 - 3 2 -1O I 2 3 4
- 4 - 3 - 2 - !.1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
Solution y
4
(a) The graph of y =-¼- is undefined at x =0.
X 3
The graph approaches y =0 fro1n above as x ➔ oo. 2
The graph approaches y =0 fro1n belo,v as x ➔ -<X>. I I

y= - 1
x3
,
x
3
=-¼- where x =+ 1. The curves intersect at (-1, -1) and ( 1, 1).
X
-4 -3 -2 -
10
I 1 2 3 4
X
x = 0 is the vertical asymptote, y = 0 is the horizontal asyinptote.

'
The curve does not have an axis of syinmetry, but has rotational (poin t) '
sy1n1netry about the origin. ' -
'
1 y
(b) The graph of y = ( ( ) is undefined at x = -1, 0, 2.
x x + l ) x-2 4
The graph approaches y = 0 fron1 above as x ➔ oo.
''
3
The graph approaches y = 0 fron1 below as x ➔ -oo.
x = -1, 0, 2 are the vertical asy1nptotes, y = 0 is the horizontal 1
..
asy1nptote. ., ' ' : y = (x + l :(x - 2)
Q \
The curve does not have an axis of syn1n1etry. -4 - 3 -2
I'
1 , ,..,--,i' 3 4
X
.!'-- 1 \ , .'
' .~2
I
\
',
I
..
:
' ::-3 '

I
' .•;._4
1
(c) The graph of y = 2
is undefined at x = -1, 2. ...: y
(2-x)(x + 1) • ..•• ,
• , ' I
The graph approaches y = 0 fron1 below as x ➔ oo. • I '•

...••• •
The graph approaches y = 0 fron1 above as x ➔ -oo.
x = -1, 2 are the vertical asyn1ptotes, y = 0 is the horizontal asyinptote.
•
.; I ,
.: '
. '
'
'
'
2 '
It looks as though y = (2 -x)(x + 1) has a local n1axim un1 \ I
value of 4 at x = 1. (This can be shown using calculus.) -4 -3 - 2 - 1

·o I 3 4
X
~I
1
Hence y = 2
,viii have a local 1ninin1u1n value y- 1
- (2 - x)(x+ 1) 2
;2
f
(2- x)(x + 1)
;.3 ..
of-1 at x = 1.
4 ...~4

YEAR 11
1 )'
(d) The graph ofy = 3
is undefined at x =-2.2.
+ 2x 2 + 1 X 4
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n above as x ➔ oo. , 3

y=x3+2x-,+ l , I
The graph approaches y = 0 fro1n belo\v as x ➔ -oo. :: I ,., ' 2 ,' y= ~.~
~ ~-
~.~
:, , , x-+Lr+ l
x = -2.2 is the vertical asymptote, y = 0 is the horizontal asy1nptote. : 1'
The curves touch at (O, 1), a local minim un1 of the origin al function ;'' '--/
X
becomes a local 1naximu1n of the reciprocal function. -4 - 3 ·2 _ , O I 2 3 4
: -1
I:
': -2
-3
-4
'
I
As the Exan1ples above show, a 1naxin1u1n turning point on the original function becomes a 1niniinum turnmg point
on the reciprocal function (or equivalent asyn1ptote). A 1ninin1um turning point on the original function becomes a
maxin1u1n turning point on the reciprocal function (or equivalent asymptote).
EXPLORING FURTHER
-----===========10
Graph ing reciproca l functions
Use graphing software to explore graphs of reciprocal functions.
EXERCISE 3.1 RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS
1 The graph of y =2x - 1 is shown.

)'
4
y=2x - l
3
2
I
- 4 - 3 -2 - I O _, I 2 3 4 X
-4
Which of the following represents the graph ofy 1 ?

= 2x- l
A ,, 8 y
, C ,, D y
,,
4 4
,,'y= 2x - 1
, /y=2x - l ,,'y=2x - l
,'y=2x - l
, 3 , 3
,, ,, , ,,
2 ,, 2 , ,
, I ' , I
::,' ,,
,.
-4 -3 -2 -4 - 3 - 2 -t 1 ,: I 2 3 4 X - 4 -3 - 2 _, .
-f -4 -3 -2 -! 10,' I 2 3 4 X
, : :,
-? . -1 -?
,
,,
~
: , 3
• .:j
, : ,:3
,
,
,' - 4 ,,'-~ ,
/ -4

YEAR 11
2 The graph of y = (2x - l ) 2 is shown.

y
3
2
1
X
-4 - 3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
Which of the following represents the graph of y = 1 ?

(2x - 1) 2
A ?' 8 7 C D
3'I 31 .' ' I ) '
I
2 'I '
z' i"
'' I
2' '
'
' '
' ' '
I '
1 ' 1
'
' l•' l•' ''
\ :' , '
'',
:
\: '
I
' ' ' ' '
X X
' '
() X
' X
-3 - 2 - 1 1 2 3 - 3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 1,
1 2 3 - 3 - 2 - 1 () 1 2 3
-1 -1 - 1•
-2 -2 -~
-3 -3 - 3,'
3
3 The graph of y = (2x - l ) is shown. y
3
2
1
X
- 3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 3
-1
-2
-3
Which of the following represents the graph of y = 1 1

3
(2x -1)
A )' 8 y C { D
' ' '
' ' ~
I
3 3 ' ~
' ' I
2 '' '' 2 i i
1 ' ' 1 1,' 1,'
''
"
' '' 1 3 0 I ,: 3 () I
3 X - 3 - 2 - 1 () 1 3 X
2 X - 3 - 2 - 1- 1 :
1 2 X
- 3 -2 - l, 1 2 - 1,
I 2
-2 I
]!
0 I
- 1!
0 I
' '
- 3 I' 'o -3 '
,
~: •"
- .,, I
' ' "" "

YEAR 11
4 Given the graph of y = 3 - 2x, draw the graph 5 Given the graph of y = (x + 1)(2 - x), draw
ofy= l l
3-2x the graph of y = (x+ l )( 2-x )"
)'
4
3
2 _.,,..,
2
1
X
-4 -3 - 2 - 1 0 -4 - 3 -2 10 123456x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-s
3
6 Given the graph of y =x(x - l)(x + 2), draw 7 Given the graph of y = x + 3x2, dra\v the graph
l
the graph of y = x (x-1 )( x+2 )" ofy= l
x 3 + 3x 2 •
)' )'
4 4
3
-4 - 3 - I 2 3 4 X -4 - _,
-2 - I O I 2 3 4 X
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
8 Given the graph of y = 4 - x2, dra\v the graph 9 Given the graph of y = x(x + 1)(2 - x), draw the
of y= l ,. l
graph of y = x (x + l )( 2-x )"
4-x-
)' )'
4 4
_, 0 X X
-4 - 3 I 3 4 -4 - 3 - 2 I 3 4
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4

YEAR 11
10 Given the graph of y = 2 + 3x - x3, draw the gr aph 11 Given the graph of y = x2 + 2x + 2, draw the graph
1 1
of y = 3
. ofy= 2
2 + 3x-x x + 2x + 2
y )'
4 7
6
5
4
3
X
-4 - 3 - 2 -1 0 1 3 4 2
-1
-2
-3
- 4 -3 - 2 - 1 O l 2 3 4 X
-4 -1
-2
12 Given the graph ofy =- x2 + 2x- 2, draw the

1
graph of y = 2 .
-x + 2x-2
y
4
2
1
-4 -3 - 2 - 1 O l 2 3 4 X
-1
-2
-3
3.2 SQUARE ROOT FUNCTIONS

2
Given the graph of y = fix), it is often useful or necessary to draw the graph of y = ..Jf (x ) and the graph of y = fix).
To graph these functions, it is important to find out \Vhere fix)< 0, as ..J f(x) is not defined for these values of x
2
(because the square root of a negative number is not a real nu1nber). Siinilarly, y =fix) \vill not be defined for these
2
values of x , because y cannot be negative.
Reme1nber that Jo =0 and ✓l = 1. Therefore, for O<fix)< 1, ✓ f (x ) > fix); for fix) > l,f(x) > ..}J( x).
Graphically this n1eans that for O<fix) < 1, the graph of y = ..Jf (x) is above y = f(x) , and for fix) > 1, the graph of
y = ..Jf (x ) is below y = fix).

YEAR 11
Example 4
In each part, use the graph of th e given function to dra\v the graphs of y = .Jf (x ) and y 2
= j(x).
(a) Given y = x, draw (b) Given y = 2x + 1, draw (c) Given y = 1 - x, draw

y= ✓ x an d y 2 = x. y = ✓2x + l andy2 = 2x + 1. y = ✓l - x an d y = 1 - x.
2
)' )'
4 y =x 4
y=2x+ l
3 3
2 2
1 I
y= l - x
-4 - 3 - 2 - 1 l I 2 3 4 X -4 - 3 - 2 - I 2 3 4 X
-4 - 3 -2 - 1 O I 3 4 X
- 1
-2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
Solution
y ,
(a) The graph ofy =✓x is undefined for x < 0. 4
y =x,,
, ,
,
x=✓ x at x = 0, 1. Graphs intersect at (O, 0) and ( 1, 1). 3 ,,
,,
For O< x < 1, th e graph of y = ✓xis above the graph of y = x. 2
I ,
X
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1, I 2 3 4
, - 1
, ,, -2
,
,, -3
, ,,
, -4
,
2 2
The graph ofy = x is undefined for x < 0 as y cannot be negative. )'
y=x,,,
,
It has two branches, y = ✓x and y = - ✓x. 4

, , ,
2 3 , ,
y = x an d y = x intersect at (O, O) and ( 1, 1).
2
I
,,
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1, 0
,
_, X
, ,
, -2
, ,
, , -3
,, -4
,,

YEAR 11
(b) The graph of y =.J2x + 1 is undefined for x < - ~. y

,,
4
,, , y= 2x +l
2x + 1 = ✓2x + 1 at x = - ~, 0. Graphs intersect at (- ~ , 0) and (O, 1). 3
,, ,
For - ~ < x < 0, the graph of y = .J2x + 1 is above the graph of y = 2x + 1. 2
I
I
,o X
-4 -3 -2 - 1, I 2 3 4
r l
I
,I - 2
,I -3
, I
-4
, I
The graph of y- =2x + 1 is undefined for x < - .!..

2 4
y
I
,
, y= 2x +l
I
It has t\vo branches, y = .J2x + 1 and y = -.J2x + 1. 3 I

I
I
2
Graphs intersect at (- ~ , 0) and (O, 1).
I
I
I
I X
-4 -3 -2 - 1, I 2 3 4
r l
I
,I - 2
I
-3
,
I ' -4
I
(c) The graph of y =✓I - x is undefined for x > 1. ',y=1 - x Y

'' 4
1 -x = ✓1 - x at x = 0, 1. Graphs intersect at (O, 1) and (1, O). ' 3
For O< x < 1, the graph of y = ✓I - x is above the graph ofy = I - x.
''
-4 - 3 -2 - I O I ',2 3 4 X
- I ,
''
-2 ''
-3 ''
''
-4 '
2
The graph of y =1- x is undefined for x > 1.
It has two branches, y = ✓I - x and y = -.JI - x.
'' 3
Graphs intersect at (O, 1) and (1, 0).
-4 - 3 -2 1 ',2 3 4 X
''
''
''
-3 '
'
-4
''

YEAR 11
Example 5
(a) Given y = x2, draw (b) Given y = (x - 2)2, draw (c) Given y = (x + 2)(1 - x), draw
y= N and y =x
2 2
•
/ 2
y= \J(x-2) andy =(x - 2) .
2 2
y= ✓(x+ 2)( 1 -x ) and
y 2 =(x+ 2)(1-x).
y ) y
4 , 4
y = (x - 2) 2 4
y=x-
3 3 3
2 2
,-,-,.. y = (x + 2)(1 - x)
1 I I
- 4 - 3 -2 - 1 0
- 1
l 2 3 4 X _,
- 4 -3 -2 - I O I 2 3 4 X -4 - 3
_, 0
_, X
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
Solution
.
(a) The graph of y = N
is defined for all x . '' 4
)'
I
I
The function is never negative. ' I
The graphs intersect at (- 1, 1), (O, 0) and (1, 1).

'' 3
I
''
The resulting graph is the same as y =lxl.
I
2 I
'
' 1
'' ,,
-4 -3 -2 - 1 O I 2 3 4 X
- 1
-2
-3
-4
2
The graph ofy = x2 is defined for all x. '
y
y=i','
The graphs intersect at (-1, 1), (O, 0) and (1, 1). '' 4
' 3 ,I
The resultin g graph is the same as the graph of y =+x.
'
-2
-3
-4

YEAR 11
(b) The graph of y = ✓(x - 2) is defined for all x.

2 )' .
)' = (X - 2) 2 II
4
The function is never negative. I
The graphs intersect at (1, 1), (2, O) an d (3, 1). I

I
The resulting graph is the sa1ne as the graph of y =Ix- 21. 2

' , I
1 '
'' ,,
X
-4 - 3 -2 - 1 0 I 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
The graph of y2 = (x - 2)2 is defined for all x. )' .

' y = (x - 2) 2 :
4
The graphs intersect at (1, 1), (2, O) and (3, 1).
r=(x - 2) 2 3
The resulting graph is the same as the graph of y =+(x - 2). '
2 ' ,
'
1 ,
'' ,
X
-4 -3 -2 - 1 0 2 4
- 1
-2
3
-4
(c) The graph of y = ,J( x + 2)(1- x) is undefined for x < -2 an d x > 1. y
The maxin1um value of (x + 2) ( 1 - x ) is : and occurs at x =- !- 3

4
=- !.
y= (x+2)( 1 - x), t
The greatest value of J(x + 2)(1- x) is ; and occurs at x , '
' 1 ' y=.J(x+2)( 1 - x)
-2 < x < 1: 0 < y < 1.5.
_, 0
Further algebraic investigation sho\vs that the graph is a sen1icircle -4 - 3 .!2
I _, 1' 2 3 4
X
I '
in the upper half plane, centre (-0.5, 0), radius 1.5. I
-2
I
'
-3 '
I
I -4
2
The graph of y = (x + 2)( 1 - x ) is undefined for x <-2 and x > 1. y
4
-2<x< l:-l.5< y < 1.5.
3
Further algebraic investigation sho\vs that the graph is a circle, )' =(x + 2)(1 - x)
/ "'I \
centre (-0.5, O), radius 1.5. ,•,,---!..
I
-4 -3 7
I _, 0
_, 3 4
X
I -2
I
-3 '
'
-4 '
'

YEAR 11
Example 6
(a)
3
Given y = x , draw y = Hand y = x
2 3
• (b) Given y = x(x + l )(x - 2), dra\v y = ,Jx(x + l)(x - 2)
2
y and y = x(x + l)(x- 2).
4 )'
3 4
2 3
I 2
I
-4 - 3 - 2 - f I 2 3 4 X
X
-4 - 3 - 2 I 0 3 4
-2 -1
-3 -2
y=x(x+ l)(x - 2)
-4 -3
-4
(c) Given y = (2 -x)(x + 1)2, draw

(d) Given y=x + 2x + 1, draw y = ✓x + 2x + 1 and
3 2 3 2
y = ✓(2- x)(x + 1)2 and y = (2 - x)(x + 1)

2 2
.
12 =x 3 + 2x2 + 1.
Y y=(2 - x)(x+l) 2
4 y
4
3
y=x'+2x'+ I
2
I
-4 - 3 - 2 - Li0 I 3 4 X
-4 - 3 2 - L10
-2
-3 -2
-4 -3
-4
Solution
(a) The graph ofy = N is undefined for x < 0.

3 3
x =N at x = 0, 1. The curves intersect at (O, O) and (1 , 1).
2
I
,
- 4 -3 -2 -,i:f I 2 3 4 X
'- 2
'
'' - 3
'
' -4
2 3
The graph ofy = x is undefined for x < 0. y y=x';
4 '
The curves intersect at (O, O) and ( 1, 1). 3 ''
'
y2 = x3 is equivalent toy = +N. 2
''
I
,
- 4 - 3 -2 -l1
,o 2 3 4 X
''- 2
'
'' - 3
' -4
.'

YEAR 11
(b) The graph of y = .jx(x + l)(x - 2) is undefined for x < -1, 1 <x < 2. )'
The graphs meet at (- 1, O), (O, 0), (2, 0). 4

y=x(x+l)(x - 2) '
3 '
For x > 2, .jx(x + l )(x - 2) > x(x+ l)(x- 2) until the RHS becon1es
2
, y= -Jx(x+ l)(x - 2) '
greater than 1.
I
,'
- 4 - 3 - 2 -'I O ' l '2 3 4 X
I - } \ I
,
' -2 ' ,
-
'' -3
' -4
2
The graph of y = x(x + l )(x- 2) is undefined for x < -1, 1 < x< 2. y
4
The graphs meet at (- 1, O), (O, 0), (2, 0). y=x(x+ l )(x - 2) '
3 '
'
2
I
,'
- 4 - 3 -2 .,,,- 0 '' I 3 4 X
, ' ,I '
,' -2 '-
' -3
' -4
(c) The graph of y = ✓(2- x)(x + 1)2 is undefined for x > 2. )'
y = (2 - x)(x + 1)2
4
The maxin1um turning point of y = (2 - x)(x + 1)2 is (1, 4), so ' ,
' 3 ,
the 1naxin1u1n turning point of y = ✓(2- x)(x + 1) is (1, 2). '
2
y= V(2 - x)(x+ 1) 2 '
(-1 , O) is not called a turning point of y = ✓(2 - x )(x + 1) 2 because
at this point the curve changes sharply, not sn1oothly. Instead this -4 - 3 -2 - 1 O
-1
I J 3 4 X
point is called a cusp. -2

-3
-4
The graph of y 2 = (2 - x)(x + 1)2 is undefined for x > 2. )'

y= (2 - x)(x + 1)2
4 ,
The maxin1um turning point of y = (2 -x)(x + 1)2 is (1, 4), 3
,I ' '
2 ,, '
so the maxiinum turning point of y = (2 - x )(x + 1)2 is (1, 2) 2 _.,-, ',
and the n1inin1u1n turning point is (1, -2).
-4 - 3 - 2 I 3 4 X
y' = (2 - x)(x+ 1) 2
-2
-3
-4

YEAR 11
J
(d) The graph of y = x 3 + 2x 2 + 1 is undefined for x < -2.2
4
y
The graphs intersect at (-2.206, 0), (-2, 1) and (O, 1).
3
y=x3+2x2+ I ' y= ✓x'+i?+ I
, - ,2
' ,
, 0 4
- 4 -3 . 2 - L1 I 2 3 X
' -2
-3
-4
The graph of y2 = x3 + 2x2 + 1 is undefined for x < -2.2. )'

4
The graphs intersect at (-2.206, 0), (-2, 1) and (O, 1).
y= x3 +2r ' +l 3 '
I - , 2
, ,'
'
-4 - 3
-2
=x3+2x'+ I
-3
-4
.
I
EXERCISE 3.2 SQUARE ROOT FUNCTIONS

y
1 The graph of y = x - 2 is shown.
4
3
2
I
- 4 -3 -2 - L10
-2
3
-4
Which of the following represents the graph of y = '1x - 2?

A y B y C )' D y
3 3 3 3
2 , 2 , / /
, , / /
I , I , /
/
, /
/ / / /
/ / /
- 3 -2 - I O I,' 2 3 X -3 -2 - I O J,'2 3 X -3 -2 - 3 - 2 - IO J,'2 3 X

- I , -I , -I ,,
/
/
, /
/
-2 / -2 /
-2/
, / /
, ,.:'3 , , ,.:'3
, / , /
/

YEAR 11
2 The graph of y = 1 - x2 is shown. y

4
3
2
I
-4
2 2
Which of the follo\ving represents the graph of y =1 - x?
A y 8 )' C )' D )'
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
, I , I
I ' I ' ' ' I ' '
' ' ' ' '
' 0 ' X ,o X , o X X
I '' I '' I'
- 3 - 2 rl I 2 3 - 3 -2 rl 2 3 -3 - 2 ,J 2 3 - 3 -2 10 2 3
' - I '
'' ,' ' '' ,
-I
'
' -2 '' ,' -2 ' '' -2
'
, -2
'
' '
-3 '1 ,'
-3 -3 -3 1
'
3 The graph of y = x(2 -x)(x + 1) is shown. )'
4
3
2
I
X
- 4 - 3 -2 - Li I 3 4
-2
-3
-4
Which of the follo\ving represents the graph of y 2 =x(2 - x)(x + 1)?
A y 8 )' C )' D )'

3 ' 3 3
' '
I' 2 2 2
I
' I
' I '
I I
I
I
,, I '
I
'
\O
- 3 - 2 - 1'0'
-I
I 2
'
3
X
-3 - 3
X
-3 - 3
X
- 3 -2
- I
I 3
X
'' '
-2 '1 -2 ' -2 -2 '
'
-3 -3 ' -3 -3
' '
'
4 Given the graph ofy = x + 2, draw: 5 Given the graph ofy = (x + 1)2, dra\v:
(a) y= ✓x+2 y= ✓(x+ 1) 2
2 2
(b) y =x+2 (a) (b) y =x+ 1
y )'
4 4
3 3
2 2
I
- 2 - IO
-I
I 2 3 4 X
-4 -3 -2 -1P I 2 3 4 x
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4

YEAR 11
6 Given the graph of y = (x + 2)(2 - x), draw: 7 Given the graph of y = x(x - l )(x + 3), draw:
2 2
(a) y= -./(x+2)(2-x) (b) y =(x+2)(2-x) (a) y=-./x(x- l)(x+3) (b) y =x(x- l)(x + 3)
y y
4 6
3 5
2 4
I
--4 - 3 -t,0 I 3 4
X
I
-2
-3 -4 -
-4
3 2
8 Given the graph of y = x + 3x + 1, draw: 9 Given the graph of y = ( 1 -x)(x + 2)2, dra\v:
(a) y = ✓x 3 + 3x 2 + 1 2 3
(b) y = x + 3x + 1
2
(a) y = .J(1 - x )(x + 2)
2 2
(b) y = (1 - x)(x + 2)2
y y
5 5
--4 3 -2 -t,0 - 4 - 3 -2 -t? 2 3 4 X
-2 -2
-3 -3
3 2
10 Given the graph of y = 2 + 3x - x , draw: 11 Given the graph of y =x + 2x + 2, draw:
(a) y= ✓2 + 3x-x 3 2
(b) y =2+3x-x
3
(a) y= ✓x 2 + 2x+2 2 2
(b) y =x +2x+2
)' )'
6 7
4 6
2 5
4
-6 -4 -2 0 4 6 X
-2 3
-4 2
-6
-4 - 3 - 2 -t 10 I 2 3 4
X
2
12 Given the graph of y =-x + 2x - 2, draw: )'
4
(a) y= ✓-x +2x-2 2
3
2
(b) y =-x + 2x - 2 2
I
X
-4 - 3 - 2 - 1 O I 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
SO New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12

YEAR 11
3.3 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTIONS

Given the graph of y =f(x), it is often useful or necessary to dra,v the graphs of the absolute value functions
y =If( x )I and y = J(lxl) . S01netimes these graphs ,viii be the san1e, but not always.
y =If( x )I is defined ,vherever fix) exists. If( x )I>0 if -oo < fix) < If( x )I>0 wherever fix) < 0. 00•
y = J(I xi) is the same as y = fix) for x > 0, but different for x < 0.
Example 7
In each part, use the graph of the given function to draw the graph of y =If( x )I and the graph of y = J(I xi).
(a) Given the graph of y = x, draw (b) Given the graph ofy = 2x + 1, (c) Given the graph of y = 1 - x,
Y =lxl. draw y =l2x + 11and y = 2lxl + 1. dra,v y =11- xi and y = 1- lxl.
y y )'
4 y=x 4 4
3 3 3
2 2
I I y=l - x
- 4 - 3 -2 - I I 2 3 4 X -4 - 3 - 2 - 1 O I 3 4 X
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
Solution
y
(a) The graphs are the sa1ne for x > 0. 4
y = lxl
lxl > 0 for all x. 3
2
I
-4 - 3 -2 -lf
,
I 2 3 4 X
,
,, -2
// -3
I
// y =x -4
,I
(b) The graphs of y = 2x + 1an d y =l2x + 11are the sa1ne for x >- 21.
I2x + ll > 0 for all x.
The graphs ofy =2x + 1and y = 2lxl + 1are the sa1ne for x >0.
I2x + ll > 1 for all x.
)' = 2lxl + I
,,
I
-4 -3 -2
,o X ,o X
- J, I 2 3 4 - 4 - 3 - 2 - ,-
~1 I 2 3 4
,-1
y =2x + l' y =2x+l'
,, - 2 ,, - 2
, ,
,
, -3 ,I -3
, -4 ,I -4
I
, , I

YEAR 11
(c) The graphs of y = I - x and y = II -xi are the same for x < 1.
I1 - x i > 0 for all x.
The graphs of y = I - x and y = I - lx l are the san1e for x > 0.
1- lx l< l
y ' y
4
'' 4
''
3 y= l - x ' , 3
2
' ',2
I
- 4 - 3 -2 - 1 0 I ' ,2 3 4 X
I 3 4 X
- 1 '
''
-2 '' -2
-3 y= l - x' ' , -3 Y=I - lxl
'
-4 ' -4
Example 8
(a) Given the graph of y = x2, (b) Given the graph ofy = (x-2)2, (c) Given the graph of y = (x + 2)(1 - x) ,
2
I
draw y = lx and y = lxf.
2
dra\vy = l(x-2 ) 1and dra\vy = l(x + 2)(1-x and )I
)' y= (l xl-2J2. y=(lxl+ 2)(1- lxl).
4 y=x2 y
)
3 4
4
2 3
3
y = (x + 2)( I - x)
I 2
I
I
-4 - 3 - 2 -t,0
0 X
-2 -4 - 3 -2 -t? -4 -3 2 -t i I 2 3 4
-3 -2
-2
-4 -3
-3
-4
-4
Solution
(a) The graphs of y = lx 2 and y = I I xf are the srune as (b) The graphs of y = (x - 2) 2 and y = l(x - 2)2 1are
the original graph y = x2• th e sa1ne.
By the definition, lx l= ✓x2 so lxf = x The graphs of y = (x - 2) 2 and y = (l x l- 2) 2 are the
2
•
same for x > 0.
)'
4 y=x2 There is a cusp at (O, 4). x = 0 is an axis of syn1n1etry.
3 <lx l-2J2> 0
2 y = (x - 2) 2 t
I 5
y = <lxl - 2J' 4
_, 0
-4 -3 - 2 _, I 2 3 4
X
3
-2
-3
-4 X
- 4 - 3 - 2 _, O I 2 3 4
-I
-2
-3

YEAR 11
(c) The graphs of y = (x + 2)(1 -x) and y = l(x + 2)(1-x )Iare the san1e )'
for-2 <x< 1. 4
There is a cusp at (-2, 0) and ( 1, O). 3
. f
x = - 1 1s
.
an aXJs o syn1n1etry.
2 I
- 4 - 3 .2 0 2
X
- Li I' 3 4
' '
' -2
''
'' ' -3 '
' '
'' -4 ''
The graphs of y = (x + 2)(1 -x) and y = (lxl+ 2)(1 - lx l) are the )'
same for x > 0. 4

3
(lx l+ 2) (1 - lx l) < 2. (O, 2) is not a turning point.
)' = (x + 2 )(1 - x) )' = (lxl + 2)( I - lxl)
x = 0 is an axis of sy1n1netry. , ,i-
'
'
- 4 - 3 .2
'' ' -2
' -3
'' -4
''
'
Example 9
3
I
(a) Given the graph of y = x , draw y = lx 3 and y = Ix 1 .
3
(b) Given the graph of y = x(x + l)(x- 2), draw
)' y = lx(x + l)(x - 2)1and y = lx l(lx l + 1)(lx l - 2 ).
4
)'
3
4
2
3
I
2
I
-4 - 3 - 2 -
X
-2 - 4 -3 -2 10 3 4
-I
-3 -2
-4 -3
-4
3 2
(c) Given the graph of y = (2 - x)(x + 1)2, dra\v (d) Given the graph of y = x + 2x + 1, draw
3 2
y= 1<2-x)(x + 1)2 Iandy= ( 2-lx l)(lx l + 1)2.
3 2
y= lx +2x + 11andy= lx l + 2lx l + 1.
)'
)' y=(2 - x)(x+l) 2
4
3
y=x3+2x'+1
2
I
- 4 - 3 -2 -Li° I 3 4 X -4 -3 2 - Li
0
I 2 3 4
X
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
Ch apter 3 Graphing functions 53

YEAR 11
Solution
(a) x
3
=Ix 3 Ifor x > 0, i.e. the curves are identical for x > 0. )'
4
Also x
3
=Ix1for x > 0, i.e. the curves are identical for x > 0.
3
)'= !xi' 3
3
The graph ofy =lxl
is the srune as the graph of y =lx3 I. 2
I
They are both the solid line in the graph.
-4 - 3 - 2 -~,or l
I 2 3 4
X
'' - 2
y =x': - 3
''' -4
(b) For y = l x(x + l)(x - 2)1:

4
)'
The graphs n1eet at (-1, O), (O, O), (2, O).

3
The graphs are the srune for -1 < x < 0 aJ1d x > 2.
lx(x + l)(x - 2)1> 0 for all x.
I O \ ~ 3 4 X
-4 - 3 - 2 , 1 I , I ,,_
'- '
'' -2 ' ''''
'' - 3
-4
For y =lxl(lxl +1)(lxl- 2): )'
The graphs 1neet at (O, 0), (2, 0) aJ1d (-✓2 ,-2 ). This last point caJ1 be solved 4
3
using graphing sofuvare.
2
The graphs are the srune for x > 0. There is a cusp at (O, O). I
lxl(lxl +l )(lxl-2) >-2. ' '
X
-4 - 3 - 3 4
'' - 3
-4
•'
(c) Fory= l<2-x)(x+ 1)2 I: y
The graphs are the srune for x < 2.

1(2- x)(x + 1)2 1> 0. (2, 0) is a cusp.
(-1, 0) is a n1inin1u1n turning point, ( 1, 4) is a 1naximun1
turning point.
-4 - 3 - 2 - I O
-I
I 3 3 4 X
-2
-3
-4
'I
''
•

YEAR 11
y
Fory= (2-lxl)(lxl+1}2: 4
The graphs are the sa1ne for x > 0. '
'
The curves also intersect at (-✓ 3 , 2). 2 ,
(O, 2) is a cusp. (-1, 4) and ( 1, 4) are n1aximun1 turning points. '
'' I,,I
'
(2-lxl)(lxl +1)2 <4 -4 -3 - -I 0 I 3 4 X
-I
-2
-3
-4
(d) For y= lx3+2x2 +11: 4

)'
The graphs are the sa1ne for about x > -2.2. 3

(-2.2, O) is a cusp. (O, 1) is a n1inin1u1n turning point. (-1.33, 2.19) is a 2
n1aximun1 turning point.
I
X
- 4 - 3 ~2 - I 0 I 2 3 4
-I
,'
-2
,,
-3
-4
3 2
For y= lxl +2lxl +1: )'
The graphs are the sa1ne for x > 0. 4
lxl3 +2lx 2 +1> 1

1
Y =x'+2.x2+ 1, ,
3
Y = lxl' + 2lxl2 + I
(O, 1) is a minimum turning point. ,
'
- 4 - 3 ~2 - I O I 2 3 4 X
, -I
-2
-3
-4
EXERCISE 3.3 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTIONS
1 The graph of y = x + 2 is shown. )'

4
2
I
-4 -3 - 2 - I O I 2 3 4 X
-I
-2
-3
-4

YEAR 11
Which of the following represents the graph of y = Ix + 21?

A y B y C )'
I
I D y
I
I
3 3 3 I
'' I
''
'
2 2 ' 2
' '
' '1 1 , '1
I ' I
I
'
I '
I
X I X X X
- 3, - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 - 3 ✓ -2 -1 0 1 2 3 2 3 - 3... ,,- 2 - 1 0 1 2 3
-1 ' -1 -1
'
''
I I
I I
-2 I
-2 ' -2
-3 -3 -3 -3
2 The graph of y =(x - 1)2 is shown. y

4
- 4 - 3 -2 -t,0
-2
-3
-4
Which of the following represents the graph of y = (lxl- 1)2?

A ·,r B >' C D .
·~
)' ,
,' '';i ,
,
2'' , 2,'
,, '
' I
I
'
I I 1 1
,' I '
'' I '' ,
_, 0 _, 0
-3 -2 _, 1 2 3
X
-3 - 2 _, I 2 3
X
- 3 -2 - 1 0
- 1
1 2 3
X
- 3 -2 - 1 0
-1
I 2 3
X
-2 -2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3 -3
y
3 The graph of y =x(x + 2)2 is sho,vn.
4
3
2
I
X
-4 -3 -2 I 2 3 4
-2
-3
-4
Which of the following represents the graph of y = lxl(Ixi + 2 )2?

A Y, B Y, C )' D y
3 ' ' 3
2 ,' 2 ,' 2 2
I I
, ' 0 , ' I
'
~~/ ~~~'
X X X X
- 3 1- 2 ~ I _ 1 1 2 3 - 3 ,' - 2 1 2 3 - 3 ,'- 2 I 2 3 - 3 1'- 2 ' ~J -0 / 1 2 3
, 'v'
, , ,, 'v'
, -2
, -2 -2
, -2
,'
,' -3 ,' -3 -3 ,' -3
'
'

YEAR 11
4 Given the graph of y = x - 2, draw: 5 Given the graph of y = (x + 2)2, dra,v:

(a) y = lx-21 (b) y= lxl-2 (a) y = l(x + 2)2 1 (b) y =(lxl+ 2}2
y y
4
6
3 5
2
4
I
X
-4 - 3 - 2 - I 0 I 2 3 4
-I
-2
X
3 -4 -3 -2 - I O I 2 3 4
-I
-4 -2
6 Given the graph of y = (x- 1)(2 -x) , dra,v: 7 Given the graph of y = x(x - l)(x + 2), draw:
(a) y= l(x- 1)(2-x)I (a) y = lx(x- 1)(x + 2)1
(b) y=(lxl-1)(2- lxD (b) y= lxl(lxl-l)~xl+ 2)
y
y
4
4
3
3
2
2
I
I
-4 - 3 - 2 - I O
-4 - 3 - -I 0
-I
I 2 3 4
X
-I
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
3 2
8 Given the graph of y = (x - 3)(x- 2)(x + 1), draw: 9 Given the graph ofy = x + x + 1, draw:
(a) y = l(x -3)(x-2)(x + l )I (a) y = lx 3 + x 2 + 11 (b) y= lxi3 +1xf + l
(b) y=(lxl-3)~xl-2)(1x + l) y
4
y
6 3
5 2
-4 -3 -2 - I O I 2 3 4 X
2 -I
I -2
-3
X
-4 - 3 - 2 - - 10 4 -4
-2

YEAR 11
10 Given the graph of y = -'2 + 2:x!- + 1, draw: 11 Given the graph of y =:x!- + 2x + 2, draw:
3
(a) y = l-x + 2x + 11
2
(b) y= - lxr + 21xF + 1 (a) y= lx 2 +2x+21 (b) y= lxf + 2lxl+2
y y
4 6
3 5
2
X
-4 - 3 -2 - 1 O 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
- 4 - 3 -2 - 1 O l 2 3 4 X
-3 - 1
-4 -2
12 Given the graph of y = -x2 + 2x - 2, draw:

(a) y = l-x 2 +2x-21 (b) y= -l xf +2lxl-2
y
4
3
2
X
-4 - 3 -2 - 1 O 1 2 3 4
- 1
-2
3.4 GRAPHING POLYNOMIALS BY ADDING ORDINATES

Given the graphs of two polynonlial functions y = fix) and y = g(x), the graph of a ne\v function y =fix)+ g(x) can be
obtained by a process of adding the ordinates for each x value. This process is den1onstrated in the following exan1ples.
Example 10 )'
The graphs of y = fix) and y = g(x) are sho\vn. 20
By dra\ving vertical lines and adding ordinates, draw the graph 16

of y =fix)+ g(x). Comment on the ne\v curve.
12
X
1 2 3 4 5
-4

YEAR 11
Solution
On the diagram, vertical lines are dra\vn through iinportan t points )'
such as turning points, points where a curve cuts the axes, an d points 20
where the curves intersect. ' '

'. 16
',,' ,'
On each vertical line, the intercepts of the two curves are added "t
~' )' =g(x) . ,,''

to find the position of a new point, which is 1narked on the line. 12 ,'
These new points are then joined to obtain y =fix)+ g(x). ', '
', '
,l'I ' -
8
The solid curve is the graph ofy =fix) + g(x). 1 I ..,
'
This curve is above y = g(x) to the right of x = - 1, and below y = g(x) to \ . 4
;
:/
,, /
I
.,.
I J.,..
_.. I,.. ., I )'
I I
=J\X )
R
the left of x = - 1. They intersect at x = -1. y = f(x) + g(x) cuts the x-axis ' '' ,,
,- I I I I
' ',,
at (-1, O) an d (O, 0). -s
I
-4 _ -..:l- ~i -i
"(} .,
- I
- -4
Example 11
The graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x) are shown. )'
By drawing vertical lines an d addin g ordin ates, draw the graph

of y =fix) + g(x) . Co1n1nent on the new curve. y= f(x)
Solution
On the diagram, vertical lines are dra\vn through iinportant
' ' ''
\
y '
,,
points such as turning points, points where a curve cuts the axes ' '' '' ,,'
and points \Vhere the curves intersect. ''•
On each vertical line, the intercepts of the two curves are ' ,
' "" ' y = fix ) + g(_.j
added to find the position of a new point, which is marked on the ' ' ,
,
line. These new points are then joined to obtain y =f(x) + g(x). ' \
,,
The solid curve is the graph ofy =fix) + g(x). '
\ ,, ,
y= fix)'' t
\
,
This curve is above y =fix) to the right of its turning point, and '
I\ I /
, ,'y = g(x)
belo\v y =g(x) to the left of its turning point.
\
' "' , ,
-
\ t I 11' '
,, '
" ,' ' '
X
t '' ''
t ,_, ,
' ''
t
' ''
''

YEAR 11
Example 12
The graphs of y = fix) and y = g(x) are sho\vn. )'
By dra\ving vertical lines and adding ordinates, draw the graph 20

of y =f(x) + g(x). Comm ent on the ne\v curve.
15
10
-4 -3 -10
Solution
O n the diagran1, vertical lines are dra\vn through important points, such as )'
turning points, points \Vhere a curve cuts the axes and points where the 20
curves intersect.
O n each vertical line, th e intercepts of the two curves are added to find 15
the position of a ne\v point, which is 1narked o n the line. These new points
are then jo ined to obtain y =fix ) + g(x). J' = fix) +.g(.r)Jo
'
I I I ''
I I
The solid curve is the graph of y =f(x) + g(x). .., -.
._ .._ ..,
I I
I
1
I
y =f(x) - ,,, ,5
The ne\v curve is above y =g(x) for x < 4, p assing through (O, 6). They I ,f... ,.,. ~
I / I I
intersect at x = 4, and y = fix) + g(x) is just below y = g(x) for x > 4. II I 1
' '
-4 - 3 ~2 ~ I O I . 2 3- 4' -x
= = = = = = =10
Graph ing polynomials by adding ord inates
Use graphing software to verify the add ition of ordinates for combined polynomial graphs.
EXERCISE 3.4 GRAPHING POLYNOMIALS BY ADDING ORDINATES
1 The graphs o f y = fix ) and y = g(x) are sho\vn . By drawing vertical lin es and adding ordinates, dra\v the graph
of y =f(x) + g(x). Comment on th e ne\v curve.
~ (~ ~
)' y )'
14 14 y= g(x ) 10
12 12 8
10 10
8 4
6 2
4
-I 0 4 X
2 -2
X
-4 - 3 -2 I 2 3 4
-6
-4 -8

YEAR 11
(d) (e) (f)

y )'
8 6 y = g(x)
6 y = g(x)
4
2
X
-1 0
-2
- 4 - 3 -2
-4
-6
-8
y= fix)
-8 - 10
2 2
2 On the same diagra1n, sketch the graphs of y = x + 2x and y = I - 2x. Use these graphs to sketchy= x + 1.
2 3 3 2
3 On the same diagra1n, sketch the graphs of y = x - 2x and y = x . Use these graphs to sketch y = x + x - 2x.
2 3 3 2
4 On the san1e diagran1, sketch the graphs of y = x - 3x and y = x - 3x. Use these graphs to sketchy= x + x - 6x.
5 The graphs of y = x 2 - 2x + 4 and y = x3 - 2x are sho\vn. y
-3 - 2 - 1 O 2 3 X
-1
-2
3 2
Which diagra1n represents the graph of y = x + x - 4x + 4?
A >' 8 >' C y D
5 8 5
4 4
3 3 3
5 2 2
4 1 1
3
0 X
-3 - 2
-1
1 2 3 2 -3 - -1 0
-1
1 2 3
X
-3 - -1 0
-1
1 2 3
X
- -2 - 1 0
- 1
1 2 3
X
3.5 GRAPHING POLYNOMIALS BY MULTIPLYING ORDINATES

Given the graphs of two polynon1ial functions, y = f(x) and y = g(x), the graph of a new function y = f(x)g(x) can be
obtained by a process of multiplying the ordinates for each x value. This process is den1onstrated in the follo\ving
examples.

YEAR 11
y
Example 13 II
The graphs ofy = j(x) and y = g(x) are sho\vn. By drawing vertical lines and 10 y= g(x)
n1ultiplying ordinates, dra\v the graph ofy =j(x)g(x). Co1n1nent on the new curve. 9
8
7
6
5
-3
Solution
On the diagran1, vertical lines are dra\vn through important points, such y I
'I II y =f(x) x) ;
as turning points, points \Vhere a curve cuts the axes, points where the curves I
10 I
intersect, and points where the function value is 1 or -1. ', )' =g(x) 9 I
I
I
On each vertical line, the intercepts of the two curves are 1nultiplied to find '. 8 I
I
the position of a ne\v point, which is 1narked on the line. I 7 I '
I ,
6 '
'I I' ,,
• x= -2: Ordinates are 3 and-1, so 3 x (-1) =-3. The point onj(x)g(x) I 5 ' ,,
I I , R
is (-2, -3). 4 I,," y=)\X)
'I
': I 2 , ,. ,'•:/'..
3
• x = -1: Ordinates are Oand 0, so the point on j(x)g(x) is (-1, 0).
:: 'I
• x= 0: Ordinates are -1 and 1, so (-1) x 1 = -1. The point onfix)g(x) is (O, -1). ,, : ' /
.: ' 1...
', .' . • I :
This 1nakes (-1, O) a local maxiinum turning point. ,

' , I 2 3 4 X
- 4 - 3 -:v '
- 1
• x = 1: Ordinates are Oand 2, so the point on j(x)g(x) is (1, 0). ,
,, ,, '
'
-2
, , '
• x = 2: Ordinates are 3 and 3, so 3 x 3 = 9. The point on fix)g(x) is (2, 9). ,,
, -3
• x = 0.5: Ordinates are approximately-0.8 and 1.5 (-0.8) x 1.5 = -1.2.
A point on j(x)g(x) is (-0.5, -1.2). The n1inimun1 turning point of y =f(x) g(x) will be near this point.
The ne\v points are joined to obtain y =f(x)g(x).
The solid curve is the graph of y =j(x)g(x).
As x ➔ oo,fix)g(x) ➔ oo. As x ➔ -oo,f(x)g(x) ➔ -oo.
)'
Example 14 8
The graphs of y = fix) and y = g(x) are sho\vn. By drawing vertical lines
and multiplying ordinates, dra\v the graph of y =j(x)g(x). Co1n1nent on
the new curve. y= g(x)
2
y= f(x)
3 4 5 X
-2
-4

YEAR 11
Solution
On the diagram, dra,v vertical lines through in1portant points, such as turning I I
y
0 I
points, points where a curve cuts the axes, where the curves intersect, and I I
8
'
points where the function value is 1 or - 1. ' '
I I
I
' I
I I 6
Multiply the intercepts on these vertical lines of the hvo curves and mark a I
,..
I
ne,v point. I• '

I I •
': I '
,...'
\ :,4
Where the horizontal line y = 1 intersects a curve it shows the x value for \ ': ,: '
\ :: ~ '. '
which the product of the two functions is the san1e as the other function \ : : :\ I
,\ .:' .:i·' '

value. '
•
•
\, • '
' \
\ I
I
I
_ _ _ __ __1 · ~ - - .. ... - --1 ~ !, ____ _ _

Where the horizontal line y =-1 intersects a curve it shows the x value for :, ' :
: :
: ,:
: ,, ...
,: ~{
. ,,. ' :
which the product of the two functions has the opposite sign to the other - ,p :'
. . 2 3 4 5 X
1
-3 -2 lL. -'- J.
function value. ,\ ' ' I
' : :/
i \
,
• x =-1: Ordinates are Oand 4.5, so the point onf(x)g(x) is (-1, O). y =/(x) gl.x)
• x= 0: Ordinates are-2 and 2, so (-2) x 2 =-4. The point onf(x)g(x) is (O, -4).
• x = 1: Ordinates are -2 and 0.5, so (-2) x 0.5 = - 1.5. The point on f(x)g(x)
is(l,-1.5).
• x =2: Ordinates are Oand 0, so the point on f(x) g(x) is (2, O).
• x = 3: Ordinates are 4 and 0.5, so 4 x 0.5 = 2. The point on f(x)g(x) is (3, 2).
Join the points to obtain y =f(x)g(x).
The solid curve is the graph ofy =f(x)g(x).
The new curve is a quartic, the product of t\vo quadratic functions. It is positive where the original functions
both have the same sign, zero where at least one of them is zero, and negative where only one of the functions is
negative. At (2, O), where both f(x) and g(x) are zero,f(x) g(x) has a horizontal point of inflection.
Example 15
)'
The graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x) are shown. By dra,ving vertical lines
6
and 1nultiplying ordin ates, draw the graph of y =f(x) g(x) . Comn1ent
5
on the new curve.
4
y =g(x)
- 3 - 2 _, 4 5 X
- I 2
2
3
-s
-6

YEAR 11
Solution
On the diagran1, draw vertical lines through iinportant points, such as )' I
I
turnmg points, points ,vhere a curve cuts the axes, ,vhere the curves 6 I
' ' .)'=fix) y =gl.x),:,.
5
mtersect, and points where the function value is 1 or - 1. '
'
''
'' 4
y =f(x) gl.x)
Multiply the intercepts on these vertical lines of the hvo curves and n1ark a '' '
' ,: ,3 : '
new point : '
.: 2 : '
: '
Where the horiwntal lme y = 1 intersects a curve it sho,vs the x value for which I '' : '
the product of the two functions is the san1e as the other function value. .: '
' ...: ' -'''
--
Where the horizontal line y =-1 intersects a curve it sho,vs the x value for - 3 - 2 - ir
X
which the product of the two functions has the opposite sign to the other ...
.. '
'
'
'
function value.
:~'
'' '
'
'
' ''
• x = - 1: Ordinates are 3 and -4, so the point on J{x)g(x) is (-1,-12). 1
'' :
'
., '
''
~ ':t l
• x = 0: Ordinates are 2 and 2, so 2 x 2 = 4. The point on J{x)g(x) is (O, 4). ' ',' ' I
• x = 1: g( l ) = 0, so J{x)g(x) = 0 and cuts the x-axis at ( 1, O).
• x = 2: }{2) = 0, so f(x)g(x) = 0 and cuts the x -axis at (2, O).
• x = 3: Ordinates are (-1) and (-4), so (-1) x (-4) = 4. The point onj{x)g(x) is (3, 4).
• x = 4: Ordinates are (-2) and 6, so (-2) x 6 = - 12. The point on J{x)g(x) is (4, -12).
g(x) cuts the x -axis again at 0.6 and 3.6, so J{x)g(x) = 0 and cuts the x -axis at (-0.6, O) and (3.6, 0).
Drawing x = 1.5 will help locate the turning point which is at approximately ( 1.5, - 1).
Join the points to obtain y =f(x)g(x).
The solid curve is the graph of y =J{x)g(x) .
The ne,v curve is a quartic, the product of a linear and a cubic function. It is positive where the original functions
both have the san1e sign, zero where one of them is zero, and negative where only one of the functions is negative.
As x ➔ +oo,f(x)g(x) ➔ -<X>. It has a greatest value of 4, which occurs at x = 0 and x = 3.
- - - - - - - - = = = = = = =10
Graphing polynomials by multiplying ordinates
Use graphing software to verify the multiplication of ordinates for combined polyn omial graphs.
EXERCISE 3.5 GRAPHING POLYNOMIALS BY MULTIPLYING ORDINATES
1 The graphs of y = J{x) and y = g(x) are sho,vn. By drawing vertical lines and n1ultiplying ordinates, draw the
graph ofy =J{x) g(x). Con1n1ent on the new curve.
(a) )' (b) )' (c) )'
6 6 10
)' = g(x)
5 5 )'=fix)
4 4 5
3 3
2 2
1 1
-s
- 3 -2 - 1 0
- 1
1
)'=fix)
2 3
X
-3 - - 1 0
- 1
3
X
- 10
-4 -4 - 15
-5 -s

YEAR 11
(d) y (e) y (f) y

20 10 5
y = g(x)
8 y = g(x) 4
10 6 3
4
2
y = /(x)
X
-4 - 3 -2 -
-4 - 3 0
- t2
- 10 -2 -I I0 2 4 5
X
- 20 2
-8 3
- 10 4
- 12 -5
- 14 -6
-7
2 On the same diagra1n, sketch the graphs of y = x?- and y = I - x. Use these graphs to sketch y= x 2 - x3.
3 4 3
3 On the same diagra1n, sketch the graphs of y = x - 2 and y = x • Use these graphs to sketch y= x - 2x •
2 2
4 On the same diagra1n, sketch the graphs of y = x - 3x and y = x - 1. Use these graphs to sketch
2 2
y = (x - 3x)(x - 1).
2
5 The graphs of y = x + 4 and y = x - 2x are shown.
-4
2
Which diagra1n represents the graph of y = (x + 4)(x - 2x)?
A )' B y C )' D y
8 8 8 8
6 6 6
4
2 2
-2 0 2
X
2
X
-2
X
-2 0 2
X
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
-8 -8 -8

YEAR 11
3.6 PARAMETRIC FORM OF A FUNCTION OR RELATION

It is often useful in m athem atics to express two related variables (e.g. x and y) in terms of a third variable
(e.g. tor 0) , so that, for exa1nple: x = f(t) , y = g(t) or x = f(0), y = g(0)
Equations like these are called parametric equations and the third variable ( e.g. tor 0) is called the parameter.
For exa1nple, recall that the function s cosine and sine can b e defined as the x - and y -coordinates respectively of a
point on the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1. Thus the unit circle can be represented by the paran1etric equations:
x = cos 0, y = sin 0
2 2
where 0 is the para1neter. When the unit circle is described by the equation x + y = 1, it is said to b e in
Cartesian forn1.
Example 16
Find the Cartesian equ ation of the curve and describe it in word s, given the p aran1etric equations:
(a) X = t, y = t + 1 (b) x = 2t - 1, y = 3t + 2.
Solution
(a) x= t,y= t + 1
Make t the subject of the equation in x: t = x
Substitute in the equ ation for y: y = x + 1
The parametric equation s represent a straight line \Vith gradien t 1 and y -in tercept 1.
(b) x = 2t - 1, y = 3t + 2
Make t the subject of the equation in x: 2t = x + 1
t = x+ l
2
Substitute in the equ ation for y: y = 3 x x; 1

+2
2y=3x + 3 + 4
3x-2y+7=0
The parametric equation s represent a straight line \Vith gradien t 1.5 and y -intercept 3.5.
Example 17
Find the Cartesian equ ation of the curve whose p ara1netric equation s are x = 1 + t, y = t2.
Solution
x= l +t [ 1l
l
s
y=r [2)
4
Fro1n [ 1): t = x - 1
Substitute in to [2): y = (x- 1)2
Hence the Cartesian equation is y = (x - 1)2 I
and the graph is th e parabola sh own. - 4 - 3 -2 - I O I 2 3 4 X
-I
Example 18
Find the Cartesian equ ation of the curve whose p ara1netric equation s are x = 1 + t, y = t2, t > 0.

YEAR 11
Solution
y
As in Exan1ple 17, these parametric equations give the Cartesian equation 6
y = (x - 1)2, but there is now also the condition t > 0. 5
4
x = 1 + t and t > 0, so the condition is equivalent to x > 1.
3
Hence the Cartesian equation is y = (x - 1)2 with the domain 2
restricted to x > 1, as shown. I
-4 - 3 - 2 - I O I 2 3 4 X
-I
Example 19
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve \Vhose paran1etric equations are given by x = 2 sin 0, y = 2 cos 0.
Describe the curve in \Vords and sketch its graph.
Solution
Recall the Pythagorean identity: sin 2 0+ cos 2 0= 1. y
3
2 2
· 0 X , 20 2
cos0 = Y2' so cos 0 = L4 .
Sill = - SO Sill = -X
2' 4 I
xi 2
Hence, using the identity: - 1
+- =l -3 - -I 0 I 3
X
4 4 - I
or x2 + y2=4
The curve is a circle with centre at the origin and radius 2. -3
Example 20
Write each Cartesian equation in para1netric form.
(a) 3x + y - 3 = 0 (b) x2 =4(y-3)
Solution
There 1nay be n1ore that one set of paran1etric equations for each Cartesian equation, depending on how the
parameter is defined for x and y.
(a) Method 1 Method 2
Re\vrite the equation: y = 3 - 3x Rewrite the equation: y = 3( 1 - x)
Let t = x: y = 3 - 3t Let t = 1 - x: y = 3t
The paran1etric equations are x = t and y = 3 - 3t. The parametric equations are x = 1 - t and y = 3t.
2
(b) Re\vrite the equation: (;) =y-3
Method 1 Method 2 ,
2 Rewrite the equation: x-, =4(y-3)
Let t =
X
: t =y - 3
2 Let t= x: C=4(y-3)
x=2t y= t2 + 3 t2
The parrunetric equations are x = 2t and y = t2 + 3. y= - +3
4
2
The parametric equations are x = t and y = t + 3.
4
Chapter 3 G raphing functions 67

YEAR 11
(c) The equation is the sum of l\vo squares, ,vhich suggests that the identity sin 2 0 + cos 2 0 = 1 may be useful.
2
( x-1)2 (y + 2)
Rewrite the equation:
9
+
9
=1
Method 1
Y + 2 = cos 0
Let x - 1 = sin 0 and -'---
3 3
x = 3 sin 0 + 1 y = 3 cos 0- 2
The paran1etric equations are x = 3 sin 0 + 1 and y = 3 cos 0- 2.
Method2
Swapping the position of sin 0 and cos 0 would give different paran1etric equations.
Example 21
Sketch the graph of each curve fron1 its panunetric equations.
(a) x = t + 2, y = 2t (b) x = 2t, y = 2t2 (c) x = 2 sin 0, y = 2 cos 0
Solution
Either use graphing soft,vare or dra,v up a table of values and plot points.
)'
(a)
t -2 -1 0 0 X
-2 -I I 2
X 0 1 2 -I
y -4 -2 0
-2
-3
-4
(b) -2 -1
)'
t 0 1 2 9
8
X -4 -2 0 2 4 7
6
y 8 2 0 2 8
5
4
3
2
I
X
-4 - 3 -2 - I 0 I 2 3 4
(c)
0 0 -11: -11: -TC -TC -2rr: -311: -Srr: 11:
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
x=2sin0 0 1 ✓2 ✓3 2 ✓3 ✓2 0.5 0
y= 2cos0 2 ✓3 ✓2 1 0 - 1 -✓2 -✓3 - 1

YEAR 11
)'
This table gives the right half of the graph of the relation. By changing the
3
signs on values as the quadrant for 8 changes, the left half n1ay be graphed
-3 - -10 I 3 X
-1
-3
Parametric equations of the parabola

2
The parabola x = 4ay can be represented by the paran1etric equations: x = 2at, y = at2
This can be verified by eli1ninating the parameter: x = 2at [ l)

y=at2 [2)
X
From [l): t= -
2a
Substituteinto[2): y=a(;af
,
x- =4ay
The point P(2at, at2) on the parabola is the variable point that depends on the value oft, so it is frequently called
'the point t'.
EXERCISE 3.6 PARAMETRIC FORM OF A FUNCTION OR RELATION
For questions 1 to 14, find the Cartesian equation of the curves with the parametric equations given.
1 x = 2t, y = t + 2 2 x = t, y = t2 3 x = t, y = } 4 x = 2 cos 8, y = 2 sin 8, 0 < 8 < 2,r
5 x=2cos8,y=2sin8,0<8<,r 6 x=t+3,y=t2-S,t>O 7 x=2u-2,y=3u + l,l<u<3

3
8 x=v ,y =l-v2,-1<v<l 9 x=t + 2,y=t2-l 10 x=cost,y=cost,O<t<2,r 11 x=2t2,y=4t
2
12 x=2cos0,y= ✓3sin8,0<0<2rr 13 x=2cost,y=sint,O<t<rr 2
14 x= t 2 y=l-t 2
1+ t ' 1+ t
15 Two boats on a lake start sailing at the san1e time. Boat A moves on a course given by x = ; , y = t + 1,
while boat B moves on a course given by x = t - 2, y = -2t + 9, where tis the tiine elapsed in hours.
(a) Find the Cartesian equation for the course of each boat. Show that the courses intersect at the point (1,3).
(b) Do the boats collide? Justify your answer.
16 Find the Cartesian equation for the paran1etric equations x = sec 8, y = tan 8, -1 < 8 < 1·
17 Find the Cartesian equation for each of the following parabolas.
2
(a) x = 2t, y = 2t2 (b) x = 12t, y = 6t2 (c) x = t + 2, y = t
(d) x=4t,y=-2t2 (e) x= ✓t ,y=t+l
18 Sketch the graph of each curve from its paran1etric equations.
(a) x=t+l,y=2t- l (b) x=t,y=2t2 (c) x= t ,y=t2
. e, y = 4 COS 8 (e )sin8 , y = cos8
2
(d) X = 4 Sin X =
2 2
19 Find the Cartesian equation for each of the following parabolas.
,
(a) x=2t,y=t2 (b) x=l2t,y =6t2 (c) x=t + 2,y=t2 (d) x=4t,y=-2r

YEAR 11
EXPLORING FURTHER
============0
Conchoid of Nicomedes
An interesting family of curves are the conchoids of Nicomedes. The parametric equations of these curves are
x =a+ cost and y = atant + sint. Observe the change in shape for changing values of a.
CHAPTER REVIEW 3
)'
1 Given the graph of y = x + 4, dra,v:
8
(a) y= x~4 6
4
(b) y= ✓x + 4
(c) y= lx + 41
0 X
- 10 - 8 - 2- 2 2 4
(d) y = I
(x + 4) 2 -4
2 -6
(e) y =x +4
(t) y= lxl+4
)'
2 Given the graph of y = x2 - 4, draw:
6
(a) y= 2 1
x - 4 4 y=x' - 4
(b)y = .Jx2- 4 2
(c) 1= lx2 -41 -6 -4 - 0 4 6 X
(d) - 1
y - ( X 2 -4)2
(e) y 2=x2-4
-6
(t) y= lx2 1-4
3
3 Given the graph of y = x - 2x + 3, draw: )'
6
1
(a) y=
x 3
-2x+3
(b) y= .Jx 3
- 2x+3 2
3 y=x' - 2x+3
(c) y= lx -2x+31
2 3 0 X
(d) y = x - 2x + 3 -4 2 4
-2
3
(e) y= lx 1-2lxl+ 3
-4

YEAR 11
4 Given the graph of y = fix) and y = g(x), draw:

(a) y =fix) + g(x)
(b) y =fix) g(x)
X
-10 I 2 3 4
-2
5 For each set of para111etric equations given, (i) sketch the graph of the curve; (ii) find the Cartesian equation of
the curve.
,
(a) X = 2 - t, y = t + 2 (b) x = 3t, y = 3C (c) x= Ssin 0,y = 5cos0
6 The point P(t + 3, t2 - 5) is a variable point on a parabola. Find the Cartesian equation of this parabola.
7 Match the paran1etric equations to their Cartesian equations. (The Cartesian equations A B C D may be used
more th an once.)
2 , 2 2
(a) x = 2ap, y = -ap (b) x=ap-,y=2ap (c) x = -2ap, y = -ap (d) x=2ap, y=ap
2 , ,
A J=4ax B y =-4ax C x- =4ay D x- =-4ay
2
8 x = t - 2, y = 2t - 1 are the parametric equations for a parabola. Find the Cartesian equation.

CHAPTER4
Further trigonometric identities
4.1 SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO ANGLES
You can derive formulae for the trigonometric functions of su1ns and differences of angles, i.e. formulae for
cos (0 + ¢),sin (0 + ¢)and tan (0 + ¢), in tern1s of trigono1netric y
functions of the angles 0 and ¢.
First, obtain a forn1ula for cos (0- ¢), then deduce formulae for the /:::::-::----f -/ 7 \Q(cos¢, sin !l)
others from it. P(c.
o s~ sin8) /<
0 A X
Starting fron1 A, mark a unit circle to show LAOP = 0 and LAOQ = ¢
x'+y'= I
(where 0 > ¢ for convenience), as sho,vn. The coordinates of P and Qare
thus (cos 0, sin 0) and (cos¢, sin ¢) respectively, and LPOQ = 0- ¢.
Using the distance forn1ula: PQ 2 = (cos 0- cos ¢)2 + (sin 0- sin ¢)2
= 2-2(cos 0cos¢ + sin 0sin¢) [a]
Using the cosine rule in MOQ: PQ2 = 1 + l -2cos(LPOQ)
= 2-2cos(0- ¢) [b I
Equating [a) and [b): 2 - 2cos (8- ¢) = 2 - 2 (cos 0cos ¢ + sin 0 sin¢)
cos(0- ¢)=cos 0cos ¢+ sin 0 sin¢ (1)
This fonnula [ 1) is true for all values of 8 and ¢.

By writing (-¢) in place of¢, reme1nbering that cos(-¢)= cos¢ and sin(-¢) =-sin¢, you also have:
cos(0+ ¢)=cos 0cos ¢- sin 0 sin¢ (2)
Sin1ilarly, ,vith (90° - 0) in place of 0 in [ 1):
cos (90° - (0+ ¢))=cos (90° - 0) cos¢ + sin (90° - 0) sin¢
And using the con1plementary angles formulae, i.e. cos (90° - a) = sin a and sin (90° - a ) = cos a:
sin (0+ ¢)=sin 0cos ¢+cos 0 sin¢ (3)
Writing(-¢) in place of¢ in (3): sin (0- ¢)=sin 0cos (-¢) + cos 0 sin(-¢)
sin (0- ¢)=sin 0cos ¢- cos 0 sin¢ (4)
Combining these for the tangent functions: tan (0 + ¢) = sin(8+¢)

cos(8+¢)
sin0cos¢+ cos0sin¢
- cos0cos¢-sin0sin¢
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos 0cos ¢ (cos 0cos¢~ O):
,,,, tan 0 + tan ¢
tan (0 + 'l'J = --~-'-,- (5)
l - tan 0tan ¢
And for (8- ¢): tan (0-¢) = sin(8 -¢)

cos(8 -¢)
_ sin8cos¢-cos0sin¢
- cos0cos¢+sin0sin¢

YEAR 11
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos 0 cos <P (cos 0 cos <P -:I: O):
(
m) tan0 - tanip [6)
0
tan - .,, = 1 + tan0tanip
Example 1
Find the expansion for each expression, simplifying where possible.
(a) sin (3x + 2y) (b) cos (2 a+ /J) (c) tan (A + 45°)
Solution
(a) sin (3x+ 2y) = sin 3xcos2y + cos3xsin2y (b) cos(2a+ /J) = cos2acosf3- sin2asinf3
(c) tan(A+ 45 o)= tanA+tan45° =l + tanA
1- tanA tan45° 1 - tanA
Example 2
Sin1plify each expression.
(a) sin(2a+ /3)cos {3- cos(2a+ /J) sin/3 (b) cos (20- 3a) cos20 + sin (20- 3a)sin 20
Solution
By recognising the forn1 of the equation, the two-angle expansion can be used in reverse:
(a) sin (2a + /3)cos /3- cos (2a + /3)sin f3 = sin [(2a + /3) - /3] = sin 2a
(b) cos(20- 3a) cos20+ sin (20- 3a) sin20= cos [(20- 3a) - 20)
=cos(-3a) =cos3a
Alternatively, the expressions on the LHS can be expanded and like term s collected For exainple, the solution to
(a) becomes:
sin (2a + /3) cos /3- cos (2a + /3)sin /3 = [sin 2acos f3 + cos 2asin /3]cos {3- [cos2a cos {3- sin 2asin /3)sin f3
= sin 2a cos f3 + cos2a sin f3 cos /3- cos2a cos f3 sin f3 + sin 2a sin f3
2 2
= sin 2a[cos f3 + sin /3) = sin 2a

2 2
Example 3
If 0 and <Pare acute angles and sin 0 = 3 and tan <P = 24 , find, without using a calculator, the exact value of the
c 11o\v1ng
,o , expressions:
, 5 7
(a) sin (0+ <P) (b) cos(0-<P) (c) tan (0- <P)
Solution
Draw right-angled triangles for each ratio and use Pythagoras' theoren1 to find the third side.
. 0 = -3
Sln 24
tan<P = -
5 7
5
cos0= 4
3
sin <P = 24 24 25
5 8 25
tan0= -3
4
4 cos<P= -7
25
7
Chapter 4 Further trigonometric identities 73

YEAR 11
(a) sin ( 0 + ip) = sin 0 cos ip + cos 0 sin ip (c) tan( 0 -IP)= tan0-tanip
=lx ...Z... + 4 x 24 1 + tan0 tanip
5 25 5 25
3 24
-_ -125
117 _ 4 7
- 1+lx 24
(b) cos (0- ip) = cos 0cos ip + sin 0 sin ip 4 7
= 4 x 2._ + l x 24
5 25 5 25 - 228+72
1-96
100 75
=-
125 =-100
_4
=--3
5 4
EXERCISE 4.1 SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO ANGLES
1 Expand:
(a) sin (A + 2B) (b) sin (2x - y) (c) cos (2x - 3y)
(d) cos(20+ 60°) (e) tan(0+a) (f) tan (A - 135°)
2 Siinplify:
(a) sin A cos (A - B) + cos A sin (A - B) (b) cos(0+ a)cos (0- a)+ sin (0 + a)sin (0- a)
(c) sin2A cos A - cos2A sin A (d) cos60° cos30° - sin60° sin 30°
tan0 - tan20° tan2a + tana
(e) ~-~-~ (f) ~ -~-- (g) sin (2A + B) cos (A + B) - cos (2A + B) sin (A + B)
1+ tan20° tan0 l - tan2a tana
tan3x - tanx
(h) cos(30 + a)cos(20 + a) + sin(30+ a)sin(0+a) (i) l+ tan x tanx
3
.
3 The expression tan(A+B)+tanC
) . l'fi
s1n1p I es to:
1- tan(A + B tanC
A tan A + tanB + tanC 8 tan(A-B + C) C tan (A + B - C) D tan (A + B + C)
4 (a) Find the exact value of sin 38° cos 22° + cos 38° sin 22°.
. tanll9°+ tanl6°
(b) Find the exact value of .
1- tan 1190tan 160
(c) Find the exact value of cos 165°. (d) Expand and siinplify sin (x + 40°) + sin (x - 40°).
5 Write the expansion of cos (A + B). Fro1n this, deduce the expan sion of cos (A - B).
6 Write the expansion of cos (0- ip). Write (90° - 0) in place of 0 to deduce the expansion of sin (0 + ip).
7 If 0 and ip are angles between 0° and 90°, sin 0 = ~, tan ip = J find the following ,vithout using a calculator.
4
,
(a) sin (0- ip) (b) cos (0 + ip) (c) tan (0- ip)
8 If tan A = 4, tan B = ~, and A and B are acute angles, then A - B = ...
A 45° 8 30° C 60° D 135°
9 If tan a = j and cos/3= ~~' where O< /3 < a< 90°, evaluate the following without using a calculator.
(a) sin 2a (b) tan 2a (c) cos (a- /3)
10 (a) Using the expansion of sin (A + B), prove that sin 75° = ✓6: ✓2.
(b) Using the expansion of tan (A + B), prove that tan 75° = 2 + ✓3.

YEAR 11
11 Find the value (in sin1plest surd forn1) of:

(a) cos 75° (b) tan 15° (c) cos 15°
12 Use the expansion of sin (A+ B) to evaluate sin 195°.
4.2 DOUBLEANGLEFORMULAE
Using the sum-and-difference-of-two-angles forn1ula [2) (see previous section), \vriting 0 in place of !fa:
cos(0+ tP) = cos 0cos tP- sin 0 sin ip [2)

cos (0 + 0) = cos 0 cos 0- sin 0 sin 0
cos20= cos 2 0-sin2 0
Fro1n sin 2 0 + cos2 0 = 1: cos20= 2cos 2 0-1 [7)

cos20= l-2sin 2 0
Similarly, using fonnula [3) and writing 0 in place of !fa:
sin (0 + tP) = sin 0cosip+ cos 0 sin ip [3)
sin(0+ 0) = sin 0cos 0 + cos 0sin 0
sin20= 2sin 0cos 0 [8)
And using forn1ula [SJ, \Vfiting 0 in place of !fa:
,1,) tan0+tanip
tan (e +.,, = - - - -~ [5)
1- tan0tanip
tan (e + e~ tan0+tan0
J = l - tan0 tan0
2tan0
tan20= , tan0;t: + l [9)
1-tan 28
The double angle fonnulae can be used in n1any different \vays.
For exan1ple, as 40= 2 x 20, therefore sin 40= 2sin20cos20.
This result can be further sin1plified by again using the double angle forn1ulae to obtain an expression in tenns of 0:
sin40 = 2 x 2sin 0cos 0x (cos2 0- sin 2 0) = 4sin 0cos 0 (cos 2 0- sin 2 0).
Also, sin 0 = 2 sin ~ cos ~ , so it is possible to express a function of an angle in tenns of half the angle.
Example 4
If tan A = - !,90° < A < 180°, and cos B = 153, 0° < B < 90°, write the exact value of the follo\ving.
(a) sin (A - B) (b) cos2A (c) tan (A + B) (d) sin 2B
Solution
Draw diagrams to show the given ratio for each angle, then use the diagran1s to find the other ratios for the angle.
sin A= l y sinB = 12
5 13
5 y
cosA =--4 3 A cosB=2 13 12
5 13
tan A=_]. -4 0 12 B
4
X
tanB= -
5 0 5 X

YEAR 11
(a) sin (A - B) = sin AcosB - cos A sinB (b) cos2A = cos 2 A - sin 2 A
=lx2.... + 4x l 2=63
5 13 5 13 65 =(-tf-(~f =is
(c) tan (A+ B) = tan A+ tanB (d) sin 2B = sin B cos B
1- tanA tanB
3 + s12 _ 33 12 5
_ 7 = 2X 13 X 13
- 1+ l x .!2 - 56
4 5
120
= 169
Example 5
cos30 sin 30 sin 2a+sin a
(a) Prove that . + = 2cot 20. (b) Prove that = tan a.
SIIl 0 COS 0 1+cos 2a+cosa
Solution
(a) LHS = c~s 30 + sin 30 (b) Method 1
s1n0 cos0
LHS= sin 2a+sina
cos 30cos 0+sin 30 sin 0 l +cos2a+cosa
- ---~~~~--
sin 0cos0
2 sin a cos a+sin a
cos(30- 0) - 2
- 1sin 20 1+2cos a - l +cosa
sina(2cosa+l)
2cos20 - cosa(2cosa+l)
- sin 20
sin a
=2cot20=RHS = - - if 2cosa+l:;c0
cos a
=tana=RHS
Method2
In the deno1ninator, use forn1ula [7) to directly
replace 1 + cos2a,vith 2cos2 a.
Example 6
If cos x = -! and 1< x < n, find the value of: (a) sin x (b) sin2x
Solution
Fro1n the diagram (dra,vn to show the given ratio for the angle):
(a) sinx= f (b) sin 2x=2sin xcosx

4
=2x -lJ x(-!)

3✓ 7
= - ~-
8

YEAR 11
Example 7
Sin1plify:
(a) cos TC cos TC - sin TC sin TC
3 6 3 6 (b) sin( 1-0)+ sin( 1 - ¢) (c) sin(1 -x)cos(1 -x)
Solution
a COS JTC COS 6
() TC - SinJ
• TC Sin
• (i
TC = COS (TC
J + (i
TC) (using forn1ula [2] fron1 page 75)
= cos TC= 0
2
(b) sin( 1-0) + sin( 1 - ¢) = cos0 + cos¢
(c) sin ( 1-x)cos ( 1-x) = 1x 2sin( 1-x)cos( 1-x)
= 1sin2 ( 1-x) (using double-angle formula [8] from page 75)
= 1sin ( 1- 2x) = 1cos 2x
EXERCISE 4.2 DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAE
1 (a) By writing sin 3 0 as sin (2 0 + 0) , write sin 30 in tern1s of sin 0.

(b) Hence write cos 3 0 in terms of cos 0. (c) Hence write tan 30 in tern1s of 0.
2 If sin 0 = !, 90° < 0 < 180°, evaluate (in surd forn1) :

(a) sin20 (b) cos20 (c) tan20. (d) Inwhichquadrantis20?
3 Sin1plify:
2
cos A2A
(a) l +sin (b) 1 sin20 tan 0 (c) cos2 20- sin 2 20 (d) cos2 30° - sin2 30°
2
(e) sin4xcos4x (f) 1 + cos(l80°+ 20) (g) sinxcosxcos2x (h) 2sin2xcos2x
2 tan° for 0 = 22.5°
(i) (sin 0 + cos 0)2 (j) (sin A - cosA)2 (k) (I) sin2 50° + sin 2 40°
l - tan 2 0
(m) sin (45° - x) cos (45° - x) (n) l - cos20 (o) 2cos2 3x- 1
l + cos20
4 If sin 0 = ~, 1< 0 < TC and tan¢ = J.4, 0 < ¢ < 1,find the value of:
(a) sin(0-¢) (b) cos(0-¢) (c) tan(0-¢)
5 Sin1plify:
2
(a) l + tan (1 - a) (b) l-cos2 (TC + 0) (c) sin0cos (1 - 0)+cos0sin (1 -0)
(d) 2 cos 2 : - 1 (e) l - sin0cos(1 - 0) (f) sin (TC- 0) cos¢- cos(TC- 0) sin¢

YEAR 11
4.3 HALF-ANGLE FORMULAE-THE t FORMULAE

The double-angle forn1ulae has been established: sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A
2tanA
tan2A = , tanA ;1: + 1
1- tan 2 A
Just as A is the half-angle of 2A, siinilarly 1is the half-angle of A , so you can use these results to obtain:
sin A = 2sin 1cos 1
2A . 2A
cosA = cos 2 -sin 2
2tanL!.
2 , tan -A ;1: + 1
tanA =
l - tan 2..i2 2
If you let t = tan 1,then: tan A =

2t
1- t 2
Using the right-angled triangle, in ,vhich tan 1=~ , you can obtain the ratios: t
1
sin A = t and cos A =
2 .J1+t2 2 .J1+ t 2 A
2
Hence: sin A= 2sm A cos A I
2 2
t 1 1 t2
=2>< -,-- -><-,-- -
✓1+ t 2 ✓1+ t2 l + t 2 l + t2
2t l - t2
- l + t2 l + t2
These results, known as the 't forn1ulae: can be sun1n1arised as follows:
If t = tan 1, then: tanA=

2t
1- t 2
. A 2t 1+ ,2 2t
Sill= - ~
1+t 2
l - t2 A
cosA= ,2
l +t 2 1-
Example 8
Given that tan A = i52 , find the exact values of sin2A and cos2A.
Solution
l - t2
tanA =
2
i5
so t= 5 :
12
. 2A = 2t
Sln
l + t2
cos2A =
l+t 2
_ 2>< ff _1- (-&)2
- - 2
5 2
1+ ( 12) 1 + ( .52)
120 119
= 169 = 169
Note: If a calculator is used to find in tennediate values then the answer will be only approxiinate.
For exan1ple, tan A = 5 so A = 22° 37', 2A = 45° 14', sin 2A "' 0.70998, while ~~~ "' 0.710 06 (both to five d.p.) -
12
close, but not the san1e.

YEAR 11
Example 9
cos0 + sin0 - l 0
Use the t fonnulae to prove that: cos 0 _ sin 0 + 1 = tan 2
Solution
LHS = cos0+ sin0 - l
cos0 - sin0 + 1
2
l - t + 2t 1)
- ( 1+ t
2
1+ t
2
2
( 1l +
- t 2t 2 + l)
t2 - 1+ t
2 2 2 2
= ( 1- t + 2t - (1 + t )) + ( 1- t - 2t + (1 + t ) )
2 2
1+ t 1+ t
1- t 2 + 2t - 1- t 2
- l - t 2 - 2t + l+t 2
2t - 2t 2
- 2 - 2t
_ 2t(l - t)
- 2(1 - t)
= t = tan ~ = RHS
EXERCISE 4.3 HALF-ANGLE FORMULAE- THE t FORMULAE
1 If t = tan 1,then sin A+ cos A =

2 2
1+2t - t 2 t 2 - 2t+ l (1- t) (1 + t)
A B C D
1+t 2 l + t2 l + t2 l+t 2
2 Sin1plify:
2
2tan9° l - tan 2 15° 1+ tan 22.5°
(a) (b) (c)
2tan22.5°
l - tan 2 9° l + tan 2 15°
3 If t = tan 1, express each of the follo\ving in tern1s of t:
(a) sin A - cosA (b) 3sinA + 4cosA (c) 2cosA- sinA (d) cotA
cot A - tan A
(e) cot A - tan A (t) (g ) l - l s1n
•A tan A (h) l + tanA tan1
cotA+tanA 2 2
(i) tan A - tan 4 0) cot1 - 2cotA (k) l+sinA + cosA (I)
sin A + sin ~
cot~+tanA 1+sinA - cosA 1+cos A+cos ~
l - cos0
4 Ift = tan -0 then - - - =
2' sin0
l + t2 l - 2t+t 2
A O B t C D t
2t
5 If t = tan~, solve for t the equation tan 0 = d.
6 If t = tan 1, solve fort the equation 12 tan A= 5, 180° <A< 270°.

7 If tan~ = b' prove that bcos 0 + a sin 0 = b.
1- t
8 If sec 0- tan 0= x, prove that x = l+t·

YEAR 11
4.4 USING IDENTITIES TO SIMPLIFY EXPRESSIONS AND PROVE RESULTS

When working with some trigonometric equations, you ,vill also need to use the Pythagorean identities learnt in the
Mathe1natics Advanced course:
sin2 0 = 1 - cos2 0 cos2 0= 1 - sin 2 0

, 2 , 2 , 2
sec- 0- tan 0= 1 sec- 0= 1 + tan 0 tan- 0= sec 0- 1
cosec2 0- cot2 0 = 1 cosec2 0 = 1 + cot2 0 cot 2 0 = cosec2 0- 1
Example 10
cos20 + sin20- l
Prove that = tan 0.
cos2 0 -sin2 0 +l
Solution
LHS = cos20 + sin20-l
cos20- sin20 + 1
1-2 sin 2 0 + 2sin0cos0-l
-- ---------
2 cos 2 0-1- 2sin0cos0 + 1
2 sin 0(cos0 - sin 0)
- 2 cos0(cos0- sin0)
sin0
- cos0
= tan0 = RHS
Notice how t\vo different expansions for cos 20 are used in Exa1nple 10 above. To decide ,vhich expansion is the best
to use in each part you 1nust consider the - 1 in the nun1erator and the + 1 in the denominator. The ain1 is to re1nove
these constants by using the appropriate fonn.
Using cos20= cos 2 0-sin 2 0would have 1nade the question more con1plicated. Try this to see for yourself.
EXERCISE 4.4 USING IDENTITIES TO SIMPLIFY EXPRESSIONS AND PROVE RESULTS

Prove the following identities (questions 1 to 21):
sinA+cosA tanB = tan (A + B) sin20cos0-cos20sin0 _
1 cosA-s1nA
.
tanB
2 cos20cos0+ sin20sin0 - tan 0
tanA -tanB sin(A-B)
3 4 sin (0 + a) sin (0- a )= sin2 0- sin 2 a
tanA +tanB - sin(A+B)
sin3A _ cos3A = 2
5 2 6 tan (45° +A)+ tan (45° -A)= A
sinA cosA cos 2
4 sin20+1 cos0+sin0
7 cos4x = 8 cos x- 8cos2 x + 1 8
cos20 - cos0-sin0
cos0+sin0 cos0-sin0 _
9 . 0 - 2 sec 20
. 0 + COS 0 + Sin 10 1- cosx = tan x
COS 0 - Sin sinx 2
sinA+sin(90°-A)+l A sinx+ l - cosx _ l +tanf
11 - - - - - - - - =cot- 12
sinA-sin(900-A)+ l 2 sinx- l +cosx - 1-tan~2
13 sin (A + B + C) = sin A cosBcos C + sinBcos Ccos A + sin CcosAcosB- sin A sinBsin C

What is the resulting identity if C is replaced by (90° - B)?
14 cos (A + B + C) = cosAcosBcos C- cos A sinBsin C- cosBsin CsinA - cos CsinAsinB
What is the resulting identity if Bis replaced by (90° - C)?

YEAR 11
20 2 sin 3 0+cos 3 0 _ l. .
15 tan ( 0 + a) tan ( 0- a ) = tan - tan a 16 sin0+cos0 - l - 2 sin 20
l - tan 2 0tan 2 a
2cos 82 - l - cos0 _ l - cos 82
17 18 cot(x +y)= cotxcot y - 1
2cos~ + l +cos0 - 1 + cos~ cotx+coty
tan20 - tan0
19 - - - - ~ =tan 20 20 tan (0 + 45°) tan ( 0-45°) = -1
tan20 + cot0
l - tan0tan20
21 - - ~ - - - = 4cos20 - 3
l +tan0tan20
22 If tan A= P, express the following in tenns of p and q.
q
(a) qsinAcosA + psin 2 A (b) psin2A + qcos2A
23 If A, B and Care the angles of a triangle, prove that cos A cos B - sin A sin B + cos C = 0.
24 Given that sin 18° = !(✓5 - 1) , find cos 36° in surd form.
. tern1s of tan 0'f
25 F.111d tan x 111 1 tan 0 = cos(0+x)
( ).
cos 0 - x
26 Three points P, Q, Rare in a horizontal plane. Angles RPQ and RQP are a and /3 respectively. If PQ is x units
in length, show that the perpendicular distance y fro1n R to PQ is given by y = x tan a tan~ .
tana + tan
27 Using the double-angle formula for tan 0, find tan 22.5° in silnplest surd fonn.
28 cos
2
( 1- x)- sin 1- x) sin1plifies to:
2
(
A cos2x sin2x B C cosx D s1nx

29 If tan 0 = ~ and tr< 0 < 3 find the value of:f, (a) sin0 (b) cos 0 (c) cos20
30 If 1< x < 1r: and cosx = - ~' find the value of: (a) Sll1X (b) sin2x (c) tan2x
f
31 If cosec a= - 1 and tr< a< 3 f, find the value of: (a) cota (b) tan2a
32 Prove the following.

(a) 2cos(1 +x)cos(1 - x)=cos2x (b) tan(0 + 1)ta11(0 - 1)= - l
2 (d) tan(x + 3tr)= tanx - 1
(c) (sec 0 - 1) tan(; - 0)= tan0
4 tanx + l
l - sin(l - 2x)
(e) .
SIU 2 X
= tanx (f) tan( 1+A)+ tan ( 1- A)= 2 sec 2A
33 If tan x = !,tan y = i and O< y < x < 1,prove that x - y = 1·
34 Sin1plify: (a) 2 tan° where 0= ?tr (b) 2cos2 3x- l wherex = 2tr
l - tan 2 0 8 9
35 By expanding each term on the left-hand side, prove that si11 ( 0 + : ) sin ( 0 - : ) = sin 2 0 - !.
1r: l - cos20 1r: r;::
36 If O < 0 <
2,prove that tan 0 = 1
+cos . Hence sho,v that the exact value of tan is v 2 - 1.
20 8
37 (a) By writing expansions for sin (A + B) and sin (A - B), find a silnplified expression for
sin (A+ B) + sin (A - B).
(b) By writing 0 = A +Band ip = A - B, find an expression for sin 0 + sin ip as the product of two
trigonometric functions.
38 If sec 0- tan 0= ~' sho,v that sin 0 = ~. (Hint: Use t formulae.)
1
n'o a. sin2a
39 If 4 tan (a- ,.,1 = 3 tan a, prove that tan,-,= 7 +cos 2a.

YEAR 11
40 Use the factors of .x3-/ to show that cos6 8 - sin 6 8 = ( 1- ~ sin 2 28) cos 28.
41 If tan 8 = t, express sin 2 8 and cos 28 in terms oft. Find the values oft for \Vhich
(k + 1) sin28 + (k- 1) cos28= k + 1.
42 If A, Band Care successive terms of an arith1netic series, prove that sin A + sin C = 2 sin B cos (B - A).
12- m 2
43 Ifcos8= , and0<8<n ,expresstan8andsin28intermsof/andm.
l 2 +m- 2
44 If tan a = k tanj,, show that (k- l ) sin (a+ j,) = (k + 1) sin (a- j,).
45 Sho\v that 4 sin 8 sin ( 8 - 1) sin ( 8 - 2[) = sin 38.
4.5 TRIGONOMETRIC PRODUCTS AS SUMS OR DIFFERENCES

In section 4.1 you established the formulas for the sun1 and difference of trigonon1etric functions (here rewritten
using the variables A and B):
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sinB [l ]
sin(A-B)=sinAcosB-cosAsinB [2]
cos(A + B) = cosA cosB-sinA sinB [3]
cos(A -B) = cosA cosB + sin A sinB [4]
Add [l ) and [2]: 2sinAcosB=sin(A+B) + sin(A-B) [a]
= sin (sum) + sin (difference)
Subtract (2) from (1): 2cosA sin B=sin(A + B) -sin(A-B) [b)
= sin (sum) - sin (difference)
Add (3) and [4]: 2 cos A cosB = cos (A+ B) + cos (A - B) [c]
= cos (su1n) + cos (difference)
Subtract (3 ) from (4): 2sinA sin B = cos (A -B) - cos(A + B) [d]
= cos (difference) - cos (sun1)
These results are su1n1narised belo\v.
sin A cosB = ~ (sin (A + B) + sin (A - B)) cosAsinB = ~ (sin (A+B)-sin (A-B))
cos A cosB =
2
1
(cos(A + B) + cos (A - B)) sin AsinB= ~ (cos(A-B)-cos(A+B))
Example 11
Express each product as a su1n or difference of trigonon1etric functions:
(a) 2 cos 5x sin x (b) 2sin 4A sinA (c) cos 38 cos 58 (d) sin 38 cos 8
Solution
(a) 2 cos5x sinx = sin (5x + x) - sin (5x-x) (b) 2sin 4A sinA = cos(4A -A)- cos (4A + A)
= sin6x - sin4x = cos3A -cos5A
(c) cos38cos58=
1
(cos (38+ 58) + cos (38- 58)) (d) sin38cos8= ~ (sin (38+ 8) +sin(38-8))
2
= ~ (cos88+ cos(-28)) = ~ (sin 48+ sin28)
= ~ (cos88+ cos28)

YEAR 11
Sums or differences as products

Let 0 = A + B and </>=A - B, giving 0 + </> = 2A and 0- </> = 2B.
Hence A =
0 +'"
'I' and B =
0-</> .
2 2
8
Substitute in [a]: sin 0 + sin</>= 2 sin ( ; </>) cos ( 8 ; )
8 8
Substitute in [b ]: sin 0- sin </>= 2 cos ( ; </>) sin ( ; </>)
Substitute in [c]:cos0+cos</>=2cos ( 0 +<!>)

2 cos (0-<!>)
2
Substitute in [d ]: cos<f>-cos0=2sin ( 0 +<!>) sin (0-<!>)

2 2
or cos 0- cos</>= -2 sin ( 0 +<!>)

2 sin (0-<!>)
2
Example 12
Convert the following su1ns or differences into products:
(a) sin 6x- sin4.x (b) cos 3A - cos SA (c) cos80+ cos20 (d) sin 3x+ sin x
Solution
. 6X
(a) Sin -
. 4X = 2 COS ( 6x + 4x) Sin
Sin . ( 6x - 4x) (b) cos3A - cos SA= -2sin ( 3A; SA) sin ( 3 A; SA)
2 2
= 2 cos Sx sin x =-2sin4A sin(-A)
= 2sin4A sin A
(c) cos80 + cos20= 2cos (

88 28 ) cos ( 88 ; 28 ) (d) Sin
; . 3x + Sin . ( 3x + X) cos 3x-x)
. x = 2 Sin
2 ( 2
= 2cos50cos30 = 2 sin 2x cosx
Example 13
sin0 + sin30 + sin50
Show that = tan 30.
cos 0 + cos3 0 + cosS 0
Solution
LHS = sin 0 + sin30 + sinS0
cos0 + cos30 + cosS0
(sin50 + sin0) + sin30
- (cos50+cos0)+cos30
2 sin 30cos20 + sin30
- 2 cos30cos20 + cos30
sin30(2 cos20 + 1)
- cos30(2 cos20+1)
sin 30
-- ~
cos30
= tan 30=RHS

YEAR 11
EXERCISE 4.5 TRIGONOMETRIC PRODUCTS AS SUMS OR DIFFERENCES
1 2 cos 6 8 sin 2 8 can be ,vritten as:

A cos48- cos80 B cos80 + cos40 C sin80-sin40 D sin80 + sin40
Express each of th e follo,ving as sums or differences:
2 2sin40cos20 3 2 cos 3A cos SA 4 cos 4A sin 2A
5 sin(0 + a) cos(8- a) 6 2cos(45° +A)sin(45° -A) 7 cos(28+a)cos(28-a)
8 2cos(3a + 2/J) sin(a-/J) 9 2sin 0sin20 10 sin40sin(-20)
. ( 3x + y) COS ( 3x - y )
11 Sin 12 2 sin 75° cos 15° 13 sin (A - B) sin (A + B)
2 2
14 cos 75° cos 45° 15 2sin(0 + ¢) cos(8-q'>) 16 sin ( A; B) cos ( A; B)
17 sin 100° sin 130° 18 2sin30cos 8 19 cos(0+ 2¢) sin(2 8 + q'>)
20 2 sin 2A cos 4A 21 2cos3A sin 7A
22 cos 5x + cos x may be written as:

A 2 sin3x cos2x B 2cos3x sin2x C -2 sin 3x sin 2x D 2cos3xcos2x
Express the follo,ving as products:
23 sin 3x- sinx 24 sin (x + a) - sinx 25 cos(x+h)-cosx

26 sin(0 + a) + sin (0- a) 27 cos ( 8 ~ a ) + cos ( 8 a) 28 cos (A + B + C) - cos (A - B + C)
2
29 cos (2x + y) + cos (x + 2y) 30 sin (90° - A)+ sin (90° - B) 31 sin (90° -A)+ cos 3A
32 cosx + cos (x + 120°) + cos (x + 240°)
33 cos(2A + B)- cos(A + 2B) 34 cos(A + B + C) + cos(A-B- C) 35 sin 2x + sin 3x
36 sin (2A + 2B) - sin (2A - 2B) 37 sin 165° - sin 105° 38 sin 8- cos q'>
39 cos75° -cos45° 40 sin50°+ cos20° 41 sin (A -B)-sinA
42 cos 80° - sin 50°
Prove the following results.

sin50-sin30
43 - ~ ~ - ~ = tan 8
sinx+sin y
44 - - - ~ =tan
(x + y)
cos58 + cos30 cosx+cosy 2
sin 2A - sin 2B _ tan (A - B)
45 cos x - c~s 3x = -tan 2x 46
s111x-s1113x sin 2A + sin 2B tan (A + B)
sinx + sin(x + y) + sin(x+2y) ( )
47 cos(8+a)-cos(8-a) =-tan a 48 - - - - - ~ - - - - ~ =tan x+ y
sin(0 +a) + sin(0- a) cosx + cos(x + y) + cos(x + 2y)
49 sin 58+ sin 30- 2sin 20cos 8 = 2sin20cos30 50 sin2x + sin4x + sin6x = 4cosx cos2x sin3x
51 sili50-sin 2 30=sin80sin20 52 sin 35° - sin 25° = ✓3 sin 5°
53 cos35° + cos45° + cos75° + cos85° = 2 cos5° cos20°

✓2- 1
54 2 cos 37.5° sin 7.5° =
2
55 sin 25° sin 35° - sin 20° sin 10° = ✓34- l
sin 48° + sin 12° _ ✓3
56 sin 10° + cos 40° = sin 70° 57
cos48° +cos l2° - 3

YEAR 11
58 sin 3x - sinx = cot2x 59 cos(A + B) cos(A -B) = cos 2 A -sin 2 B

cosx -cos3x
sin(0 + </>)- sin(8-<f>)
60 sin8 + sin78 =2cos28- l 61 = -cot 0
sin 38 + sin58 cos (0 + ) - cos (0 - )
62 cos75°+ cosl5° = ✓3 63 sinA+sin (A+B)+sin(A +2B) = tan(A+B)

sin 75° - sin 15° cos A + cos(A + B )+ cos(A + 2B)
sin(n + l)8 + 2sinn8+sin(n-1)8 8
64 - - - ~ - ~ - - ~ - ~ - - =cot -
cos(n-1)8-cos(n + l)8 2
65 If a + /3 + r= rr, sho\v that sin 2a + sin 2/3 + sin 2y = 4 sin a sin /3 sin r
4.6 OVERVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Equations of the form sin0=sina
Example 14
Find all values of 0 for which sin 8 = ~.
y
Solution
Q p
sin0= l
2
. (21C + tr) , ...
It
· . 8
Sll1 =Sll1
. tc , SIU
. ( tc - tc) , SIU Jt - 6
6 6 6 It
Consider a coordinate diagra1n. 6
0 X
LXOP=:
LXOQ=tc- :
The ray OP defines an infinite number of angles in the first quadrant. If you rotate OP about the origin (either
clock\vise or anticlockwise), then during each revolution it is along the original ray OP once.
Each full rotation increases the angle by 2rr, so you find that OP is the tenninal ray defining the angles:
• 6tr, 2 7r: + 6tr , 4 7r: + rr: , ... 1or · 1oc",v1se
c antic '- · rotation
·
6
• -2rr: + : , -4,r + : , -6rr: + : , ... for clockwise rotation.
This result can be sun1n1arised as: ntr +: \Vhere n = 0, ±2, +4,... [ 1)
or: n x 180° + 30° (in degrees)
Si1nilarly, the tern1inal ray OQ defines an infinite number of angles:
rr:- tr, 3rr:- tr , 5rr:- tr , ... ,or
c an t 1c
' 1ockwise
. ro tat"1011
6 6 6
-rr:- :, -3,r- : , -5,r- :, ... for clock\vise rotation.
This result can be sun1n1arised as: ntr-: \Vhere n = +1, +3, +5, ... [2)
or: n x 180° - 30° (in degrees)
Staten1ents [ l ) and [2) can be written together as:
8=ntr+(- l )" :
or: 0= n x 180° + (-1)" x 30° (in degrees)
Note: (-1 )" is 1 when n is zero or even, an d is - 1 when n is odd.
Follo\ving Exainple 14 above, the general solution to the equation sin 0 = sin a can be written as:
8 = ntr + (-l)"a (in radians)

8 = n x 180° + (-l)"a 0 (in degrees) for any in teger n.

YEAR 11
The general solution of trigono1netric equations has not been included in this course. This 1naterial is included
to show why you have to be very careful to consider all possible results in th e given don1ain when solving
trigonometric equations.
The pattern for this general solution can also be seen by considering the value of 0 at the points of intersection of the
1
curves y = sin 0 and y = (fro1n Example 14), as shown in the following diagram.
y
y=sin8
I
y=½
-3 3;r 8
From syn1n1etry, you can observe that the line y = 1intersects the sine curve at values of 0 that are : units to the
right of nn where n = 0, +2, +4, .. . and that are : units to the left of nn when n = + 1, +3, ...
Both of these solutions are contained in the state1nent: 0=nn +(- l)" :
nn +:, n even or zero

or: 0=
nn- :, n odd
Example 15
1
Solve sin( 0 + )= - Fi for O < 0< 2n.
Solution
sin(0+1)=-}i
0
sin < 0 in third and fourth quadrants: sin (0 + n)
4
= sin Sn, sin ?n
4 4
0 + n =Sn, 7n
4 4 4
0= n, 3n
2
Equations of the form cos8=cosa
Example 16
Find all angles 0 for which cos 0 = 1·
p
Solution )'
cos0=l
2
1.e. cos 0 = cos 1, cos ( 2n- 1 ), cos ( 2n + 1 ), ...
-3
1C
In the diagra1n, OP defines the angles: 1, 2n + 1, 4n + 1, ... 0 1C X

--3
and OQ defines the angles: -1, 2n -1, 4n -1, ...
These results can be su1n1narised as: 0 = 2nn + 1 where n is any integer
Q
or: 0= n x 360° + 60° (in degrees)

YEAR 11
Follo\ving Exainple 16, above, the general solution to the equation cos 8 =cos a can be \Vritten as:
8= 2 nn: + a (in radians)
8= n x 360° + ct' (in degrees) for any integer n.
The pattern for this general solution can also be seen by considering the value of 8 at the points of intersection of the
i
curves y = cos 8 ai1d y = (from Exan1ple 16), as shown in the follo\ving diagra1n.
)'
I
y=½
- 31< - 21< - Jr 21< 31< 8
y=cos8
i
Fro1n symmetry, you can observe that the line y = intersects the cosine curve at values of 8 that are 1units
to the left and right of 2 nn: where n = 0, +2, +4, ... i.e. 8 = 2 nn: + 1·
Example 17
Solve 2 cos (3x + 30°) + ✓3 =0 for 0° < x < 360°.
Solution
2 cos (3x + 30°) = -✓3
cos (3x + 30°) =- ✓3

2
cos 8 < 0 in second and third quadrants: cos (3x + 30°) =cos 150°, cos 210°, ...
As 0° < x < 360°, thus 0° < 3x < 3 x 360°, so two n1ore revolutions are needed.
3x + 30° = 150°, 210°, 510°, 570°, 870°, 930°
3x = 120°, 180°, 480°, 540°, 840°, 900°

X =40°, 60°, 160°, 180°, 280°, 300°
Equations of the form tan8=tana
Example 18
Find all the angles for which tan 8 = 1, where 8 is in radians.
Solution
tan 8 = 1 y p
i.e. tan 8= tan 1, tan( 1), tan(21r+ 1), ...

1r+
In the diagra1n, OP defines the angles: 1, 2n: + 1, 41t" + 1,...
and OQ defines the angles: n: + 1, 31t" + 1, 51t" + 1, ...

X
These results can be su1nmarised as: 8 =nn: + 1 \Vhere n is ai1y integer

Q
or: 8= n x 180° + 45° (in degrees)

YEAR 11
Following Example 18, the general solution to the equation tan 0 = tan a can be written as:
0= n1r+ a (in radians)
0 = n x 180° + a° (in degrees) for any integer n.
y
2
The pattern for this general solution

y= I '
can also be seen by considering the ------ ~ ----- -~----- -+-- ~ -~----- -~--------~-----·
value of 0 at the points of intersection ' ' ' '
'' ' '
I I I '
I
of the curves y = tan 0 and y = 1 ' 0
(fro1n Example 17), as shown in the - 3n:
diagnun at right.
y= tan8:'
From syn1n1etry, you can observe that the line y = 1 intersects the tangent curve at values of 0, which are 1units to
the right of n1t\vhere n = 0, +1, +2, ...
Example 19
Solve tan x = 3 cot x for -1r < x < 1r.
Solution
tanx=3cotx
tanx= 3
tan x
2
tan x=3
tanx=+ ✓3
Solution is in all four quadrants: x = -n + 1r, _ 1r, 1r, n- 1r

3 3 3 3
x=-21r , _1r, n, 2,r
3 3 3 3
EXERCISE 4.6 OV ERVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
1 Solve for O< x < 27r.

(a) sinx = 1 (b) cosx = 0 (c) tan x=-1 (d) ✓3cosecx=2 (e) secx= -2
(f) cotx= ✓3 (g) 2sin(x-~)+1=0 (h) cosX=l
2
(i) 2sin 2 x= 1 0) sin x = 0.3894
2
2 The solution to 4 cos x - 1 = 0 for O< x < 21r is:
A x = ,r 21r B x = n 51r C 1r 5,r 71r l 11r
3' 3 6' 6 x=6'6'6' 6
3 Solve for -1r < x < n.
(a) cos 2 x - 2 cos x + 1 = 0 (b) sin 2 x = sinx (c) cos2x=sinx
(d) sin2 x= 1-cosx (e) cos2x=2 + cosx (f) tan2x= cotx
(g) cos2x=cosx (h) 2sinx=secx (i) tan 2 x= tanx
4 The solution to 2 cos (2x - 60°) = ✓3 for 0° < x < 180° is:
A x=45° B x=l45° C x=30°,330° D X = 15°, 145°
5 Solve for O< 0< 2,r.
(a) ✓2sin20+ 1 =0 (b) tan(0-1)= - ✓3 (c) cos20cos: - sin20sin:=0.5
(d) tan 0 = sin 20 (e) tan 0 = cot 0 (f) sin 30 + sin 0= 0 (g) sin40- sin20= 0

YEAR 11
6 Solve for -,r < 0 < rr.

(a) cos30 = cos0 (b) 2cos20= 4cos 0- 3 (c) 3 tan20= 2 tan 0
(d) tan(20 - 1) + 1=0 (e) 2cos( 20 - 1 )= ✓3 (f) 2sin 2 0 + cos 0= 1
7 Solve for 0° < x < 360°.

(a) 4 + sinx = 6cos 2 x (b) SlnX = COSX (c) 1 + 2cos2 x = 5sinx
8 Solve for O< 0 < 2rr.

(a) tan 3 0- tan 0 = 0 (b) tan0=sin0 (c) sec20= cosec20
(d) sin20=tan0 (e) sin30=sin20
4.7 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

There is no general n1ethod for solving trigonometric equations and inequalities, but there are certain standard
procedures and types, as illustrated in the examples below.
Example 20
Solve the equation 3sin20= 1.5, 0 < 0< rr.
Solution
3sin20= 1.5 This solution can be checked graphically by using graphing
sin20= 0.5 software to find the intersection ofy = 3 sin 20 and y = 1.5.
0 < 0 < ,r 1neans that O< 2 0 < 2n: Over the don1ain O< 0 < ,r these functions intersect only twice.
20= :, s; If the do1nain is increased, there will be two more intersections
for each do1nain increase of :rr units.
Hence: 0= ~' ~1
Example 21
Solve the equation cos( 2x - : ) = .Jf, 0 < x < 2n.
Solution
✓3
Let0=2x-:: cos0=
2
11:rr :rr rr l lrr rr l lrr
Hence: 0 =... - 6 , 6' 6' 6 ' 2 :rr+ 6, 21r + 6 , ...
Fron1 the lin1its: 0 < x < 2n
0 < 2x<4rr
But 2x = 0 + :: 0 < 0 + : < 4:rr
6 - 0<4--
_JJ_<
- ,. rr
6
0=_]£ rr l lrr 2:rr+:7r 2:rr + l lrr
6' 6' 6 ' 6' 6
. 2x- n = _J£ n l lrr 2-+ :rr 2- + l lrr
6 6' 6' 6 ' " 6' " 6
:7r 2 7:rr
2X = 0'3' :Tr, 3' 4:7r
x=O, :,n, 7;,21r

YEAR 11
Example 22
Find the values of x for which cos2x < }i,0 < x < 2n.
Solution
First solve the equation, then solve the inequality graphically.
Solve the equation: cos 2x = Ti (O < x < 2n)
2x = n 7 n 2n + n 2n+ 7 n (as O< 2x < 47t, around the circle hvice)

4'4' 4' 4
X
= n 7n 9n 15n
8 ' 8'8'8
No,v sketch the graph of y = cos 2x for O< x < 2n, y
showing the line y = "'Ji also: I

I
,Jf
y=cos2x
------------ y= -1
' ,Jf
Use the diagram to find where the graph of ''
'
y = cos 2x is on or belo,v the line y = ~ . 0
v2 Jr
-
7,r ;r 9,r 3,r 15,r 2,r X
1
Hence cos2x < ✓2 for 1
< x < 7: and
4 4 8 2 8
-1
c0 r 9n
,, 8 <
- x<
- I Sn
8 .
EXERCISE 4.7 SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
1 Solve for values of 8 and x behveen Oand 2n inclusive:

(a) sin8= ✓3 (b) tanx=-1 (c) cosx = -0.5 (d) ✓3tan8=1
2
(e) sin28= - l (f) cosec8=-2 (g) cot 2x= ✓3 (h) sec28= ✓2
2
2 Solve behveen 0° and 360°: (a) cosx = 0.4 (b) 4tan28 + 3=0
3 The solution to ✓2 sin 28 + 1 = 0 for O< 8 < 2rc is:
A Sn 7n 8 Sn 7n C Sn 7n
- -13n
- 15n
- D Sn 7n 13n 15n
4'4 8 ' 8 8'8'8 ' 8 4 ' 4'4'4
4 Solve for -n < x < n: (a) 2 cos 2x + 1 = 0 (b) ✓2sin2x - 1 =0
5 Solve between Oand 2n inclusive:
(a) sin(8+1)= -H (b) tan( 8 - 1 )= -✓3 (c) cos( 2x + 1 )= 1 (d) 2sm(2x-:)=1
(e) ta11(20 - 1)+1=0 (f) 2cos( 2x-1 )= ✓3 (g) sin28=-cos 7 ,f (h) sin x = cosx
6 Solve for 0° < x < 360°: (a) cos(2x+ 60°) = 0.7242 (b) 5 sin (2x - 70°) + 4 = 0
7 If O< x < 2n, the solution to sinx < .Jf is:
A B x< 1or x> 2[ C O< x < 1or x > 2f D O< x < 1or 2f < x < 2n
8 If O< x < 2rc, solve: (a) sinx > 1 (b) cosx < 1 (c) sinx > 0 (d) cosx > .Jf
(e) sinx < 1 (f) cosx>O (g) tanx> l (h) ✓2cosx> -l
9 Solve for O< x < n: (a) sin2x > 1 (b) cos2x < 0
10 Solve for -n < x < n: (a) 2sin2x < ✓3 (b) 2cos2x>-l

YEAR 11
4.8 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS INVOLVING ANGLE FORMULAE

You have already solved sin1ple trigonon1etric equations, you can no,v use the angle fonnulae found in this chapter
to solve harder equations.
Example 23
Solve the equation sin 2x = 3 cos x, 0 < x < 2rr.
Solution
As sin2x = 2sinxcosx: 2sinxcosx = 3cosx
cosx(2sinx-3) =0
· cosx=O or sinx= 1.5
Because lsinxl < 1, the only solution is cos x = 0.
. x = rr 3rr
2' 2
Example 24
Solve the equation cos2xcos a- sin2xsin a= -0.5, 0 <x < 2n:, ,vhere a=:-
Solution
Use the expansion of cos (A + B) to sin1plify the LHS:
cos2xcosa- sin2xsin a= cos(2x + a)
Hence, as a=:: cos( 2x +: )=-0.5
2x rr =2n: 4n: 2_+2rr 2 _+4rr

. + 6 3 ' 3 ' ,. 3 ' " 3
2x = rr 7rr Srr 19n:
2' 6' 2' 6
x = rr 7n: Srr 19rr
4' 12' 4 ' 12
Example 25
Solve for O< 0 < n:, the equation sin 20 cos 0 = sin 30 cos 20.
Solution
sin 20 cos 0 = sin 30 cos 20.
Convert each product to a su1n: ~ (sin (20+ 0) + sin (20- 0) ) = ~(sin (30 + 20) + sin (30- 20))
sin 30 + sin 0 = sin50+ sin 0
Siinplify: sin30=sin50
Re,vrite: sin50=sin30
Solve: 50= 30, rr- 30, 2rr+ 30, 3rr- 30, 4n:+ 30, Sn:- 30, 611:+ 30, 7n:- 30.
0 < 0< 1r. 20= 0, 2rr, 4rr, ...
0= 0, rr
and 80= rr, 3n:, Sn:, 7rr.
n: 3rr Sn: 7rr
0 = 8'8'8'8"
. . rr 3n: Srr 7rr
The co1np1ete so1ut1on 1s: 0 = 0, , , , , rr.
8 8 8 8

YEAR 11
Example 26
Solve for O < 8< n, the equation cos38 + cos 8= cos 28.
Solution
cos38+ cos 8 = cos28
38 8 38 8
Convert the LHS to a product: 2 cos ( + ) cos ( - ) = cos 2 8
2 2
2 cos28cos 8 = cos28
Rearrange: cos28 (2cos 8- 1) = 0
Solve: cos28= 0 or cos 8 = .!.
2
28= rr, 31r or 8= rr_
2 2 3
The complete solution is: 8 = Tr, Tr, 3,r.
4 3 4
EXERCISE 4.8 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS INVOLVING ANGLE FORMULAE
1 Solve: (a) cos 28 = cos 8, 0 < 0 < 2rr (b) 2cos28=4cos8-3,0<8<2rr

(c) 3 tan28=2tan8,0<8<2rr (d) tan 8+ 2cot 8= 3, 0° < 8< 360°
2 The solution to Ssin x = 2 secx for 0° < x < 180° is:
A x= 11° 47' or 78° 13' 8 x=23° 34'orlS6° 26'
C x = 26° 34' or 63° 26' D x=S3° 8'orl26° S2'
3 Solve: (a) cos2x cos~ - sin2x sin~= 1,o< x<2rr (b) sin2x cos 1+ cos2x sin 1= f , -1r<x< Tr
4 The solution to sin 8 = cos 28 for O < 8 < 2,r is:

A 0 = 7,r lltr 8 0 = Tr 7rr l ltr C 0 = tr Sn: 3,r D 8 =n: Sn:
6' 6 2' 6' 6 6' 6 ' 2 6' 6
5 Solve tan 8 = sin2 8, 0 < 8< 2rr.
7 Solve sin 3x cosx - cos3x sinx = f, 0 < x < 2,r. 8 Solve tan28= 2 tan 8, 0 < 8 < 2,r.
9 Solve for O < 8 < n, the equations:

(a) sin48cos 8= sin 38cos28 (b) sin 38cos28= sin S8cos48 (c) cos28sin 8 = cos38 sin 28
10 Solve for O < x < 2,r, the equations:
(a) 2 COS (X 1) = 1
+ COSX (b) 2sin3xsinx=l
(c) sinx cos ( x -1) = 0.3 (d) cos 2x cosx = cos 3x
11 Solve for O < 8 < n, the equations:

(a) sin40-sin28=cos38 (b) cos8+cos28+cos30=0
(c) sin ( 8 + 1) + sin ( 8 + ~) = 1 (d) sin48+ sin28= sin 38+ sin 8
12 Solve for O < x < 2,r, the equations:

(a) sin2x- sinx = cos2x- cosx (b) sinx + sin 2x + sin 3x = 0
(c) cos2x-cosx+ 1 =0 (d) cos 3x- cos 2x + cosx = 1

YEAR 11
CHAPTER REVIEW 4
l - t2 8 (b) tan8 - tanf sin28-sin8

1 Simplify: (a) , \Vhere t = tan -
l+t 2 2 l + tan~tan8 (c) cos28-cos8
2 Solve 2 tan2x- 1 = 0 for 0° < x < 360°.
3 Sin1plify:
2tanf
(a) sin ( 8 + </)) cos</)- cos ( 8 + </)) sin </) (b) l - tan 2 ~ (c) sinx cosx cos2x cos4x
2
4 (a) Sho\v that cos (A + B) = cosAcosB( I - tan A tanB).
(b) Suppose that O<A< 1and O< B < 1·Show by deduction that if tan A tan B = I then A + B = 1·
cos8 2 l - cos28 .
5 Sho\v that: (a) . e=sec8 - tan8 (b) tan 8= , g,ven thatcos28;t-l.
1+sin 1+cos 28
6 Use the expansion of tan 2A to sho\v that the exact value of tan 22.5° = ✓2 - 1. Hence find the exact value of
tan 11.25°.
7 Solve the following equations for O< x < tr.

(a) cos3x = cos2x cosx (b) cos3x + cosSx + cos7x = 0
8 Solve for -n: < x < tr.

(a) cosx-sinx=l (b) sin4x-sin2x = O (c ) cosx-J3 sinx =1

5.1 INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Perfonn the following activities, either using graphing software or by hand. Be sure to adjust the sizing of your
graphs so that both axes have the sa1ne scale.
Reflection in the line y =x

On a Cartesian plane, sketch the graph y = x and plot the points ( 1, 3) and (-2, 4). Reflect the points in the line y = x
and consider how the reflection changes each of the coordinates.
You should see that \vhen a point is reflected in the line y = x, \vhat was x becomes y and what was y becon1es x'.
In general, the point (a, b) beco1nes the point (b, a) on reflection in y = x. The n1idpoint of these two points is
a+b a+b) \Vhichisontheliney=x.
( 2 ' 2 '
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Reflection in the line y = x

Use techno logy to explore the reflection of points in the line y = x.
One-to-one functions y
y y
0 X
0 X 0 X
,
f(x) =x- g(x)=x2.x>O h(x) =x3
A one-to -one function is a function that has no ordered pairs \Vith the san1e y-coordinate. Any line parallel to the
x-axis will intersect the graph of a one-to-one function no m ore than once. It is said that such graphs pass the
horizontal line test. This 1neans that in the diagra1ns above, g(x) and h(x) are exainples of one-to-one functions.
Note that f(x) is not one-to-one, because a straight line parallel to the x-axis could intersect the graph off(x) at hvo
points, e.g. (- a, a 2) and (a, a 2). This 1neans that the graph off(x) is a two-to -one function.
An example of a many-to-one function is s(x) = sinx. But a function t(x) = sinx, 0 < x < 1is a one-to-one
restriction of s(x).
One-to-one functions are significant because of their properties when reflected in the line y = x. This is important in
the development of inverse functions. For exan1ple, the reflection of the graph of y = x2 in the line y =xis the parabola
I= x, \Vhich is the graph of a relation and not a function (see the left diagrain below).

YEAR 11
2
The reflection of the graph of y = x in the line y = x is the y
,
positive branch only of the parabola y = x, i.e. y = + ✓ x.
2
," )'=X
This (the diagran1 on the right) is the graph of a function.

y'=x
The graph of a function will pass the vertical line test
(i.e. no vertical line can cut the graph n1ore than once). , 0
, X , X
The graph of a one-to-one function \viii also pass ,, ,

,,
, ,
the horizontal line test (i.e. no horizontal line ,
,, ,
,
can cut the graph more than once).
Iff(x) is a one-to-one function, then the reflection of its graph in the line y =xis the graph of a function,
i.e. if a graph passes the horizontal line test then its reflection in the line y = x will pass the vertical line test.
Example 1
Define a restriction on the domain off, \Vhere f(x) = x2 - 4x + 5, so that f is one-to -one.
Solution ''II)'
f (x) = (x - 2)2 + 1 : the graph off is a parabola (concave up) '10
'0
with vertex at (2, 1).
~
f is thus one-to-one for x > 2 or for x < 2. 1
•
6
Thus: Ji (x) = x - 4x + 5, x > 2 and fi(x) = x
2 2
- 4x + 5, x < 2 5
are both one-to-one restrictions off 4 •
'
These restrictions give the largest possible do1nains for which
3 '
2 '
f is one-to-one. (Of course, any narro\ver restriction, such as I '' (2, I)
f/x) = x2 - 4x + 5, x > 5, would also give a one-to-one - 3 - 2 - IO I 2 3 4 5 6 X
function.)
The dashed graph represents
2
f(x) = x - 4x + 5 for x < 2.
The solid graph represents
2
f(x) = x - 4x + 5 for x > 2.
Increasing and decreasing functions

A function f defined on the interval a < x x 1 then f(x 2) > f(x 1). This 1neans that the curve always slopes up\vards to the right, as shown in
the left diagram below.
y y
Rx ) - - - - - - - - - '
J\ • '
fix,) - .... - -
' ' '
Rx )•----- 0 ' '
J\ l ' ' fix,) -,' - - T- - --
' '
'' '' •> '
0 a x, b X
Similarly, a function is said to be strictly monotonic decreasing when, for all x 1 and x2 in the do1nain, if x 2 > x 1 then
f(x 2) < f(x 1). This n1eans that the curve slopes do\vnwards to the right, as shown in the right diagram above.
Functions that are strictly monotonic increasing or decreasing are clearly one-to-one.
Inverse functions
Consider t\vo operations such that each is the 'reverse' of the other. For exainple, the cube of 2 is 8 and the cube root of
8 is 2. The cube function defined by f(x) = x3, x ER (i.e. 'xis a member of the set of real numbers'), and the cube
root function, defined by g(x) = ¼, x ER, are said to be a pair of inverse functions: f(2) = 8 ai1d g(8) = 2.
Chapter 5 Inverse functions 95
YEAR 11
If you cube any real nun1ber x and then take the cube root of the answer, the result is x again. Likewise, if you take
the cube root of any nun1ber x and then cube the answer, the result is x.
l(x)=x 3 g(x)= <Ix Thus you can define, for any pair of inverse functions:
l (g(x))=(g(x)) 3 g(J(x))= ~l (x) l(g(x))= g(l(x))= x
=(½}3 =ef;3 If you denoteg(x) as l - (x) (1neaning 'the inverse ftmction ofl'):
1
=x =x
The square of 2 is 4, but in the reverse operation 4 has two square roots, + 2. If you wish to return to 2 in the square
root operation, you n1ust take the positive square root.
This 1neans that the square function, defined by l(x) = x2, x > 0 and the positive square root function, defined
by g(x) = ✓x, x > 0, are a pair of inverse functions. For the inverse to define a function, the functions must be
one-to -one.
l(x)=x 2 (x>O) g(x)= ✓ x (x>O)
l(g(x))=(g(x))2 g(l(x))=.,/l(x)
=(✓x )2 =✓x2 Thus l(g(x))=g(J(x))=x
=x =x if x>O i.e. l(l- 1(x)}= 1- 1(l(x))=x whereg(x) =l -1 (x)
Example 2
Find the inverse function 1-1 for the function l \Vhere l(x) = 2x + 4.
Solution
You require 1-1, such that: l(l- 1(x))= x =1-1 (l(x))
· 2l- 1(x) +4=x
1.e. 1
l -1(x)= (x-4)
It is now easy to show that: l - (l (x))= 1[(2x +4)-4]
1
=1(2x)
=x
Hence 1-1 (x) = ~ (x - 4) is the rule defining this inverse function. You no\v need to find the do1nain and
range of 1-1•
Let d and r denote the do1nain and range respectively off, and d _, and r _, denote the domain and range
1 1 1
re~&~fyofl- 1. f
Consider a few typical elements of d , e.g. 0, 1, -2, 3. Under the rule l(x) = 2x + 4:
1
d f r 1-1 d
I. 0 .....,,_ _ _ -'/--e4 rr, O- - - -4 r'
I o-+---+--e6 I o-+--+--e 6
-2 0 -2 0
3 .....J'------>,--e 3 10
This correspondence can be represented by the ordered pairs (0,4), (1, 6), (-2, O), (3, 10).
Every real number in d has a corresponding real nun1ber in1age in r .
1 1
The inverse ,napping is obtained by operating 1- on the ele1nents of 'r This means that these elen1ents can now
1
be regarded as belonging to dJ·" i.e. r1 =d1_,_

YEAR 11
For exa1nple: 1-1(4)= 1<4- 4)=0 1-1(6) = 1 <6- 4) =1

1-1(0)= - 2 f -1(10) = 3
This inverse correspondence can be represented by (4,0), (6, 1), (0,-2), ( 10,3).
The ele1nents 0, 1, -2, 3 that belong to the range of f - 1 can be identified as the ele1nents of the don1ain
off, and so r _, =d .
1 1
The hvo diagra1ns in Exan1ple 2, considered together, show that an elen1ent x EdI is ,napped back to itself by the
con1posite function f (f - 1(x )). This is as required by the general defining property f (f - 1( x )) = x.
Exa1nple 2 illustrates several important general properties of inverse functions.
1 d1 = r _, and r1 = d _, , so the do1nain and range are interchanged between a function and its inverse.
1 1
2 If (a, b) is a point on the graph off. then (b, a) is a point on the graph of l - 1• On the graphs these are called
corresponding points.
3 Representing P(a, b) and Q(b,a) as corresponding points on the graphs offand j - 1, the coordinates of the
1 i
n1idpoint of PQ are [ (a +b ), (b+a )] . which is a point on the graph of y =x for any a and b. Hence
y = x bisects the line seg1nent PQ so that P and Q are mirror in1ages of each other in this line.
4 The graph of 1-1 is thus seen to be a reflection of the graph off in the line y = x. This is very useful when
sketching graphs. It also follo\vs that any intersection between the graphs offand f - n1ust be on y = x.
1
The diagram sho\vs the graphs offandf- 1 for Exan1ple 2.

The property that (x,y) and (y,x) are on the graphs ofland Y J (x) = 2x + 4
f -1 respectively provides an alternative 1neans of findingf - 1• ,

,,
For exan1ple, the function l of Exan1ple 2 is defined by: , ,
' ,
' '.t, ,
y =f(x) for xed1 and y er1
' ,,
,' )'=X
' ,
i.e. y = 2x + 4 for xeR and y eR ,c x;, , .r'(x) =-2I(
, ' X - 4)
' '
1
Hence f - is defined by: <;; ,
~,
, '' ''
x = 2y + 4 for yeR and xeR ,,
,' >',
''
(6) 1)
, ,' 0
X
(interchanging x and y) (4,0)
1.e. y =1 ( x - 4) for xeR, yeR
1
Thus: f -1(x)= (x - 4) as before.
Existence of inverse functions

Not every function has an inverse function. The graphs of a function and its inverse 1nust be reflections of each other
in the line y = x. When the graph of a one-to-one function is reflected in y = x, the reflection is itself the graph of
a function. But when the graph of a n1any-to-one function is reflected in y =x, the reflection is not the graph of a
function- it is the graph of a relation (which \vould fail the vertical line test), so it cannot be calledf- 1•
A function l \viii have an inverse function f -1 if and only ifl is a one-to-one function.

YEAR 11
Example 3
Investigate the existence of an inverse function where l is defined byl (x) = x?-.
Solution y
l is not a one-to-one function. Its graph, the parabola y = x?-,

produces the parabola with equation y2 = x when reflected in the
line y_ = x. This latter parabola consists of an upper branch
y=✓ x and a lower branch y = -✓ x: it is the graph of a relation
X
with l\vo values of y for each value of x in the don1ain (except ,
,,
x = 0). Therefore, 1-•does not exist. ,,
,
Example 4
Investigate the existence of an inverse function where l is defined byl(x) = x2, x > 0.
Solution
This is a restriction of the function in Example 3. In this case there is only the right-hand branch of the parabola
y = x2, \Vhich is the graph of a one-to-one function. Hence1-•exists and can be determined as follows.
Method 1 (using algebraic definition) Method 2 (using reflection property)
1 1
You requirel- such that 1 - (l(x))=x. Let y = x2.
2
:. (l -'(x))2 =x Interchangexandy: x =y
· 1-•(x) = +✓x Which one? Make y the subject: y = +✓x Which one?
The range of1-•consists of non-negative nu1nbers, so The range of1-1 consists of non-negative numbers,
take the positive square root. so take the positive square root.
· 1-'(x) = ✓x :. 1 -l(x)='</x
Example 5
1
Consider the function y = - ✓x .
(a) Explain why the largest possible domain of the function is x > 0.
(b) Use calculus to show that the function has no stationary points and is strictly 1nonotonic increasing for
all x in its do1nain.
(c) Show that the graph of the function does not 1neet the x-axis.
(d) Find y \Vhen xis a very s1nall nu1nber and also when x is a very large nu1nber. Hence state the range
of the function.
(e) Explain why an inverse function exists.
1
(f) Sketch the graph of y = - ✓x and its inverse on the san1e axes.
(g) Find the equation of the inverse function, carefully specifying any restrictions on its do1nain.
Solution
(a) x > 0 because you can't take the square root of a negative nun1ber and you can't divide by 0.
=-x-½ . dy - .l -f . dy - 1
(b ) Yd .. dx - 2 x i.e. dx - 2.J;i
ry -;t; 0, so there are no stationary points.
dX d
For all x in the don1ain, fx> 0 , so the function is increasing.

YEAR 11
(c) There are no solutions to - £ = 0, hence no x-intercepts.

(d) As x ➔ O, y ➔ -oo; as x ➔ oo, y ➔ O; range is y < 0
(e) Inverse function exists because I is strictly n1onotonic increasing (one-to-one).
(f) y
,,
,
,
,
(g) I is y = - £ witll domain x > 0 and range y < 0
,,
/, y=x :. 1-1 has domain x < 0 and range y > 0
,
,
To find the equation of1- , interchange x and y:
1
,
,,
y =1-•(x)
,,
,
, ,
x=- fy
,' 0 X
, Makey the subject: y = ~-
,
,, x
, , y= f(x)
Re1ne1nber tile restriction on the do1nain of 1-1,
, ,
,
, i.e. X < 0.
, ,
, 1
, , Hence tile inverse function is 1-1(x) = - 2
, x < 0.
, X
Example 6
2
l(x) is defined byl(x) = x - 2x - 1, x < 1.
(a) Sketchy= l(x) and the inverse function y = 1 - 1(x) on the sa1ne diagran1.
(b) State the do1nain and range of 1-1•
(c) Find tile equation of the inverse function.
3- ✓13
(d) Sho,v that land I - I intersect where x = - - -.
2
(e) Sho,v that the gradient of the tangent to y= l(x) at tile point (-1, 2) is -4. Hence find tile coordinates
of the point on y = 1-1(x) where the gradient is -0.25.
Solution
2
(a) y = x - 2x - 1 is a concave-up parabola with vertex
at ( 1, -2).
It cuts tile y-axis at (O, - 1) and cuts the x-axis at (- 2, I) y= /(x)\ y ,,,' ,'y=x
,,'
(1 + ✓ 2 , 0) and ( 1- ✓ 2, O).
As tile domain ofI is restricted to x < 1, its graph (-0.41,0) ,'
is the left half of tile parabola. (- 1, 0) X
The graph of1-1 is then obtained by reflection ,,

,
in tile line y = x. ,
,
, ,
(b) For1-1 the domain is x > -2 and the range is y < 1. , , ,
, ,
(c) I is y = x 2
2x - 1 - ,
, ( I, - 2)
Interchange x and y: x = I - 2y - 1

YEAR 11
Makey the subject:

Method l (con1plete the square) Method 2 (quadratic form ula)
,
2 y- -2y-x-l=O
, y -2y=x+ 1 This is a quadratic in y ,vith a = 1, b = - 2
y- - 2y + 1 = X + 2
(y-1)2=x + 2 andc=-(x + l).
y - 1 = + .,/,-x-+-2 2± .J(- 2) 2 - 4(1)(- [x + 11)
y=
y= 1 + ../x+2 2
2± ../4 + 4x+4
W hich one? y=
2
The range of 1- is y ~ 1, so it n1ust be:
1
2(1± ../x+2)
y=
y=l - ✓x+2 2
y= l +.Jx+2
Which one?
The range of 1-1 is y ~ 1, so it 1nust be:
y= l - ✓x + 2
(d) To find the point of intersection, you ,vould usually solve simultaneously the equations of the two curves.
However, for these hvo equations you need to solve x 2 - 2x - 1 = 1 - ✓x + 2, ,vhich is a fornlidable task.
A better way is to re1nen1ber that a function and its inverse intersect on the line y = x.
2 2
Now you can find the solution of x - 2x - 1 = x, i.e. x - 3x - 1 = 0.
3+ ✓ 13
The solution is x =- - -.
2
Ho,vever,l and 1- intersect at one point only (as sho,vn in the diagram on p. 99). The second solution
1
is a different poin t of intersection that would exist if the entire parabola ,vere intersected with the line
y =x (instead of only half the parabola).
Fron1 the diagra1n, you can see that the required value in this case is the smaller of the two solutions,
. . . . 3 - ✓13
so the point of 1ntersect1011 1s at x =- - -.
2
,
(e) y = x- - 2x - 1 :. :i=2x - 2
At x = - 1, the gradient of the tangent is - 4.
At correspondin g points in the reflection in y = x, the product of the gradients of a function and its
inverse n1ust be 1, so 1-1 has a gradient of -0.25 at the point (2, - 1).
Exponential and logarithmic functions

Exponential and logarithmic functions, ,vhich you have ,net in the Mathen1atics Advanced course, provide a very
good exan1ple of inverse functions.
)'
An exponential function has the forn1 l(x) = ax. The base a is any positive real
f(x) = a•
nun1ber except l ; the do1nain is Rand the range is R+ (the set of positive real y=x
.
,
nun1bers). It is a strictly n1onotonic increasing function, i.e. a one-to-one function, , ,,
,
without having to restrict its do1nain. , ,
( l , a ), '
Let y = l(x) = ax , ,' g(x) = los..x
,>, , ------'--
Interchanging x and y: x = er (a, I)
y= log. x (definition of a logarith1n) X

YEAR 11
The function g, where g(x) = log. x, is called a logarith1nic function. Its don1ain is R+(the range off) and its range is
R (the don1ain off). It is also a strictly monotonic increasing function.
Hence log. ax = x for all real x (i.e. for all x in the do1nain of the exponential function), and a1og"x = x for all x > 0
(i.e. for all x in the domain of the logarithn1ic function).
It should be noted th at for any pair of inverse functions f and g, f is the inverse of g and g is the inverse off
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Inverse functions
Use technology to explore the graphs of inverse functions and their properties.
EXERCISE 5.1 INVERSE FUNCTIONS
1 Which of the follo,ving are one-to-one functions?

A f(x)=x-2 B f(x)=x2 -2x+I,x>l C f(x)= ✓4-x 2
1
D f(x)=9-x E f(x)= - F f(x)= l9-xl G f(x)=9-x 2
9-x
H f(x) = cosx, 0 < x < 1 f(x) = cosx J f(x) =x 3 - 4x, -2 < x < 2
2 Find the largest possible don1ain for ,vhich the follo,ving are one-to -one increasing functions.
f(x)= ✓4 -x 2 f(x)= ✓x 2 - 4 1
(a) (b) (c) f(x)=-
x+2
(d) f (x) = 3x - x 2 (e) f (x) = x2 + 6x + 8
3 For each of the follo,ving, find the inverse function and state the don1ain and range of the inverse.
(a) f(x)=2x-4 (b) f(x)=x -I,x>O
2
(c) g(x)= ✓x-3 (d) f(x)= ✓9-x 2 , -3<x<O
3 2
(e) f(x)=x ~ - (f) f(x)=(x+2)2 , x<-2 (g) f(x)=x +2x, x>O (h) f(x)=log,(x+l)
1
(i) f(x)=2- ✓x-2 0) g(x)= ✓(s-x)- 1 (k) f(x)=2 -x,x> 0 (I) h(x)= ,x> -1
x+ l
1
4 (a) Sketch the graph of y = 2•
l +x
1
(b) State t\vo don1ains for which the function f(x) = 2
is one-to-one. (State the largest possible don1ain in
each case.) 1+ x
(c) Find and graph the two functions that are the inverse of the functions defined in (b).
5 Explain why the following functions do not have an inverse function. Suggest suitable restrictions to their
do1nain so that the restricted functions will have an inverse.
(a) f(x) =✓a 2 -x 2 (b) f (x) =4 - x
2
(c) f(x) = - 12
X
6 Show that the following pairs of functions are inverses by sho,ving thatf(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x.
ex
(a) f(x) = 2x-l and g(x) = (x + 1)1 (b) f(x) = and g(x) = log,2x
2
(c) f(x) = ✓16-x 2 , -4<x< 0 andg(x)=-✓16-x 2 , 0 <x< 4
1 l x+ l
(d) f(x) = 2x- x 2, x > 1 and g(x) = 1 + ✓1 -x, x < 1 (e) f(x)= - -,x> - andg(x)= - - ,x>O
2x-l 2 2x
7 f(x)= ✓4 -x 2 , -2 < x < 0. The inverse function is given by:
2
A x +y =4
2
B y= ✓4 -x 2 ,-2<x<2 C y= ✓4 -x 2 ,0<x<2 D y=-✓4 -x 2 , O<x<2

YEAR 11
8 (a) Sho\v that y = x3 - 9x + 6✓ 3 has turning points at (✓3, O) and (-✓3, 1 2✓3 ).
(b) Use the 'sun1 of roots' (covered in section 2.4) to find the other point where the graph cuts the x -axis.
(c) Letf(x) = x3 - 9x + 6✓3 for the restricted don1ain -✓3 < x < ✓3. Sketch the graph of y = f(x) and explain
why the inverse function f -1(x) exists.
(d) State the do1nain and range of f -1(x).
(e) Sketchy= f -1(x ).
(f) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = f - 1(x) at the point where the curve cuts the x -axis.
9 (a) Show that y = ex - 1 is a monotonic increasing function.
(b) Show that the graph of y = ex - 1 has a gradient of 1 at the point (O, O).
(c) Carefully sketch y= ex - 1, y = x and the inverse function on the san1e diagran1.
(d) Show that the inverse function is y = log,(x + 1).
(e) Solve log, (x + 1) < x.
5.2 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
The inverse sine function

The trigonon1etric function y = sinx is a 1nany-to-one function (see graph below left). The reflection of y = sinx in
the line y =x is shown below right. It has the equation x = sin y, but clearly it is not a function.
y
y Sn:
T
2
31'
2
I y = sin x ~,+..~
x :__=•sin y
X 2
-2 X
2"
I
_, - .
31'
-2 _,2
There are infinitely 1nany \vays to restrict the don1ain ofy = sinx to 1nake it one-to-one. Mathematicians have agreed
that the most useful restriction is -1< x < 1,so you will now consider the function f (x) = sin x, -1< x < 1- The
graph of this is sho\vn below left, and its reflection can be seen in the line y =xis shown below right.
Note that the reflection is that part of x = sin y for \Vhich -1< y < 1·
y y
2
"2
I
- !!' 0 7C X
-2
_, I 2
X
2 _, 2
-2
By restricting the do1nain of y = sin x to -1< x < 1,a one-to-one function is fonned, whose inverse is that part of
x = sin y for which -1< y < 1·Our final concern is how to 1nake y the subject of this inverse function. The answer
is to say that y = sin- x, \Vhere y = sin- x n1eans 'that part of x = sin y for \Vhich -1< y < 1'·
1 1

YEAR 11
Note that this raised number notation - t here is different to y= sin 2 x , where the 2 means y = (sinx)2.
Here y = sin- 1 x does not mean y = (sin x)- 1, as that would be y = co sec x.
Instead, there is a new function, the inverse sine function, y = sin- 1 x or y = arcsin x.
Note the follo\ving features of the inverse sine function: y
• increasing function y = sin- 1 x
tr
• do1nain is -1 < x < 1 2
Remember: 'you can only take sin - t of values fro1n - 1 to 1 inclusive'.
• range 1s _ y <TC
· - TC<
2 _
2
Remember: 'sin - t gives values from -1to l inclusive' _, I
X
• vertical tangents at the endpoints

• gradient of 1 at (O, 0)
• for all x in the domain,f (-x) = -f(x), i.e. it is an odd function.
Hence sin . - 1 ( -x) = -sm
, - 1
x.
Graph the functions y = sin (sin- 1 x) and y = sin- 1 (sinx) for -2TC < x < 2TC using graphing software or by con1pleting
a table of values.
Note:
• y = sin (sin- 1 x) or y = sin (arcsin x) exists only for values of x behveen -1 and 1 inclusive;
y =sin (sin- 1 x) is equivalent toy = x for this entire do1nain.
• y = sin- 1 (sin x) or y = arcsin (sin x) exists for all real x, but it is equivalent toy = x only for -1< x <1·
Its graph has a 'sawtooth' shape.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Inverse sine functions

Use technology to explore the graphs of the sine function and its inverse.
Example 7
. d th e exact val ues of th e "II
F111 ·
,o owing. (a) s1·n- 1 (./323 ) (c) arcsin 1.2
(d) sin - t ( sin 1.2) (e) arcsin ( sin 1) 1

(f) sin- ( sin TC)
Solution
(a) As -1 < f < 1, sin- 1 ( f) exists. It is the nu1nber y or angle ye (i.e. in radians), such that -1< y < 1
and \Vhose sine is f. Hence sin-
1
f =1·
(b) Sin1ilarly, sin- 1 ( - ~) can be evaluated as a nun1ber y or angle y<, such that -1< y < 1,\Vhose sine
· - 1. Hence sin
1s . - 1 ( - 1) =- TC .
2 2 6
Alternatively: sin-ix is an odd function, so sin - t (-1) = - sin 1) = - :
-t ( .
(c) 1.2 is not \vithin the don1ain - 1 < x < 1, so arcsin 1.2 does not exist.
(d) 1.2 is \vithin the do1nain -1< x < 1•so sin- (sin 1.2) = 1.2.
1
(e) : is \vithin the don1ain -1<x < 1,so arcsin( sin 1)= 1·
TC is outside the don1ain -1<x < 1•so sin- (sin TC) TC. Instead, sin- (sin TC) = sin- 0 = 0.
1 1 1
(f) -:I:
C hapter 5 Inverse functions 103

YEAR 11
Example 8
By first considering the do1nain and range, sketchy= 3 sin- 1 (2x - 1).
Solution
)ii
Re1nen1ber, 'you can only take sin- 1 of values fro1n - 1 to 1 inclusive', 2
so, -1 < 2x - 1 < 1. Solving this inequality:
0 < x < 1 is the required don1ain. " y = 3sin•• (2x - I)
"2
Siinilarly, 'sin- 1 gives values fro1n -1 1
to inclusive: so the range of 3sin- 1 (2x- l) _, 2
f f I X
is - 3 < y < 3 (i.e. 3 tiines the range of y = sin- 1 x). - "i:

In other words: -1< sin- (2x-l) < 1
1 - ,r
- 3f < y < 3f
_ 3,r
Multiplying by 3: 2
The inverse cosine function

The trigonon1etric function y = cosx is a many-to-one function (see graph below left). The reflection ofy = cos x
in the line y =xis shown below right. It has the equation x =cosy, but clearly it is not a function.
y
y 2
21<
2 3;r
Jr
x=cosy
2
X X
u< -2 - 1 Jr I 2
2
- 21<
There are infinitely 1nany ,vays to restrict the do1nain of y = cos x to make it one-to-one. Mathematicians have
agreed that the most useful restriction is O < x < Jr, so you will now consider the function f (x) = cos x, 0 < x < rr.
The graph of this is shown belo,v left, and its reflection can be seen in the line y = x is sho,vn below right.
Note that the reflection is that part of x = cos y for which O < y < rr.
y
y
"
2
y=cosx. O~x~Jr 2 X=C.OS) t O~y~Jr
I r-~
- 1! 0 7C X
-2
_, 0 I 2 X
2 _, 2
-2
By restricting the do1nain of y = cos x to O < x < rr, a one-to-one function is formed,
whose inverse is that part of x = cosy for which O< y < rr. )'
This function is the inverse cosine function, y = cos- 1 x or y = arccosx,

where y = cos- 1 x 1neans 'that part of x = cosy for which O < y < rr '.
Note the follo,ving features of the inverse cosine function:
y = cos- 1 x
• decreasing function
• don1ain is -1 < x < 1
Remember: 'you can only take cos- i of values fro1n -1 to 1 inclusive' _, I X
• range is O<y< rr
Remember: 'cos- • gives values fron10 torr iI1clusive'
YEAR 11
• gradient of -1 at ( 0, 1)
• the function is neither even nor odd, but it does have rotational sy1n1netry about its y-intercept.
• In particular: for any x in the domain, the sun1 of the function's heights at x and - x will ahvays be tr:
COS
- I (
+ COS- I X = 7r
-X
)
cos- I ( -x) = tr-cos - 1 x

Graph the functions y = cos (cos_, x) or y = cos (arccos x ) and y = cos_, (cos x) or y = arccos (cos x ) for -2tr < x < 2tr
using graphing software or by co1npleting a table of values.
Note:
• y =cos (cos- 1 x) exists only for values of x between -1 and 1 inclusive;
y = cos (cos _, x ) is equivalent to y= x for this entire don1ain.
• y = cos_, (cos x ) exists for all real x , but it is equivalent to y= x only for O< x < tr.
Its graph has a 'sawtooth' shape.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Inverse cosine functions

Use technology to explore the graphs of the cosine function and its inverse.
Example 9
Find the exact values of the following. (a) cos-• (-Fi) (b) cos( arccos(- 1)) (c) cos-
1
( cos :f)
2
5 1
(d) arccos( cos 3tr) (e) sin( cos- (- 1)) (f) tan( arccos(- ~))
Solution
(a) Method l Method2
(-ti)
Let y =cos-• cos-• (-Fi)= tr - cos- •(Fi)
Then cosy= - Fi and O< y < tr =tr- -tr
4
:. y = 3tr 3tr
4 =4
3
:. cos- •(- }i)= :
(b) cos(arccos x) = x for -1 < x< 1, so cos( arccos(- 1))= - 1
1
(c) cos- (cosx) = x for O< x :f) = 2f
< tr, so cos_, ( cos 2
(d) 5[ is not in the don1ain O< x < tr, so arccos ( cos 5 f)-:# 5[
The solution is: arccos (cos 5 f) = arccos ( cos 1) = 1
(e) Method l Method2
sin (cos_, (- 1)) = sin f

2 sin (cos- •(- 1))= sin ( tr - cos-
1
1)
✓3 . ( tr - tr)
=sin
=2 3
= sin 2tr
3
✓3
=2

YEAR 11
Method 2 here sho\vs a good approach. When you have to take an inverse trigonometric function
of a negative value, use the syn1n1etry properties of the inverse trigono1netric functions:
sin- 1 (-x) = -sin- 1 x cos- 1 (-x) = n-cos- 1 x tan- 1 (-x) = - tan- 1 x
This process ensures that the function is evaluated \vith a first quadrant angle.
(f) Method 1 Method2
Let arccos(- ~ )= 0 Use the symmetry properties:
Then cos0= - ~ and O< 0< n arccos(- ~)= n - arccos- 1 (~) and tan (n- 0) = -tan 0
So 0 is a second quadrant angle.
tan ( arccos (- ~))= tan ( n - arccos ~)
Need to evaluate:
tan( arccos(- ~))= tan0 = - tan ( arccos ~)
The graph belo\v sho\vs this:

)'
Now find the exact value of tan (arccos ~ ).
Let 0 = arccos ~
3
:. cos 0 = ~ (\vhere 0 is acute)
X Now evaluate tan ( arccos ~)= tan0.
The diagram belo\v sho\vs that if cos 0 = ~ then tan 0 = .Jf :

0 is in the second quadrant, cos 0 = - ~
3
Need to find the value of tan 0.
:. tan(arccos(- ~))=tan0= - .Jf 2
Hence tan ( arccos(- ~ ))= - f.

Example 10 )'
State the do1nain and range of the function y = 2 cos_, (2x + 1).
3;i
Hence sketch the graph of the function. 2
)t
Solution y = 2cos· '(2x + I)
It is only possible to take the inverse cosine of values bet\veen -1 and 1
inclusive, so -1 < 2x + 1 < 1.
0 I
Solving this, the don1ain is -1 < x < 0. - 1 X
As the inverse cosine gives values between Oand 7r inclusive:

0 < cos- 1 (2x + 1) < ,r
0 < 2 cos- • (2x + 1) < 2n
:. range is O< y < 2n

YEAR 11
The inverse tangent function

The trigonon1etric function y = tanx is a n1any-to-one function (see graph belo,v left). The reflection of y = tanx in
the line y =xis shown below right. It has the equation x = tan y, but clearly it is not a function.
)'
:y= ta n '
' 2
X X
' 2
-2 .
- 2Jr
There are infinitely 1nany ,vays to restrict the don1ain of y = tanx to make it one-to-one. Mathen1aticians have agreed
that the 1nost useful restriction is -1 1•
< x < so you will now consider the function f(x) =tanx, <x < -1 1·
The graph of this is sho,vn below left, and its reflection in the line y =x is shown below right.
Note that the reflection is that part of x = tan y for which - 1< y < 1.
)'
)'
''
'• y= tanx• - -2Jt <x< -2Jt ---------- 2 ----------------
Jt
On ;r 3n2Jtx
0 X
I T
--------- -2 ---------------- ·
Jt
By restricting the don1ain of y = tan x to -1< x < 1, a one-to-one function is fonned, whose inverse is that part
of x = tan y for ,vhich <y< -1 1·
This function is the inverse tangent function, y = tan- 1 x , or y = arctan x , where y = tan- 1 x 1neans 'that part of
x = tan y for which -1< y < 1'.
Note the follo,ving features of the inverse tangent function:
)'
• increasing function
• do1nain is all real x --------··2Jr
Remember: 'you can take tan - t of any real value' J = tan-• X
• 1C 1C
• range1s -
2 <y< 2 0 X
Remember: 'tan- 1 gives values from -1 to 1not inclusive' Jr

--------· -2
• horizontal asymptotes at y =+ 1
• gradient of 1 at (0, 0)
• for all x in the don1ain,f(-x) = - f(x) , i.e. it is an odd function.
Hence tan - t (-x) = - tan- 1 x.
Graph the functions y = tan (tan- 1 x) and y = tan- 1 (tanx) for -2 tr< x < 2 tr using graphing software or by con1pleting
a table of values.

YEAR 11
Note:
• y = tan (tan- 1 x) or y = tan (arctan x) is equivalent toy= x for all real x .
• y = tan- 1 (tan x) or y = arctan (tan x) exists for all real x except x = + + 3 1, f, ...
It is equivalent toy= x only for -1 1·
< x < Its graph looks like an infinite set of parallel intervals with open
circles on each end.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Inverse tangent functions

Use technology to explore t he graphs of the tangent function and its inverse.
Example 11
Find the exact values of the following.
(a) arctan (-13) (b) tan(tan- 1 1) (c) arctan ( tan ( 1)) (d)
1
:f))
tan- (tan(- 4
Solution
(a) arctan ( TJ )= :- It is the value of 0, between -1 and l (not inclusive), for which tan 0 = -13·
arctan(tan(1))=1,as 1isbehveen - 1 and l (not inclusive).
1
(b) tan(tan- 1)=1 (c)
(d) tan -i ( tan (- 4[)) is not equal to - 4[ , because - 4[ is not between -1 and l ·
Using the symmetry properties that tan 0 and tan- 1 x are odd functions, and that tan (n:+ 0) = tan 0:
tan-
1
(
4
tan (- [ ))= tan- (- tan (
1
:f ))= -tan -
4 1
(
4 1
1
tan ( [ ))=-tan- ( tan ( ))=-1
Example 12
Find the exact value of sin ( 2 tan -i 1).
Solution
)'
1
Let tan- .l =x
2
Thus tan x= 1 an d - n: <x< n:
2 2 2
Hence x can be represented as a first quadrant angle. I
Then: sin (2 tan - i 1) = sin 2x

0 2 X
=2sinxcosx
Example 13
Find sin[cos- t + tan-
1 1
(-5)].
YEAR 11
Solution y
sin[ cos-
1
t 1
+ tan- (- j)]= sin [ cos-
1
t- 1
tan - j ]
. (x - y ) wh ere x = cos - 1 4 an d y = tan -I 4

= sin
5 3
4
= sin (cos-i t) cos ( tan -i j ) - cos ( cos-i t) sin ( tan -i j) 3
Using expansion of sin (x - y):

cos- 1 t=x , socosx=t andO<x<1r:
0 (3, 0) (4,0) X
tan- 14 =y so tan y = 4 and - tr: <y< 1r:

3 ' 3 2 2
Hence both x and y can be represented as first quadrant angles:
sin[ cos-
1
t + tan - 1
(- j)]= sin x cosy - cos x sin y
=(~)(~)- (t)(t)
=-Is
Example 14
Prove that sin- 1 x + cos- 1 x= 1for -1 < x < 1.
Solution
Let a = sin- x
1
:. sina=x\vhere - 1 <a< 1
1- a) = sin a, so cos (1- a) = x
Recall that cos (
Also, as -1< a < 1,thus O< 1- a< 1r:
1r: -a = cos- I x (noting that 0 = cos- 1 x only \Vhen cos 0 = x and O< 0 < tr)
2
1r: . -I - I . - I
+ COS- I X = 1r:
2 - Sin X = COS X SO Sin X
2
You should ren1ember this result: sin- 1 x + cos- 1 x = 1 for -1 < x < 1
This can be proved by an alternative n1ethod involving differentiation which will be looked at later in section 11.7
(page 252).
You could also verify it by graphing y = sin - 1 x + cos- 1 x.
Example 15
Solve2sin- 1 x + cos- 1 x = 1·
Solution
Usin g the result of Exa1nple 14, the equation becomes: 2sin- 1 x + 1r: -sin- 1 x = 7r
2 3
1
sin- x =- 7r
6
x = sin (- ~)
x =-l
2

YEAR 11
EXERCISE 5.2 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
- 1 - 1
A n B 2cos x- n C 2cos x D 0
2 Find the exact values of the following (if they exist).
(a) arcsin 1 (b) arcsin O (c) arcsin (-1) (d) arcsin ./j (e) arcsin (-1 ) (f) arccos 1
(g) arccosO (h) arccos(-1) (i) arccos 1 O) arccos(- 1 ) (k) arctan l (I) arctan(-1)
(m) tan- 1 ✓3 1
(n) tan- (- .E) 1
(o) sin- (sin1)
1
(p) sin- (sin80°)
1
(q) sin- (sin 2 f)
(r) sin- 1(sin(- 3:))
1
(s) cos- (cos1)
1
(t) cos- (cos f)
2 1
(u) cos- 1(cos(- 1)) (v) tan- (tan
7
l)
3 Evaluate the following.
(a) cos (sin - t 1) (b) (c) tan- 1( tan 245°) (d) cos- 1(cos 540°)
(e) cos ( tan - t (-✓3))
4 Sho,v that:
(a) tan -t 4 - tan- 11. = n (b) sin- 1~ +sin- 1(- ~)=o

5 4
(c) tan- 12...+cos- 12...= n
12 13 2
(d) cos-t ~ - tan -t ( - !)= 1
(e) 2sin- 12=sin- 1 24 (f) sin- 12 + tan- 1..1._= cos- 12
5 25 5 24 5
. -1 5
(g) sm -1 16 -1 4
+ tan = cos
13 63 5
5 Find the exact values of the following.
(a) sin[sin- 1 (~)] +sin [su1- 1(- ~)] (b) sin [Sill- I~ + sin-I (- ~)]
(c) cos[ sin- 12-+sin- 14 ]

13 5
(d) sin ( 2tan- 1 1)
(e) cos[ tan- 1 4 - cos- 12...]
3 13
(f) sin[ cos- ~ +tan- 1(-!)]
1
(g) tan [ tan- 14 + tan- 112 ]

3 13
6 Prove that: (a) sin- 1(x) = cos - t .J1- x 2 , 0 < x < 1 (b) . - 1 /1
cos- 1 x=sm 2 0
"\/ - x, <x< l
7 Sketch graphs of each of the following, stating their don1ain and range.
(a) y=2sin- 1 x (b) y=2sin- 13x (c) y=3sin- 1(2x+l) (d) y=3sin- 12x + l
(e) y=2tan- 1x (f) y=2 tan- 1(x- l ) (g) y=2cos-1(;)
(h) y = 2 sin - t (-x) (i) y = sin (cos- 1x), by first simplifying sin (cos- 1x)
8 Consider the functionsf(x) = 2sin- 1(2x- 1) andg(x) = 2sin- 1(1 - 2x).
(a) Find the do1nain and range of each function.
(b) Show that g(x) = -f(x).
(c) Sketch the graphs of the hvo functions.
9 Solve the following equations. For part (c), ans,ver correct to two decin1al places and check your solution by
substituting values back into the original equation.
(a) sin- 1xcos- 1x=O 1 1
(b) sin- (1-x) + 2cos- (x-1)=1 (c) sin- 1xcos- 1x=-l

YEAR 11
10 Solve the following pairs of siinultaneous equations.

(a) 2sin- 1 x + cos- 1y=-~ (b) sin- 1 x+cos- 1 y= - ~
sin- 1 x-2cos- 1y= - 2 f cos- 1 x-sin- 1 y= ~1

11 (a) Show that sin(sin- 1 x-cos- 1 x)=2x2 - 1 for-1 <x< 1.
(b) Show that if -1 < x < 1 then -1 < 2x2 - 1 < 1.
(c) Hence solve sin- 1 x - cos- 1 x = sin- 1 (Sx - 4).
12 Prove thatl(x) = tan(cos- 1 x) is an odd function.
13 Ifl (x) = 3 cos- •(;), detennine the inverse function 1-• and specify the do1nain and range of 1-•.
14 (a) Sketchthegraphofy=sin- 1 x + cos- 1 x. (b) Hence find J~,(sin- x+cos- x)dx.

1 1
CHAPTER REVIEW 5
1 (a) Find the vertex and intercepts of the parabola y = x2 - 2x - 8.

(b) State the restricted do1nain (containing x = O) for which l(x) = x2 - 2x - 8 has an inverse function.
(c) Find the equation of the inverse function 1 -'(x).
(d) Sketch y= l(x) and y = 1 - 1(x) on the san1e graph.
(e) Show that y = l(x) and y = 1 -• (x) intersect where x2 - 3x - 8 = 0. Find the exact value of a,
the x-coordinate of the point of intersection T.
(f) Find the gradient of 1-1(x) at T.
2 Find theexactvalueofthefollowing: (a) tan- 1 ✓3 (b) cos-• (- .Jz) (c) sin(sin- 1 1)
(d) sin- 1 (sin :) (e) sin- 1 (sin 7[) (f) sin(2tan- ' 1) (g)
1
tan(2cos- (-0.4))
3 Show that: (a) tan- '(!) + tan- '(i)= tai1- 2

1
(b) tan- '(!) - tan- '(i)=sin-•(
2
f)
4 For each of the follo\ving, state the do1nain and range and sketch the graph.
(a) y=2cos-•; (b) y= 1sin- 1 (2x - l) (c) y= 1sin- 1 (1- 2x) (Hint:l-2x=-[2x-l])
. - 12X e J = COS ('
() SIU- 1)
2 -
(d) J = TC Sill X
5 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = tan- i (2x + 1) at the point on the curve where y = -1-
6 Sketch the graph of the inverse function of y = 3 cos- •;.
7 (a) Sketch bothy= sin- •x and y = cos- 1 x on the saine number plane.
Hence determine the do1nain of the function y = log, ( sin=: x ).

COS X
(b) Find the intercepts of the graph of y = log, ( sin=:

COS
x) with the coordinate axes.
X
(c) Show that the function y = log, (sin=: x ) is increasing for all x in its don1ain.
COS X
(d) Sketch the graph of y = log, ( sin=: x ).

COS X

CHAPTER 6
Permutations and combinations
6.1 FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE
If an outcon1e can happen in m different \vays, and a second outco1ne can happen in n different ways, then the total
nun1ber of ways in \Vhich the t\vo outco1nes can happen together is m x n.
Total nun1ber of ways = m x n where m = nun1ber of ways first outcon1e can happen
n = nu1nber of ways second outcon1e can happen
For exa1nple, this sin1ply n1eans that if you have 5 different shirts and 7 different hats, then the total nu1nber of
different selections of a shirt and hat is 5 x 7 = 35.
This is known as the multiplication principle.
Example 1
There are four roads fron1 town A to to\vn B, and three roads fro1n town B to town C.
Ho\v 1nany different \vays are there to travel by road fron1 A to B to C?
Solution
Consider the first road fron1 A to B. After this road there are three \vays to travel fro1n B to C.
Similarly, after taking the second road from A to B there are then three ways to go from B to C.
As there are 4 different ways from A to B, and after each of these there are 3 different \vays to go fron1 B to C,
there are in total 4 x 3 = 12 ways to go fro1n A to B to C (i.e. fron1 A to Cvia B).
Example 2
The old New South Wales black-and-yellow nu1nber plates showed three letters and three digits. How many
different number plates could be n1ade?
Solution
There are 26 letters of the alphabet and 10 digits to choose from.
3 3
Nun1ber of different nu1nber plates= 26 x 26 x 26 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 26 x 10 = 17 576000
Example 3
In how 1nany different ways can six people A , B, C, D, E, F be arranged:
(a) in a row of 3 (b) in a ro\v of 6?
11 2 New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12

YEAR 11
Solution
(a) There is a choice of 6 people for the first p lace.
There is a choice of 5 people for the second place, as one person already occupies the first p lace.
There is a choice of 4 people for the third p lace, as two people have already been used.
Hence there are 6 x 5 x 4 = 120 different ways to fill the three places in the row.
This problem could also be considered using a diagram to represent the p laces:
6 5 4 Each nu1nber shows how many ways there are to fill each place.
Using the fundalnental counting principle, this gives 6 x 5 x 4 = 120 d ifferent ways.
(b) The same method as in part (a), continued for six places:
6 5 4 3 2 1 Nun1ber of ways= 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 720
Factorial notation
Factorial notation uses all exclalnation mark ! as a short way to write the product of consecutive positive integers.
The answer to Exalnple 3 (b) above can be written as 6!, which n1eans the product of the consecutive integers from 6
to 1.
6! is read as '6 factorial' or 'factorial 6'. In general, the product of n consecutive positive integers fro1n n to 1 is
,vritten n! a11d read as 'n factorial'.
n! = n(n - l)(n - 2) x ... x 3 x 2 x 1
Make sure you know how to use the n! key on your calculator.
Example 4
A group of 6 boys al1d 5 girls decide to go to the n1ovies.
(a) In how 1nany ,vays ca11 the boys sit together in a ro,v?
(b) In how 1nany ,vays ca11 the girls sit together in a ro,v?
(c) In how 1nany ,vays ca11 the ,vhole group sit together in a ro,v?
(d) Why is the answer to part (c) not the product of the answers in parts (a) and (b)?
Solution
(a) The 6 boys Call sit together in 6! ways, i.e. 720 ,vays.
(b) The 5 girls Call sit together in 5! ways, i.e. 120 ,vays.
(c) The group of 11 people can sit together in 11! ways, i.e. 39 916 800 ways.
(Note: This a11swer is best ,vritten sin1ply as ' 11!' rather tha11 as '39 916 800'.)
(d) In part (c) there is no grouping by gender, so 11 different people are being arranged in one big group.
But 1nultiplying the answers to parts (a) a11d (b) would keep the hvo groups separate, only finding half the
nun1ber of ways a group of 6 people can sit in a row with a group of 5 people.
EXERCISE 6.1 FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE
1 There are five roads from to,vn A to town B, and two roads from to,vn B to to,vn C. In how many different
ways ca11 you travel by road fron1 A to B to C?
Chapter 6 Permutations and combinations 11 3

YEAR 11
2 A man has three pairs of shoes, four suits and six ties. Ho\v n1any different sets of shoes, suits and ties can he
wear?
3 In how 1nany \vays can seven books be arranged in a row?
4 A Mathematics test contains 20 multiple-choice questions. Each question has four possible answers, A, B, C
and D . If a student guesses every answer, in how many different ways can the answers be given?
5 A restaurant n1enu has three choices of soup, five choices of main course and three choices of dessert. How
n1any different n1eals of soup, n1ain course and dessert are possible?
6 There are 10 candidates for school captain and vice-captain. The nun1ber of different ways they might be
selected is: A 90 B 45 C 10 D 9
7 New South Wales black-and-\vhite nu1nber plates consist of three letters, t\vo digits and one letter. How many
different number plates can be n1ade?
8 Ho\v 1nany arrangements of the letters of the \Vord PENCIL are possible?
9 In how 1nany different ways can A, B, C, D, Ebe arranged:

(a) in a row of three (b) in a ro\v all together?
10 The ne\ver Ne\v South Wales black-and-yello\v number plates consist of two letters, two digits and two letters.
(a) How 1nany different nun1ber plates can be 1nade?
(b) What is the reason for changing the nun1ber plates fro1n three letters and three digits to two letters, two
digits, two letters?
11 The Olyn1pic tean1s fron1 eight countries are s\vin1n1ing in the 200-metre relay final. Ho\v n1any different
finishing results are possible? (Assu1ne no tied results.)
12 The digits Oto 9 are used to 1nake 10-digit nu1nbers (not beginning with zero). Ho\v n1any different numbers
are possible if:
(a) each digit can be used only once (b) each digit can be used any nun1ber of tiines?
6.2 PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE

The pigeonhole principle is a \Vay of understanding how a ntunber of ite1ns can be placed into a number of containers.
Traditionally, 1nathen1aticians have illustrated this concept by using the exan1ple of placing pigeons into pigeonholes.
For exan1ple, if you have five pigeons and four pigeonholes, then one of the pigeonholes n1ust contain at least two
pigeons.
If you place one pigeon in each pigeonhole, then the only \Vay that you can place the remaining pigeon is to put it in
with one of the pigeons already in a pigeonhole.
If (n + 1) ite1ns occupy n containers, then at least one of the containers 1nust contain at least two iten1s.
Proof
If each container contains at most one ite1n, then n containers will contain n ite1ns.
Thus any additional iten1s must go into a container already containing an iten1.
Hence the state1nent is true: at least one of the containers 1nust contain at least t\vo iten1s.
This result n1ay be extended to:
If n iten1s are sitting in k containers, \Vhere n > k, then there is at least one container with at least ~ ite1ns in it.

YEAR 11
Proof
Assume there are no containers that have at least ~ ite1ns. Hence every container has fewer than ~ iten1s.
Total nun1ber of items< ~ x k = n, as there are k containers.
This says that the nun1ber of items is less than n, which contradicts the initial statement that there \Vere n iten1s.
Hence the assumption 'assu1ne there are no containers that have at least ; items' must be false.
Thus, there is at least one container with at least ; items in it.
Another exainple of this principle is that if you pick up four gloves, then you 111ust have either at least two left-hand
gloves or at least two right-hand gloves: 1= 2. The actual set of possible outco1nes is {4L, 3LlR, 2L2R, 1L3R, 4R},
\Vhich verifies the state1nent.
Example 5
(a) You have a dra\ver full of red and blue socks that have not been arranged in pairs. Socks can be \Vorn on
either foot. What is the least nu1nber of socks that you 1nust take fron1 the drawer to be sure that you have
one pair of the san1e colour?
(b) Explain why ai1y 27-\vord sequence in this book 1nust have at least two \Vords that start with the saJ11e letter.
Solution
(a) In this exa1nple the socks are the iten1s an d the colour of the socks are the containers. Thus there are two
contain ers, so you need three iten1s to be sure that you have two ite1ns in the saine container.
Hence you n1ust select three socks fro1n the drawer to be sure that you have one pair of the same colour.
You would have either three socks of the saJ11e colour or two socks of the saine colour and the other sock
the re1naining colour.
(b) There are 27 words (ite1ns) that can start with one of the 26 different letters of the alphabet (containers).
By the pigeonhole prin ciple, two of the words 1nust start with the san1e letter.
Example 6
There are seven pigeons sitting in three pigeonholes.
Explain why one of the pigeonholes must contain at least three pigeons.
Solution
n = 7,k = 3,so n =7..= 2.!.
k 3 3
Hence one pigeonhole 1nust contain at least 2 .!. pigeons, but since part-pigeons are in1possible, it n1ust contain
. 3
th ree pigeons.
EXERCISE 6.2 P IGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE
1 How n1any cards must be selected fro1n a standard pack of 52 playing cards to 1nake sure that you have two
cards of the san1e suit?
2 If you select five cards fron1 a standard pack of 52 playing cards, at least how 1nany 1nust be of the sa1ne suit?
3 There are three pairs of socks in a drawer, coloured brown, grey and black. They are not paired up. Ho\v n1any
socks must be selected fron1 the drawer to be sure that you have a pair of the same colour?
Chapter 6 Permutations and combinations 115

YEAR 11
4 Six pairs of shoes, of different colours and styles, have been thrown into the botton1 of n1y wardrobe. It is dark.
What is the minimun1 nu1nber of shoes I need to take from the ,vardrobe to be sure I have a matching pair?
5 Twenty-five students attend a class reunion and shake hands with each other. If no students shakes hands ,vith
the san1e person twice, explain why two students ,vill each have shaken the san1e nu1nber of hands.
6 There are 400 students attending a Senior College. Explain why at least two of the1n ,vill celebrate their
birthday on the same day.
7 (a) When taking pairs of nun1bers fron1 the integers l to 8, list all the pairs of integers that add up to 9.
(b) How 1nany nun1bers do you need to select from the integers l to 8 to be sure that you have a pair of
numbers that add up to 9?
8 Prove that in a group of 13 people there are two people ,vho \Vere born in the san1e month.
6.3 PERMUTATIONS
A permutation is an ordered selection or arrangen1ent of all or part of a set of objects.
It is very iinportant to re1nen1ber that pennutations are used when the order is important!
Example 3(b) above is an exan1ple of the nun1ber of arrange1nents of a set of six objects. Exa1nple 3(a) is an example
of the nun1ber of arrange1nents of three me1nbers of a set of six objects. Note that in general:
• the nun1ber of arrange1nents of n different objects is n !
• the nun1ber of arrange1nents of three objects taken fron1 a set of n different objects is n(n - l )(n - 2).
c II n(n _ l)(n _ 2) -_ n(n - l)(n - 2)(n-3)(n- 4) x ... x 3 x 2 x l _ n!
C onsi der th e 10 o,ving statement:
(n - 3)(n-4) x ... x 3 x 2 x l (n - 3)!
Example 7
Fron1 a standard pack of 52 playing cards, the set of hearts (• ) are taken. In ho,v n1any ways:
(a) can the 13 cards be arranged in a row
(b) can 6 of the 13 cards be arranged in a ro,v?
Solution
(a) 13 cards can be arranged in 13 ! ways.
(b) 6 out of 13 cards can be arranged in 13 x 12 x l l x 10 x 9 x 8 = 1235 520 ways.
13
This could be written as ( l~! )' = / = 1235 520 ways.
13 6 . 7.
Number of permutations np r
The sy1nbol "P, 1neans the number of arrangen1ents (i.e. ordered subsets, pern1utations) of any n different objects
taken rat a tiine (or in other words, the arrangements of r objects taken from a group of n objects). This denotes the
nun1ber of ways of filling r places ,vith then different objects that are available (r < n).
Using the diagram notation fro1n Example 3 above:
"P, = I n I n - l I n - 2 I ... I n - r+ l I
The first place can be filled in n ways, because any one of the n objects can occupy this place. When the first place
has been filled in any one of these ,vays, there ren1ain (n - l) objects, any one of which can occupy the second place.
By the fundan1ental counting principle, each way of filling the first place can be associated with each ,vay of filling
the second place, so the nu1nber of ways of filling the first two places is n(n - l).
Sin1ilarly, after the first t\vo places have been filled in any one of these ways there re1nain (n - 2) objects, any one of
which can occupy the third place. Hence the first three places can be filled in n(n - l)(n - 2) ways. Continuing this
pattern, the number of ,vays of filling r places is given by:

YEAR 11
"P, = n(n - l)(n - 2) .. .(n - r + 1)

n(n- l)(n-2) ... (n-r + l)(n-r)!
I 1l
(n -r)!
. "P = n! [2]
' (n - r)!
Similarly, note that the syn1bol "P11 would denote the number of ,vays of filling n places with n objects available:
Fro1n [l]: "P = n(n - l )(n - 2) ... (n - n + 1)
"
= n(n - l )(n - 2) x ... x 3 x 2 x 1 = n!
"P n! _ n !
But fro1n [2]: " - (n-n)! - O!
n'
Hence you have: n!= O
!
For consistency, O! is therefore defined to be equal to 1: O! = 1
Example 8
(a) In how 1nany ,vays can a first, second and third prize be awarded in a class of 10 students?
(b) In how 1nany ,vays can a Mathen1atics prize, a Physics prize and a Chemistry prize be awarded in a class
of 10 students?
Solution
(a) This question is asking us to find how many different arrangements of three students can be selected
fron1 10 students.
0
Nu1nber of ways = ' P3 = 10 x 9 x 8 = 720
(b) In this question each student could ,vin any or all of the prizes, so permutations are not used.
Nu1nber of ways = 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000
EXPLORING FURTHER
Permutations
Use technology to explore the calcu lation of numbers of permutations.
Arrangements with restrictions
Example 9
In ho,v 1nany ,vays can six students and two teachers be arran ged in a row if:
(a) the two teachers are together (b) the two teachers are not together
(c) there are at least three students separating the teachers?
Solution
(a) If the teachers are together they can be regarded as one 'unit'. Thus there are seven 'units'
(six students plus the unit of two teachers) to be arranged in a row. This can be done in 7! ways.
However, the hvo teachers (label the1n A and B) can be arranged a1nong then1selves in 2! (i.e. hvo)
,vays, AB or BA.
:. Nun1ber of arrange1nents = 2! x 7! = 10 080

YEAR 11
(b) Number of arrangements without restriction= 8!

Number of arrangements with the teachers together= 2! x 7!
Nu1nber of arrange1nents \Vith the teachers not together= 8! - 2! x 7!
=8 X 7! - 2 X 7!
= 6 X 7! = 30240
(c) There is a restriction on the places to be occupied by the teachers, so it is easiest to arrange the teachers first.
If teacher A is in the first position then teacher B
can occupy the fifth, sixth, seventh or eighth
position, as sho\vn:
A B B B B
Siinilarly, for all the possible first positions of A there are:

• 4 arrangements of A and B with A in first position
• 3 arrangements of A and B with A in second position
• 2 arrangements of A and B with A in third position
• 1 arrangement of A and B \Vith A in fourth position
• 1 arrangement of A and B \Vith A in fifth position
• 2 arrangements of A and B with A in sixth position
• 3 arrangements of A and B with A in seventh position
• 4 arrangements of A and B with A in eighth position.
There are 20 different ways of arranging A and B (i.e. the sun1 of the above arrange1nents).
For each of these 20 arrangen1ents there are six places left, which can be filled by the students in 6! \vays.
Nun1ber of arrange1nents (total)= 20 x 6! = 14400
Example 10
Ho\v 1nany different arrangen1ents of the letters of the word TUESDAY are possible if:
(a) the three vo\vels are together (b) the first and last places are consonants
(c) the consonants and vo\vels occupy alternate positions?
Solution
The vowels are A, E, U; the consonants are D, S, T, Y.
(a) As the three vowels are together they can be regarded as one unit.
Thus there are five units (the four consonants plus the group of vowels) to be arranged in a ro\v.
This can be done in 5! ways.
Also, the three vowels can be arranged in 3! \vays.
:. Total nu1nber of arrange1nents = 3! x 5! = 720
(b) There are restrictions on the first and last places, so fill then1 first.
• There are four consonants, so the first place can be filled in 4 \vays.
• After the first place is filled, the last place can be filled in 3 ways.
• The ren1aining five places can be filled \Vithout
restriction in 5! ways. I
4 5I I
4 3I 2 I I 1 3
Total nu1nber of arrange1nents = 4 x 3 x 5! = 1440

YEAR 11
(c) The consonants (C) and vo,vels (V) occupy alternate positions, as
shown in the table on the right. There are 1nore consonants than C V C V C V C
vowels, so the consonants n1ust occupy the end places.
The four consonants can fill their places in 4! ways. The three vo,vels can fill their places in 3! ways.
: . Total number of arrangen1ents = 4! x 3! = 144
Arrangements in a circle
The nun1ber of ways of arranging n different objects in a circle, regarding clockwise and anticlock,vise arrange1nents
as different, can be sho,vn to be:
n'
- · =(n - 1)! (This is shown in Example 11 below.)
n
In a circular arrangement there is no start or finish, so to count the arrange1nents one object needs to be fixed as the
'starting' object.
Example 11
In ho,v 1nany ,vays can the four people, Alexia, Bronwyn, Chanda and Divya, be arran ged in a circle?
Solution
Method 1
There is no first place to fill, so any one person can be fixed as the 'starting' person (or the 'fixed position') and
the other three people arranged around her. This can be done in 3! ,vays.
A
Method2
The diagram at right shows an arrangement of the four people (labelled with the first
letter of each name, A , B, C, D). D B
If A, B, C, D are kept in the san1e position relative to each other and then 1noved
all one place clocbvise, they still have the sa1ne arrangement- the arrange1nent has
C
not changed.
If A , B, C, D were arranged in a straight line an d they \Vere all moved along one position to the right (so that the
fourth position n1oved to the first position), then the arrangement would have changed.
You should be able to see that for every one arrangement of the group in a circle, there are four different
arrange1nents of the san1e group in a straight line.
: . Nun1ber of circular arran gements= Number of linear arrangen1ents + Number of elements
4!
= 4 =3!=6
Mutually exclusive operations-the addition principle

In Exainple 9 (c) above there are hvo teachers A and B seated in a ro,v and separated by at least three students.
A could occupy the first position and B the fifth position or A the first ai1d B the sixth or A the first and B the
seventh , and so on. Arrai1gements like these are said to be mutually exclusive, because they cannot both be true at
the sa1ne time. For example, 'A is first and B is fifth' excludes the possibility that 'A is first and B is sixth' - these hvo
descriptions cannot both be true at the san1e tiine.

YEAR 11
Example 12
Ho,v 1nany numbers greater than 6000 can be form ed using the digits 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 if no d igit can be used
n1ore than once per number?
Solution
Nun1bers containing either four digits or five digits can be fonned.
For four-digit numbers, the first place can be filled in three ways by either 6, 8 or 9.
After the first place is filled (in any one of these three ways) , four digits ren1ain, any one of which can occupy
second place. Following the n1ultiplication principle, the second place can be filled in four ,vays, the third place in
three ways and the fourth place in two ways:
:. Number of arrangen1ents = 3 x 4 x 3 x 2 = 72 3 4 3 2
4 41
or Nun1ber of arrange1nents = 3 x P3 = 3 x ( _· )! = 72
4 3
For five-digit nun1bers the first place can be filled in five ways, the second in four ways, and so on.
:. Number of arrangen1ents = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120 5 4 3 2 1
5 51
or Nun1ber of arrange1nents = P5 = ( - )! = 120
-
5 5
You cannot fonn a four-digit nun1b er and a five-digit nu1nber at the same tiine. These two operations are
1nutually exclusive.
:. Total nun1ber of arrangen1ents = 4 -digit arrangements + 5-digit arrange1nents = 72 + 120 = 192
EXERCISE 6.3 PERMUTATIONS
1 Siinplify: (a) 5P 3 (e) 9pl (g) "P2
(e) 5! (f) 7 ! (g) 10! nl

2 Siinplify: (a) 5! (b) 4! (c) 8! (d) 7! (h) (n - -2)!
2! 6! 8!
3 Ho,v 1nany different arrangen1ents can be n1ade using three of the letters of the ,vord SUNDAY?
4 In h ow 1nany different ways can five people be arranged in a row?

A 20 B 60 C 120 D 720
5 In h ow 1nany ,vays can a first, second and third prize be awarded in a class of eight students?
6 Ho,v 1nany different arrangen1ents of the letters of the word MINOR are possible if:
(a) th e two vowels are next to each other (b) the first and last letters are conson ants?
7 In h ow 1nany ,vays can four different consonants and four different vo,vels be arranged in a row, if:
(a) th e four vowels are together (b) the first and last letters are conson ants
(c) th e vowels and consonants occupy alternate positions?
8 In h ow 1nany ,vays can four girls and three boys be arranged in a row, so that:
(a) th e boys are ahvays together (b) the girls and boys occupy alternate places?
9 Ho,v 1nany five-digit numbers can be formed usmg the digits 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 if no digit can be used n1ore than
once per number? How n1any even nu1nbers can be form ed?
10 Five different n1agazines and four different books are arranged in a row ,vith the books standing together.
Indicate ,vhether each state1nent belo,v is a correct or incorrect step in the calculation of the total nun1ber of
arrange1nents.
(a) 5! X 5! (b) 6! X 4! (c) 9! (d) 17280

YEAR 11
11 Five swimmers and five runners are to be seated alternately in a row (i.e. alternating so that no hvo swimmers
or hvo runners sit next to each other). In how 1nany different ways can this be done?
12 Ho,v n1any four-digit even nu1nbers can be fonned using the digits 3, 4, 7, 8 if:
(a) no digit is repeated (b) digits n1ay be repeated?
13 How many numbers greater than 4000 can be forn1ed using the digits 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 if repetition is not allo,ved?
14 Ho,v n1any nu1nbers of seven digits can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 if:
(a) the numbers all begin with 1 and end with 2 (b) the nu1nbers are all odd?
15 In ho,v 1nany ways can five different Mathematics books, four different Physics books and two different
Che1nistry books be arranged on a shelf if the books in each subject must be together?
16 In ho,v 1nany ,vays can three doctors, three nurses and three patients be arranged in a row if the three patients
must be together?
17 Find the number of possible arrangen1ents of the letters in the word PENCILS if:
(a) 'E' is next to 'I' (b) 'E' co1nes before 'I' (c) there are three letters between 'E' and 'I'.
18 Ho,v n1any five-digit nu1nbers can be formed fro1n the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 if the Salne digit can be used more
than once per number and each nu1nber is:
(a) divisible by 5 (b) an even number (c) an odd nu1nber (d) divisible by 4?
19 A car holds three people in the front seat and four in the back seat. In how many ways can seven people be
seated in the car if hvo particular people must sit in the back seat and one particular person is the driver?
20 If 6P, = 120, find the value of r.

21 In ho,v many ways Call five lawyers and three judges be arral1ged in a circle if the judges are always to stand
together?
22 In ho,v 1nany ,vays Call six people be arranged in a circle if two particular people are always:
(a) together (b) separated?
23 A father, a n1other and six children stand in a ring. In ho,v n1any ways can they be arranged if the father and
the n1other do not stal1d together?
24 Four actors and four co1nedians are seated alternately at a round table (i.e. alternating so that no two actors or
hvo con1edians sit next to each other). In how 1nany ,vays can this be done?
25 The ratio of the nun1ber of arrange1nents of (2n + 2) different objects taken n at a tin1e to the number of
arrangen1ents of 2n different objects taken n at a tin1e is 14: 5. Find the value of n.
26 If 2"Pn = 8 x 2" - 1Pn - 11

find the value of n.
27 Prove fron1 the formula for "Pr that: n+ tpr ="Pr + r x "Pr - 1
28 Show that: "P, ="- 2P, + 2r X " - 2P,_1 + r(r - 1) X " - 2P ,_2
29 In ho,v 1nany ,vays Call five writers al1d five artists be arranged in a circle so that the writers are separated? In
ho,v n1any ways can this be done if two particular artists must not sit next to a particular writer?
6.4 ARRANGEMENT OF n OBJECTS WHEN SOME ARE IDENTICAL

The nun1ber of ways of arranging n objects in a row when p of the objects are identical, and q of the objects are
identical (but different to the others), and so on, is not n! but instead:
n!
p!q! .. . (This is shown in Exalnple 13 below.)

YEAR 11
Example 13
In how 1nany ,vays can the six letters of the ,vord MAMMAL be arranged in a line?
Solution
There are six letters, of ,vhich three are 'M' and two are '1'.
6!
:. Nu1nber of arrangements= , ,
3.X 2 .
= 6X5X4X3X2 =
60
3X2X2
One of the 60 arrangen1ents is MMMAAL. If the letters 'M' ,vere different, e.g. M 1, M2, M3 , then this arrangement
could be six different arrangen1ents (3!):
M 1M 2M3AAL M 1M3M 2AAL M 2M 1M3AAL M 2M 3M 1AAL M3M 1M 2AAL M3M 2M 1AAL
Without the subscripts, all these arrange1nents are the same. This is why 6! is divided by 3! in the calculation
of identical object arrange1nents.
Similarly, the two letters '1' have 2! arrange1nents the sa1ne, so the result is also divided by 2!.
EXERCISE 6.4 ARRANGEMENT OF n OBJECTS WHEN SOME ARE IDENTICAL
1 In how 1nany ,vays can the letters of MOTOR be arranged in a line?
2 In how 1nany ,vays can the letters of NEWCASTLE be arranged in a line?

9!
A 4! B 8! C 9! D !
2
3 The letters of PRINCIPLE are arranged in a line. In how 1nany ,vays:
(a) can this be done (b) can the letters 'P' be next to each other?
4 In how 1nany ,vays can the letters of PERMUTE be arranged if:

(a) consonants occupy the first and the last places
(b) th e vowels and th e consonants occupy alternate places?
5 (a) In how many ways can the letters of PRECISION be arranged?
(b) In how many of these arrangen1ents do the vowels occupy all the 'even' places (second, fourth ,
sixth, eighth)?
6 Ho,v 1nany arrangements can be n1ade of the letters of DEFINITION if:
(a) th e letters 'I' do not occupy the first or last place (b) the letters 'I' are together?
7 Ho,v 1nany arrangements of the letters of TOMATO are possible if the letters 'O' are never next to each other?
Indicate ,vhether each state1nent is correct or incorrect.
(a) 6! (b) 5 ! ( ) 6! 5! (d) 120
2! X 2 2! C 2! X 2! - 2!
8 Ho,v 1nany arrangements of the letters of PARRAMATTA are possible?
9 Seven cubes, identical except that four are red and three are black, are arranged in a ro,v. How 1nany different
arrange1nents are possible?
10 Three blue, three white and three red balls are placed in a row.
(a) How 1nany different arrange1nents are possible?
(b) In how many of these arrangen1ents are the red balls together?
11 Ho,v 1nany seven-digit numbers can be forn1ed that contain all the digits 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6?

YEAR 11
12 Find the number of different ways in \Vhich n students can stand in a ro\v when two are boys, the rest are girls,
and the boys all stand together.
13 Five drummers and five singers sit together in a row.

(a) In how 1nany \vays can this be done?
(b) In how many ways can this be done if a particular drunlffier n1ust not sit between two particular singers?
14 In ho\v n1any ways can four people be acco1n1nodated at a hotel if there are four rooms available? (Assu1ne that
each roo1n has enough beds for everyone.)
6.5 COMBINATIONS
A com bination (or 'selection') is an unordered pennutation of all or part of a set of objects.
Note: For combinations, the order is not important.
Consider a set of four people, A, B, C and D. In groups of two people at a tin1e, they can be arranged as follo\vs: AB,
AC, AD, BC, BD, BA , CD, CA, CB, DA , DB, DC.
There are 4P2 = 12 arrangements.
However, the nun1ber of combinations (selections) of two people at a tin1e is only six. For exainple, AB and BA are
two arrange1nents, but only one con1bination- the order in which they are combined does not n1atter. A ai1d B can
be arranged together in 2! \vays, but co1nbined in only one \Vay.
The six different co1nbinations (selections) are as follows: AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD.
Th us th ere are -4p 2 = -12 = 6 con1b'1natJons.

.
2! 2
The nun1ber of cJmbinations of four people taken two at a tin1e is represented by the sy1nbols 4 C2 or(:) , and you
. 4 P2 12
can write: c2 = 2! = 2 = 6.
Example 14
Ho\v n1any groups of three can be selected from the four people A, B, C and D?
Solution
The selections are: ABC, ABD, ACD, BCD.
4
. . 4 ~ 4X3X2
Number o f coinb,nations = C3 = 3! = x =4
3 2
Number of combinations "Cr or ( ; )

The syn1bol "C, or (~)denotes the number of co1nbinations of n different objects taken rat a tiine. Each
con1bination consists of a group of r different ele1nents that can be ordered in r! ways.

Note the difference between ordered and unordered sets of objects:
• An ordered san1ple of r objects taken from n different objects can be chosen in "P, ways.
• An unordered sample of r objects taken fro1n n different objects can be chosen in "C, ways.
An unordered san1ple can be ordered in r! \vays.
Hence r! x "Cr ="Pr
"C, = ( ~) = "~
_ n(n- l)(n-2)... (n-r+l)
r!

YEAR 11
This result can be written differently using factorial notation:

"C =(n) = n(n- l )(n-2)... (n-r +l )x(n-r)!
r r r! X (n-r)!
. "C,-
- ( n) - n!
r - r !(n-r)!
" l 7c 7x(7-l)X ... x(7-3+ 1) 7X6X5 35

Hence, ,or exa1np e: 3 = or
3! = 3x 2 x 1 -
Example 15
In how 1nany \vays can a group of four people be selected fro1n ten people if:
(a) there are no restrictions (b) the oldest person is included in the group
(c) the oldest person is excluded fron1 the group?
(d) What proportion of all possible groups contain the oldest person?
Solution
10 10! 10 X9 X8 X7
(a) Numberof\vays= C4 = 4 !(l0- 4 )! = 4 x 3 x 2 xl =210
(b) Auton1atically in cluding the oldest, the selection is now for three out of nine people.
9 9! 9x8x7
Numberof\vays= C3 = 3!(9 _ 3)!= 3 x 2 x l =84
(c) Excluding the oldest, the selection is now for four out of nine people.
9 9! 9x8x7x6
Numberof\vays= C4 = 4 !(9 _ 4 )!= 4 x 3 x 2 x l =126
(d) 84 out of the 210 possible sets contain the oldest person.
. 84 2
Proport1on= = =40%
210 5
You can use the "C, key or function on your calculator to check your answers to this work.
It is a good idea to write the nun1erical expression for the "C, result and to practise the numerical simplification. This
practice will help you to simplify the algebraic expressions that can occur in this work.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
--=============10
Combinations
Use technology to calculate the number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time.
Important result
From the definition for "C,:
"C -(n)- n! and "C -( n ) - n! - n!
,- r - r !(n-r) ! n-,- n-r - (n-r)!(n-(n-r))! - (n-r)!r!
Thus: "C = "C, _ or (n) = ( n )

r r, r n-r
This n1eans that the nun1ber of combinations of n objects, taken rat a time, is equal to the number of co1nbinations
of n objects taken (n - r) at a tin1e.
For each set of r objects selected, there is a set containing (n - r) objects is left behind. Thus there n1ust be the san1e
nun1ber of sets containing (n - r) objects as there are containing r objects.

YEAR 11
For exan1ple, if a group of six is selected fro1n a set of nine people, then a group containing three people is left
behind:
9 c _ 9! _ 9x8x7x6! _ 9x8x7 _ 9C
6- 6!(9- 6)! - 6!x3! - 3! - 3
This useful result allows you to sin1plify your calculations by calculating s1naller factorials:
9 9 9! 9x8x7
C6 = C3= 3!(9-3)! = 3! = 84
Example 16
A class consists of 15 students, of \Vhon1 five are prefects. Ho\v n1any con1n1ittees of eight students can be
forn1ed if:
(a) there are no restrictions (b) each co1n1nittee contains exactly hvo prefects
(c) each committee contains at least two prefects?
Solution
(a) N un1berof comm,·ttees= ( 15) = (15) = '( 15! )'= 15Xl4X l 3Xl2Xl1X l 0X9 = 6435
8 7 7. 15- 7 . 7.1
(b) The class contains five prefects and ten non-prefects. You have to select two prefects and six non-prefects.
5) 51 5X4
Number of ways of selecting two prefects= ( = !( ..:_ )! = = 10
2 2 5 2 2
10) (10) 101 10X9X8X7

Nun1ber of ways of selecting six non-prefects= ( = = !( ..:_ )! = x x = 210
6 4 4 10 4 4 3 2
1
Nun1ber of committees=(:) x ( ; ) = 10 x 210 = 2100
(c) The committees may consist of:

• hvo prefects and six non-prefects • three prefects and five non-prefects
• four prefects and four non-prefects • five prefects and three non-prefects
These results are 1nutually exclusive, so the results are added.
1 1
Nun1ber of committees= (~)x ( ~) +(:) x ( :) + (~) x (l:) + (!) x (l~)
=5X4xl0x9x8x7+5X4X3xl0X9X8X7X6 + ~xl0X9X8X7+1Xl0X9X8
2Xl 4X3X2Xl 3X2X l 5X4X3X2Xl l 4X3X2Xl 3X2X l
= 2100 + 2520 + 1050 + 120 = 5790
Doing the nu1nerical calculations by showing this working-out will help you to develop the skills you \Viii
need to siinplify expressions involving ( ~) · It's tempting to just write the first line of working and then use
your calculator, but you shouldn't do that!

Note: Part (c) could also be calculated by finding ho\v n1any committees contain only one or zero prefects,
then subtracting this fron1 the total nu1nber of comn1ittees without restrictions.
1 1 1
Nun1ber of committees= ( : )-( ~ ) - ( ; ) x ( ~) = 5790

YEAR 11
Example 17
In how 1nany ,vays can four runners and three s,vimmers be arranged in a row if there are eight runners and five
swin1n1ers to select fro1n?
Solution
First select the total group of seven runners and swimmers, then arrange the group in a row:
• four runners and three swi1nmers can be selected in 8 C4 x 5C3 ways.
• The group of seven can be arranged in 7! ,vays.
Nun1ber of arrange1nents =8 C4 x 5C3 x 7!
= 8X7X6X5 5X4 71 = 352 SOOO
4 X3X2X l X 2X l X .
This answer is not 8P 4 x 5P 3, because the group has to be selected before it can be arranged. When selecting the
group the order is not important, so the number of ,vays the group of seven can be selected is 8C4 x 5 C3. After the
group is selected they can then be arranged in a row.
Example 18
Prove that: m+"Cr ="'Cr + "'Cr - 1"C1 + "'Cr - 2"C2 + ... + "'C2"C r - 2 + "'CI "C r - 1 + "C r
Solution
The syn1bol m+"C, denotes the number of selections, each of r objects, when you select fro1n hvo sets containing
m and n objects respectively.
The r objects can be selected as follows (assun1ing r is not greater than either morn):
r objects fro1n m and no objects fro1n n in "'C, ways
or (r- 1) objects fro1n m and one object fron1 n in "'C,_/C 1 ways
or (r - 2) objects fro1n m and two objects fron1 n in "'C,_/'C2 ways
and so on until:
no objects fron1 m and r objects fro1n n in "C, ways.
These selections are 1nutually exclusive, so they are added to obtain the final result:
m+ncr ="'Cr + "'Cr - I "C1 + "'C, - 2"C2 + ... + "'C2"C r- 2 + "'CI "C , - I + "C r
Example 19
P rove th at: "+'ck ="ck + "ck- 1
Solution
Method 1
The syn1bol "+ 1 Ck denotes the nun1ber of selections, each of k objects, when you select from hvo sets containing n
objects and 1 object respectively.
The k objects can be selected as follows (assuming k < n):
• k objects fron1 the set of n and none fro1n the set of one in "C/C0 ="Ck ways
• (k - 1) objects from the set of n and the other one object in "Ck_/ C, = "Ck_1 ,vays.
1 1
Note that C0 = 1 and C 1 = 1.
These two selections are mutually exclusive, so they are added to obtain the final result:
n+ lc
k = "Ck + "Ck- 1

YEAR 11
Method 2
Use the result for "C, in factorial notation:
"C "C n! n!
k + k - 1 = k!(n -k)!+ (k-l)!(n-k+l)!
= n'(. k!(n1- k )! + (k-l)!(n-k+l)!

1 )
from k! =k(k-1)!
= n!( k(k - ~;(:~~+ l)! + k(k - 1)!(:-k+ l)!) { and (n - k + l)! = (n - k + 1) x (n - k)!
_ n!(n+l)
- k!(n+ l - k)! Note: (n - k + 1) = (n + 1 - k)
_ (n+l)!
- k!(n+ l - k)!
_ n+lc
- k
Combinations of any number of objects

The syn1bol "C, can also be described as representing the nun1ber of r-subsets in a given set, \Vhere O< r < n.
If no specific value of r is stated, r can asswne any value between Oand n inclusive. Hence the nwnber of subsets that
each contain at least one ele1nent, i.e. the nun1ber of non -en1pty subsets in an n-set, is "C1 + "C2 + "C3+ ... + "C,.
Fro1n a set of n objects, each object can be dealt with in hvo ways: it can be included or it can be excluded. The
number of \vays of dealing with then objects is thus 2 x 2 x 2 x ... ton factors, or 2". But this includes the case
\Vhere all n objects are excluded, so the nun1ber of combinations of at least one object is 2" - 1.
11
:. "Cl + "C2 + C3 + ... + "C, = 2" - 1
Example 20
Ho\v n1any selections can be made from five different books, taking any nu1nber of books at a tiine?
Solution
The books can be selected one at a tiine, two at a tin1e, or up to five at a tiine.
Nun1ber of selections= 5 C1 + 5C2 + 5 C3+ 5C4 + 5 C5
=5+10+10+5+1
5
=3 1 =2 -1
Example 21
In ho\v 1nany \vays can four people be divided into:
(a) an A pair and then a B pair (b) any pairs?
Solution
(a) Nu1nber of ways the A pair can be selected= 4 C2 = 6
Nu1nber of ways the B pair can now be selected = 1
:. Number of \vays an A pair an d a B pair can be selected= 6 x 1 = 6
After the first pair is selected, there is only one pair left for the B pair.
In this question you are distinguishing behveen the two pairs selected by calling the1n A and B.

YEAR 11
(b) Number of ,vays of selecting hvo people fro1n four = 4C2 = 6

Let the people be W, X , Y, Z, so the six possible pairs are WX, WY, WZ, XY, XZ, YZ.
Unlike in part (a), the order of selecting the two pairs now does not n1atter, so WX and YZ is not
considered different to YZ and WX. 4
Thus the nu1nber of ways of dividing four people into two pairs = ~ 2 = ~ = 3
Example 22
In how 1nany ,vays can six people be placed into three groups containing:
(a) three, two an d one people respectively (b) hvo people in each group?
Solution
(a) Three people can be selected fro1n the six people in 6 C3 ways.
Fron1 the remain ing th ree people, hvo people can be selected in 3C2 ways.
This leaves one person for the last group.
6 3
Number of ,vays = C3 x C2 x 1
6! 3! 6 X5 X4
= 3!(6- 3)! X 2!(3- 2)! X l = 2 = 60
6
(b) Two people can be selected fro1n six people in C2 ways.
Fron1 the remain ing four people, two people can be selected in 4C2 ways.
This leaves two people for th e last group.
You ,night distinguish behveen the groups, e.g. by calling then1 X , Y, Z.
The number of ,vays people can be put into three distinct groups of 2 = 6 C2 x 4C2 x 1 = 90
If the groups are indistinguishable (i.e. do not have nan1es), th en you have to divide the total nun1ber
of arrangen1ents by 3! (the number of arrangen1ents of the three groups).
6
C2 x 4 C2 x1 90
Number of ways people can be put into any three groups of two = =
3
!
6 = 15
EXERCISE 6.5 COMBINATIONS
1 Si1nplify, without using your calculator:
(e) (1:)
(g) (:) (h) ( :) (i) "C2 0) ( :) (k) "C11
2 Evaluate:
(a) IOC S (b) 20C 9 (c) 2sc ,o (d) "C5
(e) (~~) (ij (~~ ) (g) (186) (h) ( : )
3 In how 1nany ,vays can three books be selected from eight different books?
4 Ho,v 1nany different hands of five cards can be dealt fro1n a standard pack of 52 playing cards?
5 In how 1nany ,vays can a jury of 12 people be chosen from 20 people?

YEAR 11
6 The nu1nber of ,vays of picking six nun1bers fron1 45 nu1nbers is:

45 45 45 45
A C6 B P6 C 6x CI D 6x P I
7 In ho,v 1nany ,vays can a set of two cooks and three ,vaiters be selected fro1n five cooks and four waiters?
8 How n1any different selections can be n1ade by taking three of the digits 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9?
9 In ho,v 1nany ,vays can a committee of four teachers and five parents be fonned fro1n eight teachers and seven
parents?
10 From eight lawyers, seven clerks and five judges, how many different groups could be forn1ed that contain
five lawyers, four clerks and three judges? Indicate ,vhether each answer is correct or incorrect.
20 8 7 5 8 7 5
(a) c l2 (b) P 5 X P4 X P 3 (c) C5X C4 X C3 (d) 19600
11 In ho,v 1nany ways can eight different rabbits be divided into a group of five and a group of three?
12 A co1n1nittee of six is selected fron1 ten people, of ,vhom A and B are two. How many committees can
be fonned:
(a) containing both A and B (b) excluding A if Bis included?
13 In how 1nany ways can three cards be selected fron1 a standard pack of 52 playing cards if:
(a) at least one selected card is an Ace (b) no 1nore than one selected card is an Ace?
14 In ho,v 1nany ,vays can a tean1 of three runners and four hurdlers be chosen fro1n six runners and seven
hurdlers?
15 A co1n1nittee of seven politicians is chosen fro1n ten Liberal me1nbers, eight Labor 1nen1bers and
five independents. In how many ways can this be done to include exactly one independent, at least three
Liberal 1nen1bers and at least one Labor 1nen1ber?
16 A team of 11 is chosen from 15 cricketers. Five of the 15 cricketers are bowlers only, hvo are wicketkeepers
only and the rest are batters only. How many possible tean1s can be chosen that contain:
(a) four bo,vlers, one ,vicketkeeper and six batters
(b) at least four bowlers and at least one wicketkeeper?
17 From seven teachers and five students, a co1n1nittee of seven is formed. How many different committees can
be selected if teachers and students are both represented and the teachers are in a n1ajority?
18 From four oranges, three bananas and two apples, how 1nany selections of five pieces of fruit can be n1ade,
taking at least one of each kind?
19 In horse racing, a 'trifecta' is when the first three horses are picked in the correct order, while a 'quinella' is
when the first two horses are picked in any order. In a ten-horse race, what is the nu1nber of possible:
(a) trifecta co1nbinations (b) quinella con1binations?
20 In ho,v 1nany ways can a jury of hvelve people be chosen fro1n ten wo1nen and seven n1en so that there are at
least six wo1nen and not n1ore than four n1en?
21 In ho,v 1nany ,vays can a group of three or n1ore be selected from nine?
22 In how 1nany ways can a committee of three wo1nen and four girls be chosen fron1 seven women and six girls
so that if the eldest wo1nan is serving on the committee then the youngest girl is not?
23 Ho,v n1any (a) selections or (b) arrangen1ents, consisting of three consonants and two vowels, can be n1ade
fron1 eight different consonants and four different vowels?
24 In ho,v 1nany ,vays can four Physics books and three Mathematics books be arranged on a shelf if a selection
is 1nade fro1n six different Physics books and five different Mathe1natics books? In how n1any of these
arrangen1ents are all the Physics books next to each other?

YEAR 11
25 In how n1any ways can three glasses and two p lates be arranged in a row if a selection is made from five different
glasses and four different plates? In how n1any of these arrangements does a glass occupy the 1niddle position?
26 Ho\v 1nany \Vords (i.e. any arrangements of letters) containing three consonants and two vowels can be fonned
fron1 the letters of the \Vord PROMISE?
27 If, "C6 ="C4 , find the value of n.
28 In how 1nany \vays can nine books be distribu ted among a teacher, a parent and a child, if the teacher receives
four, the parent three and the child two?
29 In how 1nany \vays can eight different toys be divided into hvo unequ al groups?
30 In how 1nany \vays can eight basketball players be divided into four groups of hvo?
31 In how n1any ways can n objects be shared behveen hvo people? ('Shared' n1eans that each person gets
at least one. )
32 Fron1 the definition of "C,, prove each of the follo\ving:

(a) "Cr +"Cr + l ="+1cr + I (b) "Ck +2x "Ck - 1 +"Ck- 2 ="+2ck
(c) "C
r
= n - yr + l x "Cr - 1 (d) m+nc
3
="'C3 + "'C2"C 1 + "'C 1"C2 + "C3
(e ) " + 3cr ="Cr + 3 x "Cr - 1 + 3 x "Cr - 2 + "Cr - 3
33 The ratio of the nu1nber of con1binations of (2n + 2) different objects taken n at a time to the nu1nber of
combinations of (2n - 2) different objects taken n at a tiine is 99: 7. Find the val ue of n.
6.6 COUNTING TECHNIQUES IN PROBABILITY

This section builds on the counting techniques developed earlier in the chapter. A brief sun1n1ary of the necessary
knowledge follows.
Factorial notation
n! = n(n - l )(n - 2) ... x 3 x 2 x 1 O! =1
Permutations
A permutation is an ordered selection or arrangen1ent of all or part of a set of objects.
• The nun1ber of arrange1nents of n different objects is n!
• The nun1ber of arrange1nents of r objects selected from n different objects is " P,. = (n:!r)!
• The nun1ber of ways of arranging n objects when there are p identical objects of one kind, q identical objects
. n!
o f anot h er kin d , etc. 1s
p.q
1 ....
1
Combinations
A co1nbination is an unordered selection of all or part of a set of objects.
A co1nbination ( or 'selection') is an unordered pennu tation ( or 'arrangement').
• The nun1ber of combinations of r objects selected fron1 n different objects is "C, = (n)
r
= '( n~ )'
r. n r .
Useful results
"C
"C - (n) -
,- r - r!(nn!- r)! and 11-, -- ( n -n r ) -- (n - n!r)!r!
Thus: "Cr = "C,r-r or

YEAR 11
This means that the number of co1nbinations of n objects taken rat a tin1e is equal to the nu1nber of combinations of
n objects taken (n - r) at a tin1e.
Probability
P(A) = nu1nber of favourable outcon1es O< P(A) < 1 P(A)= l - P(A)
number of possible outcomes '
Mutually exclusive events: P(A or B) =P(A) + P(B)
Not 1nutually exclusive events: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
Independent events: P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
Example 23
PINs (Personal Identification Nun1bers) are short nun1ber codes used as a security device.
(a) How many four-digit PINs can be made using the digits 0, 1, 2, ... 9?
(b) What is the probability that someone can randomly guess the four-digit PIN?
(c) As a further security n1easure, some financial in stitutions require a four-syn1bol code that is n1ade
using the 26 letters of the alphabet and/or the digits 0- 9. How 1nany different four-syn1bol codes
can be created?
(d) What is the probability of someone correctly guessing one of these four-syn1bol codes?
(e) What is the probability of someone correctly guessing the four-digit PIN and the correct
four-syn1bol code?
Solution
(a) Nu1nberof PINs = 104 = 10000 P(guessingPIN)= ~4 = ~
(b)
1 10 00
(c) There are 26 letters of the alphabet and 10 digits. Number of codes= 364 = 1679 616
(d) P(guessing sy1nbol code)= ~4 =

3 167 616
!
(e) P(guessing both PIN and syinbol code)= ~4 x : 4 = 16796 6oooo
1 3
!
Example 24
In horse racing, a 'quinella' is \Vhen the first two horses are picked correctly (in any order). In a twelve-horse race,
what is the probability of picking the quinella, assuming that each horse is equally likely to \vin ?
Solution
12
12 horses total, two picked for a quinella: Nu1nber of quinella con1binations = C2 = 66
Only one of these co1nbinations \Vins: P(\vinning quinella)= :
6
Example 25
Eight people in total, including two people A and B, randomly arrange themselves in a straight line. What is the
probability that:
(a) A and B are next to each other (b) A and B are not next to each other
(c) A and B occupy the end positions (d) there are at least three people behveen A and B?

YEAR 11
Solution
(a) Eight people can be arranged in a row in 8! \vays = 40 320
As A and B are next to each other, consider then1 as one unit.
This unit and the other six people can be arranged in 7! ways.
A and B can be arranged in two ways (AB or BA).
Total ways of arranging the people = 2 x 7!
2 X7! 2X7! 1
P(AandBnext to eachother)= ! = x ?!=
8 8 4
(b) P( A and B not next to each other)= 1- P( A and B next to each other)= 1- != !
(c) A and B can be placed at the ends in two ways (A at the beginning and B at the end, or Bat the beginning
and A at the end). The remaining six places can be filled in 6! \vays.
Total number of \vays with A and B at the ends = 2 x 6!
2x6 1 2 x 61 1
P(A and B occupy end positions)= ! · = x x· ! =
8 8 7 6 28
(d) A diagram helps to visualise the possibilities:
A ___ B ___, A ____ B __, A _____ B _, A ______ B.
_ A ___ B __, _ A ____ B _, _ A _____ B.
__ A ___ B _, __ A ____ B.
A B.
A and B can be s\vapped, so this gives 10 x 2 = 20 arrangen1ents for A and B with 6! ways of filling the
re1naining six places.
Total number of favourable arrangements= 20 x 6!
20 x 6! 20 x 6! 5
P(at least three people between A and B ) = ! = x x ! =
8 8 7 6 14
Example 26
A bag contains nine cubes: three that are \Vhite and six that are black. T\vo cubes are dra\vn at randon1 \vithout
replacen1ent. Calculate the probability that both cubes are black.
Solution
Method 1
Nun1ber of ways two cubes can be selected fron1 nine cubes without replacen1ent = 9 C2
Nun1ber of ways the t\vo cubes can be black = 6C2
6
C 6X5 2X1 5
P(both cubes are black)= 9 C2 = x x x =
2
2 1 9 8 12
Method2
Let A be the event 'black cube in the first draw' and B be the event 'black cube in the second draw'.
Each cube is equally likely to be selected, so P(A) = ~.
The outcome of the second dra\v is dependent on the outco1ne of the first draw:
if event A has happened then there are eight cubes left, of which five are black.
Hence P(BIA)=~
Now P(AB) =P(A)xP(B I A)=~ X ~= 5
12

YEAR 11
Example 27
A group of nine people contains three teachers and six students. A randon1 san1ple of five people is selected.
What is the probability that it contains: (a) exactly hvo teachers (b) not 1nore than t\vo teachers?
Solution
(a) Exactly two teachers means the sa1nple contains hvo teachers and three students.
Nu1nber of ways of selecting five people from nine people = (:)
Nu1nber of ways of selecting t\vo teachers fro1n three teachers = (:)
Nu1nber of ways of selecting three students fron1 six students= ( !)

Nun1ber of ways of selectin g t\vo teachers and three students = (:) x ( !)
Hence:
P( hvo teachers and three students)=

(:)x(!)
(:)
6X5X4
= 3x x x
4X3X2Xl
x x x
3 2 1X 9 8 =
1
0
7 6 21
(b) Not more than hvo teachers 1neans either zero teachers and five students, one teacher and four students
or hvo teachers and three students.
Zero teachers and five students can be selected in (:) ,vays.
One teacher and four students can be selected in (:) x ( !) ways.
Two teachers and three students can be selected in (: )x(!) ways.
( 6) + (3) X(6) + (3) X(6)

5 1 4 2 3 6+45+60 37
Hence: P( not more than t\vo teachers)= _,_.,___,_.,__,,_-+--_,__,____,--<- = - - ~ - = -
(:) 126 42
Example 28
From a set of five cards nu1nbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, t\vo cards are selected at randon1 without replace1nent.
(a) What is the probability that both cards are odd-nun1bered?
(b) If the cards are used to n1ake a t\vo-digit nu1nber, ,vhat is the probability that this nun1ber is odd?
(c) If the cards are used to n1ake a t\vo-digit nu1nber, ,vhat is the probability that this nun1ber has one
odd digit and one even digit?

YEAR 11
Solution
(a) Number of different two-card selections= 5 C2 = 10
Number of two-card selections where both are odd= 3 C2 x 2C0 = 3
P(both cards are odd)= t
1
(b) Method 1
The second digit 1nust be odd, so the order is in1portant.
Number of odd numbers formed= 3P 1 x 4P1 = 12
5
Number of two-d igit nu1nbers fonned = P2 = 20
P(odd two-digit nwnber fonned) = tii = ~
Method2
To be an odd number, the cards n1ust be odd- odd or even- odd.
P( odd nun1ber) = P( odd, odd)+ P( even, odd)
=3x2+2.x1
5 4 5 4
= tii
=~
(c) O ne even digit and one odd digit: nu1nber of ways= 2 x 3 = 6

Number of d ifferent two-card selections= 5 C2 = 10
P( one even d igit an d one odd digit)= t
1
=~
If you consider the order: P(one even digit and o ne odd digit)= tii = ~ (i.e. the sa1ne answer)
Example 29
A box contains 10 pairs of headphones, two of which are defective. A san1ple of three pairs of headphones is drawn
at randon1 from the box without replacen1ent. Find the probability that not n1ore than one pair of headphones is
defective.
Solution
1
Nun1ber of possible selections= °C3 = 120
Nu n1ber of favourable selections= [O defective] + [l defective]
'O defective' 1neans that O(none) of the two defectives are selected and three of the eight non-defectives are
selected,
. ic x
1.e. 0
sc 3
\vays.
'1 defective' 1neans that one of the two defectives is selected and two of the eigh t non-defectives are selected,
. ic x sc \vays.
1.e. 1 2
. 2 s 2 s 8x7x6 8x7
Nun1ber of favourable selections= C0 X C3 + C1 X C2 = X Xl + 2X x = 56+56= 112
3 2 2 1
. 112 14
P(not m ore than 1 defective)= =
120 15

YEAR 11
Example 30
A scientific study of penguins uses the 'capture- recapture' technique. In the first stage of the study, 36 penguins are
caught, tagged and then released Later, in the second stage of the study, so1ne penguins are again captured fron1
the same area. Of these penguins, 27 of them are found to be tagged, which is 30% of the total nun1ber captured
in this second stage.
(a) In the second stage of the study, how many penguins are captured in total?
(b) Calculate the estin1ate for the total population of penguins in this area.
Solution
(a) 27 is 30% of total captured, N: 27 =0.3N
27
N = - = 90 Hence 90 penguin s ,vere captured.
0.3
(b) Pis the total population of penguins in the area.

27 36
Use the ratio: 9o= p
P= 36x90 =120
27
or: 0.3 = 3; The penguin population is about 120.
EXERCISE 6.6 COUNTING TECHNIQUES IN PROBABILITY
1 Five cards are drawn at rando1n from a standard pack of 52 playing cards. What is the probability that:
(a) they are all fro1n the same suit (b) they include four Aces (c) they include three 10s and t\vo 9s?
2 A bag contains five red balls and four white balls. Three balls are withdra,vn ,vithout replace1nent. The
probability of drawing at least two red balls is:
A _l B 2.... C 20 D 25
21 42 42 42
3 A student writes a randon1 three-digit nu1nber using the digits 1- 9. What is the probability that the three
digits in the nun1ber are all the san1e?
4 In horse racing, a 'trifecta' is when the first three horses are picked in the correct order. In a 10-horse race, what
is the probability of picking the trifecta, assun1ing that each horse is equally likely to win?
5 A bag contains three white balls, four red balls and five black balls. Three balls are dra,vn at randon1 without
replacement. What is the probability that they are: (a) different colours (b) the sa1ne colour?
6 From a group of seven teachers and five students, a rando1n selection of seven people is made. What is the
probability that the selection contains at least four teachers?
7 A co1n1nittee of three judges and four la,vyers is to be chosen from six judges and seven lawyers. What is the
probability that it contains a particular judge and a particular la,vyer?
8 Five cards are drawn from a standard pack of 52 playing cards (,vithout replace1nent). What is the probability
of dra,ving at least three Aces?
9 A person correctly picks the first and second horses in a race of 10 horses. If each horse was equally likely to
win, ,vhat is the probability of this?
10 The letters of the word PROMISE are arranged in a row. What is the probability that there are three letters
bet\veen 'P' and 'R'?
11 Six giraffes rando1nly arrange the1nselves in a line. What is the probability that the tallest giraffe and the
shortest giraffe are together?

YEAR 11
12 Four different trucks and three different cars are parked in a row. What is the probability that the trucks and
the cars occupy alternate positions?
13 A car's number plates contain three letters of the alphabet followed by three nun1erals. How many nun1ber
plates like this can be n1ade? What proportion of these would contain three letters the sa1ne and three
nu1nerals the saine?
14 The letters of the ,vord INDEPENDENCE are arranged in a ro,v. What is the probability of all the letters 'E'
being together? Indicate ,vhether each statement belo,v is a correct or incorrect step in solving this problen1.
(a) Nun1ber of arrange1nents of the letters=
4
f~~! (b) Nu1nber of ways ;~at the letters 'E'
are together= ! ! !
(c) Number of ,vays that the letters 'E' are together= f;!
3
4 32
1
(d) Probability of the letters 'E' being together=
55
15 A carton contains a dozen eggs, of ,vhich three have a double yolk. If three eggs are taken to make a cake, find
the probability that the three eggs all have double yolks.
16 A tean1 of six is selected fro1n 10 people. What is the probability that the youngest and oldest people are on the
tean1?
17 A box contains five red cubes and four ,vhite cubes. Three cubes are drawn in succession ,vithout replace1nent.
What is the probability that: (a) the first two cubes are red and the third cube is white
(b) any two cubes are red and one cube is ,vhite?
18 An angler has caught 15 fish, of which three are undersized. A random sainple of three fish is drawn without
replacen1ent by an inspector. The angler is fined if one or 1nore of the fish in the sainple is undersized. What is
the probability that the ai1gler is fined?
19 Eight different jackets are divided into two piles. What is the probability that there \viii be four in each pile?
20 A party of 12 people, including A and B, are arrai1ged at rando1n in a straight line. What is the probability that
A and B are not next to one another?
21 A box contains 15 me1nory cards, of which 5 are defective. If a random sainple of 6 memory cards
is drawn fron1 the box (\vithout replace1nent), determine the probability of there being 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 defective
n1emory cards in the sainple.
22 An urn contains 12 distinguishable cubes of which five are red and the re1nainder black. If a random sa1nple
of six cubes is drawn without replacen1ent, calculate the probabilities of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 red cubes in the
san1ple.
23 Two boxes each contain eight balls. In box A there are three black and five white balls; in box B there are
one black and seven ,vhite balls. For each box, find the probability that two balls chosen at randon1 \vithout
replacen1ent \viii both be white.
24 A sainple of three coins is selected \vithout replace1nent from a handful of eight coins that consists of four 1Oc
coins and four 20c coins. What is the probability that the sa1nple contains at least two 10c coins?
25 A hand of five cards is dealt fro1n a standard pack of 52 playing cards. What is the probability that it contains
at least one Ace?
26 Fron1 a group of 12 people, of whom eight are painters and four are carpenters, a sample of four is selected at
rando1n. What is the probability that the sainple contains at least two carpenters?
27 Box A contains six ,vhite and four black balls. Box B contains two white and t\vo black balls. Fron1 box A, two
balls are selected at randon1 and placed in box B. Two balls are then selected at rai1do1n from box B. What is
the probability that exactly one of these two balls is white?
28 Fron1 a set of 10 cards nun1bered 1- 10, two cards are drawn \vithout replacen1ent. What is the probability that:
(a) both numbers are even (b) one is even and the other is odd
(c) the sun1 of the two nun1bers is 12 (d) both nu1nbers are even ai1d the sun1 of the two nun1bers is 12?

YEAR 11
29 The letters of the word TOMATO are arranged in a row. W hat is the probability that:
(a) the two letters 'O' are together (b) the two letters 'O' are not together?
30 The letters of the word TUESDAY are arranged at randon1 in a row. W hat is the probability that:
(a) the vowels and consonants occupy alternate positions (b) the vowels are together
(c) the vowels are together and the letter 'T' occupies the first place?
31 Four girls and four boys arrange then1selves at random in a row. W hat is the probability that the girls and the
boys occupy alternate positions?
32 Six different robots, including A and B, arrange then1selves at rando1n in a row. W hat is the probability that:
(a) A and B occupy the end positions (b) A and B are not next to each other
(c) there are at least three robots between A and B?
33 The digits l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are used to forn1 numbers that contain two or n1ore digits. The sa1ne digit cannot be
used more than once in a nu1nber. W hat proportion of the nu1nbers fonned are even nun1bers?
34 Five cards are selected with replacement fron1 a standard pack of 52 playing cards. W hat is the probability that
the selected cards include:
(a) exactly three hearts (b) four Aces (c) no hearts?
35 A gan1e involves choosing six numbers from a set of 44 nu1nbers.
(a) What is the probability of winning (i.e. choosing the six numbers correctly) in a single gan1e?
(b) If you play four games, choosing a different set of nun1bers for each gan1e, what is the probability that one
of your gan1es will win?
36 A scientific study uses the 'capture- recapture' technique. In the first stage of the study, 48 possun1s are caught,
tagged and then released. Later, in the second stage of the study, son1e possun1s are again captured fron1 the
sa1ne area. Of these possu1ns, 24 of them are found to be tagged, \Vhich is 40% of the total captured in this
second stage.
(a) In the second stage of the study, how many possums are captured in total?
(b) Calculate the estin1ate for the total population of possu1ns in this area.
An interesting problem-who shares your birthday?
Example 31
In a randon1 group of people, \Vhat is the probability that at least hvo people in the group have the same birtllday (Le.
the same day and month, but not necessarily the saine year)? This exainple investigates this problen1.
(Note: 29 February and leap years will be ignored, assuming instead 1 year= 365 days.)
(a) In a group of four people, what is the probability that there is at least one birthday shared?
(b) In a group of 10 people, \Vhat is the probability that there is at least one birthday shared?
(c) In a group of n people, \Vhat is the probability that there is at least one birthday shared?
(d) For \Vhat value of n is there a 50% chance that at least hvo people in the group have the saine birtllday?
Solution
(a) If two people have their birthday on different days, then there are 364 days on which the second person
could have been born.
.. 364 363 362
In a group of four people, the probability that no two people are born on the san1e day = x x
365 365 365
Probability of at least one birthday in con1n1on =1- ;~! x ;~; x ;~; =0.0164

YEAR 11
(b) In a group of 10 people:

364
.. 364 363 362 355 ~o
Probability that no two people are born on the san1e day= x X X ... X = 10
365 365 365 365 365
364
Probability of at least one birthday in con1n1on = 1- ~g
365
= 0.141 1
(c) In a group of n people:
364 p_
11
Probability that no two people are born on the san1e day=
365"
364 p
Probability of at least one birthday in con1n1on = 1- ;;
365
364 p_
(d) To find a 50% chance you must solve the equation: 1- ;; = 0.5
365
364 p
That is, solve for n the equation: 11 = 0.5
11
365
This cannot be done analytically, but by substituting values for n you can find the answer by trial and error.
364 p,
Fron1 (b) you known> IO. Trying n =20: - ~i~
g= 0.556
365
364
Trying n = 25: Pis = 0.4012
36525
364
Trying n = 22: 22 =0.5234
P.22
365
364 P.
Trying n = 23: -
23
-."f- =0.4917
23
365
Hence the closest value of n is 23.
An interesting problen1 sin1ilar to the birthday investigation above is the 'Hern1it Problen1: which you 1nay wish
to research.
6.7 EXPANSION OF (1 + x)n, PASCAL'S TRIANGLE

By multiplying to expand the brackets, it can be shown that ( 1 + x) 11 is equal to the following:
n = 0: ( 1 + x) 0 = 1
n=l: ( l + x) 1 =l+x
n=2: ( l + x)2=1+2x+x2
n=3: ( l + x)3=1+3x+ 3x2 + x 3
n=4: ( l + x)4=1+4x+ 6x2 + 4x3 + x 4
n=5: ( l + x)5 =1+5x+lOx2 + 10x3 + 5x4 + x5
n=6: ( 1 + x) 6 = 1 +6x+ 15x2 + 20x3 + 15x4 +6x5 + x 6
You can see that in each case, the expansion of ( 1 + x)" for n = I, 2, 3, ... is a polyno1nial of degree n in the variable x.
The coefficients of the successive po\vers of (I + x)• 1
the expansion of 1 + x can be arranged in a (I + x)' 1 1
triangular pattern called Pascal's triangle, (I + x)' 1 2 1
as shown on the right. (I + x)' 1 3 3 1
(I + x)' 1 4 6 4 1
(I + x)' 1 5 '@( 10 5 1
(I + x)• 1 6 '@''@' 15 6 1

YEAR 11
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Pascal's triangle
Create and explore the construction of Pascal's triangle.
Properties of Pascal's triangle

1 The first and last nun1ber in each ro\v is 1.
2 Every nu1nber not at the end of a row is the su1n of the two nu1nbers in the row above it to the left and right
(e.g. 10 = 4 + 6, 15 = 5 + 10, 20 = 10 + 10).
3 The number of terms in each row is one n1ore than the value of n.
4 The second and second-last tenns in each ro\v are the value of n.
These properties enable the expansion of ( 1 + x )" to be written for any integer value of n. For example:
n = 7: ( 1 + x )7 = 1 + 7x + 2 1.x2 + 35.x3 + 35x4 + 2 1.x5 + 7x6 + x 7 (eight tenns)
n = 8: (nine terms)
Unfortunately, using these properties of Pascal's triangle to find the coefficients of any particular expansion requires
all the previous rows. For exa1nple, to expand ( 1 + x) 12 in this \Vay you \vould first need all the ro\vs up to n = 11 to
find the 12th row of Pascal's triangle.
However, there is a n1ore efficient way to find the coefficients. You can establish a relationship for the coefficients for
11
the expansion of the general case ( 1 + x) •
To do this, you can use the notation 11C, in place of the coefficient, \vhere the right subscript r is the power of x and
the left superscript n is the po\ver n. Previously defined as the nun1ber of combinations of n different objects taken r
at a tin1e, 11C,, is also by definition the coefficient of x' in (1 + x) 11 •
Thus you can \Vrite the general expansion of (1 + x )" as:
(1 + X ),, = "Co + 11C1X + 11 CzX 2 + ... + "C,X r + ... + 11 C11 X 11
II
= I."crx'
r=O
If you write b in place of x and multiply both sides by a11, you obtain:
a
(a+ b )" =a 1 +: )"11

(
=a 11
(
11 11
C0 + C, b
11
(b) + ...+ (b)' + ...+ (b)
a + C2 a
2
11
C, a
11
C 11 a
11
= 11
C0 a" + 11 C1a 11 - 1b + "C2a 11 - 2b 2 + • • • + 11Cr a"-' b' + • • • + "C,, b11
=L "C,an-rbr
II
r=O
This is the binomial theorem. Notice that in each tenn the su1n of the powers in a11 -'b' is n - r + r = n. As the po\ver
of a decreases \Vith each tern1, the power of b increases by the same ainount.
Example 32
Write the expansion of ( 1 + 2x)4, using Pascal's triangle to obtain the coefficients.

YEAR 11
Solution
Write: (1 + 2x)4 = 4Co + 4Cl(2x)l + 4cie2x) 2 + 4C3(2x)3 + 4C4(2x)4
Fro1n Pascal's triangle: 4Co = 1, 4cl = 4, 4c 2 = 6, 4C3 = 4, 4c4 = 1
(1 + 2x)4 = 1 + 4 x2x + 6 x4x2 +4x 8x3 + 1 x 16x
4
= 1 + 8x + 24x-' + 32x3 +16x4
Example 33
Write the expansion of ( 1 -x) 3 •
Solution
Write: (1 - x)3 = 3Co + 3C1 (-x)1 + 3C2(-x) 2 + 3Cl-x)3
Fro1n Pascal's triangle: 3Co = 1, 3cl = 3, 3c 2 = 3, 3C3 = 1
(1 -x)3 = 1 + 3 x (-x) + 3 xx-' + 1 x (-x)
3
2 3
= l -3x + 3x -x
Example 34
Write the sin1plified expansion of ( 1+ JJ)6.
Solution
✓3)
6
= 6Co + 6C1 X ✓3 + 6C2 X ( ✓3)2 + 6C3 X ( ✓3)3 + 6C4 X ( ✓3) + 6C5 X ( ✓3)5 + 6C6 X ( ✓3)
4 6
(1 +
= 1 +6x ✓3+ 15x(JJ)2 + 2ox(JJ)3 + 1sx(✓3)

4
+6x(JJ)5 + (✓3)
6
= 1 + 6✓3 + 45 + 60✓3 + 135 + 54✓3 + 27

= 208+120✓3
Example 35
4 5
Find the coefficient of a in ( 1 + 5a) •
Solution
Method 1
(1 + 5a) 5 = 1 + 5 x Sa+ 10 x (5a)2 + 10 x (5a)3 + 5 x (Sa)4 + ...
After the required tern1 is found, there is no need to find succeeding tern1s.
(1 + 5a) 5 = 1 + 25a + 250a2 + 1250a3 + 3125a4 + ...
The coefficient of a 4 is 3125.
Method 2
5 5 1 5
For the expansion, you can write T 1 = C0 , T 2 = C1(5a) and so on, leading to the general term T,+t = C,(5a)'.
5 4 4 4 4
For the tern1 in a4. r = 4: T 5 = C4(5a) = 5 x 5 a = 3 125a
Hence the coefficient of a4 is 3125.
Example 36
Use the expansion of ( 1- !) 5
to find an approximation for (
5
tJo ) correct to four decimal places.
YEAR 11
Solution
This can be written as an expansion: (
9
1
!) 5
= ( 1- ~ )
1 0
5
1 1 1
=l - 5X 100+ 1ox 2- lOX 3+ ...
100 100
5 10 10
= l - 100 + 10000 - 1000000 + .. .
= 1- 0.05 + 0.001 - 0.00001 + .. .
= 0.9510
As the accuracy is only to four decimal places, the tern1s s1naller than 0.00001 are insignificant and can
be ignored.
5
: . ( 99 ) = 0.95 10 correct to four decimal places.
100
EXERCISE 6.7 EXPANSION OF (1 + x)n, PASCAL'S TRIANGLE

1 Use Pascal's triangle to find the expansion of each of the following.
(a) (1 + x) 6 (b) (1 + x) 8 (c) (1 + b)7 (d) (1 + 2x) 3 (e) (1 + 4x)5
5
6 3 8 4
(f) (1 + 3x) (g) (1-x) (h) ( 1 - a) (i) (1 - 2x) 0) ( 1+ ; )
!)
5
(I) ( 1+ 2; )5 (o) ( x +
2 Find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of:

(a) (1 + x)4 (b) (1 + x) 1 (c) (1 - x) 5 (d) (1 + 3x)3 (e) (1 + 2x)5 (f) (1 - 3x)4
5
3 Find the coefficient of b3 in the expansion of: (a) ( 1 + 2b) 4
(b) ( 1 - 4b)3 (c) 2b)
( 1+ 3
4 The coefficient of x in the expansion of ( x -✓2) is:
6
4
A -30 8 30 C --60 D 60
6
7 3
5 Find thefourth tennintheexpansionof: (a) (l + x)5 (b) (1 -2a) (c) ( 1+ : )
6 Write the simplified expansion for each of the following. (a) ( 1+ ✓2)4 (b) ( 1- ../3)3
(c) (1+✓5) 6
(d) (1+2../3)3 (e) (1-3✓2) 4
(f) ( 1+ f) 5
7 Use the expansion of( 1- !)" to find the value of each expression correct to four decin1al places.
(b) (1ir 99 )
(c) ( 100
4
6.8 MORE PASCAL'S TRIANGLE EXPANSIONS

You will now consider expansions of the type:
II
1 2 2
(a+ b)" = "C0 a" + "C1a"- b+ "C2a"- b + ... + "C,a"-'b' + ... + C11b" = 11
L- "C,a"-'b'
r=O
where the "C, are the nun1bers in the (n + 1)-th row of Pascal's triangle.

YEAR 11
Example 37
Write the expansion of (a+ x)s.
Solution
(a + X)S =SC0aSXO+ SCI a4XI + SC2a3JC + SC3a2K + SC4alX4 + SCSa0x5
where the sc, are the numbers in the sixth row of Pascal's triangle.
(a + x)s =as+ 5a4x + 10a3x2 + 10a 2x3 + 5a 1x 4 + xs

After writing the expansion, you can check your result by adding the powers on the variables in each term to
check that the sun1 is 5.
Example 38
Write the expansion of (2 + x)4.
Solution
Coefficients are the nu1nbers in the fifth row of Pascal's triangle:
(2 + x)4 = 1 X 24x 0 + 4 X 23x 1 + 6 X 22x2 + 4 X 21x3 + 1 X 2°x 4
= 16 + 32x + 24x2 + sx3 + x4
Example 39
Write the expansion of (2a - b)s.
Solution
Coefficients are the nu1nbers in the sixth row of Pascal's triangle:
(2a - b)s = (2a)s + 5 X (2a) 4 X (-b) 1 + 10 X (2a) 3 X (-b) 2 + 10 X (2a)2 X (-b)
3
+ 5 X (2a) X (-b) 4 + (-b)s
= 32as - 5 X 16a4b + 10 X 8a3b2 - 10 X 4a2b3 + 10ab4 - bs
= 32as - 80a4b + 80a3b2 - 40a2b3 + 10ab4 - bs
Example 40
Write the expansion of ( x + !) 4
•
Solution
Coefficients are the nu1nbers in the fifth row of Pascal's triangle:
4
1 4 3 l 2 1 1 1
x+ - ) =x +4x x - +6x x - + 4xx- + -
( x x x2 x 3 x4
4 2 4 1
=x +4x +6+- + -
x2 x 4
In this exan1ple, hvo tenns that were functions of x create a constant tern1 in the expansion. You can say that
'the tenn independent of x' (i.e. the term without an x) is 6.

YEAR 11
EXERCISE 6.8 MORE PASCAL'S TRIANGLE EXPANSIONS
1 Use Pascal's triangle to find the expansion of the follo\ving.

(a) (2 + x )3 (b) (3 + x)5 (c) (b + 2) 4 (d) (a + b) 1 (e) (x- y) 8
(f) (3 - x) 3
(g) (2 - a) 8
(h) (3y - 2x)
4
(i) (x- !) 4
0) 2
(x + !)
6
(b) ( 4 - ✓3)
3
2 Write the simplified expansion for each of the following. (a) (2 + ✓2)4
(c) ( ✓2 + Js)6 (2../3- 3✓2)
4
(d) (Js+../3)5 (e) (f) (✓6 + 2✓3)5
5
3 Write the coefficient of x in the expansion of: (a) (3 + x)
6
(b) (2 -x) 1 (c) (x+ !)'
4 The coefficient of x 5 in the expansion of (2x + 5) 8 is:
A 32000 B 4000 C 224000 D 1792
5 Find the tenn independent of x in each expansion. (a) (2x + 3) 4
(b) ( x+ !) 6
6.9 PASCAL'S TRIANGLE RELATIONS AND THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

There are two separate Pascal's triangle relations: one for the outer coefficients and another for the other (inner)
coefficients.
Pascal's triangle relation-outer coefficients

(a +b )" = "C0a" + "C1a"- 1b + "C2a"-2b2+ ... + "C,a"-'b' + ... + 11C11b11
When a= 1 and b = 0: ( 1 + O)" = "C0 ( 1)" + 0 + 0 + ...
· "Co-
- 1
When a= 0 and b = 1: (O + l)" = 0 + 0 + ... + "CII ( l )"
· "CII = 1
Pascal's triangle relation-inner coefficients

( 1+ X )11- I = 11-ICo + 11- lc1X + 11-Jc2X2 + . . . + 11-IC, X r + . • . + 11-Jc11_1X11-I
x(l+x)"- 1= 11- lc
0
X+ 11- lc X2 +
I · •·
+ 11- lc x ' + · · · + 11- lcn- 2X 11- I + 11- Jc,r- 1x "
r- 1
Adding the above two lines, the left-hand side becon1es: (1+ x)"-1 + x(l + x)"- 1 = (1 + x)( l + x)"-1 = (1 + x )"
Hence:
(1+ X )" = 11-JcO+ ( 11-ICO+ 11- lcl )x + ( n-lcl + 11- lc2 )x2 + ... + ( 11- lc,- J + 11- lc, )x' + ... + ( 11-lc11- 2+ n-lc11-J)x"-1 + 11-Jc,,_1X"
Con1paring these two expansions for ( 1 + x)", you no\v have:
(l+x)" ="C0 +"C1x +... +"C,x' + ... +"C,,x" [ 1l
Equating the coefficients of x: "C, = "- 1c,_1 + "- 1c, for 1 < r < n - 1
In terms of Pascal's triangle, this result is equivalent to saying that a tenn in one ro\v is the sum of the hvo tenns in
5 4 4
the ro\v above to the left and to the right (e.g. C3 = C2 + C).

YEAR 11
The formula for "Cr

The fonnula for "C, can be proved by 1nathen1atical induction. (For a discussion of induction, see Chapter 9.)
When n = 4, ( 1 + x)4= 1 + 4x + 6.x2 + 4.x3 + x 4•
The ratios of successive coefficients are:
4 n 6 3 n- 1 1 n- 3
• - =- • - = - = -- • 4= 4
1 1 4 2 2
Thus, the coefficients in this expansion from left to right are:
• 1 •
n . -n x -
n- 1
- n n- 1 n - 2
• TX 2 x 3
1 1 2
. d th h "C n(n - l )(n - 2) .. .(n - r + 1)
Th1s n1ay 1ea you to guess at per aps , = , 1 < r < n.
1 x 2 x 3 x ... xr
Call this staten1ent S(n). The coefficient of"C0 has already been shown to be 1.
Step 1 Prove that staten1ent S(n ) is true for n = 2.

( l + x)2 = 1 + 2x + _x2 = 2CoXo + 2C1x' + 2C2.x2
2 2 2 2 2 2- 1
:. C0 =1, C1 = , C2 = x
1 1 2 =l
:. S(2) is true.
Step 2 Assu1ne S(n - 1) is true (to sho\v that if S(n - 1) is true, then S(n ) is true).
. h ,, _ C _ (n-l)(n-2)(n-3) ...(n-r) .
1.e. assume t at 1 , - 1s true.
1 x 2 x 3 x ... xr
First, for r = 1: assu1ne that "- 1C = n ~ fron1 the statement S( n - 1).
1
1
It has previously been sho\vn that n-•c0 = 1.

Adding these results using the Pascal's triangle relation (also shown previously):
"C
I
= 11-1cO + ,,_,cI
"C1 = 1 + n ~ =
1
7,which agrees with the state1nent S(n).
c > . > . th ,r-lc _ (n - l )(n - 2)(n - 3)...(n - r+ l) fr h
N ow, ,or r _ 2, 1.e. r- 1 _ l. assu1ne at ,-, - l x 2 x 3 x ... X(r - l) 01n t e state1nent
S(n - 1). Again using the Pascal's triangle relation:
"cr = 11-•c r- l
+ 11-1cr
(n - l )(n - 2 )(n - 3).. .(n - r + 1) (n - l )(n - 2)(n - 3) .. .(n - r)
= ------------+ -----------
1X2 X3X ... X(r - l) 1X2 X3X ... X r
= (n - l )(n - 2)(n - 3)...(n - r+l )[ + n - r ]
1
1X2 X3X ... x(r - l ) r
= n(n- l )(n-2)(n-3) ... (n-r+ l ) as l +n - r =n
lx2x3x ... xr r r
Assuming S( n - 1) is true, this now proves the staten1ent S( n ) for r > 2 (which was also already proved
for r = 1 above).
Step3 Conclusion
S(n ) is true for r > 1 if S(n - 1) is true (Step 2)
S(2) is true (Step 1)
:. by induction, S(n ) is true for n > 2, r > 1

YEAR 11
Note: This forn1ula for "C, can now be used to obtain bino1nial expansions ,vithout having to construct the rows of
Pascal's triangle.
Another useful forn1 of this fonnula is: "C, = r!(:~ r )! = ( ;)
Binomial theorem-alternative approach

The expansion of (1 + x)" can be thought of as the product of n factors, each of ,vhich is ( 1 + x). The term containing
x' 1nust be found by selecting x out of any r of then factors and 1 out of the ren1aining (r - 1) factors. The coefficient
of x' is therefore equal to the number of ways of selecting r lots of x fron1 a total of n lots of x. Hence by definition
the coefficient of x' is "C, . By n1aking r = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... , n in succession you can obtain the coefficient of each tenn.
Thus:
II
11 11 2
(1+ x ) = 1+ "C1x+ C2 x + ... + C,x ' + ... + x = 11 11
L "C, x'
r ::O
The coefficients "C0 and "C11 are both equal to 1.
Making x = b and multiplying both sides by a" gives the expansion for (a + b)":
a
II
11
(a +b )" =a"+ C1a"- b + C2a 1 11 11
-
2 2 11
b + . .. + C,a"- rb' + .. . + b 11
=L 11
C,a11 -'b'
r =O
Note:
• The expansion of (a + b)" contains (n + 1) tern1s. "C,a"-' b' is th e (r + 1)-th tenn and is called the
general term .
• If you write -b in place of b, the expansion becomes:
II
1 2 2
(a - b )" = a" - C 1a11 11
- b+ "C2a"- b - .•• + "C,a - r(-b )' + ... + (- b )" = L.(-1)' 11 C,a11 - rb'
11
r ::O
The tenns are alternately positive and negative.
• Because (a + b)" = (b + a) 11 and 11 C, = "C,,_, , any tenn fron1 one end of the expansion of (a + b)11 is the saine
tern1 counted fron1 the opposite end of the expansion of (b + a)".
Example 41
Write the expansion of (2x - y) 5•
Solution
(2x - y)5 =(2x) 5 - 5
C1 (2x) 4 y + 5C 2 (2x)3 y 2 - 5
C3 (2x)2 y 3 + 5C4 (2x)y 4 - y 5
=32x5 - 80x 4 y + 80x 3y 2 - 40x 2y 3 + 10xy 4 - y 5
Example 42
Find the coefficient of x 4 in each expansion. (a) (1 + x) 6 (b) (3x - 2) 7
Solution
(The alternative notation(;)= 11 C, is used belo,v. Either notation ,nay be used.)

YEAR 11
Method 1
6 2 3 4
(a) (1 + x) = 1+(: ) x+( ~)x +( !)x + ( !)x + ...
The expansion does not need to be written out in full; only far enough to find the required term.
( 6) 6! 6 x 5 x 4! 6 x 5
Coefficient of x 4: = - - = - - - = - - = 15
4 4!2! 4! X 2 2
6 6 5 6 6
(Recall fro1n earlier in the chapter that ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = x = 15, which can simplify the
calculation.) 4 6- 4 2 2 X1
(b) (3x- 2)7 = (3x)7 - 7 Ci(3x)6 x 2 + 7 C2(3x)5 x 22- 7 C3(3x)4 x 23+ .. .
. 4 7 4 3 4 7X 6 X5 4
Tern11nx: (-l) X C3X 3 X 2x = - 3X2Xl x 8 1X8x
Coefficient of x 4 : -22 680
Method 2
6
(a) In the expansion of (1 + x) , T,+i = ( ! ) x '
6
• 4
Tern11n x :T5 = ( ) x 4 = 6 xx 5 x 4 = 15x 4
4 2 1
Coefficient of x 4: 15
7
(b) In the expansion of (3x - 2)7, T,+t = (:)(3x) - ' (- 2)'
4
The tenn for x requires 7 - r = 4, so r = 3.
4 3
Tern1 in x : T4 =(:)(3x)4 (- 2) = - ~:~:~ x8l x 8x 4
= - 22680x
4
Coefficient of x 4: -22 680
Example 43
Write the sixth term in the expansion of (2x - 3y)8.
Solution
The general term is 8C,(2x)'(- 3y)8-'. This is the (r + 1)-th term: T,+ 1 = 8 C, (2x)'(- 3y)8- r
For the sixth tern1, r + 1 = 6, so r = 5: T6 = 8 C5 (2x )5 (- 3y )3 (Ren1en1ber 8C5 = 8 C3)
=(- l )3 8X 7 X6 2533 5 3
3X2Xl x x y
5 3
= - 48384x y
EXERCISE 6.9 PASCAL'S TRIANGLE RELATIONS AND THE B INOMIAL THEOREM
1 Without using a calculator, find the value of:

(a) sc 2 (b) sc 4 (c) toe 6 (d) (:) (e) ( :) (f)
(~:)
6
2 Write the expansion of: (a) (1 + x) (b) (2x + 3y)4 (c) (x2 + a)5 (d) (a+!)6
5 4 5
(e) (x2 - 3y2)4 (f) (2a - ~ ) (g) ( 21- 3;2) (h) (x3 - 2x-2)6 (i) ( a: -3b)
3 2b

YEAR 11
3 Find the coefficient of x3 for each expansion.

(a) (x + 2) 5 (b) (x - 3) 4 (c) (4 - x) 3 (d) (3 + x)6 (e) (2x + 1)7 (f) (3x - 2) 8
4 Write the fourth tern1 in the expansion of:

(a) (x + 2) 5 (b) (x- 3) 4 (c) (4 - x) 3 (d) (3y + x) 6 (e) (2x+ y)7 (f) (3x - 2z) 8
5 The fourth tern1 in the expansion of (: - !) 6
is:
15b2
A -20 B 20 C D
a2
6 Write and sin1plify the required tern1 for each.

8
(a) the fourth tern1 of ( ; + 3n) (b) the seventh tenn of ( 2; - 3x )' '
2
the fifth tern1 of (a - 2b)

7
(c)
3
(d) the fourth tern1 of ( x-x1) "
7 Find the coefficient of:
( 3)
8 13
(a) x2in(x+!) (b) x

17
in (2x2
- 3x) 12 9
(d) a in 2a- a
8 Write and sin1plify the (k + 2)- th tenn of (a + b)2".
CHAPTER REVIEW 6
1 A coin is tossed, a die is rolled, and a card is selected from a standard pack of 52 playing cards and its suit
noted. Which would be the best fonn to display the possible outco1nes of this experiment: table, list or
tree diagram?
2 A bag contains four discs, each of a different colour. Ho\v n1any different arrangen1ents can be n1ade of
four discs if:
(a) they are selected at rando1n one at a time and placed in a row until the bag is e1npty
(b) one disc is selected at randon1, its colour is noted and it is p u t back in the bag before the next disc
is selected?
3 How n1any different arrangements can be n1ade of the five vowels a, e, i, o, u?
4 How n1any different four-digit nu1nbers can be fonned fro1n the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 if:
(a) none of the digits are repeated (b) the digits may be repeated?
5 Ho\v n1any four-digit or five-digit nun1bers greater than 4000 can be fonned using 0, 2, 4, 5, 7 if:
(a) none of the digits are repeated
(b) the digits may be repeated
(c) none of the digits are repeated and the nun1bers forn1ed are even?
6 (a) How 1nany arrangements of the letters in the word ISOSCELES are possible?
(b) How 1nany arrangements of the letters in the word ISOSCELES are possible if the consonants and vowels
n1ust alternate?
7 In how 1nany ways can a cycling tean1 of four riders be selected from a squad of ten riders?
8 A co1n1nittee of six is chosen fro1n 14 people. In how many ways can this be done?
9 A ,nixed volleyball tea1n of eight players is selected fro1n eight 1nales and nine fen1ales. In how 1nany \vays can
this be done if the tean1 n1ust have an equal nun1ber of male and fen1ale players?

YEAR 11
10 A committee of five is to be selected fro1n a class of 30 students.

(a) In how many ways can this be done?
(b) After the co1n1nittee is selected, one person is elected chairperson and another is elected secretary. In how
n1any ways can these positions be filled?
11 In how 1nany \vays can five people be seated in a five-seater car if only two people have a licence to legally
occupy the driver's seat?
12 (a) In how many ways can a co1n1nittee of three parents and four teachers be chosen fro1n six parents and
eight teachers?
(b) The me1nbers of the con1n1ittee are seated in a ro\v of seven chairs on a stage. In how 1nany different ways
can they be seated?
(c) Find the nu1nber of ways of seating this con1n1ittee if the parents refuse to sit at the ends of the row.
(d) What is the probability that for a chosen con1n1ittee, the parents do not sit at the ends of the row?
13 A box contains four n1arbles labelled 2, 3, 4, 6. If two 1narbles are drawn at random fro1n the box, \Vhat is the
probability that their su1n is greater than 7?
14 The letters of the word CONSIDER are rearranged What is the probability that the rearranged set of letters
will begin with 'SI'?
15 Three-digit nu1nbers are formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. If none of the digits are repeated, \vhat is the
probability of forn1ing an even nu1nber?
16 The letters of the word ARRANGEMENT are arranged in a row.
(a) In how many ways can this be done using all the letters?
(b) What is the probability that the vowels are all together?
17 Three cards are selected fro1n a standard pack of 52 playing cards. What is the probability that at least one of
the cards will be a King?
18 If a coin is tossed six tiines, what is the probability of obtaining exactly three heads?
19 Seven-digit nu1nbers are formed using all the digits 2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 7.
(a) How 1nany different nun1bers can be fonned?
(b) What is the probability that the number forn1ed is odd?
(c) What is the probability that the number forn1ed is greater than 4 000 000?
(d) What is the probability that the number forn1ed is less than 7 000 000?
20 A test consists of six n1ultiple-choice questions. Each question has four possible ans\vers: one that is correct
and three that are incorrect. An1anda rando1nly selects an ans\ver to each of the six questions.
(a) What is the probability that Amanda selects four correct and two incorrect answers?
(b) What is the probability that Amanda selects four or n1ore correct answers?
(c) What is the probability that Amanda selects at least one incorrect ans\ver?
21 Four ordinary six-sided dice are rolled. What is the probability that exactly three of the dice roll a 5? Leave
your ans\ver in unsin1plified fonn.
22 A four-person tea1n is chosen at random fron1 seven won1en an d nine 1nen.

(a) In how many ways can the team be chosen?
(b) What is the probability that the team will consist of four 1nen?
23 Mr and Mrs Zeno and their four children go to the theatre. They are rando1nly allocated six adjacent seats in a
single ro\v. What is the probability that Mr an d Mrs Zeno are allocated seats next to each other?

CHAPTER 7
Rates of change and their application
7.1 RATES OF CHANGE WITH RESPECT TO TIME
The gradient as a rate of change ,vas introduced in the Mathen1atics Advanced course. This chapter will extend
that topic.
There are 1nany practical situations in which the change in a physical quantity can be described n1athematically. The
speed of a car depends on the rate at ,vhich the distance it travels changes ,vith respect to tin1e. The rate of change in
the population of Australia depends on the nun1ber of people alive at a given tiine, together ,vith the birth rate, the
death rate and the in1n1igration/emigration rate.
You have seen that the rate of change of a function is the derivative of that function. Hence if you have inforn1ation
about a real-life situation expressed as a function of time, then the rate of change of this can be calculated by finding
the derivative of this function.
Example 1
The volume of ,vater in a cylindrical tank of constant cross-section is given by V =25tr ( 100 - t) 1n3, where t is
the time in minutes.
(a) How 1nuch ,vater is in the tank initially?
(b) If~~ gives the rate at ,vhich water flo,vs out from the bottom of the tank when a tap is opened, find ~~
and comment on your answer.
(c) How 1nuch tiine does it take for the tank to en1pty?
Solution
(a) t = 0: V = 25n: x 100 = 2500 1r1n3
(b) ~~ =-25n:
The water is flowing out of the tank at a constant rate.
(c) The tank is empty when V = 0: 25tr(l00 - t) = 0
t = 1001ninutes
This could also be solved by considering where the graph of V = 25n:( 100- t) cuts the t-axis.
,,
10000
8000
6000 V= 25rr ( IOO - t)
4000
2000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 t
The graph cuts the t-axis (that is, reaches V = O) at t = 100, so the tank is empty after 100 n1inutes.
Chapter 7 Rates of change and their application 149

YEAR 11
Example 2
A large cube of ice has edges of length 10cm. As it melts its volun1e decreases at a constant rate of25cm 3 per hour.
(a) What is the initial volun1e of the cube of ice?
(b) What is the volume of ice re1naining after 2 hours?
(c) Obtain a forn1ula for the volun1e V c1n3 re1naining after t hours.
(d) How 1nuch tin1e will it take for the ice to 1nelt con1pletely?
Solution
(a) Volume of cube of ice= 103 = 1000cm3.
(b) After 2 hours, the volu1ne 1nelted = 25 x 2 = 50 cm 3.
Volume remaining= 1000 - 50 = 950 cn13.
(c) After t hours, the volu1ne n1elted = 25 x t = 25tcm 3•
V = 1000 - 25t.
(d) V = 0: 1000 - 25t = 0, sot= 40 hours.
It takes 40 hours for the cube of ice to 1nelt con1pletely.
EXERCISE 7.1 RATES OF CHANGE WITH RESPECT TO TIME
1 When concentrated chemical solutions are allowed to evaporate slowly, crystals are formed. The surface area
of a particular crystal is given by A= 0.8t2, where A is mm 2 and t is days of evaporation. The rate at which the
surface area is increasing after 4 days is:
A 0.8 mm 2 day- • B 1.6 mm 2 day- • C 6.4 1n1n2 day- 1 D 12.8 mm 2 day- •
2 The length of the sides of a square, xcm, is given by x = 4t + 1 where tis in seconds.
(a) At \Vhat rate is the length of the side of the square increasing at t seconds?
(b) At \Vhat rate is the length of the side of the square increasing when t = 5 seconds?
(c) Write an expression for the area A cni of the square as a function oft.
(d) At \Vhat rate is the area of the square increasing \vhen t = 5 seconds?
3 A petrol pump delivers petrol at the rate of 4 litres per 1ninute.
(a) Ho\v n1uch petrol is delivered in 5 n1inutes?
(b) If V litres of petrol are delivered in t 1ninutes at this rate, find an expression for Vin terms oft.
(c) Ho\v n1uch time will it take to deliver 45 litres of petrol?
0
r,
4 A tank holds 50 000 litres of water. The water drains from the tank in 40 1ninutes. The volun1e of \Vater
re1naining in the tank after tn1inutes is given by V = 50 000 ( 1- ; where Vis 1neasured in litres.
(a) Find the rate at which the \Vater is draining from the tank after: (i) 5 minutes (ii) 10 n1inutes
(iii) 201ninutes.
(b) Ho\v n1uch water ren1ains in the tank after 20 n1inutes?
(c) How n1uch time will it take until only half the initial volu1ne of water remains in the tank?

YEAR 11
2
5 The volume of ,vater in a tank is given by V = 1000 - 2t + liOO , where V is n1easured in litres and t is
in m in utes.
(a) Ho,v n1uch water is in the tank initially, assu1ning it ,vas full?
dV
(b) Find an expression for dt as a function oft.
(c) At ,vhat rate is the water flo,ving out of the tank at 25 1nin utes?
(d) Ho,v n1uch tiine ,vill it take to e1npty the tan k at this rate?
6 The rate at ,vhich solven_t i'.1 a nail polish evaporates is given by ~~ = 560 ( 1- ; 0 ), where V m L is the volu1ne
of solven t presen t and t 1s 111 seconds.
(a) What is the initial rate of evaporation of the solvent?
(b) When does the evaporation of the solvent stop?
7 An electric curren t exists whenever electric charges 1nove through a surface. The quan tity of charge Q in
coulon1bs (C) that has passed through a surface after tiine t, 1neasured in seconds, is given by
Q = f - 6t2 + 12t + 5. The current, in amperes (A), where 1 A = 1 Cs- 1 is given by~~ . Find the current when:
(a) t = 0.5s (b) t = l s.
(c) What is the initial charge? (d) When does the current stop flowing?
7.2 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION AS RATES OF CHANGE

Particle is the tern1 used for a body that behaves as if all forces acting on the body are acting through a single poin t.
This m eans that the body can be represented as a single poin t, regardless of its actual size an d shape. This definition
of a particle means that quite large bodies, e.g. trains, can still be classified as 'particles' provided this condition
applies.
Displacement
f-x- Consider a particle, represen ted by a point P, n1oving in a straigh t line X' OX.
The displacement x is the particle's position relative to the fixed point 0. It ,nay be a
X: 0 p X
A positive or negative n u1nber, according to whether Pis to the right or left of 0. The origin
of the n1otion is not necessarily at 0 , so ,vhen t = 0, P n1ay be (for example) at the point A.
Displacen1ent is defined as the position relative to a starting point. It can be positive or negative.
Displacen1ent is not necessarily the total distance travelled.
Unlike displacement, distance is al,vays a positive quantity.
Velocity
Consider the equation x = f (t), ,vhich gives the position coordinate x of a particle 1noving in a straight line at tin1e t.
x At tin1e t, the particle is at A, and at tin1e (t + h) the particle is at B, as sho,vn
in the d iagra1n. Thus in the small time interval h the particle has changed its
position by an amount k = f(t + h) - f (t).
. . . . . k f(t+h) - f(t)
B - - - - - - - - - - - (I+ /J,j{t + /J)) The average velocity 111 this tune interval = h = h , h '#. 0.
(t,fil)) :
A - - - - - - - - - - . k =fit+ /J) - fit)
I h : The instantaneous velocity of the particle at tiine t is defined by
' ' . J(t +h) - J(t) . , dx .
0 t t +h I lun h . This n1ay be denoted by v(t) , f (t), -d or x:
lo➔O t
v(t) = f'(t ) = dx = x = lin1 f (t + h) - f (t)
dt h➔O h

YEAR 11
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position (i.e. of displace1nent) with respect to tiine, or as
the tiine rate of change of position in a given direction.
Velocity can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of travel.
Speed is the magnitude of the velocity and is always positive.
Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity \Vith respect to time.
Acceleration, like velocity, can be positive or negative.
Positive acceleration indicates that the velocity is increasing, \Vhile negative acceleration
indicates that the velocity is decreasing (\vhich is often called deceleration or retardation).
(Note: 'increasing velocity' is not necessarily 'faster speed'; it only n1eans acceleration in the direction of
positive displacement.)
If velocity is denoted by v(t), then the average acceleration over the tin1e interval fron1 t to (t + h) is v(t + h/2 - v (t )
The instantaneous acceleration at tin1e tis defined by liin v( t + hh - v(t). This ,nay be denoted by v'(t ), a(t),
2 /1 ➔0
f "(t ), -dv , d x
dt dt
2
...
orx.
2
( ) =v t = - x =x.. = Ii1n v(t + h)h -v(t)
at
' ( ) d
dt2 lo➔O
Summary of important motion terms

'initially': t=O 'at the origin': x=O
'at rest': v= O 'velocity is constant': a=O
Units and symbols
Physical quantity Unit Symbol
Tiine s t
X
Displacen1ent Cln, m
(ors in Physics)
cn1s- 1 , ms- • dx
Velocity V, dt , x
2
cn1s-2 , ms- 2 dv d x
Acceleration a, dt' dt 2 , x
Note that 's' is the abbreviation for second, 'c1n' for centiinetre and '1n' for 1netre.
Constant acceleration due to gravity on Earth can be assun1ed to be 9.8,ns- 2 (,=l On1s- 2).

YEAR 11
Example 3
A particle is moving in a straight line, so that its displace1nent x 1netres fro1n a fixed point O on the line at tiine
t seconds (t > O) is given by x = t3 - 2t2 - 4t.
(a) Detennine expressions for the velocity and acceleration of the particle.
(b) Find \Vhen the particle is at rest.
(c) Find \Vhen the acceleration is negative.
(d) By dra\ving the graph of the velocity function, co1n1nent on the velocity when the acceleration is negative.
(e) When is the acceleration positive? What does this 1nean for the velocity of the particle?
Solution
(a) X =f - 2f - 4t
Differentiate: dx = 3t2 - 4t - 4
dt
:. v=3t2-4t-4
Differentiate again: dv = 6t - 4
dt
:. a=6t-4
(b) At rest when v = 0: 3t2 - 4t - 4 = 0
(3t+ 2)(t-2) = 0
2
t=-3, 2
As t > 0, the particle is at rest after 2 seconds.
(c) a < 0: 6t - 4 <0
t <l
3
V
(d)
12
10
8
6
4
2 t =I
3
0 t
I 3
-2
-4
-6
When t < l the velocity function is a decreasing function and the velocity is negative. It obtains its least
3 2
value \Vhen t = 3.
(e) The acceleration is positive when t > ; . This means the velocity is increasing \Vhen t > ; , and since the
graph of the velocity is getting steeper it 1neans the velocity is increasing at an increasing rate.
EXPLORING FURTHER
Displacement, velocity, acceleration

- - - - -0
Use t echnology to explore the relationship between the displacement, velocity an d acceleration
of a particle.

YEAR 11
EXERCISE 7.2 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION AS RATES OF CHANGE
1 A particle is moving in a straight line, so that its displacement xmetres from a fixed point O on the line at tiine
t seconds (t > O) is given by x = 2? - st2 - 4t.
(a) Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at any time t.
(b) Find the initial velocity and acceleration.
(c) When is the particle at rest?
(d) When is the acceleration zero? What is the velocity and displacen1ent at this tiine?
2 A particle is moving in a straight line so that its displacement x metres from a fixed point O on the line at tiine
t seconds (t > O) is given by x = t3 - 3.St2 - 6t.
(a) Find expressions for the velocity and acceleration of the particle.
(b) Find \Vhen the particle is at rest.
(c) Find \Vhen the acceleration is negative.
(d) By dra\ving the graph of the velocity function, co1n1nent on the velocity when the acceleration
is negative.
(e) When is the acceleration positive? What does this 1nean for the velocity of the particle?
3 A particle n1oves in a straight line. Its velocity v ms- 1 at tiine tis given by v = 5- lO .
t+l
(a) Find the initial velocity.
(b) Find the acceleration of the particle when the particle is at rest.
(c) Sketch the graph of v for t > 0, sho\ving any intercepts and asy1nptotes.
4 The graph shows the displacen1ent x of a particle 1noving along a X
straight line as a function of tiine t. p

Which staten1ent best describes the n1otion of the particle at the point P?
A The velocity is negative and the acceleration is positive.
B The velocity is negative and the acceleration is negative.
C The velocity is positive and the acceleration is positive.
D The velocity is positive and the acceleration is negative. t
1
5 The displace1nent of a particle moving along the x-axis is given by x = 2t - ,
t+1
where xis the displace1nent from the origin in n1etres, tis in seconds and t > 0.
(a) Find the expression for the velocity v and draw the graph of v against t.
(b) What value does the velocity approach as t increases indefinitely?
(c) Find the expression for the acceleration a and draw the graph of a against t.
(d) Show that the acceleration of the particle is always negative.
6 A particle is moving along the x -axis. The displacen1ent of the particle at tiine tis x metres. At a certain tiine,
v =-4ms- 1 anda = 3 n1 s- 2.
Which staten1ent describes the ,notion of the particle at that time?
A The particle is 1noving to the left \vith decreasing speed.
B The particle is 1noving to the left \vith increasing speed.
C The particle is 1noving to the right \Vith decreasing speed.
D The particle is 1noving to the right \Vith increasing speed.
7 A driver takes 3 hours to travel the distance bet\veen t\vo points A and B on a country road. At tiine t hours
after passing A, the driver's speed vlunh- 1 is given by v = 60 + 40e-•.
(a) Calculate the speeds \vhen the driver passes points A and B.
(b) Write the acceleration in tenns of: (i) t (ii) v
(c) Sketch the velocity- tiine curve and con1n1ent on the motion for large values oft.
8 A particle n1oves in a straight line so that its displacement x fron1 a fixed origin at any tiine t is given
by x (t) = 2( 1 - e-').
(a) Find x (O) , x(O) and .x(O). (b) Sketch the graph of x( t). (c) Find t when x (t) = l.

YEAR 11
9 A body starts fro1n O an d 1noves in a straight line. At any tiine t its velocity is given by x = 6t - 4. Indicate
whether each statement below is correct or incorrect.
(a) x = 3t2 - 4t + C (b) x=3r-4t (c) x= 3r-4t (d) x= 6
10 A body starts fro1n O and 1noves in a straight line. At any tiine t, its velocity is t2- 4t3. Find, in terms oft:
(a) the displacement x (b) the acceleration.
11 The velocity v 1n s_, at tin1e t seconds ( t > 0) of a body moving in a straight line is given by v = 6t2 + 6t - 12.
Find the acceleration at any tiine t.
12 A particle is projected vertically upwards fro1n a point O with an velocity of251ns- 1 and a do,vnward
acceleration of 10 1n s- 2•
(a) Find its velocity and height above Oat any tiine t.
(b) What 1naxin1u1n height does the particle reach?
(c) At ,vhat time has its velocity been reduced to half the velocity of projection?
13 A body is projected vertically up,vards with an initial velocity of 301n s- 1• It rises with a deceleration of
10,ns- 2•
(a) Find its velocity at any tin1e t. (b) Find its height h n1 above the point of projection at any time t.
(c) Find the greatest height reached. (d) Find the time taken to return to the point of projection.
14 The velocity v1ns- 1 of a body moving iI1 a straight line is given by v = 3r - 2t- 1. Find the acceleration at any
tin1e t.
7.3 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY

A quantity has exponential growth when it mcreases by a constant percentage of its whole over a given time period.
This means that the larger the quantity at the start, the bigger the increase ,viii be. For exan1ple: if a country of 100
1nillion people and a country of 10 n1illion people are each gro,ving their populations at an annual rate of 10%, then
the first country's population mcreases by 10 million next year ,vhile the second country's population increases by
only 1 million.
The following table shows values of x2 (quadratic growth) and 2• (exponential y
48 y =Z'; y =x':
growth) for selected values of x. Corresponding graphs for x > 0 are shown at right. ,
,'
Note how exponential growth far exceeds quadratic growth as x increases beyond 40 ,
,'
,
the value x = 4. 32 ,,
,
,
24 ,,
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 100 16 (4, 16)
x2 4 -
0 1 4 9 16 25 36 100 10 8 (2, 4) ---
- --
2· 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 1024 z l 030 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 X
In 1972, a political think-tank called the Club of Ro1ne published The Limits to Gro~vth, a controversial but
influential study of the possible interactions behveen various kinds of linear and exponential gro,vth and decline in
global syste1ns of population, pollution, natural resources, food and other factors.
The general principle behind their models of exponential growth can be appreciated if you iinagine the vertical axis of
the exponential graph above to represent the growth of a quantity (e.g. population or pollution) and the horizontal axis
to represent tiine_ An increase of 1 unit of x ('tiine') fro1n x = 1 to x = 2 causes only a s1nall absolute increase in y, from
y = 2 toy = 4. You could in1agme this ,night represent world population growth in past centuries. Ho,vever, an mcrease
of one unit of 'tin1e' fron1 x = 10 to x = 11 causes y to increase by 1nore than 1000.
This illustrates the enorn1ous mcreases that can occur ,vhen an exponentially growing variable becomes large enough
to reach the steeply rising part of the curve. ( Of course, global population gro,vth is n1ore co1nplicated than a siinple
exponential curve, but the general principle of exponential change is the iinportant pomt to ren1e1nber.) Exponential
decline can be equally dramatic, which is one reason for concern about the use of non-rene,vable resources.

YEAR 11
There are many exan1ples of exponential growth and decay in the physical \Vorld, including population growth, the
growth of bacteria, radioactive decay, rates of heating and cooling, the decrease in at1nospheric pressure at higher
altitudes, the decrease in light intensity through \Vater or glass, and the fading a\vay of sound vibrations. In each
case, the quantities follow the exponential la\v (exactly or approxiinately):
• y = AIF for exponential growth

• y = Ae-1:x for exponential decay (or 'exponential decline').
For y = AIF, you have: 7x = kA/x

= f...y
.. 7x =ky is the exponential rate of change.
This n1eans that exponential growth occurs \Vhen the rate of change of a quantity y with respect to another quantity
xis proportional toy. For example:
• The rate of growth of a colony of bacteria is proportional to the nun1ber of bacteria N present at any tiine,
.,.e. dN
dt = kN
, .
• The rate of decay of a radioactive isotope is proportional to the 1nass of that isotope present at any tiine, i.e.
d:: =-kM. (The negative sign indicates decay, 1neaning the an1ount is reducing over tiine.)
• The rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the difference between the temperature of the body and the
te1nperature of the surrounding medium, i.e.
(This is Newton's 'law of cooling'.)
!8 =-k0,
t
\Vhere 0 is the ten1perature difference at any tin1e.
• The rate of decrease of atn1ospheric pressure with respect to height above sea level is proportional to the
pressure at that height, i.e.1r = -kP.
• Light passing through a transparent 1nediu1n loses its intensity. The rate of loss of light intensity \Vith respect
to the distance is proportional to the light's intensity at the distance, i.e. ddl = -kl.
In each case there is a differential equation of the form
derivatives.
lx = f...y.
d X
A differential equation is an equation that involves
It is iinportant to understand the role played by the constants A and kin the equation y = A!F.
• At x = 0, y = Ae0 = A, so if x > 0 then A is the initial value of y.
• Because :Yx = f...y, k is the growth rate and influences the slope of the curve.
For y=AIF: • A is the value of y when x =0 • k is the growth rate.

YEAR 11
Example 4
The annual growth rate of the population of two towns P an d Qare 10% and 5% respectively of their populations
at any time. If the initial population of P is 20000 and of Q is 10000, find their populations 3 years later.
Solution
Let N be the population at any time t years.
For P: ~~ = O.lN For Q: dN = 005N

dt .
:. N = Ae0· 11 : . N = Aeo.os,
At t = 0: N = 20000, so A= 20000 At t= 0: N = 10000, so A= 10000

0 05
So: N = 20 OOOe0·11 So: N = 10 OOOe · '
At t = 3: N = 20000e0 ·3 At t= 3: N = 10000e0 ·15

N"' 27000 N = 12000
The answers are given to the nearest thousand.
N('OOO) The graphs indicate the roles played by A and k. Because A is the value of N
30 \Vhen t = 0, it is the point where the curve crosses the N -axis.
The graph for P is steeper than the graph for Q. This indicates the role of k,
20
the growth rate. The population of P gro\vs more rapidly than the population
of Q.
IO-!---- - - - : -
N;--=~I".:°
OOO~ Oe°';,;,
0 1 2 3 I (years)
Note that exponential gro\vth or decay is continuous, so k indicates the instantaneous rate of change. Compare this
to the growth of money invested at con1pound interest: interest is calculated periodically, so change only happens at
fixed intervals (e.g. daily, 1nonthly, quarterly, yearly).
Example 5
A vessel containing water is being en1ptied. The volu1ne V(t) cu bic metres of water remaining in the vessel after
t 1ninu tes is given by V (t) = Ae-k'.
(a) If V(O) = 100, find the value of A. (b) If V(S) = 90, find the value of k. (c) Find V(20).
Solution
(a) When t = 0, V = 100, so: A= 100
(b) When t = 5, V = 90, so: 90 = lOOe-sk
0.9 = e-Sk
:. -Sk = log, 0.9
k = -0.2 log, 0.9 "' 0.02
(c) V(t)"' lOOe- 0·021
V(20)"' lOOe-0·4 "' 67 (Note that \Vithout rou nding, this answer is closer to 66.)

YEAR 11
Example 6
The pressure of the atn1osphere, 1neasured as P kilopascals (kPa), decreases ,vith the altitude hkn1 above sea level
approximately according to P = lO l e-o.2,,_Find the rate at ,vhich the air pressure falls ,vith respect to height above
sea level ,vhen: (a) h = 5 (b) P = 20
Solution
P = lOl e-o.21i
~~ =-0.2 X 10le-o 21'

dP = _20 2 - 0.21, [l ] Here [1] gives ~~ as a function of h, while
dh . e
or:
dP
dh = -0.2P [2] [2] gives ~~ as a function of P.
P(kPa)
(a) h = 5: ~~ = -20.2e- l = -7.43 IOI
The pressure falls at a rate of7.43kPa/ km

when h = 5. P= 101, .0."
(b) P = 20:
dP
dh = -0.2 x 20 = -4
The pressure falls at a rate of 4 kPa/ kn1
when P= 20. 0 5 10 IJ(km)
Example 7
The 1nass M of a radioactive substance is initially 10 grams. Twenty years later the 1nass of ren1aining radioactive
substance is 9.6 grains.
(a) Find the annual decay rate, given that the rate of decay of a radioactive substance is proportional to the
n1ass of the substance present at any tin1e.
(b) In how many years ,viii the n1ass of radioactive substance be halved?
Solution
It is kI10,vn that ft = -kM. You kI1ow that M = Ae-k' is a solution to this differential equation.
(a) t = 0, M = 10, so: A = 10

t = 20, M = 9.6: 9.6 = 10e-iOk
:. -20k =log, 0.96
k =- io log, 0.96 = 0.002
(b) If k =0.002: M = 1Oe-0·0021
M = 5: 5 = 1Oe-o.ooi,
e-o.ooi, = 0.5 or e0·002 ' = 2
:. 0.002t =log, 2
t = 500 log, 2 = 347
The 1nass of radioactive substance ,viii be halved after about 347 years.
Note: The time taken for half of an a1nount of radioactive substance to decay is called the half-life of the substance.

YEAR 11
EXERCISE 7.3 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY
dy .
1 If dx = 2y and y = 5 where x = 0, express y as a function of x.
2 If~~ = -0.5N and N = 100 \Vhen t = 0, then N expressed as a function oft is:
A N= l OOeo.s, 8 N=lOOe-o.s, C N=0.5e 1001 D N=0.5e- 1001
3 If!~ = 0.4Q and Q = 50 when t = 0, express Q as a fUI1ction oft.
4 If 7t = -3y and y = 20 \Vhen t = 0, express y as a function oft.
5 If f = -0.0lM and M = 10 \Vhen t = 0, express Mas a function oft.
6 Ify = Ae-k', y = 1000 \Vhen t = 0, and y = 368 when t = 2, find the values of A and k.
7 If N = Al', N = 200 \Vhen t = 0, and N = 1478 \Vhen t = 5, find the values of A and k.
8 If P = Ae-k1', P = 76 \Vhere h = 0, and P = 28 when h = 5, indicate whether each of the follo\ving statements is
correct or incorrect.
(a) A =76 (b) esk = J_
19
(c) k = 0.2 log,(
1
i) (d) k "" 0.20
9 The population of a city increases at a rate that is proportional to the current population. If the population
of the city was 100000 in the year 2000 and 120000 in the year 2010, express the population Pin terms of
t years after 2000.
10 In a certain bacterial culture, the rate of increase of bacteria is proportional to the number of bacteria present.
(a) If the nun1ber of bacteria doubles every 3 hours, find the hourly growth rate.
(b) If the original bacteria population is 104, \Vhat is the population after 9 hours?
4
(c) After ho\v n1any hours are there 4 x 10 bacteria?
11 The rate of decay of a radioactive isotope is proportional to the ainount of the isotope present at any tin1e. If
one-half of a given quantity of the isotope decays in 1600 years, what percentage will decay in 100 years?
12 The nu1nber of bacteria N in a colony after t1ninutes is given by N = 10000e0·05' . Find:

(a) the nu1nber of bacteria after l Omin utes
(b) the tiine required for the original nu1nber to double.
(c) Find the rate at which the colony increases \Vhen: (i) t = 10 (ii) N = 20000
13 A vessel filled \Vith liquid is being en1ptied. The volume V cubic 1netres of liquid re1naining after t minutes is
· by vv
given = 0e-k' .
(a) Show that ~~ = -kV.

(b) If one-quarter of the vessel is e1nptied in the first 5 n1inutes, \Vhat fraction remains after 101ninutes?
(c) At \vhat rate is the liquid flo\ving out:
(i) after 10 n1inutes (ii) \Vhen one-quarter of the vessel is en1pty.
14 For a period of its life, the increase in the diaineter of a tree approxiinately follows the rule D(t) = Al', where
D( t) is the diameter of the tree t years after the beginning of this period.
(a) If the dian1eter is initially 50 c1n, find the value of A.
(b) If D'(t ) = O.lD(t), find the value of k.
(c) After ho\v n1any years is the dian1eter 6 1 cm?

YEAR 11
15 The charge Q (n1easured in coulon1bs) on the plate of a condenser t seconds after it starts to discharge is given
by the forn1ula Q = Ae-"'.
(a ) If the original charge is 5000 coulon1bs, find the value of A.
(b) If~~ = -2000 when Q = 1000, find the value of k.

(c ) Find the rate of d ischarge when Q = 5000.
16 The rate of increase in the number N of bacteria in a certain cultu re is given by ddN =0.15N, where tis tin1e
. h ours.
m t
(a) If the original number of bacteria is 1000, express N as a function oft.
(b) After how 1nany hours has the original nun1ber of bacteria doubled? What is the rate of increase at
this time?
17 Sunlight transmitted into \Vater loses intensity as it penetrates to greater depths according to the law
l(d) = l(O)e-kd, where l(d) is the intensity at depth dmetres below the surface. If 1(300) = 0.31(0), find:
(a) the value of k (b) the depth at which the intensity \vould be decreased by one-half.
18 The rate of increase of the population P(t) of a particular island is given by the equation Jt P(t) = kP(t), where
tis tin1e in years. In the year 2000 the population \Vas 1000 and in 2010 it had decreased to 800.
(a) Find k, the annual growth rate. (b) In how 1nany years will the population be half that in 2000?
19 A substance decomposes at a rate equal to k times the 1nass of the substance present. If initially the mass is M,
find the mass mat tin1e t. If k = 0.1, find the value oft for which m = ~.
20 A heated body is cooling. The excess of its temperature above that of its surroundings is 0= Ae-"', where 0 is
n1easured in °C and tis in 1ninu tes.
(a) At tin1e t = 0, 0 = 80. Find A.
(b) If the ten1perature of the surroundings is 20°C and the body cools to 70°C in 101ninutes, find:
~) the body's ten1perature after 201ninutes (ii) the time taken to reach 60°C.
21 The number N of bacteria in a colony grows according to the rule liJ: =kN. If the original number increases
fron1 4000 to 8000 in 4 days, find the nu1nber after another 4 days.
22 A population of size N is decreasing according to the rule ~~ = - 1~ 0 , where tis the tiine in days. If the
population is initially of size N 0, find ho\v 1nuch time it takes for the size to be halved, to the next day.
23 A radioactive substance decays at a rate that is proportional to the n1ass of radioactive substance present at any
tiine. If 10% decays in 200 years, \vhat percen tage of the original radioactive 1nass will re1nain after 1000 years?

YEAR 11
7.4 HARDER EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY

This is an extension of the work on exponential gro\vth and decay that you studied in the previous section, \Vhere,
you considered the equation ~~ = kN. That solution was found to be N = Aek', where A is the initial value of N. It is a
useful exercise to derive this result by integration.
Example 8
Show by integration that the solution to tiJ: = kN is N = Aek', where A is the value of N when t = 0.
Solution
dN =kN
dt
dt 1
Reciprocal of both sides: dN=kN 1 1
t= - log N- - log A
Integrate with respect to N: f
t= ~dN
1
k '
N
k '
1 t= - log -
t= k log,N+C k 'A
N
kt=log, A
1 N kt
When t = 0, N = A: 0= klog,A+C x=e
1
C=--k log, A N=Aek'
Solution of ~~ = k (N - P ) where k and P are constants
d: = k(N - P) n1eans that the rate of change of N is proportional to the excess of N over a fixed quantity P.
This can be applied to several real-life physical processes.
Given ~~ = k(N - P), \Vhere k and Pare constants, it is easy to show that a solution of this equation is N = P.
If N = P, then ~~ = k(P- P) = O; because Pis a constant, differentiating the equation N = P with respect to t also
. dN
gives dt = 0 .
It can also be sho\vn by substitution that N = P + Aek' is a solution to ~~ = k(N - P):
dN
LHS= dt RHS=k(N-P)
=Ake•' = k(P+AI' -P)
=Akekl =LHS
It is iinportant to be able to derive this result by integration.
dN
dt=k(N-P)
dt 1
Reciprocal of both sides: dN = k(N-P)' N':f:P

YEAR 11
Integrate \Vith respect to N: t= kf N~PdN

l
t= klog,(N-P)+C, N>P
k(t- C) = log, (N-P)

N-P= /(I - CJ
N-P=l' xe-•c
Let A = e-•C (a constant): N - P = Ae''
N=P + Ae''
dN k
If dt =k(N - P ) then N=P+Ae'
If k < 0, Ae'' ➔ 0 as t ➔ oo and hence N ➔ P from above.
Example 9
N is in creasing according to the equation t = 0.4( N - 50 ). If N = 60 when t = 0:
(a) show that N = 50 + Ae0.4' is a solution to this equation, where A is a constant
(b) calculate the value of N when t = 20.
Solution
(a) Differentiate N = 50 + Ae0A•: dN =0 4 A o.4t
dt . e
Rewrite N = 50 + Ae0A': Ae0.4' = N - 50
Substitute into t = 0.4Ae 0·4' :

dN
dt =0.4(N - 50)
0
Hence N = 50 + Ae A' is a solution to the equation t = 0.4(N - 50).
(b) At t = 0, N = 60: 60 = 50 + A
A = 10
· N = 50 + 10e0.4'
At t= 20: N= 50 + 10e8
N"' 29 860
Example 10
The 1nass M of a particular southern right whale is modelled as M = 55 - 54e-kl, where Mis 1neasured in tonnes,
tis the age of the whale in years and k is a positive constan t.
(a) Sho\v that the rate of gro\vth of the whale's mass is given by the differential equation
(b) What is the birth mass of the whale? (i.e. at t = 0)
t = k(55 - M).
(c) When the whale is one year old, its mass is l Otonnes. Sho\v that k = ln( ~)-
(d) What is the n1ass of the whale when it is 10 years old (to the nearest tonne)?
(e) If male southern right whales grow to about 55 tonnes and fen1ales grow to about 85 tonnes, detern1ine
the gender of this whale, giving reasons for your answer.

YEAR 11
Solution
(a) M = 55- 54e-k'
Differentiate ,vith respect to t: dM =54ke-sk.
dt
Re,vrite M = 55 - 54e-k': 54e-k' = 55 - M
. . dM k -kt dM
Sub st1tute into dt = 54 ·e : - =k(55 - M)
dt
Hence the rate of gro,vth of the whale's n1ass is ~ = k(55- M).
(b) At t = 0: M = 55 - 54e0 (c) At t= 1, M = 10: 10 = 55 - 54e-k
M= 55-54= 1 54e-k = 45
The birth 1nass of the whale is 1 tonne. e-k = 45 =2.
54 6
(d) At t= l O: M = 55 - 54e
- 101_(~)
'\s ek = -6
5
101J ~)
6
M=55 - 54e '\ k= ln ( t )
Mz46.3
The mass of the ,vhale to the nearest tonne (e) As t ➔ oo: M ➔ 55 - 54e-~
M ➔ 55
is 46 tonnes.
The li1niting 1nass of the whale is 55 tonnes,
so it is n1ost likely to be a 1nale.
Newton's law of cooling

Ne,vton's law of cooling states that the cooling rate of a body is proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the body and the te1nperature of the surrounding mediu1n:
dT
dt = - k(T - M) where Tis the ten1perature at any time t
and Mis the ten1perature of th e surrounding 1nediu1n (a constant).
Example 11
The original temperature of a body is 100°C, the temperature of its surroundings is 20°C and the body cools to
70°C in 10 minutes. Assuming Ne,vton's law of cooling, i.e. ~~ = - k(T - 20), where Tis the ten1perature of the
body at time t, find:
(a) the te1nperature of the body after 20 n1inutes (b) the tiine taken to cool from 100°C to 60°C.
Solution
!~ =- k(T - 20)
dt - 1
Reciprocal of both sides: dT= k(T - 20)' T;t: 20
Integrate ,vith respect to T: 1 J

t= - k T - 20dT
1
1
t= - k1og, (T - 20)+C, T>20
-k(t - C) = log, (T- 20)

T-20 =e-•<•-Cl

YEAR 11
Let A= e-kc (a constant): T= 20 + Ae-k'

When t= 0, T= 100: 100=20 + A
A=80
When t= 10, T=70: 70 = 20 + 80e-!Ok
e- I Ok = :~ = 0.625
-lOk = log, 0.625
-lOkz-0.47
k = 0.047 (using the approximate logarith1n value)
: . T = 20 + 80e- 0·047'
(a) When t = 20: T = 20 + 80e- 0·94 (b) When T = 60: 60 = 20 + 80e- 0·047'
T,., 51.25 e-o.0411 = :~ = 0.5
After 20 minutes the te1nperature is
approxi1nately 5 l.25°C. -0.047t = log, 0.5
-0.047t ,., -0.6931
t z 14.7
The te1nperature reaches 60°C after approxin1ately
14.7 minutes.
100
The graph ofT= 20 + SOe-0.047, sho,vs that the 70 - - - - r = 20 + so,-0.0,11

ten1perature of th e body never falls belo,v the
ten1perature of th e surroundings. As t ➔ oo , T ➔ 20
fron1 above.
20 ---- ,' ----------------------
0 10 t
Wilhelmy's law
Many chen1ical reactions follow a law that states that th e rate of the reaction is proportional to th e
difference behveen th e initial concentration of the reagent (i.e. th e chemical reacting) and the an1ount
transforn1ed at any tilne:
dx
dt=k(a - x), O<x<a ,vhere a is the initial concentration and x is the an1ount transfonned at tin1e t.
Example 12
A chemical reaction follows the rule !; = k(a - x ), ,vhere a is the initial concentration and xis the an1ount of the
reagent transforn1ed at time t. Thus when t = 0, x = 0. If a = 10 and after 2 minutes x = 4, find the concentration
of the reagent after S 1ninutes.

YEAR 11
Solution
dx
dt=k(IO-x), O<x< 10
Reciprocal of both sides: dt I O< 10

dx= k(IO-x)' _ x<
Integrate with respect to x: 1 J

t= k 10-xdx
1
kt= - log,( 10-x) + C

When t = 0, x = 0: 0 = -log, 10 + C
C= log, 10
kt= log, 10 - log, (10 -x)
10
kt=log, IO -x
Use inverse functions: -IO--e kt

10-x
10-X - kl
=e
10
10 -x = IOe-k' X
x= 10(1-e-k') fort> 0 IO - -- -- --- -- -- --- -- -- --- -- -- --

Note that the asyn1ptote of the graph is x = IO, approached fro1n
below. This is consistent with the restriction O< x < IOfort> 0.
When t=2,x=4: 4= 10(1-e-2.k)
0 2 5
I
0.4 = 1- e- 2k
e- 2k =0.6
Reciprocal of both sides: e2k =2. or inverse functions: -2k = log, 0.6
3
2k=log,(~) -2k=-0.51
k= 11og,(~) k= 0.255
When t= 5: X = 10(1 - e-5") 1.e. x = 10(1 - e-Sk)

But: e- 2.k = 0.6 X = 10(1 - e- 1275)
.5. 5
e-sk =(e-2k)2 =(~)2 =0.279 X = 10(1 - 0.279)
x= 10( 1 -0.279) x= 10-2.79
x= I0-2.79 10-x=2.79
10-x =2.79
Hence the concentration is 2. 79 units after 5 n1inutes. (Ren1ember that ( 10 - x) is the concentration remaining.)
Fro1n the previous exa1nples, it can be seen that if k < 0 then as t ➔ oo, N ➔ P.
dN
Given -d = k(N - P), where k and Pare constants, if k < 0 then li1n N = P.
t I➔•

YEAR 11
EXERCISE 7.4 HARDER EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY
1 N is decreasing according to the equation ~~ = - 0.4(N - 30). If N = 60 \Vhen t = 0:

(a) sho\v that N =30 + Ae-OAt is a solution of this equation, where A is a constant
(b) calculate the value of N when t =5.
2 N is increasing according to the equation clJ:

= 0.2(N - 40). If N = 50 when t = 0:
(a) sho\v that N = 40 + Ae0·21 is a solution to this equation, where A is a constant
(b) calculate the value of N when t = 10.
3 The original ten1perature of a body is 120°C, the ten1perature of its surroundings is 50°C and the body cools to
70°C in 10 n1inutes. Assun1ing Ne\vton's law of cooling, i.e. ~~ =- k(T - 50) where Tis the ten1perature of the
body at tin1e t, find:
(a) the te1nperature after 20 n1inutes (b) the tin1e taken to cool to 60°C.
4 If N = 70 \Vhen t = 0, which expression is the correct solution to clJ: = - 0.S(N - 20)?

A N = 20 + 50e0·5' B N = 20 + 50e--0.s, C N = 20 - 50e05' D N = 20- 50e--0.s,
5 A metal bar has a te1nperature of 1230°C and cools to 1030°C in lOminutes when the surrounding
ten1perature is 30°C. Assun1e Newton's law of cooling, i.e. ~~ =- k(T - 30) where Tis the temperature of the
body at tin1e t.
(a) Show that T =30 + 1200e-kt satisfies both Newton's la\v of cooling and the initial conditions.
(b) Find the te1nperature after 20 minutes. (c) Find the tin1e taken to cool fron1 1230°C to 80°C.
6 Water at 20°C is placed in a freezer where the air is at a constant te1nperature of -10°C. The temperature
of the water falls to 15°C in 5 minutes. Assu1ne Ne\vton's law of cooling, i.e. ~~ =- k(T + 10) where Tis the
ten1perature of the body at time t.
(a) Show that T =-10 + 30e-k' satisfies both Newton's law of cooling and the initial conditions.
(b) Find the temperature of the \Vater after another 5 n1inutes (when t = 10).
7 A body whose temperature is 180°C is iin1nersed in a liquid that is at 60°C. In 1 minute the temperature of the
body has fallen to 120°C. Assun1e Newton's la\v of cooling, i.e. ~~ =- k(T - 60) where T is the te1nperature of
the body at tiine t.
(a) Show that T = 60 + 120e-k' satisfies both Ne\vton's law of cooling and the initial conditions.
(b) At \Vhat tin1e would the te1nperature of the body have fallen to 90°C?
8 A current of i amperes (or 'a1nps') flows through a coil of inductance L henrys and resistance R oh1ns. The
current at any_ti1ne is given by i = ~ ( 1- e-f' ), \Vhere Eis the electron1otive force (i.e. the voltage) in volts.
Sho\v that L ~; + Ri = E.
9 A vessel is filled at a variable rate so that the volu1ne of liquid in the vessel at any time tis given by
V = A(l - e-k').
dV
(a) Show that dt =k(A - V ). (b) If a quarter of the vessel is filled in the first 51ninutes, what fraction
is filled in the next 5 minutes?
(c) Show that liin V
t ➔~
= A.
10 A rectangular vessel is divided into two equal co1npartn1ents by a vertical porous 1nen1brane. Liquid in
one compartment, initially at a depth of 20 cm, flows into the other co1npart1nent, initially empty, at a rate
proportional to the difference between the levels in each co1npart1nent. The differential equation for this
process is : =k(20 - 2x ), where xc1n is the depth of the liquid in one of the vessels at any tiine tn1inutes.
(a) Show that x = 10( 1 - e-2.k'). (b) If the level in the second con1partn1ent rises 2 c1n in the first
5 n1inutes, at what tiine will the difference in levels be 2cm?

YEAR 11
11 In a certain che1nical process, the amount y grams of a certain substance at tin1e t hours is given by the
forn1ula y = 3 + e-k,_
(a) Show that ';l; = - k(y-3).
(b) If initially y decreases at a rate of 0.08 gran1s per hour, find the value of k.
(c) Find the rate of change \vhen y = 3.5. (d) What values can y take?
7.5 RELATED RATES OF CHANGE

Rates of change were introduced earlier in this chapter. You will now look at more sophisticated applications of rates
of change.
Problems with related rates arise when there is a function that relates two variables, e.g. x and y, where both
variables are also functions of another variable, e.g. tin1e t. For example, you may need to detern1ine 7t when ! is
known. In such cases it is necessary to use the chain rule, = x ~; . 7t Z
Re1ne1nber that in a context like this, 'increasing' means a positive rate of change while 'decreasing' 1neans a negative
rate of change.
Example 13
4 3 dr . dV
(a) If V = 1!'r and dt = 5, find the expression for dt .
3
2 dr dS
(b) If S = 4,rr an d dt = 5, find the expression for dt.
4 dV
(c) If V =
3 nr3 and S = 4nr2, find the expression for dS .
Solution
dV 4 ,
(a) - = - ,rx3r- (b) -dS =Birr (c) dV = 4 1rr2, dS = Bll'r
dr 3 dr dr dr
dV =4irr2 dS = dS x dr dV = dV x dr
dr dt dr dt dS dr dS
dV = dV x dr dr =S -dr =- 1
dt dr dt dt dS 81rr
dr =5
-dS =8m-x5 dV = 4 1rr2 x _ l_
dt dt dS Birr
dV =41l'r2X5 dS =401l'r -dV = -r
dt dt dS 2
dV = 20nr2
dt
As 1; is the san1e in parts (a) an d (b), these results can be used to find the answer to part (c) in this case.
Example 14
If x = St cos a and y = St sin a- ~gr, where a and g are constants, find:
(a) the expression for Z

as a function oft (b) the expression for Z when t = 2
. ,r dy
(c) if a= and g = 9.8, find the value of dx \Vhen t = 2.
4

YEAR 11
Solution
dx 1C
(a) dt = 5 cos a (b) t=2 a=
(c)
4 ,g =9.8
y=5tsina-.!.gt2 dy - 5sina-gx2
2 dx - 5cosa dy 5sin¾-2x9.8
dy .
dt = 5 sin a - gt dy - 5sina-2g dx = ,r
5cos
dx - 5cosa 4
dy dy dt
dx = dt X dx dy ✓
5
2-19.6
dy (t) dx =
✓
5
2
c1x=(:) 7x =-4.544
dy 5sina-gt
dx = 5cosa
Example 15
d2y
Given x = t2 - 1 and y = t3, find as functions oft: (a) dy
dx (b) dx2
Solution
(a) : =2t (b) dy = 1!_ dx = 2t
dx 2 ' dt
2
y=t3 d y = _!!_(dy ) = .E._(dy)x dt
dx 2 dx dx dt dx dx
dy =3t2
dt
it(!)= ;t(~)=;
dy dy dt
dx = dt X dx dt I
dy = 3t2 X _!__ = 3t
dx 2t 2
Example 16
A spherical balloon is being inflated so that its radius increases at the constant rate of 3 cn1/n1in. At what rate
is its volu1ne increasing when the radius of the balloon is 5 c1n?
Solution
j
If r is the radius of the balloon, its volu1ne is V = nr3 • Given ~; = 3, need to find ~~ for r = 5.
dV dV dr
By the chain rule: - - -x -
dt - dr dt
But: V=4nr3
3
dV 2
So: dr =4nr
Thus: dV = dV x dr = 4 n, 2 x 3
dt dr dt
dV 2
For r = 5: dt =41C X5 X3
= 3001rcn13/ min

YEAR 11
Example 17
A vessel containing water has the shape of an inverted right circular cone with base radius 2 m and height 5111.
The water flo\vs out of the apex of the cone at a constant rate of 0.21113/min. Find the rate at which the \Vater level
is dropping when the depth of the \Vater is 4 m.
Solution 2
Let the depth of the \Vater be h 111, the radius of the cone at the water T
level be rm and the volume of the water be Vn13 at tin1e tminutes. '
''
The volun1e of the water at any time t is V = ~ n:r 2h. ..-.J·- ..
' r '
' '
. dV dh 5'
Given dt = - 0.2, need to find dt when h = 4.
dV · negative:
dt 1s · th e vo1un1e 1s
· decreas1ng,
· because th e \Vater 1s
. flo\v1ng
. I, '
'
'
out of the vessel. ''
To find the link between rand h, use si1nilar triangles.
Fro1n proportional sides:

r
h =52
2
2h T
r=s '
'
Volu1ne: V=l11:,2h '
3 ''
5'
2
. 2h
Su bst1tute r = : 2h ) x h
V= ~n: x ( 5
5
4n:h 3
V= 75
'
Hence: dV 4n:h 2 ..L
dh = 25
Chain rule: dV dV dh
dt = dh xdt
4n:h 2 dh
-0.2 = 25 xdt
dh 5
dt= - 411:h2
When h =4:
dh 5 5
dt= - 4n:x16 = - 6411:
= -0.0249 in/min
Thus the water level is decreasing at a rate of 0.02491n/inin.
Alternatively: V and h are both dependent on time, so you can differentiate both sides of the volu1ne equation
with respect to time.
4n:h 3
V= 75
dV = 411: !!.._(h3)
dt 75 x dt
Chain rule: = ~: x~(h3 )x ~;

= 411: X 3h2 X dh
75 dt
dV 4n:h 2 dh
dt =-0.2, so: - 0.2 = x dt as before.
25

YEAR 11
Example 18
j
The volun1e of water in a hen1ispherical bo,vl of radius 10 cn1 is V = n x 2 (30- x ), where x cn1 is the depth of
water at tiine t.
The bowl is being filled at a constant rate of2nc,n3 /min.
At what rate is the depth mcreasing ,vhen the depth is 2 cn1? 10 cm
•-------
Solution
•'x
Given ~~ = 2:IZ', need to find : when x = 2.
The related variables are V, x and t.
V = inx (30 - x)
2
Method 1 Method2
dV dV dx dx dx dV
= I0nx 2 - l nx 3
3 dt = dx x dt dt = dVx dt
dV 2 dx dx I
dx =20nx - nx =nx(20- x) 2n= nx(20 - x) x dt - = - - - - X2:IZ'
dt nx(20 - x )
dx 2 dx 2
dt= x(20- x) dt = x(20 - x)
When x = 2: : = / c1n/s
8
As an extension to this question, you n1ight ask: 'At what depth is the depth increasing at a minimun1 rate?'
This is the sa1ne as askmg: 'For what value of xis ';u a n1inin1u1n?'
Note that the fonnula for the volu1ne of water in the he1nispherical bowl at any depth a can be calculated by
2 2
finding the volu1ne generated by rotating the circle ,vith equation x + y = 100 between y = IO- a and y = IO.
Example 19
A ladder 101n long has its upper end against a vertical wall and its lower end on a horizontal floor. The lower
end is slipping away fro1n the wall at a constant speed of 4m/ s. Find the rate at which the upper end of the ladder
is slipping down the wall when the lo,ver end is 6 n1 fro1n the wall. What is this rate when the upper end is very
close to the ground?
Solution
At any tiine t, the lo,ver end of the ladder is x m fron1 the wall and the upper end is y n1 above the ground.
Given : = 4, need to find Yt
,vhen x = 6. y
By Pyth agoras'theore1n: x + y = 100

2 2 (O,y)
y= ✓IOO -x 2 ,0<x<IO I
dy
dx =
1( 100 -x 2)_.21 x (- 2x)
2
=✓
-x
100- x 2
,O<x<IO
0
-
(x,0)
dx = 4m/ s
dt
x
dx dy dy dx
For dt=4: dt = dx x dt
-x
= -;====X4
✓100- x 2
At x =6: dy = -4 X6 = - 3
dt ✓1 00 - 36

YEAR 11
The top of the ladder is descending at the rate of 3 n1/s when x = 6.

The equations show that asy ➔ 0, x ➔ IO and 7t ➔ -oo. This 1neans that the speed of the upper end of the ladder
is in creasing as it falls (until it suddenly stops when it reaches the ground).
Example 20
A radar tracking station is located at ground level, vertically belo\v the path of an approaching aircraft flying
at 900kn1/h at a constant height of 10000,n. The tracking station transn1its a radar bean1 that turns to follow the
aircraft perfectly as it approaches. Find the rate in degrees per second at which the radar beam is turning \Vhen
the aircraft is at a horizontal distance of 3 kn1 fro1n the station.
Solution
S represents the tracking station an d x is the horizontal displacen1ent of the aircraft at time t.
Find ~~ when x = 3000 111.

900 h
- km/ A
1000
Converting units: 900k1n/h = 900X 111/s = 250m/ s ', 10000 m
3600
dx '
Hence: '
dt= - 250 9 '
'
s X
1
Right-angled triangle: x = IOO~ = lOOOO(tan 0)-
tan
Chain rule differentiation: : = 10000x (- l)(tan0)-2 x sec 2 0
28
= - lOOOO x cos2 x 12
sin 0 cos 0
= - 10000cosec2 0
d0 sin 2 0
Reciprocal of both sides: dx = - 10000
Chain rule: d0 d0 dx
dt= dxxdt
sin 2 0 dx
= - 1oooo x dt
2 2
dx d0 = - sin 0 (-250 )= sin 0
For dt = - 250: dt lOOOO x 40
10
10000 10
Fron1 the triangle, with x = 3000 m: tan °= 3000 =3
. 10
Fron1 the triangle: SIil 0 =M9
Hence d 8 = - 1- l OO = ~ radians per second
dt 40 x 109 218
5 180
= x ,r degrees per second
218
= 1.3 degrees per second
Note: The initial expression for x could have been written x = IO000 cot 0.

YEAR 11
EXERCISE 7.5 RELATED RATES OF CHANGE
1 If A = Tif and C = 2m-, the expression for ~~ is given by:

1 1
A 2rr B C r D
2rr r
2 2
2 If x + y = 144, find the value of dt \Vhen : = 0.6 and x = 5, given that x and y are both positive.
3 If V = ~ rrx2(60 - x) and ~~ = 2,r, find the expression for!;.
4 (a) If x = 4t and y = 2t2, find the expression for ! in terms oft.
(b) Hence find the expression for Z in terms of x.
5 Given V = ~ rrr2 h and r = : , answer the following questions.
(a) Find the expression for Vin tenns of h. (b) If ~~ =0.6, find the expression for !; .
(c) Find the value of !; \Vhen r = 1.
2t 1- t 2 • dy .
6 (a) If x = and y = , find the expression for d 111 terms oft.
l + t2 2 l +t 2 x
d y .
(b) Hence find - - 2
as a function oft.
dx
7 (a) If x = t2 + 4t and y = 3t + t3, find the expression for Z
in terms oft.
dy d2y
(b) If -d = 1, find the values of x. (c) Find - 2 as a function oft.
X dx
8 Water is being poured at a constant rate of 3 cm 3/s into an inverted right conical vessel whose apex angle is 90°.
At what rate is the \Vater level rising \Vhen the depth is rrc,n?
9 A la1np is 6111 directly above a straight footpath. A person 2 m tall \Valks along the footpath away from the light
at a constant speed of 1 m/s. At \Vhat speed is the end of the person's shadow n1oving along the path? At \Vhat
speed is the length of the shadow increasing?
10 Given A= x ..J100 - x 2 and : = 0.3, the value of ';j; when x = 8 is:

72 72 7 7
A -- B - C -- D
5 5 5 5
11 A particle n1oves on the circumference of the se1nicircle y = ..J4 - x 2 • If : = 4, find 7t at x = 1.
12 A melting snowball is decreasing in volun1e at a constant rate of 8 c1n3/n1in. If the 1nelting sno\vball is al\vays a
perfect spherical shape, find the rate at \Vhich its radius is changing \Vhen the radius is 4 c1n.
13 A particle is moving along a curve with equation y = x • If :

2
= 2 at x = 3, find t at that instant.
14 The perimeter of a circular sector is 20 cm. The radius is increasing at a rate of 5 c1n/s.
(a) At \Vhat rate is the angle of the sector changing when the radius length is 10 c1n?
(b) At \Vhat rate is the area changing when the radius is 10 cn1?
15 A ladder 5 metres long is standing vertically, flat against a vertical \Vall, while its lower end is on the horizontal
floor. The lo\ver end n1oves horizontally away from the \Vall at a constant speed of l 111/s \Vhile the upper end
stays in contact \vith the \Vall. Find the speed at which the upper end is n1oving down the wall 4 seconds after
the lower end has left the wall.
16 Sand is poured into a heap in the shape of a right circular cone whose sen1i-vertex angle is a, \vhere tan a=!-
When the height of the cone is l6cn1, the height is increasing at a rate of2cn1/n1in. At that instant, at what
rate is the volume increasing?
YEAR 11
17 When a certain gas expands at constant te1nperature, its pressure P and volume V are given by the relation
PV1.4 = k, a constant. At a certain instant the pressure is 25 g/cm 2 and the volu1ne is 32 c1n3 • If the volun1e is
increasing at the rate of 5 cn1 3/s, at ,vhat rate is the pressure changing at that instant?
18 A kite 50 n1etres above the ground is being carried horizontally by the wind at a rate of 4 mls. If the kite's string is
always perfectly straight, how fast n1ust the length of the string be increasing when the string is 100 n1etres long?
19 Sand is poured into a heap at a constant rate of 4 cnl/min, so that the heap is in the shape of a right circular
cone ,vhose height is always equal to the radius of the base. When the heap is 10 c1n high:
(a) how fast is the height increasing (b) how fast is the area of the base increasing?
20 A boat is pulled in to a wharf by a rope at a speed of 201n/ nun. If the rope is attached to a point on the boat 7 m
vertically below the wharf, at ,vhat rate is the rope being drawn in when the boat is 241n from the wharf?
21 A straight raihvay track and a straight road intersect at right angles. At a given instant a car travelling at
40 km/h and a train travelling at 50 km/h are n1oving away fron1 the intersection and are 40 Ian and 30 Ian
fron1 the intersection respectively.
(a) The car and train continue 1noving in straight lines ,vithout changing their speed. One hour later, at what
rate is the distance between the car and the train changing?
(b) At ,vhat rate would the distance behveen the car and train be changing if they were both travelling
towards the intersection?
22 Two straight roads meet at an angle of 60°. Car A starts fron1 this intersection and travels along one road at
40 km/h. One hour later, car B starts fron1 the intersection and travels along the other road at 50 lan/h.
Three hours after car A starts, at what rate is the distance behveen cars A and B changing?
23 A conical tank with a vertical axis has a se1ni-vertical angle of 45°. Water, initially at a depth of 51netres, leaks
out through a hole at the bottom of the tank at a rate of 0.2./h n13/min when the depth is h 1netres. Find the
rate at which the depth is decreasing ,vhen the depth is 4 metres.
24 The height of a right-angled triangle is 6c1n and its base is increasing at a constant rate of2cn1/s. At what rate
is the hypotenuse increasing when its length is 10 cm?
25 A loading chute is in the shape of a square pyra1nid with base length 10 m and depth 8 n1. Liquid is poured in
at the top at a rate of 4n13/n1in. At what rate is the level rising when the depth is 4n1?
26 Grain is ejected fron1 a chute at a rate of 0.1 m 3/inin to form a heap on a flat horizontal floor. The heap is in the
forn1 of a circular cone of se1ni-vertical angle 45°. Find the rate (in metres per n1inute) at which the height of
the cone is increasing at the instant 3 n1inutes after the opening of the chute.
27 In triangle ABC, AB= lOcn1, AC= 12c1n and angle A is increasing at the rate ofO. l radians per second.
At ,vhat rate is:
(a) the area of MBC increasing (b) the length of BC increasing, ,vhen angle A is 1radians?
28 A spherical mothball evaporates at a rate proportional to its surface area so that its volun1e V c1n3 and radius r
after t weeks are related by the equation ~~ =-4k1Cr 2 , ,vhere k is a positive constant.
dr
(a) Show that dt =- k.
(b) If the initial radius of the mothball is 1 c1n and the radius after 10 weeks is 0.5 c1n, express r in terms oft.
29 The volume V and surface area Sofa sphere of radius rare given by V = j 1Cr3 and S = 4nY respectively.
dV dV dr
(a) Show that dr = S and dt = S dt.
(b) A spherical ball of radius 241n1n is iln1nersed in an acid bath so that its volume decreases at a changing
rate equal to three tilnes its surface area (,vhile remaining constantly spherical). How 1nuch tin1e does it
take to reduce to one-eighth of their original size: (i) the radius (ii) the volu1ne

YEAR 11
30 (a) Show that the formula for the volu1ne V of a right circular cone of base radius rand height h can be
expressed as V = i11:h tan a , where a is the semi-vertex angle.
3 2
(b) Water flows out through a hole at the vertex angle of an inverted cone, whose angle is 60°, at a rate equal
to 11: tin1es the square root of the depth of the water at any tiine. At what rate (in cn1/s) would the \Vater
level be dropping \vhen the depth is 9cn1?
CHAPTER REVIEW 7
1 A particle is moving along the x-axis and is initially at the origin. Its velocity v n1etres per second at
. t secon ds .1s g1ven
tune . by v = 2t •
9 +t 2
(a) What is the initial velocity of the particle?
(b) Find an expression for the acceleration of the particle. (c) When is the acceleration zero?
(d) What is the maxiinum velocity attained by the particle and when does it occur?
2 The growth of the nu1nber of internet users in the USA was n1odelled as an exponential function N = Aek',
where N is the estimate for the nun1ber of internet users (in 1nillions) and t is the tiine in years after
1 January 2001.
(a) At the start of200 1 (t =O) there were 124 1nillion internet users in the USA. At the start of2009 there
were 220 n1illion. Find A and k.
(b) Ho\v n1any internet users \vould you expect there to be at the start of2012?
(c) In what year would you expect the nu1nber of internet users in the USA to first exceed 300 million?
3 A full water tank holds 4000 litres. When the tap is turned on, water flows out fron1 the tank at a rate of
~~ = 110 + l 7t- t2 litres per 1ninute, where Vis the volun1e in litres and tis the tiine in 1ninutes since the tap
was turned on.
(a) At \Vhat tin1e is the tank emptying at a rate of 50 litres per 1ninute?
(b) At \Vhat tin1e does the water stop flo\villg out of the tank?
4 Given that N =200 + 70ek 1

, which expression is equal to dN?
dt
A k(200 - N) B k(N - 200) C k(270 - N) D k(N-270)
5 The number N of bacteria in a colony grows according to the rule f =kN. If the original number increases
fron1 5000 to 10 000 in 6 days, find the nu1nber of bacteria after another 6 days.
6 A population of size N is decreasing according to the rule ~~ = - : , where t is the time in days. If the
population is initially of size N 0, find ho\v 1nuch tiine it takes for the size to be halved (rounded to the
next day).
7 A radioactive substance decays at a rate that is proportional to the n1ass of radioactive substance present at any
tiine. If 10% decays ill 400 years, \Vhat percentage of the original radioactive 1nass will re1nain after 1000 years?
8 The radius of a cylinder increases at a constant rate of 0.1 cm per 1ninute while its height remains constant at
l Oc1n. At \Vhat rate is the volun1e of the cylinder increasing when the radius is 2 cm?
9 Rain is falling and collects ill an inverted cone so that the volun1e collected increases at a constant rate of
4 trcn13 per hour. If the radius r of the cone is half its height h, find the rate (in c1n per hour) at \Vhich the
height is illCreasing \Vhen h = 3.

YEAR 11
10 A cup of hot coffee at a temperature T"C loses heat in a cooler environn1ent. It cools according to the
law 1I =- k(T - T 0 ), where tis the time elapsed in minutes, T0 is the te1nperature of the environ1nent in
degrees Celsius and k is a constant.
(a) At recess, Mr Masters 1nakes his cup of coffee \Vith \Vater at 100°C. The te1nperature in the staff room is
25°C when he places his coffee on his desk. Three n1inutes later his coffee is just the te1nperature he likes
it, 75°C. Find the value of k.
(b) Before Mr Masters gets a chance to drink his coffee, he leaves the staff roon1 to help a student with a
maths proble1n about exponential growth and decay. What is the ten1perature of the coffee when he
returns, 5 n1inutes later?
11 Crean1 taken out of a refrigerator has a te1nperature of3°C. It is placed on the table in a roo1n of constant
ten1perature 24°C. After t1ninutes the te1nperature, T'C, of the cream is given by T= A - Be--0·041, where A and
Bare positive constants.
How n1uch tiine does it take for the crean1 to reach a temperature of 8°C?
12 Given x = 40t and y = 56t- 16t2, then the expression for ! is given by:
A dy = 5 B dy = 7 - 4t C dy = 5(7 - 4t) dy I
D
dx 7 - 4t dx 5 dx dx = 5(7-4t)
1
13 If P = ~O and ~~ = 4, find the expression for dJ:.
14 (a) If x = 2 ( t + ~ ), y = 2( t - ~ ), find an expression for Z in tenns oft.
d2y
(b) Find - -
, as a function oft.
dx-
3
15 A spherical balloon is being filled with air at the rate of lOOc1n /n1in. At what rate is the radius of the balloon
increasing when the radius is 5 cn1?
16 A circular oil slick floats on the surface of still water. Its area is increasing at a rate of lOni/min. At what rate is
the radius (r n1etres) increasing?
17 A point P n1oves on the curve y = x 3 so that its x-coordinate increases at a constant rate of 5 units
per second. When x = 1: (a) at what rate is they-coordinate of P increasing
(b) at \vhat rate is the gradient of the curve increasing?
18 A vessel is shaped so that when the depth of water in it is x c1n, the volume of the water is V c1n3, \Vhere
V = I08x + x3. Water is poured into the vessel at a constant rate of 30 c1n3 /s. At what rate is the water level
rising when its depth is 8 c1n?
19 A trough In1etres long has a cross-section in the shape of an isosceles triangle \vith base length 2a n1etres and
height bn1etres. Water leaks from the trough at a constant rate of cn1 3/ min. Find the rate at which the \Vater
level is falling \Vhen the depth of the \Vater is ~ 1netres.
20 A 1netal sphere is dissolving in acid. It remains spherical and the rate at which its volume decreases is
proportional to its surface area. Show that the radius of the sphere decreases at a constant rate.
21 A circular cylinder \Vith height 6 c1n and base radius 4 cn1 sits on a table \vith its axis vertical. A point source
of light moves vertically up at a speed of 3 cm/s above the central axis of the cylinder, thus casting a circular
shadow on the table. Find the rate at which the radius of the shadow is decreasing \Vhen the light is 4 cn1 above
the top of the cylinder.

8.1 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS USING
THE AUXILIARY ANGLE METHOD
The auxiliary angle n1ethod of solving trigonometric equations involves changing an equation of the fonn
a sin x + b cos x = c into the forn1 r sin (x + a) = c, which is then easier to solve. In this fonn, a is called the
auxiliary angle.
This n1ethod can also be used to change acosx + bsinx = c into the fonn rcos(x +a)= c. In both cases, the
constants a, b, rand a are positive real nun1bers.
For exa1nple, to express a sinx + bcosx in the forn1 rsin (x + a):
Let asinx + bcosx = rsin (x + a)
= r(sinxcos a + cosxsin a)
= rsinxcos a+ rcosxsin a
This is an identity, so the coefficients of sinx and cosx on each side 1nust be the same.
1.e. a= rcos a
b = rsin a
a-, + b'- = ,-' (cos-, a+ sin
. 2 a)
2 2 2
Hence: r = a + b
r = ✓ a2 +b 2 because r is a positive real nun1ber.
From the coefficients, there is also cos a= a and sin a= b.
r r
As a and b are positive constants, so cos a and sin a are also positive. This also 1neans that a is in the first quadrant
. . . sina b
(1.e. 1t 1s an acute angle), such that tan a= - - = - .
COS(X a
Hence, the auxiliary angle method gives: asinx + bcosx = rsin (x + a)

which then allows you to obtain: asinx- bcosx = rsin (x - a)
a cosx + b sinx = rcos (x - a)
a cosx- b sinx = rcos (x + a)
In each case, r = ✓ a2 + b2 and a is an angle in the first quadrant such that tan a=~.
a
Example 1
Express: (a) ✓3sinx -cosx in the forn1 rsin (x- a) (b) 3 cosx - 4 sin x in the fonn rcos (x + a).
Solution
(a) ✓3sinx -cosx=rsin(x -a)
= r(sin x cosa-cosx sin a)
= rsinx cosa-rcosx sin a

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Equate coefficients of sin x and cosx: rcosa = ✓3 [l ]

rsina = 1 [2]
111 2+ [2]2·. r2(cos2a+ sin
. 2a ) = 4
,2 =4
r=2 (asr>O)
Hence from [l] and [2]: cosa= ✓3 and sina= l
2 2
As cos a and sin a are both positive, a is in the first quadrant, such that tan a=~' i.e. a=:.
Fron1 the first equation: ✓3 sinx-cosx = 2sin (x - :)
(b) 3cosx-4sinx = rcos (x + a)

a= 3, b = 4: r= ../32 +4 2 =5
tana= j= a=53° 8'
· 3cosx- 4sinx = 5 cos(x + 53° 8')
Exa1nple 1 illustrates two different auxiliary angle 1nethods that 1nay be used. You should practise both.
Important uses of the auxiliary angle method
• Writing asinx + bcosx in the forn1 rsin (x + a) tells you that the greatest and least values of the function are
rand -r respectively. This makes sketching functions like y = a sinx + bcosx n1uch easier.
• Writing a sin x + b cos x in the forn1 r sin (x + a) allows you to solve equations of the type a sin x + b cos x = c.
Example 2
Sketch the graph of y= ✓3sinx - cosx, 0 <x < 2tr.
Solution
Example 1 (a) has already sho\vn that ✓3sinx -cosx = 2sin(x-: ). Hence: y =2sin( x-:)
At the endpoints of the domain, x = 0 and x = 2tr: y =2sin(-: )= 2sin( 2,r - : )=-1
The greatest value of y is 2, where: l=sin(x- :)

,r ,r y
x-6=2 2
x= 2,r I y= "3 sin x - cosx

3
The least value of y is -2, where: - l =sin(x - :) 0 2,r 7,r Sn 2n X
x- tr= 3,r - 1
"6 3 6 3
6 2
x=5,r -2
3
The graph crosses the x-axis where: sin( x - : ) = 0
x-: =0, ,r
=,r 7,r
X
6' 6
Chapter 8 Trigonometric equations 177

YEAR12
Example 3
Solve the following equations.
(a) ✓3sinx -cosx= l, 0 <x<2n: (b) 8cosx + 6sinx = -3, 0° < x < 360°
Solution
Method 1
(a) Exrunple 1 (a) has already (b) Useacosx+bsin x=rcos(x-a).
sho,vn that ✓3sinx-cosx = 2sin( x-: ). 8cosx + 6sinx = -3
a=8,b=6: r= ✓~82_+_6_2 = 10
· 2sin(x-:)=l
tana= ~ =0.75 so a= 36° 52'
6 =2
. ( x-
Sin n:) 1 · lOcos (x- 36° 52') = -3
x-: = :, s; cos (x - 36° 52') = -0.3

x-36° 52' = 107° 27', 252° 33'
x=n:n:
3' X = 144° 19', 289° 25'
Method2
You can express sin x and cosx in terms of tan; for all values of x, except x = +n:, +3,r, +Sn:, ...
(because tan 1is undefined for those values).
2
The t formulae (see Chapter 4) give sinx = t 2 , cosx = l -t: .
l +t l +t
2✓3t l -t 2 x
(a) ✓3sinx - cosx= 1, 0 < x < 2n:: -~ , - = 1, where t = tan-
l+t- l +t 2 2
2✓3t-( l -t 2 )= l +t 2
2✓3t - l +t 2 = l +t 2
✓3t=l
1
t= T3
X n: X
- = - for 0< - <-
2 6 - 2- "
n:
x = for O<x < 2n:
3
Because t = tan; is undefined at x = n:, you n1ust now separately test whether x = n: is a solution.
x = n:: LHS = ✓3sinn: - cos,r =0 -(-1)= l = RHS
Hence x = n: is also a solution. The co1nplete solution is x = 1,n:.
2
s(1-t ) 12t
(b) 8cosx + 6sinx=-3,0° <x<360°: ~ -2-+ - ~=-32
l +t l +t
2 2
8 - St + 12t = -3 - 3t
2
St - 12t- 11 = 0
12± ✓1 44 + 220
t= 10
X
tan = 3.108, -0.708 (to 3 d.p.)
2
~ =72° 10' 144° 42' for0° <X <180°
2 ' 2
x = 144° 20', 289° 24' for 0° < x < 360°

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(Note the slight difference in the answers due to the rounding error \Vhen solving the quadratic equation.)
Because t = tan ~ is undefined at x = n:, you must no\v separately test whether x = 180° is a solution.
x = 180° : LHS = 8 cos 1r + 6 sin 1r = -8 + 0 = -8 ~ RHS
Hence x = 180° is not a solution of the equation.
Important note:
If you use the t forn1ulae substitution to solve equations of the type acosx + b sinx = c, you 1nust also test to see
\vhether x = +nrr is a solution of the equation. The use of the t formulae to solve a variety of equations will be
covered later in this chapter.
EXERCISE 8.1 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS USING

THE AUXILIARY ANGLE METHOD
1 Express each of the follo\ving in the fonn rsin (x + a).

(a) sinx+cosx (b) 3sinx + ✓3cosx
(c) 5sinx + 12 cosx, 0° < a< 90° (d) 2sinx + cosx, 0° < a< 90°
2 Express each of the follo\ving in the fonn r sin (x - a).

(a) sinx - ✓3cosx (b) 2sinx-3cosx,0° <a<90°
(c) 2sinx-cosx, 0° < a< 90° (d) 3sinx-3cosx
3 Express each of the follo\ving in the fonn rcos(x- a).

(a) cosx+sinx (b) 24cosx + 7 sinx, 0° < a< 90°
(c) 2cosx+2✓ 3sinx (d) 3cosx + 2sinx, 0° < a< 90°
4 Express each of the follo\ving in the fonn r cos (x + a).
(a) cosx-sinx (b) ✓ 3cosx - sinx
(c) 8cosx-sinx, 0° < a< 90° (d) 5cosx-3sinx, 0° < a< 90°
5 Which expression is equivalent to 8 sin x - 15 cos x?

A l?cos(x-61° 56') B l?sin(x-61° 56')
C 17cos(x + 61° 56') D 17sin(x + 61° 56')
6 Find (i) the maxin1um and (ii) the 1ninin1um value of the follo\ving expressions. Also find the s1nallest
positive values of x for which the 1naxin1u1n and 1ninin1u1n occur.
(a) sinx - ✓ 3cosx (b) cosx + sinx (c) 2✓ 3cosx - 2sinx
(d) 5sinx+l2cosx (answer in degrees)
7 Solve:
(a) cosx+sinx=l,O<x<2rr (b) cosx + ✓3sinx = 2, 0 < x < 21r
(c) 3cosx + 2sinx=.Jii,0° <x<360° (d) 3 sinx - ✓3cosx = ✓3, 0 < x< 2n:
(e) 6sinx + 8cosx = -5, 0° < x < 360° (f) 4cosx + 3sinx = -1, 0° < x < 360°
(g) cosx - ✓3sinx =2, 0 < x < 21r .
(h) cosx-s1nx=- 1, - 1r <
_x< _ 37r
2 2
(i) 3sinx + 4cosx = -2, - 180° < x < 180° 0) ✓2 sinxcosx = 1.5, 0° < x < 360°
8 Sketch the graph of f(x) = ✓3cosx - sinx, 0 < x < 21r. Use your sketch to find the values of x for which:
(a) f(x) =1 (b) f(x) > 1
9 Sketch the graph off(x) = cosx + sinx, -rr<x < n:. Use your sketch to find the values of x for which:
(a) f(x) =-1 (b) f(x) >-1

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8.2 SOLVING QUADRATIC TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Example 4
2
(a) Solve the equation tan 8+ tan 8-2 = 0, 0°< 8< 360°.
(b) Solve the equation cos 2 x = 2 cosx, -n: < x < rr.
Solution
(a) Factorise: (tan 8 - l )(tan 8 + 2) = 0
tan8= 1 or -2
8=45°,225° or 116° 34',296° 34'
Solution is 8= 45°, 116° 34', 225°, 296° 34'.
2
(b) Rearrange: cos x- 2 cosx = 0
Factorise: cos x (cos x - 2) = 0
:. cosx= 0 or 2
Because lcosxl < 1, the only solution is cosx = 0.
. x=--n: -rr
2'2
Example 5
Solve the equation sec2 x - 2 tanx = 4 for O < x < 2rr.
(Trigono1netric values rounded to 3 d.p. where necessary.)
Solution
2 2
The trigono1netric functions are different, but they can be linked by the identity sec x = 1 + tan x:
sec2 x- 2 tanx = 4
2
1 +tan x-2tanx=4
tan 2 x-2 tan x-3=0
(tanx- 3)(tanx +l) = 0
tanx=-1 or 3
x = n:- rr , 2rr- rr , 1.249, rr+ 1.249
4 4
X = 3rr , 7n: , 1.249, 4.391
4 4
EXERCISE 8.2 SOLVIN G QUADRATIC TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
1 Solve for values bet\veen Oan d 2n: inclusive:

(a) tai/x-1 =0 (b) sin 2 x-sinx=O (c) cos2 0- 2cos 0+ 1 = 0
0
(d) ✓3tan 2 x+tanx=O 2 . 2 .
(e) 4sin 8= 1 (f) sin x-s,nxcosx=
2 If O < 0 < 2rr, the solution to 2 cos 2 0- 1 = 0 is:
rr 7rr 3n: 5rr C n: 3rr 5rr 7n: D _ 3rr _ n: n: 3n:
A 4' 4 8 4' 4 4' 4' 4' 4 4' 4' 4 ' 4
3 Solve for values bet\veen Oan d 2n: inclusive:
2
(a) 2cos20-3cos0-2=0 (b) 2cos 0+sin0=1
(c) 2sin 2 0-3cos0=2 (d) (2cosx+l)(sinx- 1)=0

YEAR 12
,
4 Solve for O < x < 360°: (a) 2 tan-x + tanx = 15 (b) Scos2 x + 2sinx = 2
5 If0<0<2n, then the solution to 3si1/0-4cos0 + 1 =0 is (approxin1atelyorexactly):
A 0 = 0.841, 5.442 B 0= 1.969, 4.315 C 0= 2.301, 3.983 D 0 -_ 3'3
2n 4n
6 Solve for O < 0< 2n: (a) 3tan3 0-3 tan 2 0-tan0 + 1 =0 3 2
(b) cos 0- 2cos 0+ cos 0= 0
8.3 SOLVING EQUATIONS USING ANGLE FORMULAE, INCLUDING

THE t FORMULAE
In Chapter 4, you solved trigonon1etric equations using the angle formulae. More co1nplex trigonometric equations
,vill be considered in this section.
When you are using the t formulae to solve an equation, because tan 1is undefined you n1ust substitute 0 = nor
180° into your equations to check that you have not missed a possible solution.
Example 6
Solve the equation 2 sin ( x + 5: ) = sin x, for O < x < 2n.
Solution
. Sn COSXSll16
2 ( Sll1XCOS6+ . Sn:) .
= s1nx
2sinxx(-f ) +2cosxx ~ =sinx
-✓
3 sinx + cosx = sinx
(1 + ✓3)sinx = cosx
1
tanx = r,;
.._,3 + 1
X = 0.3509, n + 0.3509
X = 0.351, 3.493
Example 7
Solve for O < x < 2tr. (a) 4cosx= cosecx (b) cos4x-cos2x=O
Solution
(a) 4cosx = cosec x (b) cos4x-cos2x=O
1 2cos22x- 1 - cos2x= 0
4cosx= - .-
s1nx 2cos22x- cos2x- 1 = 0
4sinx cos x = 1 (cos2x- 1)(2 cos2x + 1) = 0
2sin2x= 1 cos2x= 1, cos2x=-0.5
sin2x = 0.5 2n 4n 8n 10n
2x=0,2n,4n or 2x= , , ,
2x= n Sn 13n 17n 3 3 3 3
6'6'6'6 x=O, n , 2n , n, 4n , Sn , 2n
3 3 3 3
x= -n - Sn 13n
- - - - 17n:
-
12' 12' 12 ' 12 This equation could also have been solved by ,vriting
cos 4x = cos 2x.

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Example 8
Solve for O< x < 2tr: (a) cos 3x = cos 2xcosx (b) sin 7x- sinx = sin 3x
Solution
(a) cos 3x = cos 2x cos x
cos 3x= ~(cos3x+cosx)
2 cos 3x = cos 3x + cosx
cos3x=cosx
3x=x, 2n-x, 2n + x, 4n-x, 4n+ x, 6n-x, 6n+x, Sn-x
2x = 0, 2,r, 4n, 6n or 4x = 2n, 4n, 6n, Sn
x = 0, n, 2n or x = n , n, 3n , 2n
2 2
. 1s
The so1ut1on . x = 0, n , n, 3n , 2 n
2 2
(b) sin7x-sinx=sin3x
2 cos 4x sin 3x = sin 3x
sin 3x(2cos4x- 1) = 0
sin3x= 0, cos4x= 0.5
3x = 0, n, 2n, 3n, 4n, Sn, 6n 4x= n Sn 7n lln 13n 17n 19n 23n
or
3'3'3'3'3'3'3'3
n 2n 4n Sn ,r Sn 7n l ln 13n 17n 19n 23n
2
x=0,3'3'n'3'3' n or x= 12' 12 ' 12'12'12' 12' 12' 12
n n Sn 7n 2,r l l n 13n 4n 17n 19n Sn
2
X - O, 12' 3' 12' 12 ' 3 ' 12 ' n, 12 ' 3 ' 12 ' 12 ' 3 ' n
Example 9
(a) Use the expansion of sin (20 + 0) to obtain an expression for sin30 in tenns of sin 0.
(b) Hence find the roots of 4x3 - 3x + 0.5 = 0.
Solution
3
(a) sin30=sin (2 0 + 0) (b) Let x = sin 0 : 4 sin 0- 3 sin 0 + 0.5 = 0
3
= sin 2 0cos0 + cos2 0sin 0 3sin0 -4sin 0 = 0.S
= 2sin 0cos 0cos0 + (1 - 2siI/ 0) sin 0 sin30= .!.
2 3 2
= 2sin 0cos 0 + sin 0- 2sin 0
= 2sin 0 (1 - sin2 0) + sin 0- 2sin3 0 = n Sn 13n 17,r 2Sn 29n
30
3 6'6'6'6'6'6
= 2sin 0 - 2si1/ 0 + sin 0- 2sin 0
3 n Sn 13n 17n 2Sn 29,r
sin30=3sin0 -4sin 0 0
= 18 ' 18'18' 18' 18 ' 18
. n . Sn . 2Sn
H ence th e roots are x = sin , sin , sin 18.
18 18
Example 10
Solve S cos 0 - 2 sin 0 = 2 for 0° < 0 < 360° using the t forn1ulae.
Solution
0 . 2t 1- t 2 2t
t= tan - ,s1n0 = 2
,cos 0 = 2
, tan0=
2
•
2 l+t l+t 1-t
2
.
Subslltute .
into th e equation:
. sx 1- t -
2x 2t = 2
l +t 2 l +t 2

YEAR 12
Simplify: 5- 5t2 - 4t = 2 + 2t2

,
7C+4t-3=0
(7t- 3)(t+ 1) = 0
3
t=
7 ,-l
0° < ~ < 180°:
0 = 23° 12' 180° - 45°
2 '
0 = 46° 24', 270°.
Test \Vhether 0 = 180° is a solution: LHS = 5 cos 180° - 2 sin 180° = -5 - 0 *2
This equation could also have been solved using the auxiliary angle n1ethod.
Example 11
(a) Show that sin (A + B) + sin(A - B) = 2sinA cosB.
(b) By using suitable substitutions for A and B, show that sin x + sin y = 2 sin ( x; Y)cos ( x; Y).
(c) Hence solve sin 2x + sin 4x = sin 6x for O< x < n:.
Solution
(a) LHS = sinA cosB + cosA sinB + sinA cosB - cosA sinB
=2sinAcosB
(b) Let x=A + B andy=A -B.
Adding these equations: A = x; y Subtracting the equations: B = x; Y
Substitute these results in (a): sinx+siny=2sin( x; Y )cos( x; Y)

(c) Use the result in (b) on the LHS: sin 2x + sin 4x = 2 sin 3x cos(-x) = 2 sin 3x cosx
Use the double angle fonnula sin2x = 2sinx cosx on the RHS: sin6x = 2 sin 3x cos3x
2sin 3xcos(-x) = 2 sin 3xcos3x
2sin 3x cosx = 2sin3x cos3x (cos xis an even function, so cos (-x) = cosx)
2sin 3x (cosx - cos3x) = 0
sin3x=O or cosx-cos3x=O
3x=O, n:, 2n:, 3n: or cos3x=cosx
x= 0, 11: , 2n: , n: or 3x= x, 2n:-x, 2n:+x, 4n:-x
3 3
2x = 0, 4x = 2n:, 2x = 2n:, 4x = 4n:
11:
x=0,
2 ,n:
. 1s
SoIut1on . x = 0, , , 2n: , n:.
11: 11:
3 2 3
Example 12
Solve the equation cos 4 x + sin 3x = 0 for O< x < n:.
Solution
Re\vrite equation: cos 4x = -sin 3x
Sine is an odd function, so: -sin 3x = sin (-3x): cos 4x = sin (-3x)
Use sin = cos ( ~ -
0 0) to rewrite equation: cos 4x = cos ( ~ + 3x)

YEAR12
4x = ~ + 3x, 2,r - ( 1+ 3x ), 2,r + (1+ 3x ), 4n: - (1+ 3x ), 6n: - ( ~ + 3x), 8,r - ( 1+ 3x)
n: 3,r Sn: 7n: l ln: 15n:
x= 2 , 7x= 2 ,x= 2 , 7x= 2 , - 2- , 2 .
x - -n: --
3n: ,r 11,r 15,r
- --
- 2' 14 ' 2 ' 14 ' 14 .
As O< x < n:, the solution is x = i:, 1 or
l ln:
14 .
EXERCISE 8.3 SOLVING EQUATIONS USING ANGLE FORMULAE, INCLUDING THE t FORMULAE
1 Solve for O< x < 2rr.

(a) sin(x+1)=cosx (b) sin ( X+ : ) = cos (: - X) (c) 2sin(x + :)=sin x
(d) sin ( x + : ) = cos ( x -1) (e) 4 tan( x- :) = tan ( x-1) (f) cotx + cot(x+:)=3
2 Solve for O< x < 2rr.

(a) 2 cosx = cosecx (b) 4 sinx = secx (c) 4 cosx = ✓3 cosecx
(d) 3 sinx = secx (e) tan x=cosec2x (f) sin 2x + cos2x = 1
3 Solve for O< x < 2,r, using the double angle fonnulae:
(a) cos2x - cosx = 0 (b) cos2x- sin x = 0 (c) sin4x + sin2x = 0 (d) tan4x + tan 2x = 0
4 Solve for O< x < rr:
(a) cos 5x = cos 4x cos x (b) sin5x-sin x=sin 3x
(c) sin7xcosx=sin 4xcos4x (d) sin2x + cos2x=sinx-cosx
5 Solve O< x < 2rr:
(a) 3sin2x+4siilx-2=0 (b) 4(sin 2 2x-sin2 x)=l (c) tan2x=tanx (d) tan2x+3tanx=O
6 Solve O< x < rr.
2 2
(a) cos x - sin x = 1 (b) tan x + cotx= 2 (c) tanx + 2 cotx + secx = 0
7 Solve O< x < 2rr:
(a) 3sinx + 4cosx=5 (b) cosx + 3sin x=2 (c) 10tanx-2secx=5 (d) sin2x= 1 +cos2x
8 Show that if a 2 + b2 < c2, the equation a cos 0 + b sin 0 = c has no real roots.
9 The equal sides of an isosceles triangle are x cn1 and the third side is 2y cn1. The equal
angles are each 0 and the height of the triangle is h c1n, as shown.
If the perin1eter of the triangle is four tin1es the height, find the size of the an gles of the X X
triangle to the nearest n1inute. I,
0 0
y y
10 Solve each equation:
(a) tan-
1
( ~ ) - tan- 1 ( ; ) = tan- 1 ( !) (b) tan - i (2x) + tan- 1 (3x) = tan- 1 ( 1)
11 (a) Use the expansion of cos (20 + 0) to obtain an expression for cos 30 in tenns of cos 0.
(b) Hence find the roots of 8.x3 - 6x - ✓3 = 0.
12 (a) Use the expansion of tan (20 + 0) to obtain an expression for tan 30 in tern1s of tan 0.
(b) Use this result to show that tan 15° = 2 - ✓3 . Justify your ans,ver.
(c) Use the expansion of tan (45° + 30°) to find the exact value of tan 75°. Con1pare this answer to the other
result obtained in (b).

YEAR 12
13 Solve each equation using the t formulae, for 0° < 0 < 360°.
(a) 2sin0+cos0=1 (b) 5cos0+3sin0=4 (c) 2cosec0-4cot 0=3
14 Solve each equation using the t formulae, for O < x < 21r.
(a) sinx+cosx=l (b) 7cosx-24sinx=5 (c) 6sinx + 8cosx=5
15 Solve for O < x < :Ir.
(a) cos4.x=cos2x (b) tan2x=cot x (c) sin3x =sinx (d) cos3x=sin2x
16 Solve for O < 0 < :Ir.
(a) cos30=sin(1-0) (b) sin20 =cos(0-:) (c) cos20=sin(0 + 1) (d) sin(0-~)=cos20
17 Solve for O < x < :Ir.

(a) sin3x + sinx = 0 (b) sin2x + cos3x = 0 (c) tan2x + cot 3x=O
18 (a) Given that 2 sin 0 cos</>= sin ( 0 +</>)+sin ( 0- </>), sho\v that sin A+ sin = 2sin( A;B B) cos (A; B).
(b) Hence solve for O < 0 < ,r.
(i) sin 30= sin 50 + sin 0 (ii) sin20+sin30 + sin40=0
(iii) sin0 + sin20+sin30 + sin40=0 (iv) sin50+sin30=sin40 + sin20
19 (a) Given that 2cos 0cos </>= cos( 0 + </>) + cos(0- </>), show that cosA + cosB = 2cos( A; B) cos (A; B).
(b) Hence solve for O < x < 2,r.
(i) cos5x+cosx=cos3x (ii) cosx + cos3x=cos5x+cos7x (iii) cos5x+cosx + cos7x+cos3x=O
CHAPTER REVIEW 8
1 (a) Express 2✓3cos( 0 + : )-2cos 8 in the forn1 Reos (0 + a), where R > 0 and O<a < 1·
(b) Hence, or other\vise, solve 2✓3cos( 0 +: ) - 2cos8= 1 for O < 0< 21r.
2 (a) Express 3 sin x + 4 cosx in the forn1 rsin (x + a) where O<a< 1·
(b) Hence, or other\vise, solve 3 sinx + 4cosx = 5 for O < x < 21r. Give answer(s) to hvo deciinal places.
(c) Write the general solution for 3 sinx + 4 cosx = 5.
2 l - cos2 0 :,r
3 Use tan 0= l + cosZ to find the exact value of tan .
0 8
3
t
4 Show that the cubic equation 8x - 6x + 1 = 0 can be reduced to the fonn cos30 = - by substituting x = cos 0.
From this, deduce the following:
(a) cos Z:,r + cos 4 :1r = cos :,r (b) sec Z:,r + sec 4:1r = 6 + sec :,r
9 9 9 9 9 9
(c) sec :,r sec Z:,r sec 4 :1r = 8 (d) tan 2 :,r +tan 2 Z:,r +tan 2 4:1r =33
9 9 9 9 9 9
3
5 It can be shown that cos 30 = 4 cos 0 - 3 cos 0. Use this result to solve cos 3 0 + cos 2 0 + cos 0 = 0 for O< 0 < 21r.
6 (a) Expand cos (2A + B) and hence prove that i cos30 = cos 0 - !cos 0.
3
(b) By writing x = kcos 0 and giving k a suitable value, use the fonnula proved in part (a) to find the three
roots of the equation 27x
3
- 9x = 1. Hence write the value of the product cos ~ cos 3: cos 5: cos 7: .
7 If tan a, tan/3, tan rare the roots of the equation x
3
- (a+ l)x2 + (c- a)x- c = 0, sho\v that a + f3 +r = n1r+ 1·
8 Solve sin x = cos 5x for O < x < :Ir.
9 (a) Find A and B in tern1s of x and y such that sin x + sin y = 2 sin A cos B.
(b) Find the solution of sin 0 + sin 20 + sin 3 0 = 0 for O < 0 < :Ir.

CHAPTER 9
Proof by mathematical induction
The nature of proof by induction
You can often see that a particular pattern see1ns to apply to a situation, and you n1ay then atten1pt to fonnulate a
rule that applies to that situation. For example, you might note that 1 is a factor of 420, so is 2, so is 3, so is 4 and so
is 5. Fro1n these observations you n1ight n1ake the statement that 'every positive integer is a factor of 420; or in other
words 'n is a factor of 420 for all positive integers n'. This staten1ent is clearly wrong: n = 9 is a counter-example
which proves that the staten1ent is false (because 9 is a positive integer and not a factor of 420).
It only takes one counter-example to disprove a general statement.
For exa1nple, can you find counter-examples to disprove the following staten1ents?
2
• n + n + 11 is a prin1e nu1nber for all integers n > 1.
• n2 - n + 41 is a prin1e nu1nber for all integers n > 1.
More in1portantly: holv do you prove that a general statement is true? Even if you demonstrate that a staten1ent is true
for the first 1000000 cases, that would still not prove the state1nent to be true in all cases.
Mathematical induction is a method of proof that can be used in exactly these circu1nstances (for example, to prove
that so1nething is true for all positive integers n, or for all positive integers n greater than a specified starting value,
or for all positive odd integers n).
A proof by induction consists of a three-step process, the final step being a conclusion.
1 Prove that the state1nent is true in the first case possible.

2 Prove that if the staten1ent is true in any one case (i.e. for n = k), then it must also be true in the next case
(i.e. for n = k + 1, or for n = k + 2 if the state1nent is true for even integers only, etc.).
3 Write a conclusion:
The staten1ent is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k. (As proved in step 2.)
The staten1ent is true for n = 1 (i.e. for the first possible case). (As proved in step 1.)
Thus the statement is true for all integers n > 1.
In step 2 it is proven that there is the potential for a 'chain reaction' to occur: if it is true for any one case then it is
also true for the next case, ,vhich 1neans that it is also true for the case after that, and so on forever.
In step 1 it is proven that it is true in the first case: this is like flicking the switch to start a chain reaction or pushing
over the first domino of an infinite line of dominoes. The infinite cascade of falling do1ninoes 1neans that the
statement is true for all appropriate values of n fron1 the starting value to infinity.
You will now look at several different types of problems that require proof by induction.
9.1 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION INVOLVING SERIES

Note the following pattern: 1 =1
1 + 3=4
1 + 3 + 5=9
1 +3+ 5 + 7=16
2
Observe that the su1n of n consecutive odd nu1nbers starting from 1 is always n •
Can you prove this? Yes, this can be proved by induction. (See Exan1ple 1.)

YEAR 12
Example 1
2
Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n - 1) = n for all integers n > 1.
Solution
The two methods shown below are equivalent, but Method 2 introduces a syn1bolic representation of the
staten1ent being proved. When you are fan1iliar with Method 2 you will find that it requires less writing than
with Method 1.
No ,natter ,vhich 1nethod you use, you n1ust ahvays write all three steps and use the appropriate words
e1nphasised belo,v (or their equivalent) in each step.
Method 1
Step 1 Prove that the state1nent is true for n = 1.
2
When n = 1: LHS = 1 RHS= 1 = 1
LHS =RHS :. the staten1ent is true for n = 1
Step 2 Assun1e the statement is true for n = k, ,vhere k is any integer greater than or equal to 1.
i.e. assun1e that 11 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k- 1)1= k 2 [a]
No,v prove that the statement will be true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.
i.e. prove that 1 +3+5+ ... + (2[k+ 1)-1) =(k+ 1)2
LHS = 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2[k + 1) - 1)
= 11 +3 + 5+ ... +(2k- l )I+ (2[k+ 1) -1)

using [a]:
(You can only prove this is true when n = k + 1 if it is true when n = k.)
= (k+ 1)2
= RHS
Step 3 Conclusion
The staten1ent is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k (Step 2)

The staten1ent is true for n = 1 (Step 1)
:. by induction, the statement is true for all integers n > 1.
Method2
2
Let S(n) be the state1nent that 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n - 1) = n ,vhere n is a positive integer.
Step 1 Prove that S( 1) is true.

2
LHS = 1 RHS = 1 = 1
LHS =RHS :. S( l ) is true
Chapter 9 Proof by mathematical induction 187

YEAR12
Step 2 Assun1e S(k) is true.
i.e. assume that 11 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k- 1)1= k2 [a]

No\v prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.
,
i.e. prove that 1 + 3+5+ ... + (2[k+ 1)- 1) = (k+ It
LHS = 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2[k + l] - 1)
= 11 + 3+5+ ... +(2k- l)I + (2[k+ 1)- 1)
using [a]: =k2 +(2k+l)
= (k + 1)2
=RHS
Step 3 Conclusion
S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true (Step 2)
S(l) is true (Step 1)
: . by in duction, S(n) is true for all integers n > 1.
Example 2
1 2
Prove by induction that 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n 2 = n(n + ~ n + l) for all positive integers n.
Solution
2 2 2 2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) h . .. .
Let S( n ) be th e statement th at 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = , w ere n 1s a positive integer.
6
LHS = 12= 1 RHS = 1(1 + 1)(2 x 1 + 1) = 1(2)(3) = 1
6 6
LHS = RHS : . S( l ) is true
Step 2 Assun1e S(k) is true for a positive integer k
· assu1ne th at
1.e. li2
_ + 22+ 32+ . . . + k2 I- k(k+l)(2k+l)
__ --'---'--'------'- [a]
6
No\v, prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.
i.e. prove that 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + (k + 1)2 = (k + I)(k +62)(2k + 3)
2 2 2 2 2
LHS = 11 + 2 + 3 + ... + k I+ (k + 1)
using [a]: = k(k + I)(2k+ I) + (k+ I)2

6
(k+l)
Now look at the RHS: you \Vant as a factor.
6
(k+l)
LHS= (k(2k+ I)+6(k+I))
6
= (k;I)(2k 2 +7k+6)
= (k+l)(k+2)(2k+3) =RHS
6

YEAR 12
Step 3 Conclusion
S(k + 1) is tru e if S(k) is true (Step 2)

S( l ) is true (Step 1)
:. by induction, S(n) is tru e for all integers n > 1.
Example 3
3
Prove by indu ction that n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) + ... + 2n = n(;+ l) for all integers n > 1.
Solution
3
Let S(n) be the statement that n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) + ... + 2n = n(; + l) for positive integer n.
LHS = 1 + (2 x 1) (Note that the sun1 on the LHS starts \Vith n and fin ish es \Vith 2n.)
=3
RHS =3x l(l + l )= 3

2
LHS = RHS : . S(l) is tru e
Step 2 Assume S(k) is tru e for an integer k;,: 1.
.1.e. assu1ne that Ik + (k + 1) + (k + 2) + .. . + 2k I= 3k(k+ l ) [a]
2
Now prove that S(k + 1) is tru e if S(k) is true.
i.e. prove that (k + 1) + (k+2} + ... +2(k + 1) = 3 (k + l )(~k+l) + l)
Note that when n = k + 1, the sun1 on the LHS starts \Vith (k + 1) and finish es \Vith 2(k + 1).
LHS =(k+ 1) + (k+2} + ... +2k+ (2k+ 1) +(2k + 2)

Now you h ave a problen1! At this poin t you need to u se the substitution of line [a], but you are 1nissin g the
first tern1 ( the k). In goin g from S(k) to S(k + 1) you have lost the first term bu t gain ed two extra tern1s on the
LBS.The solution is to break up the extra two terms (2k + 1) + (2k + 2) as a k tern1 and a (3k + 3) term.
LHS = l k + (k+ 1) +(k+2) + ... + 2k l+(3k+3}
using [a]: = 3k(k + 1) + 3 (k + l)

2
= 3(k + l)[k + 2] taking the con1n1on factor of 3 (k + l)
2 2
= RHS
Step 3 Conclu sion

:. by induction, S(n) is tru e for all integers n > 1.

YEAR12
EXERCISE 9.1 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION INVOLVING SERIES
. 2 n 2 (n+ 1)
1 If S(n) 1s the staten1ent that n + 2n + 3n + ... + n = , then S(5) represents the statement:
2
5X6 25X26
A 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 5 = B 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 25 =
2 2
25x6 25 6
C 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 25 = D 5+ 10+ 15+20+25= ;
2
Prove each of the following by in duction for all positive integers n.
n(n+ l)
2 1 + 2 + 3 + ... +n= 3 1 +2+4+ ... +211 - 1=2"-1
2
n(3n + 1)
4 2 + 5 + 8 + ... + (3n - 1) = 5 a+ (a+ d) + (a+2d) + ... + (a+ (n - l)d) = ~ (2a+(n-l)d]
2
11 1 -r11
2 11- 1 a(r -l) 2 3 n- 1
6 a + ar + ar + ... + ar = 7 l+r+r+r + ... +r = ~- -
r- 1 1- r
n(n + l)(n + 2)
8 1 x 2 + 2 x 3 + 3 x 4 + ... + n(n + 1) =
3
n(n + 1)(2n + 7)
9 1 x 3 + 2 x 4 + 3 x 5 + ... + n(n + 2) =
6
3 3 1 1 1 1 n
3 5
10 4 + 104 + 756 + ... + (n + 3n ) = n (n +l) 11 1X2 + 2X3 + 3X4 + ... + n(n+l)=n+l
2
1 1 1 1 n
12 2x3 + 3x4 + 4x5 + ... + (n+l)(n+2) = 2(n+2)
12 22 32 n2 n(n+ l ) 14 1 1 1 1 n
13 lx3 + 3x 5 + 5x7 + . .. + (2n - 1)(2n+ 1) = 2(2n + l)
lx3 + 3x5 + 5x7 + ... + (2n- 1)(2n+l)- 2n+ l
3 23 33 3_ n2(n + l)2 H find )· ( 13+23+ 33+ . .. +n3)

15 (a) 1 + + + ... + n - . ence m1
4 n➔oo n4
3 3 3 3
(b) Hence show that 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n)2.
n(3n + l)
16 (n + 1) + (n + 2) + ... + 2n = 17 1 x l ! + 2 x 2! + 3 x 3! + ... + n x n! = (n + l )! -1
2
18 1 X 2° + 2 X 2 1+ 3 X 22+ ... + n X 211 - 1= 1 + (n - 1) X 2".
19 12+ 32+ 52+ ... +(2n- 1)2=n(4n;-1) 20 12-22+ 32_42+ . .. +(-l )11- 1n2=(-1)"- 1;(n + l)
21 1 X 2 + 4 X 22 + 9 X 23 + ... + n 2 X 211 = (n 2 - 2n + 3) X 2" +I - 6
1 3 7 211 -1 1
22 - + - + - + ... + - 11- =n - 1+- 11 23 2x2 1+3x2 2+ 4x23 + . .. +(n+ l )x2"= nx2 11 +1
2 4 8 2 2
n(n + l)(2n + l )(3n 2 +3n-l)
24 14 + 24 + 34 + .. .+ n 4 = (For those who like an algebraic challenge.)
30
9.2 PROVING DIVISIBILITY BY INDUCTION

The following points are essential for understanding a proof by induction where the assertion involves divisibility.
• If an integer N is divisible by an integer d, then N = d x q, where q is an integer.
For exan1ple, 18 is divisible by 3 because 18 = 3 x 6 (where 6 is an integer). But 19 is not divisible by 3 even
!
though 19 =3 x 61 , because 6 is not an integer.
• The integers are closed under addition, subtraction an d 1nultiplication. This means that whenever you add,
subtract or m ultiply integers, the ans,ver ,viii always be another integer. This is not true for division: son1e
divisions of integers give integer answers, but others do not.

YEAR 12
Example 4
11
Prove by induction that 4 - 1 is divisible by 3 for all integers n > 1.
Solution
Let S(n) be the statement that 4" - 1 is divisible by 3 for integer n.
4 1 - 1 = 3, ,vhich is divisible by 3. (Note: The LHS- RHS style of proof can't be used here. )
: . S(l) is true.
Step 2 Assu1ne S( k ) is true for an integer k > 1.

Le. assume that 4k- 1 = 3M where Mis an integer
4k=3M + l [a]
Now prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true.

1
i.e. prove that 4k+ - 1 is divisible by 3
4k+ 1 - 1 = 4X4k- l
using [a]: =4(3M + 1) -1
= 12M + 3
= 3(4M + 1) ,vhich is divisible by 3, because it is a multiple of
3 and 4M + 1 is an integer (as integers are closed
under 1nultiplication and addition).
Step 3 Conclusion
:. by induction, S(n ) is true for all integers n > 1.
Example 5
Prove by induction that 3" + 7" is divisible by 10 for all positive odd integers n.
Solution
11
Let S(n) be the statement that 3" + 7 is divisible by 10 for positive odd integer n.
3 1 + 7 1 = 10, which is divisible by 10.
:. S( 1) is true.
Step 2 Assu1ne S(k) is true for an odd in teger k > 1.

i.e. assun1e that 3k + i = l OM where Mis an integer
3k = lOM - 7k [a] (Note: i could have been made the subject instead of3k.)
Now prove that S(k + 2) is true if S(k) is true.

YEAR12
(Note the S(k + 2) instead of S(k + 1), as this is \Vorking \Vith odd integer values of n.)
i.e. prove that 3k+2+ 7k+2 is divisible by 10

3k+2+ 7k+2= 32 X 3k + 72 X ~
using [a]: =9(10M-7k) +49x 7k

= 90M - 9 X 7k + 49 X 7k
=90M +40x7k
= 10(9M +4x 7k)
This is divisible by 10, because it is a 1nultiple of 10 and 9M + 4 x 7k is an integer.
Step 3 Conclusion

S( l ) is true (Step 1)
: . by induction, S(n) is true for all odd integers n > 1.
EXERCISE 9.2 PROVING DIVISIBILITY BY INDUCTION
1 If k and Mare integers, \Vhich of the following expressions does not always generate an integer?
A 9M+4x7k B 9M-4x7k C 9M+4x7k D 9Mx4x7k
Prove the following by induction.
2 5" + 3 is divisible by 4 for all positive integers n. 3 3 211 - 1 is divisible by 8 for all positive in tegers n.
11
4 3" + 2" is divisible by 5 for all odd integers n > 1. 5 5 + 2(11") is a 1nultiple of3 for all positive integers n.
6 (a) Factorise k(k + l)(k + 2) + 3(k + l)(k + 2).
(b) Hence prove that n(n + l)(n + 2) is divisible by 3 for all positive integers n.
7 3 311 + 2"+2 is divisible by 5 for all positive integers n. 8 7" - 2" is divisible by 9 for n > 2.
411
9 3 - 1 is divisible by 80 for all positive integers n. 10 5" + 2 x 11" is divisible by 3 for all positive integers n.
11 2311 - 1 is divisible by 7 for n > 1

11
12 6 + 10n - 6 is divisible by 5 for all positive integers n.
13 3 211 + 1 + 2"- 1 is divisible by 7 for all positive integers n.
3 3 2
14 (a) Show that (k + 3) = k + 9k + 27k + 27.
(b) Hence prove that the sum of the cubes of three consecutive positive integers is divisible by 3.
15 Prove that the polynon1ial (x - 1)"+2 + x 2" + 1 is divisible by x 2 - x + 1 for all positive integers n.
(Note: In step 2, you can't say (x- 1t+2+ ?'+ 1 = (x2-x + l)M where Mis an integer. You n1ust
say (x - l)k+2+ x2k+i = (x2 -x + l)M(x), \vhere M(x) is a polynomial, and continue this through
the rest of the proof.)
16 Prove th at x 11 - 1 1s
. d"IVISI
. "ble by x - 1,:,or all positive
. . mtegers
. n. (Usexk+I - 1 = xk+l - x k + x k - 1)
.

YEAR 12
9.3 WHEN INDUCTION DOESN'T WORK

A single counter-example is enough to disprove a result.
Some proofs by 1nathe1natical induction seem to be correct, but turn out to be incorrect. The most likely reason is that you
have failed to prove step 1, Le. that the result is true at the beginning (usually for n = 1). This means that the asswned result
(n = k) is false, so when you prove the result true for n = k + 1, you are proving it from an incorrect asswnption.
Example 6
Let S(n) be the statement: n 2 - n is an odd integer, for all positive integers n.
(a) Sho\v that if S(k) is true, then S(k + 1) is true. (b) Is S( l ) true? (c) Is S(n) true for any n?
Solution
2
(a) Let S(k) be that k k is an odd integer.
-
Statement: S(k + 1): (k + 1)2- (k + 1) is an odd integer.
(k + 1)2-(k+ 1)
=(k + l )(k+ 1-1)
=k(k+ 1)
2
=k -k+2k
=S(k) + 2k
=Odd + Even = Odd
Hence the result is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.
2
(b) S( l ) is that 1 - 1 is an odd integer and since this result is 0, then S( l ) is false.
2
(c) S(n) is never true because when n is even, n - n is even, and when n is odd, n 2 - n is even.
Example 7
Use 1nathen1atical induction to prove that 2" - 1 is prin1e if n is prin1e.
Solution
Using a table of values to explore this for son1e values of n:
This suggests that the result \Vorks, although finding a pattern for the priine nwnbers for n is not possible.
The next priine values for n are 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, ...
Any non-prin1e value for 2" - 1 is enough to say the original staten1ent is false. Testing these values finds
for n = 11: 211 - 1 =2047. As 2047 =23 x 89, this is not priine, so the initial assun1ption is false.
The result can not be proved by mathe1natical induction.
EXERCISE 9.3 WHEN INDUCTION DOESN'T WORK
1 Let S(n ) be the state1nent: n 2 + n is an odd integer.

(a) Sho\v that if S(k ) is true, then (k + 1) is true. (b) Is S(l) true? (c) Is S(n) true for any n?
(d) If the staten1ent is not true, what change do you need to 1nake to 1nake it true? Prove your new staten1ent.
.
2 Given 12 + 42 + 72 + ... + (3n - 2) 2 = n( 6n 2 - 3n - 1) .
2
(a) Sho\v that if S(k ) is true then S(k + 1) is true. (b) Is S(l) true? (c) Is S(n) true for any n?

YEAR12
3 It is stated that n 2 - n + 41 is prime for n > 1.

(a) Is this state1n ent true for n = 1? (b) Is this statement true for n = 2?
(c) Is this staten1ent true for n = 5?
(d) Is it possible to find a value of n for which this expression does not give a pri1ne nun1ber? Justify your ai1s\ver.
(e) Is the given staten1ent true or false?
2
4 Let S(n) be the statement: n - n is an odd integer.
(a) Show that if S(k) is true then S(k + 1) is true.
(b) Is S(l) true?
(c) Is S(n) true for any n?
CHAPTER REVIEW 9
1 Prove by induction that -2 + 2 + 6 + ... + (4n - 6) = 2n(n - 2) for all integers n > 1.
2 Prove by induction that 4"+1 + 52" - 1 is divisible by 21 for all positive integers n.
3 Prove by induction that 7" - 1 is divisible by 3 for all positive integers n.
4 Prove by induction that 6 + 24 + 60 + ... + n(n + l)(n + 2) = n(n + l)(n: 2 )(n + 3) for all positive integers n.
5 Prove by induction that l + 1 + 5 + ... + n + 2 = 1 - 1 for all integers n > 1.

4 6 96 n(n + 1)2" (n + 1)2"
6 Prove by induction that 5" + 12n - 1 is divisible by 16 for all positive integers n.
7 Prove by induction that 7" + 6" is divisible by 13 for all odd positive integers n.
2
8 Prove by induction that 2 x 1! + 5 x 2! + 10 x 3! + .. . + (n + l)n! =n(n + l)! for all positive integers n.
. d . th 1 1 1 1
9 Prove byin uct1on at 4 + 28 + 70 + ... + ( 3n- 2 )( 3n + l ) - 3 nn+ 1 for all integers n > 1.

10.1 INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS
Vectors give you a way to 1nove around the Cartesian plane by moving a certain distance in a particular direction, by
considering the direction to be split into horizontal and vertical parts. For example, if you \Valk 40 m east, then 30 m
north, how far are you from your starting point, and in what direction?
This concept has many applications in Physics and is expanded to three diinensions in the Mathematics Extension 2
course. Vectors are used in kinen1atics and dynalnics (,notion), hydrodynan1ics (n1otion of a fluid), heat flo\v iI1
solids, electron1agnetism and 1nany other real-life scientific applications.
Scalar quantities and vector quantities

A scalar quantity is one that is completely specified by its magnitude (size) and, if appropriate, its unit of
1neasurement. Exan1ples of scalar qual1tities include n1ass, length, speed, temperature and tiine.
Note that ten1perature is a scalar quantity, even though it ,nay have a negative value (dependmg on the n1easurement
scale bemg used). A negative ten1perature value indicates its relative magnitude and does not in1ply that te1nperature
is oriented in any 'direction'.
A vector quantity is one that is con1pletely described by its magnitude and direction (and, if appropriate, its unit of
1neasurement). Exalnples of vector quantities include:
• displacement (change in position of an object)
• velocity (tim e rate of chal1ge of displace1nent or position)
• acceleration ( tin1e rate of change of velocity)
• force (a push or a pull that can affect the ,notion of an object)
• weight (the gravitational force acting on an object- this is not the sa1ne as the 1nass of all object, which is
scalar)
• n1on1entu1n (the product of an object's mass and velocity).
Consider the vector quantity of displace1nent. In order to fully specify the displacement of all object, it is necessary
to ki10\v how far it is fro1n its starting pomt (magnitude) and the direction in which it has n1oved.
Example 1 N
+
Sarall walks from point O to point C, via points A and B. 200 m
c .-----------. B
(a) What distance has she walked?
(b) What is her position relative to her starting point? 80m 80m
Solution
(a) Sarall walks a total distan ce of 480 m. 0 200 m A
(b) Sarall is 80 m directly north of her starting point at 0.

This is her displacen1ent fro1n 0.
Chapter 10 Vectors in two dimensions 195

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Vectors and vector notation

A vector quantity can be represented by a directed straight line head B
segn1ent with an arro\vhead (on the line seg1nent) indicating its
direction and the length of the line indicating its magnitude.
a a
The beginning of the vector is called its tail and the end is
called its head.
The vect~ with a tail at point A and head at point B is tail
A
denoted AB. Alternatively, it is also co1n1non to use a bold lo\ver-case letter
to denote a vector, e.g. a, or an italic lower-case letter with a tilde underneath, e.g. '!·
You will find it easiest to use AB or a in handwritten text.
-
Magnitude of a vector
The n1agnitude of a vector is a measure of its size or length and is a scalar quantity.
N A
I
The 1nagnitude of vector AB is written AB~the 1nagnitude of vector!! is
written I':! I, and the 1nagnitude of vector a is \Vritten Ia 1·
10km
4g•
- - - - I " - -- E
The diagran1 at right shows a vector OA of magnitude 10 km in a direction N48°E. 0
Vector algebra
Equality of vectors
Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and the saine direction, regardless of
their positions.
In the exa1nple below, !! = ~ = £.
Negative of a vector
B B
The negative of vector AB= !! is the vector -AB = BA = -g.
a -a
-g has the san1e n1agnitude as!! but \Vith opposite direction. BA is the vector drawn
- -
from B to A, \Vhereas AB is the vector drawn from A to B. Therefore, BA = -AB and -
the direction is reversed. A A
The zero vector
The zero vector, denoted Q, is a vector of zero n1agnitude. Its direction cannot be defined.
Adding a vector to its negative will produce the zero vector.
g +(-g) = Q

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Scalar multiplication of vectors

Multiplying a vector by a scalar (a nu1nber) k, where k E R, the set of real nun1bers, k * 0, results in a vector with
k tim es the magnitude and parallel to the original vector.
• If k > 0, then kg has the same direction as g,

but has k tin1es the n1agnitude.
• If k = 0, then kg = Q. -
la
• If k < 0, then k'! is in the opposite direction

to'! and has k times the magnitude.
Addition of vectors
The triangle rule for the addition of vectors
To add hvo vectors g and ~' the vectors are
placed with the head of g at the tail of~-
The resultant vector or vector sum is a vector
-a -a - b
joining the tail of g to the head of~- This -b

a+b
vector addition fonns a triangle, hence the
triangle rule for vector addition, sometin1es
called the head-to-tail rule.
B
-a -b
Also, for L1ABC , AB + BC= AC or g + ~ = ~- A
- C
The parallelogram rule for the addition of vectors

If hvo vectors to be added have the san1e initial point, they can be added by dra,ving a parallelogram rather than
1noving one vector to the head of the other vector. The diagonal of the parallelogra1n, drawn fron1 the initial point to
the final point, represents the vector sun1. This works because adding~ tog is the same as adding g to~-
The diagram sho,vs that '! + ~ = ~ + '! = ~ and this rule is kno,vn as the
parallelogram rule for addition of vectors.
The parallelogram rule for addition of vectors illustrates that vector
addition is con1n1utative.
For parallelogram OABC, you can also write OA +AB= OB and OC +CB= OB.
C
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Addition of vectors
Explore the parallelogram rule for the addition of vectors.

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Example 2
Draw diagrains to show:
(a) (~ + ~)+£ (b) a +(b+c)
- - -
Solution
(a) (b)
(a+ b) + c a+ (b + c)
a+b
-a a
-
(a+ b) + c =a+ (b + c) =a+ b + c
Vector addition is also associative. If three vectors~,~ and£ are added, then ~ + (~ + £) = (~ + ~) + £ = ~ + ~ + £·
This n1ethod can be extended to any nun1ber of vectors (so1netimes called the polygon rule for vector addition).
Example 3
Draw a diagram to sho,v ~ + ~ + £ + rJ.
Solution
- C
-
--
-- ~----
,,, ..... a+b+c
-d
,✓ -- ... ~ ~
-a , , , , -
, -
, , ---
a +b+c+d
Subtraction of vectors
Subtraction of a vector is defined as addition of
its negative. That is, to subtract ~ from~' -b
add-~ to ~' and so~ - ~ = ~ + (-~).
-
a a
- -
-b a- b
MAKING CONNECTIONS
- - = = = = = = = = = = = =10
Subtraction of vectors
Use technology to explore the subtraction and addition of vectors.
If a vector is subtracted fron1 itself, the result is the zero vector: ~ - ~ = Q.

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Example 4
Given the three vectors~,~ and£, as shown, construct the follo,ving:
(a) i:!+~ -b
(b) f + i:! -a -
C
(c) ~ -£
Solution
(a) To add two vectors I:! and ~' (b) To add t\vo vectors£ and~, the (c) To subtract vector£ fro1n
the vectors are placed with the vectors are placed ,vith the head vector~, the vector-~ is
head of a at the tail of b. of cat the tail of a. placed ,vith the head of~ at
- - - - the tail of-c.
The resultant vector or vector The resultant vector or vector -
sun1 is a vector joining the su1n is a vector joining the tail The resultant vector or vector
tail of a to the head of b. of c to the head of a. su1n is a vector joining the
- - - - tail of b to the head of -c.
b
- - -
- b
a+ b _,
b- c -
Example 5
ABCD is a parallelogran1. If AB =I:! and BC= ~, express each of
the following vectors in tenns of I:! and~-
b
(al DA (b) AC (c) BJ5 -
Solution D
(a) As a parallelogran1 has sides (b) Start at A and get to C by (c) Start at B and get to D by
equal in 1nagnitude and following a path around the following a path around th e
direction, the other sides can edges. These edges add to edges. These edges add to
also be labelled. -
give AC. -
giveBD.
Either -BD=BA+AD
- -
b AC= AB+ BC (or BJ5 =BC+ CD)
- BD=-a+b
=a + b
b or =b-a
-
AC= AD + DC
D =b + a
DA has the same 1nagnitude
as ~ in the opposite direction.
DA =-b-

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EXERCISE 10.1 INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS
1 Given three vectors 'i!, ~ and £, as shown, construct the follo\ving:

(a) ti!+£ (b) c+b
-a
(c) 'i! - ~ (d) £-':! -b
2 ABCD is a parallelognun. If AB= 'i! and BC = ~' express each

of the following vectors in tenns of 'i! and~. B.---~£=----::7C
(a) CD (b) AD
-a
(c) CA (d) DB
D
A
B
3 ABCD is a quadrilateral. If AB = 'i!, BC = ~ and CD = £, express each of -b
the following vectors in terms of 'i!, ~ and £· C
a
-
(a) AC (b) AD
(c) DA (d) DB
-
C
A-------_j
D
A
4 ABCD is a trapeziu1n with DC parallel to AB and one-and-a-half tiines the
- - -
length of AB. If AB = 'i! and BC = ~' express each of the following
B
vectors in tenns of a and b. D
- -
(a) CD (b) CA
(c) AD (d) DB -b
C
5 If all the short line seg1nents shown are the san1e length, express the I H G F
following in tern1s of 'i! and~.

(a) OP (b) OG (c) OQ (d) CE E
(e) AB (t) DI (g) FQ (h) DE+EO
0 a A C D
-
6 BC is parallel to OA and twice its length. Express the following in
tern1s of a- and -b.
(a) AB (b) AC
7 Fron1 the diagra1n, find the following in tern1s of 'i!, ~. ~ and g.

(al w (b) VZ (c) WZ w -b
V
-
a y
8 In MBC, AB = 'i!, BC = ~ and CA = £· Which one of the follo\ving statements is true?

A a+c=b B a +b+c=O
C a+b-c=O D b+c=a
-a
-
C

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9 In the quadrilateral ABCD, which one of the follo,ving statements is true? B

C
A AB+BC=CD +'BA
B
-AB+BC=CD-DA
- - - A
C -AB-BC=CD-DA
- - -
D AB + BC= -CD-DA
10 In the parallelogran1 ABCD sho,vn, the point of intersection of the

- -
diagonals is 0, ,vhere O is the 1nidpoint of both AC and BD.
The vector OC is equal to:
A -1 (a-b) B .!. (a+b) C -1 a-b D -1 b-a
2 - - 2 - - 2- - 2- -
11 MBC is a triangle with AB= q and AC=£· D and E are the n1idpoints of B
F
AB and AC respectively.Fis a point on BC such that FC = 2 X BF. D
(a) Express the vectors BC and DE in tenns of q and£·

(b) Con1pare the vectors BC and DE. A..::._- - - - : ~ - - ~
E C
(c) What geometric property of a triangle does the answer to part (b) de1nonstrate?
(d) Express the vectors BF and FC in tenns of g and£·
- 1
(e) Show that AF= (2g+£).
3
12 ABCD is a parallelogran1 in ,vhich AB=~ and AD=~ and Eis the n1idpoint of BC.
B
(a) Express AC in terms of~ and rJ.
(b) Express AE in terms of~ and rJ.
E
(c) Express DE in terms of~ and ~- A
- - 2- -
(d) If Fis a point on DE and DF = DE, express DF in terms
3 C
of band d.
- - -
d
(e) Find AF in tenns of band d, and hence sho,v that Flies on AC.
--- -
(f) Find the ratio AF : FC. D
10.2 VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS
Position vectors on the Cartesian plane )'

P(x,y )
A position vector is a vector drawn with its tail at 0, the origin. Position
vectors are used to represent points by a distance and a direction rather
than two nun1bers (the coordinates). You can draw position vectors on the
Cartesian plane and represent them with ordered pairs as ,veil as a length
and a direction. 0 X
The position vector of any point P(x, y) relative to a fixed origin O on

the Cartesian plane is uniquely specified by the vector OP, as sho,vn in
the diagran1. That is, the vector OP represents the position vector of point
P(x, y) relative to 0.

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For exa1nple, the diagra1n at right shows the position vector of y
point A(3, 2) relative to 0. The position vector is OA, where

- 3
A(3, 2)
A has coordinates (3, 2). 2 •
I
X
-3 -2 - I 0 I 2 3
-I
-2
-3
EXPLORING FURTHER
-=============~10
Position vectors
Use techno logy to explore position vectors on the Cartesian plane.
Example 6
Draw the following position vectors on the Cartesian plane.
(a) QA, where A is (-3, 2) (b) ~, the position vector of (1, -3)
Solution
(a) Vector is dra,vn fro1n the initial point at the (b) Vector is drawn fro1n the initial point at the
origin O to the given coordinates. origin O to the given coordinates.
)'
)'
3
3
2 2
OA
I I
-3 -2 - I O I 2 3 X X
- I - 3 -2 - I O I 2 3
- I
-2 a
-2
-3 -3
A position vector can be represented by a coordinate pair (a, b). This represents the vector that is a units
fron1 0 in the positive x direction, and b units fron1 0 in the positive y direction. This can be represented as a
colun1n vector (: ), [:] or by the coordinates (a, b). Any vector that is equivalent to a translation of a units in
the positive x-direction and b units in the positive y -direction can be represented in this ,vay.
If A has coordinates (3, 2), then the position vector OA can be represented by the colu1nn vector ( !} !) OA = (
The magnitude of a position vector
The 1nagnitude of a position vector OA =(:)can be calculated using Pythagoras' theore1n.
l™I= Ja2 +b2.

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For exan1ple, the n1agnitude of the position vector OA = (~)is loAI= J3 + 2 2 2

= .Jo units.
Example 7
Draw the following position vectors on the Cartesian plane.
(a) !!• the position vector of ( ). ~ (b) OB = ( ~ )·
Solution
(a) !! represents a vector which is 1 unit from O in (b) OB represents a vector which is - 4 units fro1n
the positive x direction an d 2 units from O in the 0 in the positive x direction (4 units in the
positive y direction. negative x direction) and 3 units from O in
Vector is drawn fron1 the origin to the point (1, 2). the positive y direction.
y Vector is drawn from the origin to the
point (- 4, 3).
4 y
4
3 B(- 4, 3)
2 A( l.2) • 3
2
I OB I
-4 -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 4 X
- I - 4 - 3 -2 - 1 0 _, I 2 3 4
X
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
Equal vectors y
4
Equal vectors do not have to start at the san1e point. To be equal, they only need
3
to have the san1e n1agnitude and direction.
Although the position vector of the point A(3, 1) starts at the origin, the coordinate
pair (3, 1) can be used to represent any vector \Vhose head is three units across and one
unit up fron1 its tail. Ho\vever, none of the other vectors can be called position vectors. C X
-4 -3 I~ 2 3 4
Vectors \viii also be equal if and only if they are expressed using the sa1ne
: ___.,-2
coordin:tes. For exam ple, the vector [ : ] will only be equal to the ------- -3
--4
vector [ d] if a= band c =d.
Example 8
Given q = (2, 5), specify an ordered pair for each of the follo\ving. (a) 2q (b) -d
Solution
(a) As this vector has twice the 1nagnitude, each coordin ate will be 1nultiplied by 2.
2q = (4, 10).
(b) As this vector has the sa1ne 1nagnitude but in the opposite direction to 1, each coordinate n1ust also be
negated (n1ultiplied by - 1).
The vector -q is represented by the ordered pair (-2, -5).

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Example 9
Given !: =( ~ ), specify a colun1n vector for each of the following. (b) -3!:
Solution
(a) As this vector has half the n1agnitude, each coordinate is nutltiplied by ~.
The vector ~!:is represented by the colun1n vector ( ~ ).

3
(b) As this vector has three tin1es the n1agnitude but in the opposite direction to !c, each coordinate n1ust
also be negated (n1ultiplied by -3).
The vector -3!c is represented by the colun1n vector ( ~~ )·

2
EXERCISE 10.2 VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS
1 If vector Ii! is represented by the ordered pair (2, -6), specify an ordered pair for each of the following vectors.
(a) 3t;! (b) ~ ':! (c) -':! (d) 0.4':!
2 If vector~ is represented by the colu1nn vector ( ~ ) , specify a colu1nn vector for each of the following vectors.
(a) -2b (b) 5~ (c) !~ (d) - -5 b
4-
3 If£ is the position vector of (6, -3), represent each of the following as an ordered pair.
(a) -£ (b) 2~ (c) - !£ (d) 1.5£
4 If~ is the position vector of (6, -3), represent each of the vectors as a colun1n vector.
(a) -~ (b) 2£ (c) - -1 c (d) 1.5£
3-
5 Represent each of the vectors in the plane shown y
JO
as an ordered pair.
(a) a (b) b (c) ~
(d) 4. (e) !: (f) f -b
5
-e
-
C
- JO -s 0 5 JOX
- JO

YEAR 12
y
6 Represent each of the vectors in the plane 10
shown as a colun1n vector.
(a) a (b) b
- (c)
-
C
f
(d) d
- (e)
-e (f)
- -
a
5
'f.
-
C
- JO -5 0 5
-5
- JO
7 If vector ~ is represented by the ordered pair (3, - 5), then which of the following represents the vector -2~?
A (- 6, 10) B (6,-10) C (10, - 6) D (-10, 6)
8 Which of the follo,ving represents the vector from the point (2, 6) to the point (- 1, 8)?
9 Draw the follo,ving vectors on the Cartesian plane.

(a) ~' the position vector of (2, 4) (b) ~' the position vector of (- 4, O)
(c) £, the position vector of (- 3, - 5) (d) OD, ,vhere D is (- 1, 3)
(e) OE, ,vhere Eis (2, - 4) (f) OF, where F is (O, - 3)
10 Draw the follo,ving vectors on the Cartesian plane.
2
(a) 1, the position vector of ( ~) (b) ~' the position vector of ( ~ ) (c) £, the position vector of ( _:)
(d) OD, where D is ( ~ )

2
(e) OE, ,vhere E is ( ~
5
) (f) OF, where Fis ( =~)
11 (a) Find the colunm vector forn1 of the vector g, which has an initial point (- 3, 4) and finishes at the point (5, 9).
(b) Find the colunm vector forn1 of the vector ~, which has an initial point (5, -1) and finishes at the point
(- 6, -17).
(c) If the vector £ = ( ~~) has an initial point (2, 1), detennine the coordinates of its tenninal point.
(d) If the vector~ = ( ~;) has a tern1inal point ( 12, - 2), detern1ine the coordinates of its initial point.
~
(e) Sketch representations of the vector = ( ~ ) ,vith initial points at:
2
(i) (O, O) (ii) (3, 1) (iii) (5, - 3) (iv) (- 5, 5) (v) (- 2, - 2).

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12 The points A, Band C have coordinates (-2, -3), (2, 3) and (8, -1) respectively.
--
(a) Find the vectors AB, BC and AC and express then1 in colu1nn vector fonn.
(b) Find IAN~1oc1and IRI.

(c) Use Pythagoras' theorem to prove that MBC is a right-angled triangle.
(d) Find the coordinates of a point D such that ABCD forn1s a square.
(e) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the diagonals of the square ABCD.
13 OABC is a parallelogra1n \Vith OA =':!and OC =£·Xis the n1idpoint of AB as shown.
(a) Find the vectors OB and OX in tern1s of':! and£· cr-------. B

(b) Find the vector CX in tern1s of g and£·
-
C
- - 2- - X
(c) If Yis a point on CX, such that CY= cx, find CY in
3
tern1s of a and c.
- -
(d) Find OY and hence show that Y lies on OB.
o...___-..-
- --.1
A
(e) Find the ratio OY: YB.

14 (a) The position vectors of points A and Bare (-3, 6) and (2, 9)
respectively. Find the position vector of the n1idpoint of AB. a
A1---~n~1--:;:-.,!..P_~n'..-.-.. B
(b) Let the position vectors of points A and B be g and~ -
respectively. Find the position vector of the midpoint of AB.
(c) The position vectors of points D and E are (1, 7) and (5, 3)
0
respectively. Find the position vectors of the points of
trisection of DE.
(d) Let the position vectors of points D and Ebe <!and~ respectively. Find the position vectors of the points
of trisection of DE.
(e) Let the position vectors of points A and B be ':!and~ respectively. Let P divide AB in the ratio m : n so
that AP = m . Show that the position vector of point P is n a+ m b.

AB m +n m+n - m+n -
10.3 VECTORS IN COMPONENT FORM

A unit vector is a vector \Vith a 1nagnitude of one unit. To obtain a unit vector fron1 a given vector, divide that vector
by its o\vn n1agnitude.
If vector':! has a magnitude oflt:! I, then a unit vector in the direction of I;!, denoted by~' can be found by dividing
a
vector':! by its own 1nagnitude lt:! I· That is,~= l; I"
The unit vector in the direction of':! is denoted~' \Vhere ~ = ; and lg l = 1. y

1 1 5 •
4
3
Recall that a vector can be represented as an ordered pair (x, y) or as a colun1n Sj
2 -
vector(;), where the first value represents the distance parallel to the x-axis and the I
0 X
second value the distance parallel to the y -axis. -3 -2 - L, I 2 3
This inforn1ation can also be defined using the vectors! and j, where f is a vector of -2
l
magnitude one unit in the positive x-direction and is a vect~r of one unit magnitude -3
l
in the positive y-direction. The vectors!, and are unit vectors.

YEAR 12
For exan1ple, the vector g defined by the coordinates (2, 5) or the colu1nn vector (:) can be written as g = 2i + 5l-
The fonn g = xf + yj is called component form or f, j form of a )'

- -
vector. The vector g n1ay also be represented in column
vector form as(;}

-
)'}
0
-
xi X
Writing vectors in component form
Example 10 )'
2
Express the vector!! in co1nponent fonn.
-a
-2 _, 0 I 2 X
_,
-2
Solution y
Vectors are drawn fro1n the tail of the vector across and then 2
up (or down) to n1eet the head of the original vector, labelled
as xf and Yl- 4L
Oigin al vector in terms of the co1nponents xf + Y{ g = -3f + 4j 0
-a 2
-2 I I X
_,
When finding the components of a vector, start at the tail end. It does not ,natter whether you first 1nove parallel to
the x-axis (to find the i con1ponent) or parallel to the y -axis (to find the l component).
)'
Magnitude of a vector in component form I
To find the 1nagnitude in co1nponent fonn you can use Pythagoras' theorem, 5
as the co1nponents forn1 a right-angled triangle. For example,
_, 0 X
if!!=5f-2j: 2 3 4 6
- _, -2
lgl = .Js2 + c-2)2 -129
=✓29 -2
When finding the magnitude of a vector, use only the positive square root value.
-3

YEAR12
Resolving vectors into component form

If a vector q of n1agnitude Ii:! In1akes an angle 0 \Vith the positive x-axis, )'
then: ':! = I':! Icos 0.i, + I':! Isin 0 z.

The horizontal component of the vector q is lq icos0 .!, and the vertical
co1nponent is lq lsin0f.
-a l!'!lsin(0) L
The process of specifying a vector of known 1nagnitude and direction in

0
co1nponent fonn is called resolving the vector.
0 lalcos(0) i X
Example 11
Resolve the vector ':! into component form q = xf + yj, given ':! has a n1agnitude of 6 units and has a direction
of 50° to the positive x-axis. Give answers correct to two decin1al places.
Solution
li:! I = 6 an d 0= 50°
If a vector':! of n1agnitude li:! In1akes an angle 0with the positive x-axis, then ':!= li:! lcos0f + li:! Isin 0{
':! = lqlcosef + lq lsinez

= 6cos(50°).!, + 6sin(S0°)j
= 3.86f + 4.60 j
Addition and subtraction of vectors in component form

Addition and subtraction of vectors can be done by adding or subtracting the f components and the j components.
For q = x 1 £+ y 1 zand!? = x 2 i, + Yi l then: Similarly:
q+!? =(x1£ + Y1L) +(xi£+ Yi l) q- !? = (Xii + Y1L)-( Xii +Yi L)

= x,i +Xi.!. + y, z + Yi l = (X1 - Xi )! +(y, - Y2 )l
= (x, +Xi ).!. +(y, +Yi )l
For q = x,i + y,j- and/?= x2 £+ Yi -}:

':! + !? = (x, +Xi )!+ (y, + Y2)]
-
':!-!?=(x, -x2)i +(y, -y2)z
In colunm vector notation, this can be written as (xy,') (X2

+ ) = (X1 +X2) and (xi) - (X2) = (X1-X2) respectively.
Y2 y, +y2 y, Y2 y,- ~
Scalar multiplication of vectors in component form

kq =k(xf +yz)
In colu1nn vector notation, this can be \Vritten ask(;) = ( :; }
=kxi, +kyz
If':!= xi, + yj, then kq = kx.!, +kyj

- -

YEAR 12
Example 12
Given~=f-Sjand~=-3£ + 2j , find: (a)~+~ (b) ~-~ (c) -4~+7q
- -
Solution
(a) Sum of the vectors in con1ponent forn1:
Group the coefficients of the con1ponents together and sin1plify: = (1- 3)£ + (-5 + 2)j
-
=-2f-3j
(b) Sum of the vectors in con1ponent forn1:
Group the coefficients of the con1ponents together and sin1plify: = (-3- l)f + ( 2 - (-5)) j
-
= -4£ + 7 j
-
(c) Sum of the vectors in con1ponent forn1: -4~+7~ =-4(£-Sf) + 7(-3£ + 2f)
=-4£+20j-21£ + 14j
- -
Group the coefficients of the con1ponents together and sin1plify: = (-4 - 2 1)£ + (20 + 14)f
= -25.!, + 34j
Equality of vectors in component form
If~= Xii + Jij and q=Xi! + J i j, then~= qif and only if Xi = Xi and Yi = Yi·
- -
Example 13
Find the values of m and n if7f -5 z= (3m + l).!, + (4n-9)z.
Solution
Equate coefficients of the vector con1ponents and solve the resulting equations:
.!, components: 7 = 3m + 1
3m=6
m=2
j co1nponents: -5 = 4n - 9
-
4n=4
n= l

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y
Relative position vectors
B 3
You have already looked at position vectors that represent the
position of one point in relation to the origin. A relative position
vector represents a point's position in relation to another point.
The position vector of B relative to A is given by AB.

In the diagran1 shown OA = 3£ -2z and OB = -£ + 3 z.
The position vector of B relative to A is AB, where AB = AO+ OB. -3 -2 -1 3 X
Now, AB= -OA + OB -1
· AB = OB-OA
-2 A
=(-£ +3z) -(3t-2z)

-3
= -4£ + 5j
-
Example 14
The position vector of point A on the Cartesian plane is OA = 12£ - 5 j an d the position vector of point B is
-
OB= -7 £+ 6l. Find the position vector of A relative to B.
-
Solution
The position vector of A relative to B is BA. Write the rule to find BA: BA = BO + OA
:. BA= OA-OB
Substitute the con1ponents and sin1plify: BA = ( 12£ - 5z)-(-7 f + 6z)

= 19£-l l j
-
Parallel vectors
Two vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiples of each other:
If~ = k13, ,vhere k is a real number, then ~ is parallel to 13.
Forexa1nple, if13 = f-3z and~=4£- 12f, then~ = 4(£-3z).

: . ~ = 4g, so ~ is parallel to 13.
Example 15
Consider the three vectors 13 = -2 i + 3j, ~ = 8i - 5j
- - and ~ = -8i + 12-j. Which two vectors are parallel?
Solution
Look at the vectors to see if a scalar multiplier exists for any of the1n: ~ = -8£ + 12 j
=4(-2£+3z)
=4a
Vectors 13 and~ are parallel. -

YEAR 12
Unit vectors in component form

Recall that a unit vector has a 1nagnitude of 1 and~= l;Ia "
1
Therefore, if~= xf + YL, then g= ,J 2 2
( xf + YL)·
x+y ✓ 2 2
It is usually better to express the unit vector with a rational denominator, so g= ~ + ~ ( xf + y j).
X +y -
A unit vector is a 'direction finder', in that it determines a vector's direction but not its n1agnitude.
, ,Jx2 + 1 2 . .
or ~= 2 2(x!.+y;).
X +y -
Example 16
Find the unit vector~ for each of the following vectors.
(a) ~=4f-31 (b) ~=-Sf+8j
Solution
(a) Divide the original vector by its n1agnitude to get a unit vector: ~ = ~ ( 4i - 3 L)
(b) Find the 1nagnitude of the vector: l~I= J(-S)2 + 8 2
= ✓89
Divide the original vector by its n1agnitude to get a unit vector: ~ = Fs9 (-sf+ 8t)
= !9(-sf+sz)
Unit vectors can be used to find vectors in a specified direction.
Example 17
Given~= 3£ - 6 j:
-
(a) find~ (b) find vector 4 of 1nagnitude S in the direction of~·
Solution
(a) Find the 1nagnitude of the vector: l~I= ✓3 2 + (-6) 2
=✓
45
=3✓ 5
Find the unit vector by dividing the vector by its magnitude: ~ =
3
.Js ( 3£ - 6 t)
= s✓5( !.-
• 2·)l
(b) Multiply the unit vector in the direction required by the required n1agnitude: ~= Sf (f - t)
2
= Js(I- 2t)

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EXERCISE 10.3 VECTORS IN COMPONENT FORM
1 Express each vector shown in component form. )'

5
(a) a (b) b
- (c)
-
C
4
(d) d (e) (f) f

- -e - 3
2 l
-b
X
I 2 3 4 5
-2
-3
e
- -4
-5
2 Find the magnitude of the following vectors.

(a) Ii!= Sf + 4z (b) -4f + 7 l (c) 7f-24j (d) -Si (e) 9 j (f) -Bi - Si
- -
3 Resolve the follo\vin g vectors into con1ponent forn1 xf + y j, correct to two decin1al places.
-
(a) Ii! has a n1agnitude of 15 units and has a direction of 35° to the positive x-axis.
(b) ~ has a n1agnitude of 23 units and has a direction of 121 ° to the positive x-axis.
(c) £ has a n1agnitude of 10 units and has a direction of -45° to the positive x-axis.
(d) 4. has a 1nagnitude of 36 units and has a direction of -175° to the positive x-axis.
4 Given f!=4f-5jand~=3f + 2j,find: (a) f!+~
5 Find the values of m and n for -6i + 7z = (4m- 2)i + (5 - 2n)z.
6 Find the values of the unknown pronun1erals in the following equations.

(a) 5f-4j=3af + 2bj (b) (x+2y)f +yj=-3f +7j
- - - -
(c) (2g + l )i - (3h- l)z = 3(hi+ 2gz) (d) (3p- 18)f +(3q-8)t = 2p(f + 2f)-q(2i - t)
2 3
(e) (x +sx)f+(y -l)f=-6f + 7f (f) (x 2 -4x)i +(y 4 +9)t=2i + lOi
7 The position vectors of points A and Bon the Cartesian plane are OA = 5i - 3zand OB = 7 i - 6 j, respectively.
Find the position vector of A relative to B.
8 The position vectors of points C and Dare OC = -8i + 12 j and OD = 13£ - 23 j , respectively. Find:
- -
(a) OC (b> loci
9 In parallelogran1 ABCD, AB = 3f + 4 j and AD = -2i - 5 j. Find:
(a) ci5 (b) CA (c) I5B (d) IXBI (e) 151

10 Given Ii!= -13f + 20j and~= 2f + 15 j, find:
(b) the value of x so that the vector Xf! + 4~ is parallel to the x-axis.
11 Given vectors Ii!= Sf+ 4 z,~ = -4f + 7 j and£ = -i - 9l, with 3f! + 2~ - v~ parallel to the y -axis, find the value
of V.

YEAR 12
12 Which one of the follo\ving vectors is parallel to the vector [ = 14f-6[?

A g=28f + 12j B ~= 14f +6j C f=-14f-6j D q = -28f + 12j
-
13 Which one of the follo\ving vectors is parallel to the vector~ = Sf - 3j and has a 1nagnitude of 2.,/f,i?
A B 10f-6j C -Sf + 3j D - 10f-6j

- - -
14 For position vectors OF = 2f - 7 zand OG = --4 i + 5l, what is the value of IPG I?
A 6✓3 B 6✓5 C 2✓10 D 2✓37
15 Find the unit vector parallel to each of the following vectors.

(a) 8f + 6j (b) 3f-6j (c) -2f + 9j (d) -f-12j
- - -
16 For~=3f-9j:
-
(a) find~ (b) find vector fin the direction of~ \Vith a magnitude of 15.
17 Given~= 2f - 3 j and~ = 6£ + j, find f for f = 2~ -3~.
18 Given~= i -3land~= -3f + 2z, find the vector fin the direction of~ \Vhere 1£1= 1~1·
19 What is the unit vector in the direction of g = -2[ + 5 j is?
A .!.(-2i
7 -
+ Si)
- B J9(-2i + sz) C D Jh(-21 +sz)
20 Which of the follo\ving vectors is parallel to ~=-Sf + 5j and has a magnitude of 5?
A ~ (-sf +sz) B s(-si +sz) C 1 (-sf + sz)
21 OABC is a parallelogran1 in \Vhich OA = 3f + 2j and OC = 2f -3 j.

(a) Find AB and CB. (b) Find the diagonals OB and CA.
Let M, N and P be the midpoints of AC, OB and OA respectively.

(c) Find ON and OM. (d) Find CP and BP.
22 MBC has vertices defined by the position vectors OA = -2i + 3j, OB= 4i - 5l and OC = 6f - 9 j.
(a) State the coordinates of the vertices of MBC.
(b) Find the vectors AB, oc and AC. (c) Find IAB~lociand IAc1.
23 t.OAB is a triangle in which OA = 6£ and OB= 4 j . The point M with position vector OM = xf + yj is
equidistant from 0, A and B. -
(a) Find the values of x and y. (b) Find the vectors AM, MB and OM.
(c) Find the values of IAM I, IMB I and 10M 1.
24 OABC is a parallelogran1 in which vectors OA = 2i - 4 j and OC = 3f + 2 j.

- -
(a) Find vectors AB and CB. (b) Find the vectors OB and AC, the diagonals of the parallelogra1n.
(c) Find the vectors OP and OQ, \vhere Pis the 1nidpoint of OB and Q is the n1idpoint of AC. What can you
say about the points P and Q?
- -
(d) Find the vectors OR and CR, where R is the n1idpoint of AB.

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25 OABC is a square in which vectors OA = 3£ -2} and OC = 2£ + 3 j. Mis the 111idpoint of AB and N divides CB
internally in the ratio 1 : 2.
(a) Find the vectors OB, AC, OM, ON and NB. (b) Find the length of the diagonals, IOBI and IAcl.
'
26 (a) If!! = 3i - 4 j and ~ = -4i + 3j, find ~ and b.
- - - '
(b) Hence find the exact values of x and y, such that 2x~ + 3y~ = i + j.
(c) If£ = 4i - 8 j and 4 = 8i + 4 j, find
'
£and d. -
_. _. - ...
(d) Hence find the exact values of v and w, such that 2v~ + 3wq = i + j.
27 (a) If!! = 3Pi+ 4 PL, p > 0 and li:! I = 2, find the exact value of p. (b) Hence find~.
(c) Find the vector~ \Vhich is parallel to~' ifl~I = 10.
(d) If£= 7 qi + 24qj, q > 0, and 1£1= 4, find the exact value of q. (e) Hence find f
(f) Find the vector 4 in the direction of£ where 14 1= 50.
(g) Find the vector \vith n1agnitude 10 that is parallel to the vector~ + q.
10.4 SCALAR PRODUCT OF VECTORS

The scalar product (also called the dot product or the inner product) is a way of multiplying hvo vectors. The
result of this 1nultiplication is a scalar quantity (with magnitude but no direction). The scalar product of hvo vectors
!! and~ is written as!! • ~ (read as'!! dot~').
There is also another product operation on vectors, the vector product or cross product, which is \Vritten as!! x ~
(read as 'i:! cross~'). The result of this multiplication is a vector quantity. This is beyond the scope of this course.
If 8 is the angle between the positive directions of two

vectors ':! and ~' then the scalar product is defined to -a
be!! • ~= l!!ll ~Icos 8.
-b
0
a
For a straight angle, 8= tr, so!! • ~= - l!!ll ~Ias cos 7r= -1.
-
Example 18
Given li:! I = 5 and l~I = 6, find the scalar product of!! and~, correct to hvo deciinal places, in each of the following.
(a) (b) -a
-b b
-
40" 140°
a
-
Solution
(a) i;! • ~= li:! ll ~lcos8 (b) I;! • ~= li:! ll ~Icos8
=5x6xcos40° = 5 x 6 x cos140°
= 22.98 = -22.98

YEAR 12
Special cases of the scalar product

Parallel vectors
If~ and~ are parallel vectors in the san1e direction, then~ • ~= 1~1~1cos 0°. -a
-
b
Ascos0°= 1, this 1neans: i;! • q = li:! llql
If':! and~ are parallel vectors but in opposite directions, then: ~ • ~ = 1~11~1cos,r -a
-b
Equal vectors
If~ = ~' then 8 = 0 (just as for any parallel vectors), so the scalar product is the 1nagnitude squared:
':! • ':! = li:! ll i:! lcosoo - - ~ --

= li:! ll i:! I -b
Perpendicular vectors
Two vectors are said to be perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle behveen their directions is a right angle (90°).
If':! and qare perpendicular vectors, then:':! • q= li:! llq lcos 1
= l~ll ~lx 0 -a
=0
Also, if i;! • ~ = li:! llqlcos8 = 0, then li:! I = 0 or lql = 0 or 8 = ; .

-b
This leads to an important property of perpendicular vectors: if the scalar product of two non-zero vectors is zero,
then the vectors are perpendicular.
If~ • ~= 0 for non-zero vectors~ and~' then~ an d~ are perpendicular.
An in1portant property of the unit vectors i and j is that they are perpendicular, so that i • j = j • i = 0.
- - -
Also, using the property of parallel vectors: i •i = j • j = 1.
Scalar product for vectors in component form

In co1nponent fonn, for~= x 1f + y 1j and~ = x 2f + y2 j, the scalar product is:
- -
I;! • q= (Xii+ Yi l) • ( X2i + Y2l)
= (x1X2)(£ • £) + ( X1Y2)(£ • l) + (y1x2)(1 • £) + (Y1 Y2 )(1• l)
= X1X2 + Y1Y2 as f•f = j • j = 1 and f • j = j • £= 0
- -
Consider hvo vectors, ':!= x 1f + y 1j making an angle 81 with the x-axis and q= x 2 £+ y 1j making an angle 82 with
the x-axis. The angle behveen the vectors is e= el - 82. -
~ . ~= Iall bl cos e
= IalIbl cos ( el - 82)
= Iall bl(cos81 cos82 + sin 8 1sin 8 2 )
= Ial cos81lblcos 82 + lalsin81lblsin 8;
= X1X2 + Y1 Y2

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For':!= x,i, + y,j and~= x 2 f + y 2 j the scalar product

- -
of the vectors in con1ponent forn1 is f:! • ~ = x 1x 2 + y1 y 2•
This means there are two basic expressions for the scalar product:':! • ~= lt:! II ~Icos0 = X1X2 + Y1Y2•
Geometric interpretation of the scalar product

Three vectors forn1 the triangle MOB and the length of each side is the B
magnitude of the vector forming that side.
2 2 2
The cosine rule states that It:!- ~1 = lt:!1 + 1~1 - 211:!ll ~Icos 0.
-b a- b
Using the properties of the dot product, the left-hand side can be ,vritten as:
2
It:!- ~1 = (':!- ~) • (':! - ~) 8
=a• a-a • b-b • a+b • b o ~----;;a- - - -~
~ A
2 2 2
Rewriting the cosine rule: It:! - ~1 = lt:!1 + 1~1 - 211:!II~ Icos0
~ + 1~1 = l1:!l
2 2 2 2
l1:!l - 21:! . + 1~1 - 2 11:!II~ Icose
-2q • ~ = -211:!ll ~Icos0

f:! • ~ = lt:! ll ~Icos0
Example 19
Find the scalar product f:! • ~, given':!= 2i +SL and~= -3i + 4l-
Solution
q • ~ = (2{ + 5 t) •(-3f + 4t)
Multiply the coefficients of the like components and su1n together: q • ~ = 2 x (-3) + 5 x 4
= 14
Algebraic properties of the scalar product

The scalar product has the follo,ving algebraic properties.
1 The commutative la,v: a• b = b • a
This property follows immediately fro1n the definition q • ~= It:! 11 ~1cos 0, since lt:! Il~I = l~ ll t:! I·
2 The associative la,v, including multiplication by a scalar:
(mq) • ~ = m( q • ~).where m is a real nun1ber.
This property also follo,vs directly fron1 the definition, although it is necessary to distinguish the
cases m < 0 and m > 0.
3 The distributive law:
':! . (~+~) =':! . ~+q• ~
The distributive law can be verified using the geo1netric interpretation of the scalar product and assuming
that the projections of~ and ~ on q are both positive.

YEAR 12
Fron1 the diagram: q • (~ + £) = lqll ~ + £1cos0
= lql x l5NI as l~ + £lcos0= 15NI
Also: q • ~+q • £ = lq l x lc5MI + lql x iMN I
= l~l x l5NI
0
2 2
M
-a N
4 An important result involving the distributive law is (q + ~)(q-~) = lq l - 1~1 :
(~+ ~) •(~-~) = ~- ~- ~- ~+~• ~-~ - ~
Finding the angle between two vectors

The scalar product can be used to find the angle between two vectors. Let 0 be the
angle behveen the directions of vectors ~ and ~ as shown.
q • ~= lq ll ~lcos0
-b
0
•
.. 0 = cos
_1 (a•b)
1; 11~1
-a
Note: It is usual to consider 0 to be the s1naller of the two possible angles between the two vectors. Either way, the
sn1aller angle and the larger (reflex) angle will be equivalent for any scalar product, because cos ( 0 ) = cos (2:7r - 0 ).
Example 20
Find the angle in degrees, correct to hvo deciinal places, between vectors ~ = 3f - 2 j and ~ = 4 f + j.
- -
Solution
Scalar product of the vectors: ~ • ~: q • ~ = ( 3f - 2f )( 4f + L)
=3x4+(-2)xl
= 10
Magnitudes of the vectors: lq l = J3 2+ (-2) 2 1~1 = ✓42 + 12
=✓13 =✓17
- 1( 10 )
= cos ✓13 X ✓17
= 47.73° (correct to two deciinal places)
EXPLORING FURTHER
Angle between two vectors

Use technology to explore the angles between vectors.
Chapter 10 Vectors in two dimensions 21 7

YEAR12
EXERCISE 10.4 SCALAR PRODUCT OF VECTORS
1 Consider the vectors g, ~, £, ,:J and .... - - -30°- - -

e as shown.
Find the angle behveen the following
-b -C d
- -e
pairs of vectors.
(a) g and~ (b) g and£ (c) g and ,:J (d) g and g (e) ~and £
(f) ~ and ,:J (g) b ande
- - (h) £ and ,:J (i)
-cand -e 0) ,:J and g
2 Given li:!I = 8 and l~I = 7, find the scalar product of':! and~ for each of the following, correct to hvo decimal
places \Vhere necessary.
(a) (b) (c)
b
- -b -b
(d) -a (e)
-a (f)
b
- -b
3 Find the scalar product g • ~for the following:
-a
(a) i:!=3f+2jand~=Sf+3j (b) i:!=-3f + 4j and~=2f+Sj (c) i:!=4f-Sjand~=-3f+8j
- - - - _, -
(d) g=-4f-3j and~=7f-6j (e) g=-2f-9jand~=-7f-4j (f) g=2f-12jand ~=6f + j
- - - ,., - -
4 Sho\V that the vectors ':! = 3i + 7 l and ~ = 7i - 3zare perpendicular.
5 Find the vector ,:J that is perpendicular to £ = 4 i - 3j and has a n1agnitude of 10.
6 If the vectors g = 7i - 5j and f = xi - 3j are perpendicular, find the value of x.
7 If i:!=-6i + 2j,find: (a) ':! • ':! (b) li:!I

8 For any vector ':!, find the value of each of the follo\ving, in tern1s of jaj where necessary.
(a) g • g (b) ~ • ~ (c) ':! • (-':!)
9 If':! is parallel to ~' express g • ~ in tenns of jaj and jbj.
10 Find the angle, correct to the nearest degree, between each of the following pairs of vectors ':! and ~:
(a) i:!=3f+2jand~=3f+Sj (b) ':!=-3f + 2zand~=Sf+6z (c) g=4f-jand ~=3f + 4j
- - - -
(d) i:!=-2f-4jand~=4f + 3j (e) ':! = -Sf-6j and~= -7[-2j (f) g=8f + 4jand~=-3[+6j
- - - - - -
11 Which vector is perpendicular to f =-Si + 2 j with magnitude 12?
C C
-
= 12
✓29
(2i- -SJ·)
-
D
12 Vectors g = xf - 2 j and ~ = -6i + y j are perpendicular. What are possible values of x and y?
- -
A x = 1 and y = 3 B x = 1 and y = - 3 C x = - 2 and y = -6 D x = 2 and y = 6
13 The angle behveen the vectors ':! = -5i - 2l and ~ = 3i + l is closest to:
A 3° B 40° C 140° D 177°

YEAR 12
14 The points A, Band C have position vectors OA = -2£ - 3!•OB= 2i + 3land OC = 8f - z.

(a) Find the vectors AB, BC and AC in con1ponent forn1.
(b) Find 1::rn1,1oc1and IA°cl. (c) Show that MBC is a right-angled triangle.
(d) Find the position vector of a point D such that ABCD fonns a square.
(e) Find the vector BD, the other diagonal of the square ABCD. C
(f) Show that the diagonals of the square ABCD bisect at right angles.
- - - -
15 ABCD is a kite ,vith AB= AD and CB= CD, as shown.
(a) Show that the quadrilateral ABCD ,vhose vertices have position vectors 8 D
OA = 2f + _.j, OB= 2f + 4j,
,.,
OC = 8f + 7 _,j and OD= Sf+ _,j respectively, is a kite.
(b) Find AC and BD and hence show that the diagonals of this kite cross at
right angles.
(c) Express BD, BC and DC in tern1s of p, q and!:, where OB= p, QC= q and OD=!:·
_. .... _, -
(d) Explain why BC • BC = DC • DC and use this equation to sho,v
A
thatp • q=q • r.
-
(e) Hence show that the diagonals of a kite cross at right angles.
10.5 PROJECTIONS OF VECTORS

Any vector can be resolved into a sun1 of two vectors that are perpendicular to each other. It is usual to resolve the
vector into two perpendicular components ,vith one in a specified direction (e.g. parallel to a given vector) and the
other perpendicular to that specified direction.
Scalar projection
A scalar projection of a vector can be
thought of as like the shadow of a wire when
the sun is overhead. (The original vector is a
- -a
the wire.)
8
In the diagrams, vector ~ is the vector
projection of vector'.:! in the direction 8
-
C
-
b
of vector b. -
C
-b
The magnitude of£, 1£1, is the scalar projection of vector '.i! onto vector~-
Using trigonon1etry, cos 0 = I!II"
By definition, f! • ~ = lt.i! II ~Icos 0, so '.:! • ~= It.:! II ~ I/!I

= 1~11£1
a• b
:. kl=1~1
-
• b •
so le I= a • bas -"- = b
- - - l~I -
• • a• b
The scalar projection of '.i! onto~ is f! • ~.where'.:! • ~= l ~I- •

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Example 21
Consider the vectors!!= 5£- j and~= 3£ + 4j.
- -
(a) Find the scalar projection of!! onto~. (b) Find the scalar projection of~ onto !!·
Solution
(a) Find~= Ii i by first finding l~I· (b) Find~= ; by first finding l!!I·
11
~=3f+4j !!=st-t l!!I = .Js2+(-1)2
l~I = .J32+42 = Ju,

=5 , a
!! = 1; 1=
(s.
1 ·)
Ju, ! - z
~ b 1( . ·)
~= 1f 1=5 3!+4l Scalar projection ~ • ~:
Scalar projection !! • ~ : ~ • ~=(3£ +4t) • ,k-(5£-t)
!! • ~ = (5£ - t) •!(3£ + 4 t) 15
= Ju,- Ju,
4
15-4
5 11
- Ju,
= -11
5 _ 1 1✓
26
The scalar proJ· ection of a onto b is !.!.. 26
- - 5
The scalar projection of~ onto !! is 11-f.[6.
In general, the scalar projection of!! onto ~ does not equal the scalar projection of~ onto !!·
Vector projection
In each of the diagra1ns above, vector £ is the vector projection of vector !!
onto~. The vector projection of!! onto~ is a fraction of~' for example, : ~
where m and n are real numbers. -a
Now,£= 1£1~ 8
=(!! · ~)~
The vector projection of!! perpendicular to ~ is: !! - £
The vector projection of!! onto ~ is (!! • ~) ~.

a• b
The vector projection of!! onto ~ can also be expressed as b• b~.
- -
The vector projection of!! perpendicular to~ is!!-(!! • f )f
a• b
The vector projection of!! perpendicular to~ can also be expressed as!!- b• b~.

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Example 22
Consider the vectors'!= 2£ -5 j and lz = -2£ + 3j.
- -
(a) Find the vector projection of q onto lz. (b) Find the vector projection of q perpendicular to lz.
Solution
, b
(a) Find lz = l~I by first finding llzl- (b) Find':!-(':! • ~)~:
19
a-(a• b)b = 2i-SJ' - - (-2; +31·)
lz = -2£ + 3L: llz l = ✓(-2)2 + 32 - - - - - - 13 - -
38 . 57 .
= ✓13 = 2 I. - S.J- - 1+ - J
- 13 - 13 -
, b 1 ( . ·) 12 . 8 .
lz= 1~1 = Jo -2!_+3z =-- 1- - 1
13- 13 -
'
Scalar projection: q • lz: = -{; (3f + 21)
':! • ~ = (2f-st) • ffi(-2i +31) The vector projection of q = 2i - 5l perpendicular
-4 - 15
= ~= + ~= to b = -2i + 3]. is _ _±_(3; + 21·).
Jo Jo - - - 13 - -
- 19
- Jo
Vector projection: ( t;! • ~)~:
(a• b)b =
- - -
ffi x ffi
13 13
(-2i + 31·)
- -
-19( 2· 3z·)
=o-!.+
The vector projection of q = 2f -5 l onto

· · -- 19 ( -2i +3j",
· 3 )IS
b =-2 1+ )
- - - 13 - -
Note: The scalar product of the parallel and perpendicular vector projections should be equal to 0. This can be
used to check the projections obtained.
EXERCISE 10.5 PROJECTION OF VECTORS
1 For each of the follo\ving pairs of vectors, find the scalar projection of q onto lz.
(a) t;!=4f-jandlz=3f+4j (b) t;!=4f+3jandlz=3£+2j (c) t;!=8f+3jandlz=-3£ + 8j
- - - - - -
(d) q=-3i + 2j andlz=Sf + 6j (e) q=-2f-3jandlz=4f+Sj (f) q = -Sf-6} and lz = - 7f-2j
- - - - - -
2 For each of the follo\ving pairs of vectors, find the vector projections of'! onto lz.
(a) q=4f+3jandlz=3f+2j (b) q=4f-jandlz=3f + 4j (c) q=8f+4jandlz=-3f + 6j
- - - - - _,
(d) q = -3i + 21 andlz=Si +6j (e) q=-2f-3l andlz=4i +7j (f) q = -Sf-61 andlz = -7f-2j
3 For each of the follo\ving pairs of vectors, find the vector projections of g perpendicular to lz.
(a) g=4f+3zandlz=3f + 2l (b) q=4f-Landlz=3f + 4j (c) g=8f+4Landlz=-3f + 6j
(d) I;!= -3£ + 2} and lz = Sf +6} (e) '! =-2£-3} andlz=4i +7} (f) '! = -5£-6} and lz= -7£-2}
- - - - - _,
4 For the follo\ving vectors, find the scalar projection of lz onto g.

(a) t;!=4i +3jandlz =3£+2j (b) t;!=4f-jandlz=3f+4j
- - - _,

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5 For the following vectors, find the vector projection of~ onto q.
(a) g=4f+3jand~=3f+2j (b) g=4f-jand~=3f + 4j
- _, _. -
6 For g = -2i - 3l and~= -2i + 2 j, the scalar projection of g onto~ is:
✓2 -✓
2 -2✓ 13 2✓13
A B C D
2 2 13 13
7 The vector projection of 3i + 2! onto -f + 2! is ; ( -i + 2 t} What is the vector projection of 3f + 2!
perpendicular to -f + 2 j ?
A ~ (3i +2t) B
~(-i + 21) C D 2f + j
-
8 Consider two vectors g = -i + 7land~= Sf + 4j.
(a) Find the scalar projection of q onto~- (b) Find the vector projection of q onto~-
(c) Find the scalar projection of~ onto q. (d) Find the vector projection of~ onto q.
9 Consider two vectors q = 3£ -4} and~= 2f -2j.

(a) Find the scalar projection of g onto~- (b) Find the vector projection of g onto~-
(c) Find the vector projection of g perpendicular to the direction of~-
(d) Hence, express the vector q = 3£ -4 j in tenns of projections onto an d perpendicular to~= 2f - 2 j.
- -
10 For any two vectors q and ~' state the 1neaning of each of the following.
~ ~
(a) g • ~ (b) ~ • ~ (c) a• b

11 g, ~ and £ are unit vectors in the Cartesian plane.
-j
(a) Show that q = cosaf + sinaj. -a
(b) Derive similar expressions for ~ and !:·
(c) Finda • banda • c.
(d) Hence deduce the co1npound angle forn1ulas

cos(a- {J) = cosacos/3 + sinasin/3 and
cos(a + /3) = cosacos/3-sinasin/3.
10.6 VECTORS IN GEOMETRIC PROOFS

Many geon1etry theoren1s can be solved using vector 1nethods.
Background knowledge
It is useful to recall the properties of triangles and special quadrilaterals, in particular:
• a trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel
• a parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel. It has the properties that both
pairs of opposite sides are equal, both pairs of opposite angles are equal and the diagonals bisect each other
• a rectangle is a parallelogran1 \Vhere one angle is a right angle. It has all the properties of the parallelograin,
as well as that each angle is 90°, the diagonals are equal, and each diagonal divides the rectangle into a pair

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of congruent triangles
• a square is a rectangle \Vith a pair of equal adjacent sides. It has all the properties of a rectangle, as \Veil
as that all sides are of equal length, the diagonals bisect the angles of the square, the diagonals bisect each
other at right angles, and the diagonals divide the square into four congruent right-angled triangles
• a rhombus is a parallelogran1 with a pair of adjacent sides equal. It has all the properties of the parallelognun, as
\Veil as that all sides are of equal length, the diagonals bisect the angles of the rho1nbus, the diagonals bisect each
other at right angles, and the diagonals divide the rhombus into four congruent right-angled triangles
• a square can also be defined as a rho1nbus with one angle a right angle
• a kite is a quadrilateral \Vith two pairs of adjacent sides equal. The opposite angles between the pairs of
non-equal sides are equal.
Vector proof involving sides of a triangle
Example 23
Use vector n1ethods to prove that the line seg1nent joining the n1idpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to
the third side and half its length.
Solution
Consider MBC, where P and Qare the n1idpoints of sides AB and BC respectively. B
Let AB= a and BC= b.

- -
Pis the 1nidpoint of AB and Q is the midpoint of BC, P'r -----\Q
so -PB= -1 a and -BQ= -1 b. A L.._ _ _ _ ___,. C

2- 2-
Express vectors required in tenns of g and ~: AC= AB+ BC PQ=PB + BQ
=a+b
= .!.(a+b)
2 - -
:. PQ= .!.AE
2
Thus, PQ is parallel to AC and half the length of AC.
Vector proof involving sides of a right-angled triangle

Pythagoras' theore1n is used extensively throughout Mathe1natics, particularly in measuren1ent and trigonon1etry.
You have used it throughout this topic on vectors to calculate the 1nagnitude of a vector. Pythagoras' theore1n can be
proved using vector 1nethods.
Example 24
Use vector n1ethods to prove Pythagoras' theoren1: in any right-angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is
equal to the su1n of the squares on the other t\vo sides.
Solution
Consider MBC. Let AB= -a and AC= -c. C
:. BC= BA + AC
=-a+c -
C
=c-a
-
A
-a B

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2 2 2 2 2
By Pythagoras' theoren1: -AC = -AB + _BC-, or 1-AC 1 = 1-AB 1 + 1-BC 1
2 2
Use scalar product of vectors to find IAc l : IAc l = AC • AC
=c • c
If g and ~ are perpendicular vectors, then g • ~ = 0. As AB and BC are perpendicular, AB • BC= 0.

That is, ~ • (~-~)=(£-~) • ~= 0.
No,v: ~• (£-~) = ~ • ~-~ • ~ = 0
so,g • £=g • g
If g and ~ are parallel vectors, then g • ~ = lg II~1-

Now: g • g= lgll g l
2
= lgl
=c • c-c • a-a • c+a • a

--------
= c • c - c • a as a • c = a • a from above
=c • c-a • a as c• a=a • a
2 2
= 1£1 - 1~1
Thus li3c l2 = 1£12-1~12
So: IAC 12 = 1£ 12
2 2 2
= 1~1 +(1£1 - 1~1 )
2 2
= IAB l + li3cl
EXERCISE 10.6 VECTORS IN GEOMETRIC PROOFS
b
1 Consider the parallelogran1 OABC where OA =~and OC = ~- Express OB -
~-------- 8
and CA in terms of~ and~- Hence show that the diagonals of a parallelogram
1neet at right angles if and only if it is a rho1nbus.
0 C
-b
2 Consider the parallelogran1 ABCD, where AB=~ and AD= 4..
Prove that the 1nidpoints of the sides of a parallelogram join to forn1
a parallelogra1n.
A L-- - -~ " ' -- - - '

E B
-a

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3 Consider the quadrilateral ABCD, as shown.

Let AB=~, BC=~, CD=!: and DA= 4- C
Which one of the follo\ving statements is correct? -a

A a-c=b-d B a+b=c +d
C a+c=b-d D a- + c=
_, -b-d
_. _.
A
-
d
4 Consider the circle with centre O and radius OA = ~- B and Care points on the
-
circle and BC = b.
Which one of the follo\ving staten1ents must be true? 0
1 1 Ak---->-----:,!C
A a= - b B a=- - b
- 2- - 2-
c a•b = b•b D 2a • b = -b • b
5 Use vector methods to prove that the 1nidpoint of the hypotenuse of A

a right-angled triangle is equidistant fron1 all vertices.
a M
-
B
-b C
2 2 2 A
6 Use vector methods to prove that, ifj!,1 = 1~1 + 1~1 for MBC, then LACB is a right angle.
-
b -
C
7 ABCD is a rectangle. C
-a B
(a) Prove that the diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other. A -a B
(b) Prove that the diagonals of a rectangle are equal in length.
-b -b
D
8 BDEF is a parallelogram contained within a triangle ABC, as shown. A F B
Let AF=~' BD =~and F be the midpoint of AB.

(a) Find the vector AE in terms of~ and~- D
(b) Use vector methods to prove that BD = ~ BC. C

A
9 ABC is a triangle with AB=~ and AC = ~- Xis the 1nidpoint of BC as sho\vn.
(a) Find BX and AX.
(b) Find 2(BX • BX+ AX • AX).
Apollonius' theore1n relates to the length of a n1edian of a triangle to the lengths of its sides. In any triangle,
the su1n of th e squares on any hvo sides is equal to hvice the square on half the third side together \vith twice
the square on the median \Vhich bisects the third side.
2 2 2 2
(c) Prove this, i.e. prove that lAB l + IA"c l = 2(IA"x l + IID?l ).

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10 Consider the parallelogram OABC \Vhere OA = g and OC = ~- b

A
~ - - --------::,-, 8
(a) Find the diagonals OB and AC in terms of g and~-
(b) Find the sun1 of the squares of the lengths of the sides of the
parallelogram in tern1s of I;! and ~.
(c) Find the sun1 of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals OB 0 b C
and AC in terms of a and b. -
- -
(d) Hence prove that the sum of the squares of the lengths of the
diagonals of a parallelogra1n is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the sides.
CHAPTER REVIEW 10
1 Four vectors, g, ~' £ and g, are shown in the diagran1. Which one of the
following staten1ents is true?
-b
A a +c=b+d B a+b=c +d
-
C
C a+b+c +d =0 D b +c=a +d
-
d
C
2 In the parallelogra1n ABCD shown, the point of intersection of the diagonals is 0 .
The vector OD is equal to:
A -1 (a-b) B .!. (a +b)

2 - - 2 - -
C -1 b-a D -1 (b-a)
A
2- - 2 - -
3 If vector I;! is represented by the ordered pair (- 2, 3), then the vector -3(;! is represented by the ordered pair:
A (-6, 9) B (- 6, -9) C (6, -9) D (6, 9)
4 The vector that runs from the point (- 3, 1) to the point (3, - 2) can be represented by the column vector:
6
A (:) B ( ~3 ) C (~ ) D ( ~ 3)
5 Which one of the following vectors is parallel to th e vector f = -6i + 4 j?

-
A g=24f-16j B ~=3f+2j C £=-24f-16j D g=-3f-2j
- -
6 Which one of the following vectors is parallel to the vector I;!= -3f + 7 j and has a magnitude of 2Jss?
A -24f +28j B _l;+Z. 1· C 3i-7j D -6f + l4j

- - 2- 2- - -
7 Given position vectors OA = -3f + 4 Land OB = 4i + 3f, \Vhat is the value of AB ? I I
A ✓2 B 5✓2 C 2✓5 D 7✓2
z,
8 If g = -4i + 2 j and~ = i - 4 then 2g - ~ is:
A -Sf-21 B -of +lOj C -9f +Sj D -10f-4L
9 What is the magnitude of the vector g = 4 f- 2 j?
A 2 B 2✓3 C 2✓5 D 20
10 Which of the following vectors is parallel to the vector 2£ + 3 j and has a n1agnitude of 2Jo?
A -4f+6j B 4f-6j C 6f+9j D -4f-6j
- - ,., _.

YEAR 12
11 What is the unit vector in the direction of':! = -3f - j?
A }o(-3i- l) B l~(-3i- L) C }o(-3i + l) D
12 What vector is perpendicular to f = 4£ - j and has 1nagnitude 5?
A (:!= .k-(i+4L) 8 ~= .k-(4i-L) C £= ffi(i+4L)
13 The vectors ':! = 3i - xj and q= 2i + 5 j are perpendicular. What is the value of x?
A - -15 8 - -6 C -6 D -15
2 5 5 2
14 The angle between the vectors':!= 2i + 3j and q= 3i - j is closest to:
A 75° 8 g90 C 91° D 105°
15 If':! = 2i + 5 j and q= 4i - j, the scalar projection of':! on to q is:

3 3 3 3
A 8 C D
✓17 ✓15 ✓13 17
16 The vector projection of i -3 j onto i + 5 j is

- -
_1._(;
13 -
+ 5j). What is the vector projection of i -3 j perpendicular
- -
tof + 5j?
A - -7 (.I + 3]·) 8 -4 (5.!. - ]·) C -20 (.!. + 5]·) D -12 (.!. - 3]·)
5 - - 13 - 13 - 5 -
17 ABCD is a trapeziun1 ,vhere DC is parallel to and t\vice the length of AB. Let AB=':! and BC = q.
-
Therefore, DA is equal to:
A a+b 8 -a-b C b-a D a-b
-- -- -- --
- - -
18 ABCD is a trapezium with AB parallel to and three tim es the length A
,_____
of DC. If AB = ':! and BC = q, express each of the following vectors in
terms of a and b.
- -
(a) CD (b) AC B
(c) AD (d) DB
C
19 Label the following vectors that have been drawn on the y

Cartesian plane: 4
3
• ':! the position vector of (- 3, 2)
2
I
• OB where B is ( ~)
- 4 - 3 -2 I 2 3 4 X
• £ the position vector of (:) -2

• OD where Dis (1, -4) -3
-4
20 Given':!= -2i - 5 j and q= 3f - j, find the follo,ving vectors in component form.

-
(a) ':! + q (b) 3~ - 2(:! (c) -2':! - 7~
21 Given ':! = -2i - 5 j and q= 3f - j, calculate the n1agnitude of the following vectors.
(a) It:! + ~I (b) 13~ - 2(:! I (c) 1-2(:!- 7~1

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22 Given vectors £ = ( ~) and q = (-:),find the following vectors in colu1nn vector form.
(a) 4£-34 (b) 7q-8~
23 The position vectors of points A and B are OA = 15i - 7 j and OB = -6i - 19j, respectively.
-
(a) Find the vector AB in co1nponent fonn. (b) Calculate IABI.
24 Find the magnitude of each of the following vectors.
(a) q=lOf +24j (b) ~=-6f-3j
- -
25 Resolve the follo\ving vectors into con1ponent forn1 xf + yj. Give answers correct to t\vo deciinal places.
-
(a) q has a n1agnitude of 16 units and 1nakes an angle of 48° to the positive x -axis.
(b) ~ has a n1agnitude of 24 units and n1akes an angle of 148° to the positive x-axis.
26 Find the exact values of the unknown pronu1nerals in the follo\ving vector equations.
(a) (2a-3b)£-2bL =5f-12L (b) (2f + 5)£ +(8-7g)f = f(3f-2f)+2g(f + 4L)
(c) ( a
2
- 9a) f + ( 2b3 + 1) l = 10.!, - 5l (list n1ultiple solutions)
27 Consider the vector q = -9£ - 3 j.
-
(a) Find~- (b) Find the vector~ in the direction of q \Vith a magnitude of 5.
28 Find the scalar product q • ~, given the follo\ving pairs of vectors.

(a) q=-4f + jand~=2£ + 7j (b) q = 3£ - 7 j and~= 6£ - j
- - - -
29 Calculate the scalar product and hence show that the vectors q = -3f + 5zand~= l Of + 6zare perpendicular.
30 For each of the following pairs of vectors, find the scalar projection of q onto~-
(a) q=3f-4zand~=6f+3z (b) q=-5f + 2zand~=f-7z
31 Forq=2f-5jand~=4f+j,find:
-
(a) the vector projection of q onto ~
-
(b) the vector projection of g perpendicular to ~-
32 The points A, Band C have coordinates (2, -5), (5, 9) and (-9, 12) respectively.
(a) Find the vectors AB, BC and AC in column vector form. (b) Find IABI, IBCI and IACI.
(c) Show that MBC is an isosceles triangle.
(d) Find the coordinates of a point D such that ABCD forn1s a rho1nbus.
(e) Find the coordinates of the pomt of mtersection of the diagonals of the rho1nbus ABCD.
2
33 (a) If q = -4e£ + 2ef, e > 0 and lq l = 40, find the exact value of e. (b) Hence, find ~-
(c) Find the vector~ that is parallel to~ with I~ I= 10.
(e) Hence find c.
2
(d) If£= 4Ji - 3fj, f > 0 and 1£1 = 250, find the exact value off.
2
(f) Find the vect;r q in the direction of~ where 14 1 = 20. (g) Find b-d.
34 Consider two vectors q = 2£ -5 j and~= -3£ - j.

(a)
- -
Find the scalar projection of q in the direction of~- (b) Fmd the vector projection of q onto~-
(c) Find the vector projection of g perpendicular to the direction of~-
(d) Hence, express the vector q = 2£ -5l in tenns of projections parallel to and perpendicular to~= -3.!, - l·

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35 MBC is right-angled with M being the n1idpoint of the hypotenuse AC, as shown. C
Let AM = a and BM = b.
- -
A
(a) Find AB and BC in tenns of g and~-
(b) Prove that Mis equidistant from the three vertices of MBC.
B
36 OABC is a parallelogram where OA = ~ and OC = £·Mand N are the midpoints of AB and BC respectively.
(a) Draw a diagra1n of parallelogran1 OABC, sho,ving the given vectors and midpoints.
(b) Find the vectors OM and ON in tenns of g and £ and show the1n on your diagran1.
(c) Hence find the vector MN in tern1s of g and f.
(d) Find vector AC in terms of g and f and show this on your diagra1n.
- - 2- -
(e) Pis a point on OM such that OP =- OM. Find the vector OP in tern1s of a and c.
3 - -
- - 2- -
(f) Q is a point on ON such that OQ = 0N. Find the vector OQ in terms of g and f.
3
(g) Show that vector MN is parallel to and half the n1agnitude of AC.
(h) Find vectors AP, PQ and QC, and hence prove that the diagonal AC is trisected at P and Q.

11.1 VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
You have seen that the area of a region bounded by a line y = r, the x-axis and the y
ordinates x = 0 and x = h can be found by adding up the areas of all the rectangles r -+-~,~
.--~--
of \vidth 8x and height r bet\veen x = 0 and x = h, as 8x becomes vanishingly '
'
''
h ' '
' '
s1nall: A= lim L, f(x)8x .
ox➔O O
This area is given by the definite integral A = oh r dx, \Vhich is A= I s:· rdx = [ rx ]~ = rh. 0
8x ,, X
You should recognise this as the area of a rectangle of sides rand h.

Consider what happens when the area bounded by y = r, the x-axis and the ordinates x = 0 and x = h is rotated about
the x-axis to form a solid of revolution, as shown in the diagram below to the left. The solid of revolution forn1ed is a
cylinder of radius rand height h.
)' The rectangles of side rand width 8x have become circular disks of radius rand
r ,11----,-,----..,.--
1' \ I \ thickness 8x. The volu1ne of this disk is given by flV = n(f ( x) )2 8x. Adding all the disks as
' '
I I IJ I I
h
I I I I I
I
' " '

I I I I
8x gets sn1aller gives V = lim L, 1C (f (x))2 8x, \Vhich is given by the definite integral
'' ' I II I I
ii , 8x➔O
)
'
''
.." ''
"
•"
'
'
h
X
V = 1C I
0
,- dx. 0
•'• • '
'' 2
dx = 1C [ r 2x ] = nr 2h, which you should recognise as the
•
' ""...__ I
_ _,.,__ Thus the volume is V = 1C
Jhr
O
''
O
lix volume of a cylinder of radius rand height h.
When the arc CD of the curve y =f (x) on the interval a < x < b is )'
y= f(x) - 71\D
rotated about the x-axis, the volume of the solid of revolution
formed is given by: C
b 2 b 2
V = 1C • (f(x)) f dx or
f
V=n .Y dx
0 b X

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Example 1
Calculate the volu1ne of the solid forn1ed when the portion of the line y = 2x between x = 0 an d x = 3 is
rotated about the x-axis. What is the naine of the kind of solid formed?
Solution
b 2
Volun1e = n: • y dx
Draw a diagrain:
)'
J
3 2
y= 2x
J
= n: (2x) dx
0
=4n: J:x dx 2
X
3
=4n:(9 - 0)
= 36n: units3
The solid is a right circular cone of base radius 6 and height 3.
Volumes of solids of revolution-formal development

Consider a continuous function fin the interval a< x < b. If
y B
the plane section ABDC is rotated about the x-axis then a solid is
generated with circular vertical cross-sections, as shown in Q
the diagram on the right. This solid is called a solid of revolution.
p R
P(x, y) is a point on the curve y =f(x) an d Q( x + 8x, y + 8y) A
is a point close to P. The ordinate PM describes a circle of area n:y2 ---+-- .t "-----------
', M
-N- - -
D
a11d QN describes a circle of area n:(y + 8y)2. 0
a ' 8x
b
X
'
The typical lower rectangle PRNM describes a cylinder of volume
n:y2 8x and the typical upper rectangle describes a cylin der of
volun1e n:(y + 8y)2 8x. If a typical layer PQNM describes a solid of
volun1e 8V, then:
n:y2 8x < 8V < n: (y + 8y)28x
b b
Thus: I, n:y 2 8x<V< L, n:(y+8y)28x
• •
b
Asbx ➔ O: V = li1n I, n:y 2 8x
lix➔O
•
s:
= n:y2 dx
= s
n::y2 dx
Hence, volun1e of a solid of revolution:
V = n: J:y dx
2
where y = f(x)
Chapter 11 Applications of calculus 231

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Example 2
Find the volu1ne of a right circular cone of height h and base radius r.
Solution
The cone can be considered as a solid of revolution generated y A(/J, r)
by rotating the right-angled triangle OAB about the x-axis.
The equation of OA is y = r;. r
B
b 2 -- ~ -- - -- i--.L...-1---
0
J (/J,O) X
V=n: .Y dx 1
h
2 J'' X dx
V=n: r2x 2 dx= -n:r2 2
Jo h 2
h o 8x
= n:r 2 [ £ 3 ] ''
h2 3 0
n:r2 h3
= --x -
h2 3
= 1n:r2h
Example 3
Find the volu1ne of a sphere of radius r.
Solution
The volun1e of a sphere can be considered as the volu1ne generated by rotating the semicircle defined by
y = ✓r 2 - x 2, -r < x < r, about the x-axis.
y Hence:
V = n: J~,Y dx 2 where y =✓ r 2 - x2
'' '' P(x,y)
' 2
'' ' ' = n: J~,(r 2 2
- x )dx because y = r2 - x2
' ' '
' ' I 0
- - - - - - -,- ~- - .1.1---
o, ' , (r, O) x
= n:[r 2x _ x; ] ~,
' '
' ' 0 I
'I ''
''
----~·,__.,.. =-tl-
8x
= 34 n:r 3
Example 3, above, proves the fonnula for the volun1e of the sphere- a fonnula that you have used for n1any years.
The fonnula for the area of a circle A = n:r2 can si1nilarly be proved using calculus.
Example 4
2
The part of the parabola y = x between x = I and x = 3 is rotated about the y-axis. Calculate the volun1e
generated.

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Solution
y =x:
2
y
x = l, y=l; x = 3,y = 9 V f
= ,r 19x 2dy 2
\Vhere x = y
9 V = ,r f19 y dy
- - - - 'i - - .. ..
- '' '
=n(8z1 - 1)
3 X
-3 -I O I =40,r units 3
Rotating about the y-axis

When the arc CD of the curve x = g (y) on the interval c < y <dis rotated )'
about the y-axis, the volume of the solid of revolution forn1ed is given by: d --------- D
X =g(y)
d 2 ,I 2 C
I I
C -
V = 1C C (g(y )) dy or V = 1C C X dy
0 X
Example 5
2
Find the volun1e of the solid formed \Vhen the area bounded by the parabola y = 4 - x and the x-axis
is rotated about: (a) the x-axis (b) the y-axis.
Solution
(a) Rotate about x-axis: (b) Rotate about y-axis:
y )'
4
y=4 - x'
y=4 - x'
'
' -- - - .... ..
'
•'
•'•
0
'
'
'•
---- - - - - -.. .. .. ..
-- '
'
-2 0 2 X
V=1r f
2
-2
y dx
2
where y =4 - x 2 V = 1C f x 2dx
o4 \Vhere x 2 = 4 - y
= 1C J.: (16 - 8x2 + x 4

)dx =nf o4(4 -y)dx
2
=1C 16x - -8x3 + -X S ]
[ 3 5 -2 =7r[ 4y - ~ 2J :
= n((32 - 634 + 352) - (- 32 + 634 _ 352)) =1r((16 - 8)- o)

= 8,r units3
= 512,r units 3
15

YEAR12
Example 6
Calculate: (a) the area bounded by the curve y = e1. 5X, the coordinate axes and the line x = 2
(b) the volu1ne obtained by rotating this area about the x-axis.
Solution
a y=e
( ) I.Sx
,y= Q,x= 2 )' = el.Sx (b) Volu1ne = 11: f y dx where y =
2
2 5
e'- x .
Area= s: e1.sx dx
y
= 11: f
0
02 e3x dx
)'
=[ ; el.Sx J: =1[e3xJ:
=; (e3 - eo) I
0
= 1(e6 -eo)
2
X o' 2 X
2(e - 1)
3 '
11: (e - 1)
6
2 ''
= 3
= 12.72 units '
3
= 421.4 units3
Example 7
Find: (a) the area bounded by the curve y = log, x, the x-axis and the ordinate x = 2
(b) the volun1e of the solid of revolution forn1ed by rotating the area bounded by the curve y = log,x,
the coordin ate axes and the lin e y = log, 2 about the y-axis.
Solution
(a) Area = f log, x dx
2
1
Instead of trying to evaluate this integral directly, dra,v a diagran1.
y
This problem requires the area of the shaded region BCE. It
can be obtained by finding the area of the rectangle ABCD and
A B subtracting the area ABED.
log,2 1 - - - - - - - ,:,,('"
D E C Because y = log, x, you can write x = e1 .

f log, 2
0 I 2 x At x = 2, y = log,2: Area ABED= Jo e1 dy
=[ eY J:os,2
=e1og,2 -eo
=2- 1
=l
Area ABCD = 2 log, 2

: . AreaBCE =2 log, 2- l
=0.386 units2

YEAR 12
f log,2
(b) Volu1ne = tr Jo x 2 dy \Vhere x= e1
f log, 2 2
1
= 1C Jo e dy
=1[e21J~og,2
= 1(e21og, 2_ eo)
= 1C ( 4 -1) = 31r units 3
2 2
Example 8
Find the volun1e generated by rotating about the x-axis the area beneath the curve y = between x = 4 i-
andx=9. ~x
Solution
Volume= tr J:y dx 2
where y= ✓x
1
y
-
91 '
= 1C J4
- dx
X
''
;'
''
= n[log, x J: 0 I
4 9
X
' '
= n(log, 9- log, 4) '
-'
= tr log, 2.25
= 2.548
EXPLORING FURTHER
=============O
Solids of revolution
Use graphing software to graph and calculate the volume of solids of revolution.
Volume by rotating the region between two curves

When the region bounded by two curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) is rotated )'
about the x-axis, the volu1ne of the solid of revolution fonned is given by
V= 1C J,~([J(x) r -[g(x) J2) dx \Vhere a and b are the abscissae of the points
>
y= g(x)
d - - - - - - - - - - - - ' y =f{x)
of intersection of the two curves, a< band f(x) > g(x).
If the region is rotated about the y-axis, the equation of each curve n1ust first
be written as a function of y , i.e. x = f- 1(y) and x = g-1 (y), and the ordinates
of the points of intersection used, na1nely c and d, as shown in the diagran1. 0 a b X
The volu1ne of the solid of revolution is given by V = 1C J:'([f " (y) ]

1 2
-[g·
1
(y) ]
2
) dy.

YEAR12
Example 9
The curve y = :X: - 3.x2 + 3x and the line y = x intersect at (O, O), A and B. )'
(a) Find the coordinates of A and B.

(b) Calculate the shaded area bet\veen the curves.
A
(c) The shaded region between the curves fro1n Oto A is rotated about the y=x' - 3x'+3x
x-axis. Calculate the exact volume of the solid fonned.
(d) The shaded region between the curves fro1n A to B is rotated about the
x-axis. Calculate the exact volume of the solid fonned. X
(e) Hence find the volume of the solid fonned when the shaded region between the curves from
0 to B is rotated about the x-axis.
Solution
(a) x 3 - 3x2 + 3x = x
3 2
x -3x + 2x=O
2
x(x - 3x + 2) = 0
x(x- l )(x-2)=0
x=O, 1,2
y = 0, 1, 2
1)
A(l, and B(2, 2)
3
(b) Area= J:(x -3x +3x-x)dx+
2
f (x-(x -3x +3x))dx
2
1
3 2
3
= J:(x -3x + 2x)dx +
2
J 1
2
3
(-x +3x -2x)dx
2
4 4
= [: _
3
x +x
2
J: + [- : +x
3
_ x
2
] ~
= !-1 + 1-o + (-4 + 8-4-(-! +1-1))

1 . 2
= - u111t
2
(c) Volu1ne fro1n Oto A= rr J:{(x 3
- 3x + 3x )2 - x }dx
2 2
6 5 4 3 2
= ,r J:(x -6x +15x -18x + 8x )dx
7 4 3 1
x 6 s 9x 8x ]
= ,r [ 7-x + 3x - - 2- + - 3- o
= rr (.!.7 - 1 + 3 - -2.2 + ~3 - o)
= 13,r
42
uni"ts3
(d) Volu1ne fro1n A to B = fx

n:
2
1 {
2
- (x
3
- 3x + 3x
2
)2} dx
= -n: f x
2
6 5 4 3 2
1 ( - 6x + 15x -18x + 8x ) dx
7 4 3 2
x
= -n: [ 7-x6 + 3xs - -9x
2- + 38x ]
t
= -11: (
128
7
- 64 + 96- 72 +
64
3
-[.!.7 - 1+ 3 -
9
+ ~])
2 3
2 3
= :; units
(e) Volu1ne fro1n Oto B =

1
1; 2 • 3
+ :; = 1ru111ts

YEAR 12
EXERCISE 11 .1 VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
1 Find the volun1e of the solid of revolution fonned by rotating about the x -axis the arc of the parabola
y=x2 benveen x= 0 and x = 3.
2 Find the volun1e of the solid of revolution fonned by rotating about the x -axis the line y = 2x behveen
x= 0 andx=4.
3 A cone is fonned by rotating about the x -axis a segn1ent of the line y = 3x between x = 0 and x = 4. The definite
integral used to calculate the volu1ne of this solid is:
4 ,
A
f0
9x· dx 8 C D
4 (a) Find the equation of the line passing through the points (1,0) and (3,4). y (3, 4)
(b) A cone is forn1ed by rotating about the x -axis the segn1ent of the line joining
the points (1, O) and (3,4). Calculate the volun1e of the cone.
0 X
I 3
5 The semicircle y = ✓9 - x 2 is rotated about the x-axis. Calculate the volun1e of the sphere generated
6 The region bounded by the parabola y = x - x 2 and the x -axis is rotated about )'
the x -axis. Find the volun1e of the solid forn1ed.

y =x - r
0 X
7 Find the volun1e of the solid formed \Vhen the region bounded by the parabola y = 1 - x 2 and the x -axis
is rotated about: (a) the x -axis (b) the y -axis.
8 The region bounded by the parabola y = (x - 2)2 and the coordinate axes is rotated about the x-axis. Find the
volu1ne of the solid generated.
9 Find the volun1e of the solid generated when the segn1ent of the line joining the points (O, 3) and (6, O) is
rotated about: (a) the x-axis (b) the y -axis.
10 A rugby ball has a volume approxiinately the sa1ne as the volun1e generated y
2 2
by rotating the ellipse 9x + 16y = 144 about the x-axis. Find its volun1e. 3
0 4 X
-4
-3
2
11 Find the volun1e of the solid formed \Vhen the region bounded by the parabola y = 9 - x and the coordinate
axes is rotated about: (a) the x-axis (b) the y -axis.
12 (a) Find the equation of the line through the points (3, 0) and (4, 10).
(b) A drinking glass has the shape of a truncated cone. The internal radii of the base and the top are 3 cm and
4c1n respectively and its depth is lOc1n. If the base of the glass sits on the x-axis, use integration to find its
capacity.
(c) If the glass is filled with water to a depth of 5 cm, find the volume of \Vater in the glass.
13 A hen1ispherical bo\vl of radius a units is filled with water to a depth of ; units. Use integration to find the
volu1ne of the \Vater.

YEAR12
14 Find the volu1ne of the solid forn1ed when the region bounded by the parabola )'
4
y = 4 - x 2 and the line y = 1 is rotated about the y -axis.
I
0 2 X
2
15 A solid is fonned by rotating about the y -axis the region bounded by the parabola y =x - 2 and the x-axis.
Indicate whether each state1nent below is a correct or incorrect step in calculating the vohune of the solid fonned
2
(a) V=n f ./i(x -2)2dx
2
(b ) V=n- J: (y+2)dy (c) V=n- ['i, +2y] ~ (d ) V=21t'
0 2
2
2 2
16 Use integration to find the volume of the sphere generated \Vhen the circle x + y = 16 is rotated about
the x-axis.
17 The area under the curve y = 2x✓l - x 2 between x = 0 and x = 1 is rotated about the x -axis. Using the
trapezoidal rule with four subintervals, find an approxi1nation for the volu1ne of the solid correct to
hvo decimal places.
2 2
18 Find the volu1ne of the solid forn1ed when the ellipse 4x + y = 16 is rotated about: )'
4
(a) the x-axis (b) the y-axis.
0 X
19 A region is bounded by the curve ✓x +✓Y = 2 and the coordinate axes. )'
4
(a) Calculate the area of the region.
(b) Calculate the volu1ne of the solid generated \Vhen the region is rotated about the
x -axis.
(c) Calculate the volu1ne of the solid generated \Vhen the region is rotated about the
y -axis. 0 4 X
20 The region bounded by the curve xy = 1, the x -axis and the lines x = 1 and x = a, for a > 1, is rotated about the
x -axis. Find V, the volume generated. Hence find Jim V.
a➔~
21 The area bounded by the parabola y = 2x - x2, the y -axis and the line y = 1 is rotated about the x-axis. Find the
volu1ne generated.
22 Find the volu1ne of the solid generated by rotating the region bounded by the parabola y = 1 - x 2 and the lines
x = 1, y = 1 about: (a) the x -axis (b) the y -axis.
23 Find the volu1ne of the cone fonned by rotating the seg1nent of the line x + 2y =4 that is cut off by the axes
about: (a) the x-axis (b) the y -axis.
24 Use the trapezoidal rule with five function values to estiinate the volu1ne of the solid fonned by rotating the
1
curve y = , about the x -axis benveen x = -2 and x = 2.
l+x·
25 The area under the curve y = e-x between x = 0 and x = 1 is rotated about the x-axis. Find the volume of the
solid of revolution.
26 Find the volu1ne generated when the curve y =e', 0.5 < x < 1.5, is rotated about the x -axis.
27 Find the volu1ne generated when the curve y =e-o.sx, -2 < x < 2, is rotated about the x-axis.

YEAR 12
28 Find the volun1e generated when the curve y = ex + e-x between x = - 1 and x = 1 is rotated about the x -axis.
29 (a) Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = e-x, the coordinate axes and the line x = a, a> 0.
(b) Find the limit of this area as a ➔ oo.
(c) Find the volun1e of the solid generated by rotating the region in (a) about the x-axis and find the lin1it of
this volu1ne as a ➔ oo.
30 Find the volun1e of the solid generated by rotating about the x -axis the region enclosed by the curve
y 2 = ~, the x -axis and the ordinates x = 1 and x = 3.
31 Find the volun1e of the solid generated by rotating about the x -axis the area beneath the curve y = .J 1
benveen x = 6 and x = 11. x- 2
32 (a) Given a> 1, sketch the curve y = log,x for 1 < x < a. Find the area enclosed by the curve and the lines
y=O andx= a.
(b) The region enclosed by the curve y = log,x and the lines x = 0, y = log, a and y = 0 is rotated about the
y -axis to forn1 a solid of revolution. Find the volun1e of this solid.
33 Sketch the curve y = : 2 for values of x fron1 x = 1to x = 1. This part of the curve is rotated about the y -axis to
forn1 a solid of revolution. Find its volume.

1
34 Sketch the curve y = .J fron1 x = 0 to x = 5. The region enclosed by the curve, the x -axis and the
4+x
ordinates x = 0 and x = 5 is rotated about the x -axis. Find the volume of the solid fonned.
35 The region enclosed by the curve y = .J 2 and the x -axis between x = 8 and x = 10 is rotated about the
x-7
x -axis. Find the volume of the solid fonned.
36 The region enclosed by the curve y = .Jxx+ 1 and the x -axis between x = 3 and x = 5 is rotated about the x -axis.
Find the volun1e of the solid formed.
2 2
37 (a) Sketch the region bounded by the curves y = 2(x - 1) and y = 1 -x •
(b) Calculate the area of the shaded region.
2 2
(c) The region bounded by the y -axis and the curves y = 2(x - 1) and y = 1 - x for x > 0, is rotated about the
y -axis. Calculate the volu1ne of the solid of revolution generated.
38 The curve y = ✓2 cos( 1x) n1eets the line y = xat the point A(l, 1), as sho,vn in the diagram.
(a) Find the exact value of the shaded area. >'
(b) The shaded area is rotated about the x -axis. Calculate the volun1e of the 2
y= x
solid of revolution forn1ed.
(c) The shaded area is rotated about the y -axis. Write the integral for
I A(l , I)
this volu1ne.
(d) By using a combination of exact integration and the trapezoidal rule, y= V2cos({ x)
as appropriate, calculate the volun1e of the solid in (c).
0 I 2 X
39 In the diagran1 on the right, the parabola y = 4x - x 2 and the line y = 2x intersect
at the points (O, 0) and (2, 4).
(a) Calculate the area of the region bet\veen the curves.
(b) The shaded region between the curves is rotated about the x -axis to form a solid
of revolution. Calculate the exact volun1e of this solid.
(c) The shaded region between the curves is rotated about the y -axis to forn1 a solid
of revolution. Calculate the exact volun1e of this solid.
(0, 0) (0, 4)
X

YEAR12
40 (a) Sketch the region bounded by the curve y = 1 + ✓x and the lines y = 1 and x = 4.
(b) Calculate the area of this region.
(c) This region is rotated around the x-axis to form a solid. Calculate the volu1ne of this solid.
(d) Calculate the volume of the solid fonned if this region is rotated about the y -axis.
2
2 2
41 (a) On the san1e diagran1 sketch the graphs of x + y = 1 for - 1 < x < 0 and : + y 2 = 1 for O ~ x < 2.
(b) An egg is modelled by rotating about the x-axis the curves x 2 + y 2 = 1 for -1 < x < 0 and£ + y 2 = 1
4
for O < x < 2 to form a solid of revolution. Find the exact value of the volu1ne of the egg.
42 A bowl is formed by rotating the curve y = Slog, (x - 1) about the y-axis for O< y < 4. Y
(a) Calculate the volume of the bowl (capacity), giving your Y =810s, (-x - I) 4
y=81og, (x - l)
ans,ver correct to one decimal place. 3

(b) This bowl is to be 1noulded out of plastic with vertical
2
sides and a solid base 0.5 units thick. The cross-section
I
of the bo,vl is shown in the diagra1n, right. Calculate the
volume of plastic used to make the bo,vl. -3 _, 3 X
11.2 INDEFINITE INTEGRALS AND SUBSTITUTION

Some integrals can only be solved using particular substitutions for the variables. In this Mathematics Extension 1
course, any substitutions needed to find an integral are given.
Integration using a substitution can be considered as the converse of the method of differentiating a con1posite
function- it's like using the chain rule backwards.
The aim of a substitution is to transfonn an integral into one that involves a standard result,
f
e.g. u" du= n ~ u"+' + C. Variable substitution works as follows:
1
Let f
y = f(u)du whereu=g(x)
. Yu=J(u)
But dy = dy x du
dx du dx
du
= f(u)x dx
du
f y= f(u)x dxdx
JJ(u) x ~~ dx = Jf (u)du
This 'backwards' fonn of the chain rule is convenient when the substitution of u = g(x) allo,vs a function to be
expressed as the product of: and a function of u. For exan1ple:
2
• Iff(x) = 2x (x
3
- 1)4 then you can substitute u = x
3
- 1. As ~~ = 3x2, you can ,vrite 2x2 as ~ x 3x 2, so that
f(x) is written: f(x)= ~(x 3 -1) 4 x(3x 2 )
= 2.u4 du where u = x 3 -1
3 dx
2 2
• If f (x) = x ../1 + x 2 , you can see that 2x is the derivative of 1 + x , so if you n1ake the substitution u = 1 + x
1
and write x as (2x) , then f (x) = 1u½ ~~ where u = 1 + x2 and~~ = 2x.

YEAR 12
1
• If f (x) = x
2 + 3
, you can see that 2x + 2 is the derivative of x2 + 2x, so if you make the substitution
(x + 2x)
u = x2 + 2x and write x + 1 as 1(2x + 2), then f ( x) = 1u- ~~- 3
• If f ( x ) = x../1- x , then you can 1nake the substitution u = 1 -x. As x = 1 - u, ~~ = - 1, so:

f(x)= -x✓l - x x (- 1)
l du
= -(l - u)u 2 x dx
_ ( 1
-- u 2 - u 2
.:!.) x du
dx
1 i)
du
= ( u 2 - u 2 x dx
du
= f(u) dx
Example 10
Find: (a) I 3x 2 ( x 3 -1 r dx using the substitution u = x3 - 1
(b) Jx✓l + x 2 dx using the substitution u = 1 + x2

()c J( x + l ) dx using
· th e subst1tut1on
2 3
. . u =x 2
+ 2 x.
x + 2x
Solution
3 du 2 , du
(a) u = x - l , dx = 3x (b ) u = 1 + x-, dx = 2x
I3x (x - 1)4 I
2 3
dx= u
4
X ~~dx
= Ju4 du
=lus +C
5
= ~(x 3 - 1)5 +C
2 du
(c) u = x + 2x, dx = 2x + 2
3
J x+l 3 dx= 1 J (2x+2 )(x 2 +2x)- dx
(x 2
+ 2x)
= lJ u-3 xdudx
2 dx
3
=1 J u- du
=1 x ( 12)u-2 +C
- 1
= 2 +C
4( x + 2x) 2
A quick way to check your answer is to differentiate it to see that it gives the integrand.

YEAR12
Example 11
Find: (a) f x .J~l---x dx using the substitution u = 1 - x (b) f✓l + t
t dt using the substitution u = 1 + t
(c) f(3x - 5 )4 dx using the substitution u = 3x - 5.

Solution
du
(a) u = l -x,dx= - 1,x = l -u
fx✓l - xdx= f(1- u)u½x:dx

= -f(ut - ut ) c- 1)dx
= - f( (note that
u½ - u½) du du= ( -l)dx)
2 1 2 .2.)
= - ( 3u2- 5u2 + C
2 .2. 2 1
= - (l - x) 2 - - (l - x) 2 +C
5 3
du du
(b) u = 1 + t, dt = 1, t = u - 1 (c) u = 3x - 5, dx = 3
f ✓l + t ✓
f
t dt = u - 1 x du
u dt
x dt f (3x - 5)4 dx = i f 3(3x - 5)4 dx
= lfu4x
= f(u½ - u-½
dudx
) <1)dt 3 dx
= f (u½ - u-½) du (notethatdu= (l)dt)

= ifu4 du
= j X ~u5 +C
3 l.
=2.u2 - 2u 2 +C = ..l.(3x - 5)5 + C
3 15
3 I
= ~(l + t) 2 - 2(l +t)2 +C
EXERCISE 11 .2 INDEFINITE INTEGRALS AND SUBSTITUTION
1 Find: (a) f x 2- 1r using the substitution = x2- 1

2x ( dx u
(b) f 3x 2( x + 4}3 using the substitution u = x + 4

3
dx
3
(c) fx 2✓x + 1 using the substitution = x +

3
dx u
3
1.
2 Find: (a) f(2t + 1)3 using the substitution u = 2t + 1

dt
(b) f .j ~x using the substitution = x 4

X -4
dx u
2
-
(c) f( + 1)( x 2 + + 2 )5 using the substitution = x2 +

2x x dx u x + 2.
3 Using u = 2x + 3, f( )3 = ...
dx
2x + 3
1 - 1 +C
A 4(2x + 3)4+ C B ( +C C -4(2x + 3)2+ C D
4 2x + 3)4 4(2x + 3)2

YEAR 12
4 Find: (a) J(3- 2x) dx using the su bstitution u = 3 - 2x

6
(b) J 2
3x + 1
2
dx using the su bstitution u = 3x2+ 2x + 5
(3x +2x+5)
(c) I(x 2
- r
2x )( x 3 - 3x2 + 1 dx using the substitution u = x 3 - 3x2 + 1.
5 Find: (a) I r
3x2 ( x 3 + 1 dx using the su bstitution u = x + 1
3
(b) J✓l ~ t 2
dt using the substitution u = 1 - t2
(c) J(3x - 5)i dx using the substitution u = 3x - 5.
6 Find: (a) J2t.J1 - t dt using the substitution u = 1 - t2

2
Ia - x dx using
. th e sub st1tut1on
. . u =a - x
(b)
Jx v 2 2 2 2
(c) Jz <fz 2 + 1 dz using the su bstitution u =z2 + 1.

7 Find: (a) Jy .Jy + 1dy using the substitution u =y + 1
(b) J(x-x 1) dx using the substitution u = x - 1
3
(c) J✓2: _ 1 dx using the substitution u = 2x - 1.

J
8 (a) Find x 2 .J1 + x 3 dx using the su bstitution u = 1 + x
3
.
(b) Find Jx .J1 + x

2 3
dx using the substitution u =x 3.
(c) Why is the substitution in (a) easier to use than the substitution in (b)?
9 z = x .Jx 2 - 4 and y = 2 at x =
3
✓5. Use the su bstitution u = x 2 - 4 to find yin terms of x.
2
10 If j '(x) = .J x for all x andf(O) = 2, use the substitution u = x + 1 to findj(x).
2
x +l
11 ddx = .J t - l and x = 10 when t = 0. Use the substitution u = t2 - 2t + 4 to find x in terms oft.
2
t t - 2t + 4
3
12 Given that ddBr = and r(O) = 0, use the su bstitution u = 1 - r to find r in terms of 0.
(1-r)4
13 At any point \Vhere x >~,the gradient of a curve is given by Z= ✓2x -1. If the point (2.5, 9) is on the curve,
use the su bstitution u = 2x - 1 to find the equation of the curve.
14 Given that dxdt = 1 and x = 0 \vhen t = 0, use the substitution u = 4 - x to find x in tern1s oft.
2(4-x) 2
11.3 DEFINITE INTEGRALS AND SUBSTITUTION

When using a substitution to evaluate a definite integral you n1ust take care with the li1nits of integration. The
original li1nits are for values for x, bu t after su bstitution the variable will beco1ne u (or som e other new variable), so
the lin1its sin1ilarly need to becon1e values for u (or the other new variable). To do this, su bstitute the lin1its into the
change-of-variable equation to find the lin1its for the new variable.

YEAR12
Example 12
Evaluate: (a) f 2x✓
1
2
x 2 - 1 dx using the substitution u = x2 - 1
(b) J x✓4 - x dx using the substitution u =4 -x

3
-5
(c) J:x 2
(x
3
r
+ 1 dx using the substitution u=x + 1.
3
Solution
(a) u = x 2 - 1, du
du
dx = 2x (b) u=4-x, dx =- 1
2
Limits: for x = 1, u = 1 - 1 = 0 x=4-u, so x✓~
4---x =(4-u)✓u
2
for x = 2, u = 2 - 1 = 3 or -x✓4 - x =(u - 4)✓u
f
2
2x✓x 2 - l dx= f ✓uxdudx
3
Limits: for x = -5, u = 4 + 5 = 9
1 Jo dx for x = 3, u = 4 - 3 = 1
J x✓4 - xdx= f (u - 4)✓u x ddudx

3 1
= J:utdu
~ 9 X
=[~u½J: = f~( u½ - 4u½ )du

=~(31 - 0) =2✓3
1
= [ lu½ - 4xlu½]
5 3 9
3 du 2
=(~ - ~) - ( ~ x 9½ - ~ x9½ )
(c) u = x + 1, dx = 3x
Lim its: for x = 0, u = 1
3
for x = 1, u = 1 + 1 = 2 =2. _ .8. _ 2. x 35 + i x 33
5 3 5 3
= - 412
15
2
= l [l u5]
3 5 I
= ..l..[u5]2
15 I
= ..l..(32- 1)=1.!.
15 15
Useful result
J:f (x )dx = - f f (x )dx
ha If you reverse the lin1its of integration, you change the sign of the integral.
In Example 11 (b) the integral JI(u - 4ul)du

9
l2 2 could have been written as - J'(u - 4ul)
1
l2 2 du.
Check that this integral gives the san1e ans,ver.
EXERCISE 11 .3 DEFINITE INTEGRALS AND SUBSTITUTION
1 Evaluate: (a) J:x✓l - x 2

dx using the substitution u = 1 -x2
(b) J x✓2 - x dx using the substitution u = 2 - x

-1
2
2
(c) J .Jx-~x+ 1 dx using the substitution u =x + 1.
0
2

YEAR 12
5
2 Evaluate: (a)
I 1.
.J2- 2x 2 dx using the substitution u = 2x - x 2
o.5 2x -x
(b) J:x .Jx -1 dx using the substitution u =x - 1

0.5 X ,
(c)
J-o.s 1- x 2
.J dx using the substitution u = 1 - x-.
.Jj
3 Using the substitution u =
2
1+x ,
J o
.J x , dx = ...
1+ x -
A 0.5 B 1 C 2 D ✓3-1
4 Evaluate: (a) f 4
3 ( 2x - 3 )( x
2
- 3x + 2 )2 dx using the substitution u = x
2
- 3x + 2
2
(b) J x , dx using the substitution u = x 2 + 2
o (x2+2t
(c) f ✓2t + 1 dt using the substitution u =2t + 1.
4
1.5
5 Evaluate: (a) Jo .Jl t+t dt using the substitution u = 1 + t

1
(b) J:3x 2
( r
x 3 - 1 dx using the substitution u = x 3 - 1
(c) J:. x .Ja 2

-
2
x dx using the substitution u =a
2
- x
2
•
6 Evaluate: (a) J0,fi z <fz 2 + 1dz using the substitution u =z2 + 1

(b) J:x .Jx 2
- 4 dx using the substitution u = x
2
- 4
(c) J✓2x -1 dx using the substitution u =2x- 1.

5
7 Evaluate: (a) J:y .Jy + 1 dy using the substitution u =y + 1

4
(b) J x✓l6- x
0
2
dx using the substitution u = 16 - x
2
(c) J x( 3x - 1)4 dx using the substitution u = 3x - 1.

-I
I
8 (a) EvaIuate
JI
2
✓
4-X 2
. th e su bstltutlon
2x dx using . . u = 4 - xi .
(b) EvaIuate
J .J
I
2 2x dx using
4-X-
. th e subst1tut1on
, . . u =xi .
(C) Why is the substitution in (a) easier to use than the substitution in (b)?
2
9 Using the substitution u = 1 - x , calculate the area bounded by the curve y = x✓l - x 2 , the x -axis and the
lines x = 0 and x = 1.
10 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = .J x , the x-axis and the lines x = ✓2 and x = ✓S.
2
x - l
2 2
11 Sketch the curve defined by y = x ( 1 -x) and find the area of the loop. Use the substitution u = 1 - x.
2
12 Iff(x) = x (x - 3), calculate the area between the x-axis, the lines x = 4 an d x = 6 and the curve y = .Jf (x).
Use the substitution u = x - 3.

YEAR12
13 Calculate the area of the region bounded by the curve y = .J : ,the x-axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 2✓3.
Use the substitution u = x 2 + 4. x +4
Useful result
You n1ay have noticed that for an integral of the forn1 J f'(x)(f(x))" dx, using the substitution u =f(x) gives
t= f'(x) so that the integral beco1nes: J f'(x)(f(x))" dx= Ju" du
= 1 u"+1+ C = 1 (J(x))" +1+ C

n+l n+ l
If you can recognise that Jf'(x )(f(x) )" dx = n ~ 1 (f (x) )"+ + C, you can obtain your answer faster. This result will
1
be especially useful in section 11.6 (page 250) when integrating powers of trigonometric functions.
2 2
11.4 INTEGRATION OF sin x AND cos x
Jsin 2 xdx and Jcos2 xdx cannot be found without using a substitution. However, a useful substitution comes fron1 the
fonnulae for cos 2x. This n1ay not be given in a question, but you n1ust be able to use it when necessary.
2 2
The in1portant results are as follo\vs: cos2x = cos x - sin x
. cos 2 x + s,n-
U sing · ' x = 1: cos 2x = 2 cos2 x - 1
. cos2 x = 1 + c~s 2x
Thus: Jcos 2
xdx = 1J(1 + cos2x)dx
= 1(x + 1sin 2x) + C
= l.2 x + l.sin2x
4
+C
2
Sin1ilarly: cos2x = 1 - 2sin x
sin2 x = l-cos2x
2
Thus: Jsin2 xdx = 1J(l -cos2x)dx

= i(x -1 sin 2x) + C
= 1 x- 1 sin
. 2 x+ C
2 4
Example 13
(b) Evaluate J_"~cos 2 xdx.
2 2
J
(a) Find 3 sin xdx. J
(c) Find cos 3x dx.
2
Solution
(a) 3Jsiii xdx = 3 x 1J(1- cos2x)dx
=l(x-sin 2x) + c= 3x _ 3sin2x +C
2 2 2 4

YEAR12
EXERCISE 11.4 INTEGRATION OF sin2 x AND cos 2 x
1 Find: (a) f2cos xdx 2

(b) f2sin xdx 2
f dx
(c) sin
2
;
(d) f2cos dx 2
; (e) fsin 3xdx 2
(f) fcos 4xdx 2
,r
(a) f 2sin xdx f sin xdx (c) f; cos x dx

,r 2 ,r 2 2
2 4
2 Evaluate: (b)
0 0
6
f 2,r
(d) ,. cos 3dx
2X
(e) 4 f"
;sin 4xdx 2
,r
(f) 2 f; cos 3xdx

2
2 12 6
3 The region under the curve y = sin x behveen x = 0 and x = tr is rotated about the x -axis. The volun1e of the
solid of revolution fonned is given by:
B tr J:sinxdx D tr f: sinx dx
2
4 The region under the curve y = cosx between x =: and x = 1is rotated about the x-axis. Find the volume of
the solid of revolution formed.
5 The region under the curve y = sin x behveen x = 0 and x = tr is rotated about the x -axis. Find the volu1ne of
the solid of revolution formed.
6 The gradient at the point (x,y) of the functiony= f(x) is given by

point (0,-2). Find y where x = 1·
i =sin 2 x. The curve passes through the
d 2y
7 If dx 2 = 2cos 2 x and when x = 1,dydx = 0, y = 0, then find y in terms of x.
8 The region bounded by the curves y = cos 2x and the x-axis between x = 0 and x = 1is rotated about the
x -axis. Calculate the exact value of the volu1ne of the solid of revolution fonned.
9 The region bounded by the curves y = sin 3x, the x -axis and the ordinate x = ~ is rotated about the x-axis.
Calculate the exact value of the volu1ne of the solid of revolution formed.
10 The region bounded by the curves y = sin x, y = cosx and the x -axis between x = 0 and x = 1is rotated about
the x-axis.
(a) Find the point of intersection of the hvo curves.
(b) Calculate the exact value of the volu1ne of the solid of revolution formed.
11 The region bounded by y = sin x, y = cosx and the y-axis between x = 0 and x = 1is rotated about the x -axis.
Calculate the exact value of the volu1ne of the solid of revolution formed.
12 (a) Sketch the region bounded by the curve y = sin x + cos x and the coordinate axes in the first quadrant.
Show the intercepts on the axes.
(b) Calculate the area of the region in part (a).
(c) The region in part (a) is rotated about the x-axis to form a solid of revolution. Calculate the volun1e of the
solid formed.
11.5 INTEGRALS OF THE TYPE f '(X)(f(X) )ndx f

You have seen this type of integral before (e.g. with integrals like 2x(x 2 + 1)3 dx = f l (x + 1) + C). This section will
2 4
f 2
consider trigono1netric integrals such as cosxsin xdx, i.e. wheref(x) = sinx and f'(x) = cosx. In trigonometric
integrals of this type the substitution will not always be given.

YEAR 12
Example 16
Jr
J
(a) Find cosx sin x dx. 2
(b) Evaluate J~ sinxcos 2 xdx.
3
Solution
(a) Jcosxsin 2 xdx: Letu = sin x,t=cosx
2
J cosxsin xdx = J u x
2
~~ xdx
= J u 2 du
= l u 3+C= l sin 3x +C
3 3
2 2 3
If you can recognise that J cosxsin xdx is of the form J f'(x)(J(x)) dx = (/(x)) + C, 1
2 3
then you can write the ans,ver iin1nediately as J cos x sin x dx = sin x + C. 1
(b) f ;" sin xcos 2 xdx: Let u = cosx,:= - sinx Forx=n u= l·forx=:lt u = O
3
3' 2' 2'
" 2
f ; sinxcos xdx =
3
fo- u x dd~ x du
1
2
2
= Jo- u du
1
2
=[- l u3]o =O+ l x(.1)3 = -1

3 l 3 2 24
2
Note: The result J1 - u du=

0
2
2
f
l.
2 2
0 u du (reversing the li1nits of the integral and changing the sign of the
,r ,r.
integrand) could have been used. Also: J; sinxcos 2 xdx =- f ; (-sin x)cos 2 xdx
3 3
,r
= -[i cos3x J;3
Substitution simplified
If you treat : like a fraction, then ~~ x dx = du.
If u = sinx, then t =cosx can be ,vritten as du = cosxdx.
You are really replacing f'(x)dx by du. This 1nakes the algebra involved n1uch siinpler.
Example 17
2 2
Find J tan xsec xdx.
Solution
2 2 2 2
Let u = tanx, du = sec xdx: J tan xsec xdx = J u du
= l u 3+ C= l tan 3x+C
3 3

YEAR12
EXERCISE 11.5 INTEGRALS OF THE TYPE Jf '( x )( f (x )(dx

1 Find: (a) f sinxcos xdx 2
(b ) ftanxsec xdx 2
(c) fsinxcos x dx 3
fcosxsin xdx J(1+cos2x)sinxdx (f) fsinxcosxdx

4
(d) (e)
,r ,r
2 Evaluate: (a) f~ sinxcos xdx 3
(b) J:,, sin xcosxdx
3
(c) J tanxsec xdx
4 2
4
0
3,r
(d) f; sin xcosxdx (e) J: 2sin0cos 0d0 2
(f) f5,, cos x - 1)dx
2
2
(
11.6 INTEGRALS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

2 2
If an expression of the fonn a - x occurs in the integrand, the standard trigonometric substitutions x = a sin 0
2 2
or x = a cos 0 ,vill help to find the integral. If an expression of the forn1 a + x occurs in the integrand, then the
standard substitution is x = a tan 0.
Note: In this course, if these substitutions are needed they should be given in the question.
Example 18
Evaluate J ✓4 - x dx using the substitution x = 2sin0, - ~ < 0 < ~.
2
0
2
Solution
x=2sin0, - f~0~f; ~=2cos0
✓4 - x 2 = .J4 - 4 sin 2 0 = .J4cos 2 0 = l2cos0I=2cos0 because - ~ <0<~ :. cos0>0

Limit for x = 2: 2=2sin0 sin0=1 0=re
' ' 2 dx
Limit for x = 0: 0 = 2sin0, sin0= 0, 0= 0 f-.J4 - x
,
0
2
dx=
0
Jr
f 2 2cos0xd
0
xd0
Jr
= f 02 2cos0X2cos0d0
Jr
)' =2f 2 2cos 2 0d0

0
=2 J (l+cos20)d0
0
Jr
2
2 ,-.._
= 2[ 0+ sin20 1 J: II.
1
= 2[ ~ + sin re - (0 + sin 1 O)]
0 2 X =2Xre=re
2
2 2
.J
Geon1etrically, the graph of y = 4 - x 2 between x = 0 and x = 2 is the quarter of a circle ,vith equation
2
x + y = 4 (in the first quadrant). This integration thus proves the fonnula for the area of a circle: A= ,r;r •
2
Area=! rer = ! x re x 4 = re when r = 2.
Note: If the restriction on 0 had been different, e.g.1 < 0 < 3 f ,then cos0 > 0 would not be true and you would
not be able to use ✓4-x 2 = ✓4cos 2 0 =2cos0. Instead, you may have needed ✓4 -x 2 = ✓4cos 2 0 = - 2cos0.
Remember: Ahvays take care with trigonometric substitutions and check the sign of the function for the given domain.

YEAR 12
Example 19
1
Evaluate rt
Jo l +x 2 dx using the substitution x = tan 8.
Solution
Method l Method2
dx 2 1 1 1 2
x = tan 8, dB = sec 8: x = tan8, dx = sec 8d8
l+x 2 l+ tan 2 8 sec 2 8
Limit for x = 1: 1 = tan0 8= 1t:
Liinit for x = 1: 1 = tan8 8= 1t: ' 4
' 4
Limit for x = 0: 0 = tan8, 8= 0
Liinit for x = 0: 0=tan8,8=0
rt 1 dx -r 1 1 xdxxd8 rt -1-dx=
2
r4
-
1
Jr
- -sec
2
2
8d8
Jo1+x Jo l+ tan 8
Jo1+x2 - Jo sec 2 8 d8
=J
lL
4
1
xsec 8d8 2 =rJo sec1 8 xsec2 8d8
Jr
4
2
2
o sec 8 JC
,r
= fo4d8 =f o4 d8
,r
-- [0]1O -- 1t: =[B]3=1

4
Example 20
J1- -
F.111d - x dx using
sin- . th e su bst1tutJ011
. . u = x + cosx.
x+cosx
Solution
u = x + cosx, du= ( 1 - sinx) dx: I x+cosx
1-sin x dx= f du
u
=lnlul+C
=lnlx+cosxl+C
This exa1nple involves an indefinite integral, so you must ren1ember to resubstitute for u at the end to 1nake
the ans\ver a function of x.
EXERCISE 11 .6 INTEGRALS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
1 Evaluate J: ✓16- x 2 dx using the substitution x = 4 sin 8. What shape have you just found the area of?
2 Evaluate J~x .Jl-x dx using the substitution x = sin8.

2
2
3 Evaluate r dx using the substitution x = 2 tan 8.
Jo 4+x 2
4 EvaIuate o.s dx . th e su bstJtutJon

. . x = sin
. 8.
Jo ( l -x2)2 .1 using
5 Evaluate f;" sin xcos xdx using sinxcosx = !sin2x.

2 2

YEAR12
I
6 Evaluate J--~✓1-x
x
2 2
dx using the substitution x = cos 0.
7 El
va uate f2
• ✓l -x 2 dx.
1
X
using th e sub
2
. . x = cos 0.
st1tut1on
8 Evaluate J 0
l. dx 2
- 2 1+ 4x
using the substitution x = 1
2
tan 0.
9 Evaluate Jx✓l6-x
0
4 2
dx using the substitution x = 4 sin 0.
1
10 Evaluate f..fj dx using the substitution x = 3 tan 0.
Jo 9 +x 2
II. 2
11 Evaluate Jo (tansecx+3)
4
x 4
dx using the substitution u = tanx + 3.
etanx
12 Use the substitution u = tanx to find JCOS 2
X
dx.
. . u = cos x + sin
13 Use th e substJtutJon . x to find s1nx
. - cosxdx. J
smx+ cosx
1
14 (a) By\vritingsecx= ,show that dd (secx)=secxtanx.
COSX X
secxtanx
(b) Using the substitution u = 1 + secx, find I 1+secx
dx.
Summary of integration techniques

2
• f J(u)x:xdx= f f(u)du • fsin xdx=1f(l -cos2x)dx
• Jf'(x)(f(x))" dx= n~ l (J(x))"+' +C 2

• fcos x dx=1f(l + cos2x)dx
11.7 DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

dy dx
The result - x - = 1
dx dy
Proof Demonstration
I
Let y = f(x). Differentiate both sides \vith respect toy: 3
Let y=x - 1 x=(y+ l)3
d d
-dx = -1(y+ l )_23
- (y)= - (f(x))
dy dy dy =3x2
dy 3
dx
d dx
l=dx(f(x))xdy (using chain rule on RHS)
-dy X-dx =3x 2 X-1 ( y+l )_13
dx dy 3
l = dy xdx x2
dx dy - - - -1
(y+ 1)3
dy 1
Hence dx = ( : )
x2
=- = l
x2

YEAR 12
Derivative of sin-1x )'
sin-ix is defined for -1 < x < 1. Jr

2
Let y = sin- 1 x .
x=s1nywhere--TC< y <TC
2 - - -2 y = sin·• x
dx
- =cosy
dy
0 X
dy = 1 notingthatcosy*O :. _ TC<y< 1C -1 I
dx cosy 2 2
. cos 2 y + sin dy _ 1
N O\V, using , 2
y = l: Which one?
dx - +✓1-sin2 y --
Jr
2
As y is an angle in the first or fourth quadrants, cosy must be positive.

1 1
dy for-1 <x< 1
dx = ✓l -sin y - .J1-x
2 2
Note that the derivative is not defined at x = +1 (the graph of sin- 1 x

d ( -I ) 1
has vertical tangents at its endpoints). - sin X =
dx
.Jl -x2 , -l<x<l
Also note that the derivative is positive for all x in its do1nain
(as sin- 1 xis an increasing function) .
Derivative of sin- 1 ~
a )'
sin- 1 : is defined for -a< x < a. Jr

2 y= sin•'~
. -1 X
Let y=s!n a .
x=as1ny,- 1(<
_ y <1(
2
_
2
X
dx -a a
- =acosy
dy
dy 1
- =
dx acosy
i.e. for-a<x< a d ( . -1
dx sm ax) = .Ja 2 1-x2 , -a<x<a
y
1
Derivative of cos- x
cos- 1 xis defined for -1 < x < 1.
- 1
Let y=cos x : . X = COS y, 0 < y < 1C
dx .
- =-s1ny 2
y= cos· 1 x -d (cos -1 x ) = --;===,
1 - 1< x < 1
dy dx .J1 - x2
dy 1
- =-- -
for O<y< 1C
dx sin y
dy 1 -1 0 I
X
i.e. for-1 <x< 1

dx =- .J1-x2
1 2
As for the derivative of sin- x, the last step again uses cos2 y + sin y = 1.
Note that the gradient is negative for all x in the don1ain.
Note also that the don1ain of the derived function is different to the do1nain of cos- 1 x. Why?

YEAR12
y
1
Derivative of cos- ~
a
cos-1 x is defined for -a< x < a.
a X
y = cos·•-
-1 X
a
Let y=cos - :. x=acosy,O<y<n
a
dx .
- =-as1ny
dy X
-a 0 a
dy 1
. - =-- - for O<y< n
. . dx asmy
. dy 1 X)
i.e. -d =-.Ja-, -x 2 for-a <x<a - d ( cos-1 - =- -== 1 ,-a<x<a
x dx a ,Ja2- x 2
Derivative of tan- 1x
)'
tan_, xis defined for all x.
x= t any - -n <y< -n
- I
Lety= tan x ,r
' 2 2 2
dx 2
dy =sec y
,
=l+tan- y 0 X
. dy _ 1 y = tan· 1 x
" - -n <y< -n
,or
· · dx- l+tan 2 y 2 2
1
for all x
--
,r
2
l+x 2
-d ( tan -I x ) = 1 2 for all x
dx l+x
Derivative of tan- 1 !!..

a
-1 X
tan a is defined for all x.
Lety= tan
-1 X
a x = a tan y, -1< y < 1
dx 2
- =asec y
dy
=a(l+tan 2 y)
dy _ 1 " - -n <y< -n
,or
dx - a(l+tan 2 y) 2 2
- 2
a +x-
a
, for all x !!...(tan-,
dx a
x)
= 2
a +x
2
afor all x
Example 21
Find the derivative of cos- 1 (2x + 1), stating the values of x for \Vhich it is defined.

YEAR 12
Solution
cos- 1 (2x + 1) is defined for -1 < 2x + 1 < 1 )'
1.e. for-2<2x<O
-l<x<O
Hence cos- 1 (2x + 1) is defined for -1 < x < 0. y = cos-• (2x + I)
Let y = cos- • (2x + 1)

=cos_, u \Vhere u = 2x + 1 tr
- 2
dy dy du
- = - X-
dx du dx
1
=- --.===X 2
✓l -u
2
0 X
- 1 - 0.5
2
provided-1 <x< 0
-- ✓l -(2x + l) 2
2
-- .J-4x(x+ l )
Example 22
Find the derivative of xcos- 1 (2x + 1), stating the values of x for which the derivative is defined.
Solution
Following the previous exa1nple and using the product rule:
-dd ( xcos - I ( 2x+ l )) =x x

x
.J-4x(x+
-2
l)
-I (
+ cos 2x + l )
- 2x
- .J +cos- 1 (2x+ 1)
-4x(x+l)
On the RHS, the first term is defined for -1 < x < 0 and the second term is defined for -1 < x < 0. Thus the
co1nplete RHS is defined for -1 < x < 0 and these are the values for x for \Vhich the derivative is defined.
Example 23
Differentiate sin- 1 (cosx). Hence sketch the graph of y = sin- 1 (cosx) for -n: < x < n:.
Solution
Let y = sin- 1 (cosx)
= sin_, u \Vhere u = cos x
dy dy du
- = - X- n: n:
dx du dx X -n: -2 0 n:
2
1 .
= -.===X(- s1nx) n: n: n:
.J1 - u 2 y -2 0 2 0 -2
- sm x
- .J1 - cos 2 x
- s,nx
= ✓su1 2 x
- s,nx
lsinxl

YEAR12
Now lsinxl = sinx ,or

C s111x
• >O.
_ , 1.e. ,or
C: O<_x< _ 1r )'
,or • x <O
sin . ,or
_ , 1.e. -tr <
_ x <O
_
=-sinx C C:
- smx
- -= - 1 for O< x< n: ,r
. dy sm x 2
.. - = y- sin•• (cos x)
dx - smx for-rr<x<O
. =l
- smx
0 X
dy is not defined when x = -tr, 0, n:. If there were 2

- ,r
2 -- ,r ,r ,r
dx
no restrictions on the domain, the graph would
repeat itself (i.e. it would be periodic with period 2rr).
,r
2 --
The range is -1 1 < y < and the derivative is not
defined for any values of x = nn:, n = 0, + 1, +2, ...
Note that these sharp peaks are not turning points, because the function here changes sharply instead of
smoothly. The point \Vhere the function changes sharply is called a cusp.
Example 24
, -I - I 1r
(a) Differentiate sin- 1 x + cos- 1 x. (b) Hence s h ow th at sin x + cos x =
2
Solution
(a) d ( -I -I ) 1 1 O
- sin x +cos x = ~ - ~=
dx v i - x- vi - x-
(b) sin- 1 x + cos- 1 x is a constant as its derivative is 0.
The value of the constant can be found by evaluating the function at any x in its domain.
1 1
Wherex=O: sin- 0+cos- 0=0 + 1r =n:
2 2
1 1
sin- x + cos- x = 1 (You may wish to verify this by substituting other values for x.)
EXERCISE 11 .7 DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1 The derivative of sin- I 3x is:

1 3 1 3
A 8 C D
2 Differentiate the following.

-I 2 1
(a) y = tan - i Sx (b) (c) y = tan x (d) y = (tan- x)2
-I
(e) y = tan - I { ✓x. ) (f) y= tan e
- l x
(g) y =e"'" X (h) y= extan- 1 x
(i) y= sin-
1
(~) 0) y= 2cos- ( 3
1
f) (k) y = log,(sin- 1 x) (I) y = log, (cos- 1 2x) 2
1 1 • - I
(n) y = -l (0 ) y =XSU1 X
COS X
2
(q) y = cos- 1 1- x ) (s) y = tan x tan- 1 x
( l+ x 2
3 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2 tan - i (2x + 1) at the point on the curve where x = -1.

YEAR 12
4 (a) If y = tan- • (tan2x), show that ;i = 2 for all x in its do1nain.

(b) Explain why the function is undefined at x = + 1·
Sketch the graph of y = tan- (tan 2x) for -1< x < 1·
1
(c)
Hence show that f tan- (tan2x)dx = - -

Jr 7 1C2
6 1
(d) ,.
8 576
5 Ify = cos- • x + cos- i (-x), find dy and show that y = tr for all x in the do1nain.
dx
6 Ify = sin- • x + sin- • (- x), find dy and sho\v that y = 0 for all x in the do1nain.
dx
7 (a) Differentiate x tan- 1 x. (b) Hence find tan - 1 xdx. f
,tan- (log' x) dx. 1
(c) Use the substitution u = log x to evaluate
' J I X
8 (a) State the do1nain of f(x) = tan- 1 x + tan-•{!).
(b) Find f'(x). (c) Findf( l ) andf(-1). (d) Sketch the graph of y = f (x).
9 Find the coordinates of any stationary points on the curve y = 2sinx + 3cosx, 0 < x < 1, and detennine
their nature.
11.8 INTEGRATION INVOLVING INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In the previous section the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions \Vere established. Fron1 these,
it follows that:
1 dx . -I x C -1 X
f ✓a2-x2 =sm - + -a<x<a
a ' f ✓
a2 -x2
dx=cos- 1 - +C,-a <x<a
a
Example 25
Find: (c)
f 4+x1 dx2
Solution
(a) f ✓4 -x
1
dx=sin_1 x+C(asa=2) (b) f -ldx=cos- 1 ~+C(asa=3)
2 2 ✓9-x 2 3
(c) f4 +x1 2
dx=.ltan_
2
1
x+C(asa=2)
2
(d) f ✓3-x
2
2
dx=2sin- 1 ~ + C(asa= ✓3)
v3
2
So1netimes a slight adjustment is necessary to n1ake the coefficient of x equal to 1.
Example 26
Find: (a) f ✓l - 9x
1
2
dx (b) f 1+4x
1 dx
2 (c) f ✓4-25x 2
2
dx

YEAR12
Solution
1 1 1
(a) J 2 dx=f dx= l I dx= l sin- 3x + C
1
(asa = ~)
.J1- 9x ✓9 (~ - x2) 3 ✓~ x2 3
(b) Jl+~x 2dx= ! I 1

l~x 2 dx= ! X2tan- 2x+C= 1 tan - 2x + C
4
1
( asa = 1)
2 1 1
(c) J dx=2f dx= l I dx=lsin_ Sx + C
1
(asa = ~)
✓4-25x2 ✓2s(2~ - x2 ) 5 ✓is xi 5 2
Example 27
2.s dx .fj dx J!
Evaluate: (a) 1 .J25 - x 2
0
(c)
J l +x 2
1
(d) dx
-¼.J1- 4x 2
Solution
(a) f2.5 dx
= [ sin-I X r·S (b) J.fj -l dx = [ cos-i x ].fj
Jo .J2s - x 2 5 - F3 .J4 - x 2 2 - Fl
=sin- 1 1 - sin- 1 0 1
=cos- ./f - cos-
1
(- .Jf)
=:-o = : - s;
1C
=6 =- 2:
(c) J.fj 1+dxX2 = [ tan- x].fj

I
1
I
(d) As ✓l - 4x 2 = ✓4( ! - x 2 )
= tan - 1 ✓3 - tan- 1 1 =2✓! x
2
=1C _ 1C
3 4 lJ. dx Jl. dx
= .JI.
12
_"i_4 2 ~p 2
✓1 - 4 X =2
1
4 - - X
4

YEAR12
Example 28
I
Evaluate J 2 sin- 1 xdx.
0
Solution
There is no standard derivative that yields sin- 1 x, so finding its priinitive is beyond the scope of this Mathen1atics
Extension 1 course. (However, the primitive can be found using the 1nethod of 'mtegration by parts' as studied in
the Mathe1natics Extension 2 course.)
It is possible to evaluate this integral by an alternative n1ethod. You can regard the mtegral as an area and use your
kno\vledge of inverse functions to determine this area.
The graph off(x) =sin_, x is shown in the left diagram belo\v. The shaded area A is the area bounded by the graph,
the x-axis and the Imes x = 0 and x = 1· This area is equal to J!sinxdx• 1
The graph of g(x) = sin x is sho\vn at right,

\Vith the reflected area A no\v enclosed by ,r Y /(x) = sin•' x
1
this graph, y = and the y -axis. The shaded 2 )'
g(x) = sin x
area B on the diagran1 can be detennined I
by integration, and so:

Jr
l.
6
J sm- 1 xdx = Area of A
2 A
0
= Area of rectangle _, 0 I I
X Jr
X
2 2
(i.e. A + B) - Area of B
J6sm· x dx
IL _,
= 6 x2
TC 1-
0
= TC - [- cosx ]g " --2

Jr
12
TC ✓3
= 12 + 2 - l
EXERCISE 11.8 INTEGRATION INVOLVING INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1 I dx
✓16-(x + l) 2 - ...
(let u=x + 1)
. _, x +l C _, x +l 1 . _, x+l C
A sin- 1 4(x + 1) + C B Sin + C 4sin +C D - SUl +
4 4 4 4
2 Find the follo\ving.
f ✓I~ J✓ldxx2
J J -1
✓5-xz dx
(a) (b) 3 2dx (c) (d)
x2 9 +x
(e)
I✓2dxx2 (f) I 25+5 x d 2 X
(g)
J4~ 2
(h)
f 2~ 2
J✓l ~x 2
J -1 0) J dx J dx
(i)
✓6-x2 dx (k)
1+ 9x 2
(I)
9+ 16x 2
J✓1 ~ I ✓5 ~x 2
(m) J 2dx (n) (o) J -1 dx (p)
x + 16 x 2
✓16 -9x 2
(q) J dx
2 (let U = X + 5) (r) J✓ dx (let u=x-3) (s) J✓ dx
(letu = x +2)
4+(x + 5) 2- (x - 3)2 8- 4(x+2) 2

YEAR12
3 Evaluate the following.

dx
l
f¼ J2
(a)
fo ✓4 - x 2
(b)
I ,.fj
o x - +9
d
, X (c) dx
o :J1- 4x
2
(d)
-2 4 +x
dx
2
✓l~x 2
dx
f4 dx l 2 -1
(e)
ll+x 2
5
(t) J½,
2
(g)
fo ✓2 - x 2
(h) ---.====dx
Jo ✓16-x 2
-./3 dx I( -fi dx
(i)
f73 1+ x
2
O) r½dx
Jo1+9x2
(k)
I 1
o l +x
2
+
l +x
X
2
)
dx (I)
fo ✓3-x 2
(m) I4 2
dx
-4 X +16
(n) I 1i
o :J1-9x
6 -1
2
dx (o) r½_dx
Jo1+ 4x 2
(p) r.fi
Jo
dx
2
x +2
I 5
dx
f2cos-• x dx
.l
(q)
I ✓2-x
-1
dx
2
(r)
f-s ✓l00-x 2
(s)
0
dy 1
4 Given that dx = .J and y = 1 at x = 0, express y as a function of x.
1- x 2
1
5 Find the area bounded by the curve y = 2 , the x-axis and the ordinates x = 1 and x = -1.
x +l
nx ny
6 On the same axes, sketch the graph of y = 2sin- for O< x < 2 and x = 2sin- for O< y < 2. Find the area of
4 4
the region enclosed by the curves.
1 1
7 The curve y= .J 2
is rotated about the x-axis. Find the volu1ne of the solid enclosed bet\veen x = ✓3 and
l+x
x= ✓3.
8 Sketch the curve y = tan- 1 x and find the area bet\veen this curve, the x-axis and the line x = ✓3.
9 Without evaluating the integral, explain \vhy f~ tan- •xdx is equal to zero.
1
10 Without using a calculator, prove that: (a)

I
4
ll+x
dx
2 = n4
(b) f 3
-2l +x-
dx , = 3n
4
5
11 Find the volu1ne of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the curve y = sinx between x = 0 and x= about 1
the x-axis. Hence find the volume of the solid fonned by rotating the curve y = sin_, x between y = 0 and y = 1
about the y -axis.
12 Differentiate xcos- x -
1
✓l - x 2 and use the result to evaluate J:cos-• xdx.
13 (a) Sketch the graph ofl(x)
,r
=1 - cosx, 0 < x < n.
(b) Evaluate f
I (x )dx and indicate the area represented by this integral on the graph off
2
0
(c) Find the inverse function 1-• (x), stating its don1ain and range.
(d) f:
Evaluate 1-• (x )dx and indicate the area represented by this integral on the graph off
d ( . -I )
x + .J ,.
. - 1 X
14 (a) Prove that - XSlll x =Sill
dx 1- x -
(b) Hence sho\v that J:

~ + .Jf - 1. (Yo11 may 11se the substitution u = 1 -x2.)
sin- 1 xdx =
Use the substitution x = cos 0, where O< 0 < n, to show that J✓l - x dx = cos- x - ✓l - x + C.
2 2
1
15 2
X X
f
16 Find x✓9 - x 2 dx 11sing the substitution x = 3 sin 0, - ~ < 0 < ~. Confirm your answer by using the
2
alternative substitution u = 9 - x .

YEAR 12
CHAPTER REVIEW 11
1 By integration, find the volu1ne of the solid of revolution formed from the region bounded by:
2 2
(a) the circle x + y = 1, rotated about the x -axis
(b) the line y = x + 3 between x = 0 and x = 2, rotated about the x-axis
2
(c) the parabola y = x + 3 between y = 4, y = 12 and the y -axis, rotated about the y-axis.
2 A speleologist is in a cave with a flat, circular floor. She walks across the dian1eter of the floor and n1easures
the height of the cave ceiling every 4 metres, as recorded in the following table:
Distance from edge, x m 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Height, y 01 0 1 3 5 4 2.5 0
(a) Use the trapezoidal rule and all the values in the table to find an approxin1ation for the area of the cave's
vertical cross-section to the nearest m 2•
(b) Considering the diaineter of the cave to be the x -axis (for -12 < x < 12), and considering the vertical
at 12 01 fro1n the edge to be the y-axis, discuss how you n1ight use the trapezoidal rule to estiinate the
volu1ne of the cave.
.r;
3 Using the substitution u =✓ x, find dx.JJ-;
4 (a) Use the substitution u = 1 - x to evaluate J~2x✓l - x dx.
Use the substitution u = x - 3 to evaluate f x.J x - 3 dx.
4
(b) 3
3 r1 3
5 Using the substitution u = x + 1, or otherwise, evaluate Jox 2ex +i dx.
r"4 sin0cos2 0d0.
6 Evaluate Jo
1
7 Use the substitution u = 1og, x to evaluate f' x( log, x) dx.
,3
2
Use the substitution u = 9 -x2 to evaluate J.J x dx.

2 2
8
I 9- X2
,r ,r
Find: (a) J sin xdx

6 2 2
9 (b) J/ cos 2xdx
0
3
2
10 Using the substitution u = 3x + 1, or otherwise, find x(3x + 1)4 dx. J 2
11 (a) Differentiate e2x(2sinx- cosx). (b) Hence, or otherwise, find e 2x sinxdx. J

12 Find the exact value of the volun1e of the solid of revolution forn1ed when the region bounded by the curve
1
y = sin 2x ai1d the x-axis between x = 0 and x = is rotated about the x-axis.
13 Use the substitution u = 25 -x to evaluate

2
J.J 2x
2
3
2
dx.
25- x
14 (a) By expanding the left-hand side, sho\v that sin(6x + 3x) + sin(6x- 3x) =2 sin6x cos3x.
J
(b) Hence find sin6xcos3xdx.
15 Find the exact value of the volun1e of the solid of revolution forn1ed when the region bounded by the curve
y = sin 2x, the x-axis and the line x = ~ is rotated about the x-axis.
,r
16 Evaluate J 9 sin( 3x ) dx
o cos 2 (3x )

YEAR12
17 (a) Starting from the identity sin(0 + 20) = sin0cos20 + cos0sin20 and using the double-angle forn1ulae,
3
prove the identity sin 30 = 3 sin0- 4sin 0.
(b) Hence find f(3sin0 - 4sin 0)d0. 3
18 (a) Differentiate x cos- •x. (b) Hence find fcos- •xdx. (The substitution u = 1 -x2 will be helpful.)
19 Differentiate the following. (a) sin- 1 x (c) tan- ' K
2
(e) esin-
1x
(f) tan- ' .2.
X
~) log, (tan- ' x?
-/6
20 Evaluate the following. (a) (b) r.Js dx
Jo ✓20-x 2 (c) f~ 9x~
21 Find the follo\ving integrals. (a) f dx (b) f64+x

dx 2
✓8 - x 2
(c) f 4+9x dx
4
(d) f dx (e) f .J16 -(x+2)
dx (usingu = x + 2)
✓4-8x 2
2 2
22 (a) Sketchy = 2 sinx for -1< x < 1and show the area represented by J; sin- 1
; dx.
(b) Hence evaluate J;sin- ' ; dx.

3 3
23 (a) Showthat x +x+2 2 =x+ 2 2. (b) Hencefind
Ix +x+2
, dx.
l+x l +x l+x·
24 (a) Sketch bothy = sin-ix and y =cos_, x on the san1e nu1nber plane.
Hence determine the domain of the function y = log, (sin=: x ).
COS X
x)with the coordinate axes.

(b) Find the intercepts of the graph of y = log, ( sin=:
COS X
(c) Show that the function y = log, ( sin=: x)is increasing for all xin its do1nain.
COS X
(d) Sketch the graph of y = log, ( sin=: x ) .

COS X
25 Find the follo\ving integrals. These are a ,nix of different integral types that you have seen in this Mathematics
Extension 1 course.
(a)
f
l~x
(b ) f dx i
l+x
(c) f X
l + x2
dx (d) f l +xx 2dx
2 x2 1 3
(e) I x 2dx (Hint: 2 = 1- 2
) (f) I l +x x 2 dx (g) I dx
l+x l+x l+x (l + x )2
(h) f✓l+xdx (i)

I✓ldxx 2 0) I ✓l -x2 x
X d (using u = l - x
2
)
(k) I ex 2x dx
2+e
(using u = ex) (I) I tan- ' 3; dx
1+9x·
(using u = tan- 1 3x)
26 (a) Write the value of cos- 1 x + sin- 1 x for - 1 < x < 1.
(b) Use the substitution u = sin- xto show that:

1
J72 (cos- x ) ~ d x = ~::
0
1

YEAR 12
27 The graph shows the curves y = cos2 x and y = tan 2 x y

4 >
Y. = tan-x
fi0 _ x _ 11: .
or <<
2 3 '
(a) Show that the point of intersection A has
2
thex-coordinatecos-
1
( ✓ 1~✓5 ) · I
A
y' = cos1 x
(b) Find the shaded area correct to one deci1nal place.
_,0 tr
2
tr 3tr
2
2tr
X
-2

Bernie Fitzpatrick, the original author of this series, once \Vrote: 'Mathematics is about doing, not about reading'.
This chapter brings together n1any skills learnt across the Mathe1natics Advanced and Extension 1 courses and asks
you to apply them in practical situations.
Differential equations involve derivatives, so to be able to solve them you 1nust be proficient at integration. These
integrations often involve the exponential and logarith1nic functions, so you must know the rules needed to
manipulate these functions. You 1nust be confident with a high level of algebraic n1anipulation, so1netimes involving
several levels of algebraic fractions. When integrating the trigono1netric functions you need to be able to apply the
appropriate Pythagorean identities, as \veil as the appropriate double angle fonnulae. If the integration required is
beyond this course, then appropriate guidance is given in the question.
We hope you enjoy the challenges involved.
12.1 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

The study of differential equations began in the late 1600s with Sir Isaac Newton's investigation of the orbits of the
planets about the Sun. Newton referred to these equations as 'fluxional equations'. The tern1 differential equation
was suggested by Newton's conte1nporary, Gottfried Leibniz, who did n1uch of the early work on them.
A differential equation is an equation that relates some unknown differentiable function to one or 1nore of its
derivatives.
For exa1nple, the general fonn of the first-order differential equation y'(t) =f(t, y(t)) expresses the rate of change
of a quantity y(t) in tenns of t\vo variables: th e tin1e t and the value of the quantity y(t) itself.
Differential equations are a powerful way to represent, understand and predict the behaviour of variable quantities,
including syste1ns that change with tin1e.
Whereas the solution of an algebraic equation such as x + I = 0 is a nu1nber, the solution of a differential equation
is a function. More specifically, the solution of a differential equation will be a differentiable function y =g(x) if the
differential equation is true when y and its derivatives are replaced with g(x) and its derivatives.
A solution of the differential equation ddy = J( x, y) is any differentiable function y = g(x) with a derivative
d X
fx = g'(x) so thatg'(x) = f(x,g(x)) for allx e (a, b).
In other words, substituting the solution y = g(x) into the differential equation will reduce Jx = f( x, y) to an
identity in the independent variable x, for all values of this variable in some open interval of the x -axis. Therefore:
To verify that a function y =g(x) is a solution of a differential equation, you can substitute the function and its
derivative(s) into both sides of the differential equation and check that both sides are identically equal.

YEAR 12
Verification of a solution to a differential equation
Example 1
Verify by differentiation that y = 3e- x is a solution of the differential equation Z -y.
=
Solution
Calculate the LHS of the equation: LHS = Z Calculate the RHS of the equation: RHS = - y
= -3e- x
= -3e- x
The LHS of the equation is identically equal to the RHS of the equation for all relevant values of the
independent variable.
Graphing particular members of a general solution
Example 2
Graph the following n1en1bers of the one-para1neter general solution y = Ae- x ,vith A e {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}.
Solution y
The graph is drawn for A= -3, i.e., y =-3e-x.

Next, separate graphs are dra,vn on the sa1ne axes for the
other given values of A: y = -2e-x, y = -3e-x, etc. This should
give the set of graphs shown. X
A particular solution (or solution curve) of a differential equation is a unique function that is found by giving
specific values to the paran1eters in the general solution. The paraineters in the solution are chosen so that the
particular solution satisfies one or n1ore extra require1nents called initial conditions or initial values. Initial
conditions are also so1netimes called boundary values.
Every particular solution of a first-order differential equation is the unique solution of an appropriate initial value
problem.
y' = f(t,y(t))
An initial value problem of a first-order differential equation: y(a) =Ya
t e [a,b]
consists of the differential equation together ,vith its initial condition, requiring you to detennine a particular
solution y(t) over a specific in terval of the independent variable a< t < b.
Chapter 12 Differential equations 265

YEAR12
Finding the particular solution to satisfy an initial condition
Example 3
Find the particular 1nen1ber of the general solution y = Ae-x, where A is a real nu1nber that passes through the
point \Vith coordinates (O, 3). Yf
3 . . (0, 3)
Solution
y=Ae-x
X
To satisfy the relevant initial condition, substitute the given values.
0
x = 0, y= 3: 3 =Ae
:. A = 3
The particular solution curve that passes through the point (O, 3) is identified.
Finding missing parameter(s) in a trial solution

A trial solution to a differential equation is a general solution with unspecified para1neters that is tested to see if it
satisfies an initial condition.
Example 4
Verify by differentiation that y = ae'i" x is a solution of the differential equation
suitable choice of the paran1eter a.
! = y cosx, y ( O) = 2, for a
Solution
The required derivatives of the trial solution are calculated to prove that LHS = RHS:
LHS= dy
dx
= fx (ae•inx )
= cos x( aesinx )
= ycosx
=RHS
Check if the initial condition is satisfied, y(O ) = 2: y(O) = ae•in °
2=a
sin 0 . . l l
:. y = 2e 1s a part1cu ar so utlon..
Example 5
values of s.
t
Verify by differentiation that x = Ae' is a solution of
dt
2
d ; -51 +
t
6x = 0, x(O) = 1 and x'(O) = 2, for suitable
Solution
Calculate any required derivatives of the trial solution x = Ae' t :
dx
dt
=sAe' t
d x d (dx)
2
dt 2 -
dt dt
= jt (s Ae' t )
=s2 Ae' t
YEAR 12
2
Substitute into the LHS of the equation given, d ; - 5 dxd + 6x = 0:
dt t
LHS = s 2 Ae' t - 5s Aest + 6Ae' t
t 2
= Ae' (s -5s+6)
=0
Solve for possible values of the parameters: Ae''(s2 - 5s + 6) =0
,
As Ae'' "1:- 0, t E R, so: (s- - 5s + 6) = 0
(s-2)(s-3)=0
: . s=2ors=3
2 3
The solution could be x = Ae ' or x = Ae '.
0
Check in itial conditions: x(O) = 1, x = Ae'' :. x(O) = Ae = 1 :. A= 1
st st 0
x'(O) = 2, x' = sAe = se :. se = 2 :. s = 2
Hence s = 2 is the o nly solution that satisfies both the d ifferential equation and the initial conditions.
2
: . x(t) = e ' is a particular solution.
The nun1ber of paran1eters in the general solution of a differential equation, ,vhich detern1ines the nu1nber of initial
conditions required to fix these para1neters, depends on the order and the degree of the differential equation.
The order of a differential equation is equal to the highest order derivative of the dependent variable.
The degree of a differential equation is the highest power of that highest order derivative.
1
d , ..., d'r- ~ ) , the dependent variable (y) always appears in
d" = f ( x , y,dy
In the nth -order differential equation ---2'..
dx" X dx"-
the nun1erator of any derivatives and the independent variable x appears in the denon1inator.
A first-order first-degree differential equation for the unknown dependent variable y is an equation that involves
only the first derivative of y. All first-order first-degree differential equations for y can be expressed in the fonn
t = f( x,y) for a suitable choice of the functionf(x, y) of the independent variable x and dependent variable y.
The particular solution of a first-order first-degree differential equation requires a single initial condition
(x, y) = (xo, Yo)·
Classifying differential equations
Example 6
Classify the following differential equations accordin g to their order and degree.
2 2
d0
(a) dt=k(l+0.2cos0)
2
(b) (dw)
dz =4cos 2 z (c) ddt 2x -cdt
dx +kx=F
Solution
(a) This equation defines a first-order first-degree differential equation because it involves only a first-order
derivative to a power of o ne.
the independent variable. t

!8
Variable 0 is in the numerator of , so it is the dependent variable, while tis in the deno1ninator, so it is

YEAR12
(b) This equation defines a first-order second-degree differential equation because it involves only a first-order
derivative to a power of t\vo.
111
Variable III is in the numerator of ~ , so it is the dependent variable, ,vhile z is in the denon1inator, so it is
the independent variable. z
(c) This equation defines a second-order first-degree differential equation because it involves a second-order
2
derivative d ; of the dependent variable to the power of one.
dt 2
Variable xis in the nun1erator of d ; , so it is the dependent variable, while tis in the deno1ninator, so it is
the independent variable. dt
Note: In each example considered so far, the solution is given in explicit form, such as y =g(x).
EXERCISE 12.1 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1 Verify by differentiation that the function y = x' is a solution of the differential equation y ' - .!:!. y = O.
X
2 Use technology to graph the particular solutions that correspond to the indicated values of C.
General solution Differential equation C-values

dy
(a) y= Cx 3 x - -3y = O +1, + 2
dx
, ,
(b) x· -y· = C y! = x +1, + 2
(c) x2 + 4y2 = C 4y dy +x = O 1,2, 3, 4

dx
(d) xy = C xdy +y = O +1, + 2

dx
3 Verify the general solution and then specify any para1neters in this solution and state the required particular
solution of the initial value problem.
(a) General solution Differential equation Initial condition
y= Ae-2x+ l O y'= 2(10- y) y(O) = 3
(b) General solution Differential equation Initial condition

y = Ae-x + 5 y' = 5- y y (O) = 10
(c)
General solution Differential equation Initial condition
e•
y= A +e• y' = y(l - y) y(O) = 2
(d) General solution Differential equation Initial condition

5el0x
Y = A +etOx y' = 2y(5-y) y(O) = l
(e)
General solution Differential equation Initial condition
Y = Ae2x _ X _ .!. y' = 2y +x y(O) = l
2 4

YEAR 12
4 Verify the general solution and then specify any paran1eters in this solution to find the required particular
solution.
(a) Trial solution Differential equation Initial condition
-x 2 , 2 1
y= Ax + l xy = - y y (l) = - -
3
(b) Trial solution Differential equation Initial condition

1 2
y=x -A y' = - y y (l) = -1
(c)
Trial solution Differential equation Initial condition
Y = Ae-2x + .!. y' = -2y + I y(O) = 1

2
(d)
y = e-x(ax + b) y" + 2y' + y= O y(O) = 2, y'(O) = 1
(e)
di
y= asin2x + bcos2x --1'..
2 + 4y = 0 y(O) = I, y' (O) = 2
dx
(f)
y= ae-x + be3x y" - 2y' - 3y = 0 y(O) = 1, y'(O) = 1
5 Classify each of the following differential equations in tern1s of its order, degree, dep endent variable and
independent variable.
(a) (y')2 = x 2 (b) x' = x sin(t) (c) d2x + kx = O (d) dy = y+ 1 2
2 dx
dt
d 2y dy
6 Given that y = i"' satisfies the differential equation dx 2 = dx + 2 y, find the possible value(s) of k.
7 Which one of th e follo\ving differential equations is satisfied by y = cos 2x?

d2 d d2 y dy
A --1'.. + 2-1'..-4 y = 4cos2x B - -2- +4 y = 4cos2x
dx2 dx dx2 dx
2
d 2y dy . d y dy .
C - 2
-2dx + 4y= 4sin2x D - 2 + 2- -4y= 4sm2x
dx dx dx
8 Verify by differentiation that the given function is a solution of the corresponding differential equation.
n . . , ,r - 1
(a) y = ex 1s a solution of y - nx y= 0 (b) y = x - x- 1 is a solution of xy' + y = 2x
e'x
(c) y = x is a solution of y' - ( 1 - y) 2 = 0 (d) y = - - is a solution ofy' = r( I -y)y
1+ x l + e'x
1
(e) y = is a solution of y' = 2xy2
4-x 2

YEAR12
9 The a1nount m(t) of n1edication ren1aining in the bloodstrean1 t hours after swallowing a pill can be modelled
by the differential equation ~7
= -3m + 4e- 21.
The first tenn on the RHS represents the rate at which the 1nedication is absorbed from the blood into the body and
the second tern1 represents the rate at which the 1nedicine enters the bloodstrean1. (This is exponential because it is
rapid at first, as most of the pill dissolves, then later becomes slower when only a small an1ount of the pill ren1ains.)
(a) Verify by differentiation that m(t) = 4(e- 2' - e- 31) is a solution of ~m = -3m + 4e- 2•.
(b) What is the initial amount of medication in the bloodstrean1? t
(c) When is the an1ount of n1edication in the bloodstrea1n at it greatest?
(d) What is the long-term amount of medication in the bloodstrean1?
10 The population of fish in a lake is initially 10 000. The population \vould increase at a rate of 20% per year,
except that there is fishing quota of k fish per year taken fron1 the lake. The population P after t years is
modelled by the solution of the differential equation:
dP = .! P- k \Vith P = IO 000 when t = 0.
dt 5
Here, k is the constant nun1ber of fish re1noved from the lake each year d ue to fishing (the fishing quota).
(a) If the fishing quota is set at k = 1000 per year, verify by differentiation that the nun1ber of fish in the lake
I
t years later will be P(t) = 5000(1 + e }.
5
(b) Alternatively, if the fishing quota is set at k = 3000 per year, verify by differentiation that the nu1nber of
t
fish in the lake t years later \viii be P(t) = 5000(3 - es).
More generally, you can assu1ne an arbitrary but fixed fishing quota of k fish per year. ,
(c) Verify by differentiation that the nu1nber of fish in the lake t years later \viii be P(t) =5(k + (2000 - k)es).
(d) Hence choose a fishing quota of k fish per year to maintain the fish population at its initial value of 10 000.
12.2 DIRECTION FIELDS

Qualitative (or graphical) methods of solution
Qualitative m ethods are a set of graphical methods to describe the general behaviour of the solution to a
differential equation without solving the equation.
Recall that dy is the slope of the curve at any point (x,y). A differential equation, such as ddxy = f(x ,y) , can be
dx
thought of as a definition of the values of the slope of the tangent to the solution curve for possible values of x and y.
This enables us to sketch the graphical features of the solution. The graph sho\ving the gradient at different points is
called the direction field or the slope field.
Direction field construction on a rectangular grid

This n1ethod involves the follo\ving two steps:
1 Evaluate the derivative for a carefully selected set of points (x, y).
2 At each point (x, y), draw a short line segment of slope : .

YEAR 12
Example 7
dy .
Construct the slope field of dx = xy on the grid: (0,0) (0,1) (0,2) (0,3)
(1,0) (1,1) (1,2) (1,3)
(2,0) (2,1) (2,2) (2,3)
(3,0) (3,1) (3,2) (3,3)
Solution
dy = J(x, y) = xy is evaluated for each point using integer values for x an d y.
dX d
For example, at the point (O, 0), k
= xy = 0 x O= 0.
Therefore, if the curve goes through (O, O), its gradient at that point will be 0.
. dy
At the poin t (2, 3), dx = xy = 2 x 3 = 6.
Therefore, if the curve goes through (2, 3), its gradient at that point will be 6.
All the gradients are calculated
f(O,O) =0 f(0,1)=0 f (0,2) =0 f(0,3)=0
f( l,0)=0 f( l, l)=l f(l,2)=2 f(l,3)=3
f(2,0)=0 f(2,1)=2 f(2,2)=4 f(2,3) =6
)'L
f(3,0)=0 f(3,1)=3 f(3,2)=6 f(3,3)=9 3-
I f
At each such point (x, y) on the grid, tangent seg1nents of slope
1x =f(x, y) are drawn using rise over run.
2
I I I
Having constructed a direction field, the short sloping lines can be used
I / I I
as a guide to draw sn1ooth curves with the san1e gradients. These curves
represent possible graphs generated by the differential equation. In so1ne
I
'
2
I
3
•
X
cases, n1ore slopes ,nay need to be drawn.
Example 8
Construct the slope field of Z= -2(y - 5) on a suitable grid for O< x < IO and O< y < 10.
Solution
Step 1: A grid is constructed to cover the given intervals: y
10 • • • • • • • • •
9 • • • • • • • • • •
8 • • • • • • • • • •
7 • • • • • • • • • •
6 I e • • ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
5 • • • • • • • • • •
4 • • • • • • • • • •
3 • • • • • • • • • •
2 I ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
I • • • • • •
O I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X

YEAR12
Step 2: At each such point (x, y) on the grid, tangent segn1ents of the y
slope function are drawn. As the derivative is a function IO + + + + + + + + + +
of y only, then given any specific value of y, it will be the san1e 9 + + + + + + + + + +
8 + + + + + + + + + +
for all values of x. This means it only needs to be calculated for
7 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
each value of y. 6 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
For f(.x, y) = -2(y - 5),f(.x, 0) = 10,f(x, 1) = 8,f(x, 2) = 6, 5 ..............................
f(.x, 3) = 4,f(x, 4) = 2,f(x, 5) = O,f(x, 6) = -2, 4 ti ti ti ti ti ; ; ti ti ti
3 f f f f f f f f f f
f(.x, 7) = -4,f(.x, 8) = -6,f(.x, 9) = -8,f(.x, 10) = -10. 2 + + + + + + + + + +
This inforn1ation is shown in the diagran1 at right. I + + + + + + + + + +
:--+-'. .-++-+-H--,
oj I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO x
Example 9
(a) Construct the slope field of the differential equation ddy = - x for -3 < x < 3 and -3 < y < 3.
X y
(b) Use the slope field to draw possible solutions to Z= - ; .
(c) Draw the specific solution if the curve passes through the point: (i) (O, 2) (ii) (2, -2).
(d) Suggest a possible equation of the general curve an d test your answer by differentiation.
Solution
(a) Step l : The differential equation is used to find the gradient at each point.
dy x -3
(-3, -3): dx = - y = - -3 = - 1
dy x -3
(-3,-2): -d =-- =-- =-1.5
X y -2
dy x -3
(-3,-1): dx =- y =- - 1 =-3
(-3, O): Z
= - ; = - ; . This is undefined, but it may mean that if the curve goes
through (-3, O), it will be vertical.

Continuing similarly for positive x values gives the following gradient values:
xvalues
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-3 - 1 - -2 - -1 0 -1 -2 1
3 3 3 3
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-1 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
...
"'
::,
ca 0 - - - - - - -
>
,.__ 1 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5
3 1 -2 -1 0 - -1 - -2 -1
3 3 3 3

YEAR 12
Step 2: Coordin ate axes can be used to represent the slope

-- --
)'
using a short line at each point, estimating the slope

. .
usmg nse over run.
/
I
./
/ 2 ......._
'-..
"\
"\
/
I I / I \
-3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 X
\ \ " -I / I I
\ " ......,_ _ _,, / I
-- ./ /
(b) The curve n1ay be circular. Son1e curves can be
dra\vn using the slopes as a guide, possibly with a
con1pass. This diagrain reinforces that the undefined I /
slopes are at points where the curves are vertical,
except for the point (O, O). These slopes have been added /J
to the diagrain.
X
Circles see1n to fit very well. At this point there are
an infinite number of solutions to the differential
. dy X
V
equation dx = - y.
I
/
(c) A circle is dra\vn through each given point, as shown.

--_,,-----
)'
/ ./
I / z
/I
0 I X
" -I
/ I I
\ ' ......._ - 2 - _,, .,,, I
' '(2, - 2)
/
"
./
2 2 2
(d) The equation of a circle is x + y =r •
2 2
(i) In this case, r = 2, so the equation is x + y = 4.
y .J
If a function is required, = 4 - x 2 • The positive square root is taken because the curve goes through (O, 2).
2
(ii) Substitute x = 2, y = -2 in x2 + y = r2.
2
2 + (-2)2 = r
2
:. r= Js, so the equation is x 2 + y 2 = 8.
If a function is required, y= -.Js - x 2
• The negative square root is taken because the curve goes
through (2, -2).
The general result is tested by differentiation.

YEAR12
Method 1 Method2
Need to differentiate both sides ofy = ✓r 2 -x 2 .
2 2
Need to differentiate each term of x + y = r2 with
respect to .x:
dy = _4_(✓r2 -x2)
fx ( + fx (1 = fx (
x
2
) 2) r2 ) dx dx
2 , du
Usin g the chain rule, Let u = r - x-, so dx = -2x
%x(x2)+ l(12)x 1x = %x(r2) dy

dx
= -4_( ✓u) x du
du dx
2
Reme1nbering that r is a constant:
= _E__(u½ )x du
2x+2ydy =0 du dx
dx
I
. dy X
.. dx=-y
= -1 u --2 X ( -2x )
2
X
= - ,Ju
However, y = ✓r 2 - x 2 = ✓u
. dy X
.. dx=-y
Example 10
Which of the following direction fields could have the differential equation Z= x + ky as a solution if k > O?
A J I i i / :/
r Ill/II
B
IIII J
r
I/Ill/
C \ \ \ \ \ ).
r , , - .,,.;/ D ,,..., _ ,... }'
>' II/Ill
I I I I I I I I I I I t Ill/I Ill/II \ \ \ \ \ \ ' ~- I I ✓ ,,,_,..,,, Ill/II
/JIii ~ /Ill/.,,. 1111 2/ JI/I/.,. \ \ \ \ \ 2,. ,-,;/// \ \ \ -.. - 2-- I I I I I I
I I I I I I
Ill/I V
I I I / ,.. -
,,,,,, _ _ _ ,
I I I I I I I I I ,,, - , \ \ \ \ \ \ ~,.. I I I I \ \ \ , - - t I I I I I
I I I I / ]/ ,1.,, _ _ , , \ \ \ \ \ 1' - ,1111 \ \ \ , ..._~ I I I I I I
//Ill/ ,.. _ _ ,,, I / I I I I .,,. - , , \ \ \ \ \ \ \ , ,... I I I I I \ \ \ \ \ .._ I I I I I I
-~
__~-£,,,,:-r ~ ~\ t\ \~ \t \: \~ X -~~-i ~-ti ; f ~ *; 1 X -~:-i :-t~ : 1; ~ ~ 1 X
.... - ... '\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\,-- /Ill/I \ \ \ \ \ \ ... ,.. t I I I
...' ' \ \ ...\ ~\ \\ '' \\ \\ \\ \\
\
\ \ - '
\\\\\\
' \ \.-2', '
\
\
\
\
\
\
l
1
I
\ \ \ .._ - 2-"
, , , __ .,.
I I I I J I
I/Ill/
\ \ \ \ \,-2,.
\\\\\\
.._ - ,,,. /
,--✓//
I I
\ \ ' \ \.-3. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \o-3. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ , - _.y I I I I I I \ \ \ \ .-3. ' ... - ,,,. / /
Solution
The behaviour of the derivative is considered for different values of x and y.
At x = 0 (the y-axis), 1x = f..y, so 1x will be positive where y is positive and negative where y is negative.
This eliminates C.
If x > 0 and y > 0, 1x will be positive and increases as x increases. : also increases as y increases.
This eliminates A and B.
Further analysis will sho,v that D is consistent with ix = x + ky, k > 0.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
-=============10
Direction fields
Use techno logy to construct the direction field of a different ial equation.

YEAR12
Example 11
The slope field for a differential equation is shown: y
\\\\1 1 1 lf l l l l l
\\\\\\1 Ill/Ill
Which of the following could be the forn1 of the differential equation \\.\\\\1 II/I/II
represented by this slope field, if k > O?

' '\\\\\
........ ,,,,, I/Ill//
z ______ , ,,, _____ _ ///////
A 1x = kxy2 B = kxy3 -- - --- 0 , , ___ ___x

.... ,,,,,,
C D
,,,,,,, Ill///,;
Ill/II/
\\\\\l l
\\\\\ II ,, , ,,,,Ill/I/I
\\\\I l l II I J / / /
Solution
Consider ho\v the slope lines are changing and whether this is consistent with each proposed option.
By exrunining option A, if x > 0 and y > 0, the slope is positive ru1d if xis constant (any horizontal ro\v) , so the
slope should increase as x increases. However, if a horizontal ro\v is exan1ined, the slope decreases as
x increases. This also rules out option B.
Alternatively, the gradient in the slope field is undefined where x = 0, yet the derivatives in options A ru1d B are
defined and zero where x = 0.
For options C and D, if x > 0 and y > 0 the slope is expected to be positive. This is consistent \vith the slope field.
The gradients are undefined where x = 0, which is also consistent with the slope field.
The difference between these two options is the power of y.
If x > 0 and y > 0, the slope should increase as y increases, which cru1 be seen by examining any vertical column.
If x > 0 and y < 0, the slope in C will be positive and increase as y increases, but the slope in D \viii be negative
and decrease (become m ore negative, i.e. steeper) as y increases. By looking at the fourth quadrant, it can be
seen that option C correctly predicts the behaviour of the slope.
EXERCISE 12.2 DIRECTION F IELDS
1 Consider the differential equation 1x = y - ; .

(a) Find the gradient of a solution curve at the point (3, -2), assuming th e curve goes through this point.
(b) Use integer values of x and y fron1 -3 to 3 to construct a direction field for the differential equation
dy X
dx = y-2·
2 Construct direction fields for the following differential equations for -3 < x < 3 ru1d -3 < y < 3. Use integer
values of x ru1d y.
dy dy x2 + y2 dy _ x + l
(a) - =x - y (b) dy - 2 (c) dx = 10 (d)
dx dx - x+ y dx - y-1
(e) (x+
dy
l)z
2
=xy (f) X
dy X
+y + 1x =0 (g) z
= J3-y
dy
(h) - =(x - l )(x+2)
dx
(i) dx=y - 5 0) - =- +l
dx 2

YEAR12
3 (a) Calculate the value of the derivative for each of the following values of y, and hence sketch the slope field
of the differential equation i= 1 + y 2 , using values of x fro1n -1 to 1•increasing by : .
(i) y=O (ii) y = + l (iii) y = +2 (iv) y = +3
(b) Verify by substitution that y = tan xis a solution of

curve on the slope field.
Z 2
= 1 + y and sketch that particular solution of the
(c) State at least one point on the slope diagrain which will not be on any solution of Z= + 1 y
2
•
4 The graph sho,vn is the slope field of a first-order differential equation. )'
This differential equation could be: ,,,, ..... , __

, , , , ........ - - - .... ✓✓//
.,,,,,,,,,///
,,,,,, __ ,,,.,////
,,,, ........ .... .,..,,,.,,,//II
A y'= y B '
y= -X \ \ \ \ ' ... .... .... , , , 1 1 1 1
X y \\\\\\'
\\\\\\\
////Ill
II/JIii
y ' =--y ,,,,,

/ I l l / I f) X
C D y ' =--X \\\\\\
....
x y Ill/I/,,,.
....... ,,,,,
/II///.,..
////,;,;- _,,,,,,
I I// ✓ ,... ....
,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,. __ ,,,,,, - , '-, \ \ \
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,_ -,,,,,,
dy
5 The slope field of dx = J(y) is sho,vn. ,,,,,,,,,z ,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,, '''''''''
For each of the following, sketch a possible curve which is a solution to
this differential equation, containing a point for which:
(a) y > 2
--------- ---------
/////////
/////////
/////////
/////////
/////////
/////////
///////// //////////
(b) -2<y<2
(c) y<-2
--------- ---------
-~~~,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,~
,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,
\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\
6 Which of the following slope fields does not represent a differential equation of the fonn Z= J(y )?
y
A B )'
C )'
D ,,,,, 3.y
I
I
I I
I I
/ :JI
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I :JI
I
/Ill//
I I Ill/JI
Ill/II
/////}"
//////
//////
//////
,,,,,, /////
I I / /,;
,,,,,21
I I I I
I I I I
I
I
]J
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I
/ / / / / },
//////
//////
//////
/////']/ //////
,,,,,, I I I///
I I I / / /
,,,
///Ill /Ill/I
. . ,,,, 1,
------ - - --
I I I I I ]I ......... / ......... y I// ✓ ,,,
........ ,,,\
II/Ill / / / / / 1 / / l l 'J/ II/Ill
Ill/II I/Ill/ ,..,.,,, I/Ill/ Ill/II /////
-1 ' -1 ' -1 IJ ' 1 ' 1 '1x

- - - - -1- ------
.... .... ..... .... .... .... .........................
-1 ' -1 ' -1 yCJ - 1 - 1 - 1x
,,,, ,,,, ✓ ✓ .... ✓ ,,,, ,,,,
,,.,,.,,,,,,.,,. / / ,,. ,,. ,,. ,,.
✓ ,,,, ✓
-~:-~:-ti :t:~:~ x -), ,'-}
,,'-l l\o
........
i // ~ ;
., "§., X
,,,,,, \\\\\\
,,,,,,
\\\\\\ \
........ ' \ \.2
\ \ \ I I I,,.,,,,
'\ '\ \
' \
' \
....\
2,. \\\\\\
////,4}'
/Ill/I
//Ill/
Ill/II ,,,,,,
' ' ' ' ....2,. ,,,,,, .... ,,,,\
I I I/,,.
I I I / /
\ \ \ \ ¥3.. \\\\\\ I I I I J. ~ Ill/// ' ' .... ' .....,3,.
.... ,,,, .... .... ' ' ...~
\ I/II//

YEAR 12
7 Which of the follo,ving slope fields represents a differential equation of the fonn Z= f(y )?
A .,.,,,,.,,,.,,,,. ... y
)'
........... .,., .,,. ,,,. 8 )'
C , ,, ......... _ D ' ' ' \ ) y
_ ..._,,, ).)' ,, - .......
,,,. ,,, ,,,. ,,,. ,,,. ... ,,,.,,,.,,,,,,.,,,,,,.
,;,,-/// )
.,.,.,,.,,1,1
I ///,,-,;
I /I/,,,,,,.
_,,,,, ,,, ........ _ ' ' ' I I
\ ,, _ ,....,..
,, __ ...,
.,,.,,,.,,,.,,,. .... 2-' .,,.,,,,,,,,,.,,,.,,. ,,,,-.-
--.,,, 2,. ,,,, __ \.
..... - - ....
,,.,,,./1/ ']J 1 21
,, ,, ,, /
I ////,;
_..._,,,,
__ , , , }-. ,,, , __ ' ' ' '
'' ' I III .... - - ....
/ / / / / / / / ,,,.,,,111 I I I/,,,..,,. I \
/ / / / / )/ ///// / .,,.,,.,,1, 11 I ///,,,.,,,.
_..._,,,, , ,, ......... _
\,
/I/Ill /Ill/I ,,,. ... . , 1 , 1 I ///,,-,; '' '' '' ' I I \

\
\... _ ,,,. ....
-1/ /'-i '-i VfJ 'I j /' i '/ 17 x "-i ' -( 11O
-1,,,.,,,.,,/ I
/ ' i " 1x -J__--..:1.,,' -}..... }\.0 ,,,,
' t ' :l. '__Jx -~~-( ~-l,f t:.... -~:- 3x
,,
.,,.,,.,,1,1 I I/,,,,,.
__ ,,,, ,,,, __
......... _ ... _ .,.. ........
_...,,,,, ,,,
I I
/ / / /
/ ... / .......J,-
/
,,,. ,,, ,,,. ,,,. ........

/ //////
,,,.,,,.,,.,,.,,,,,,,
,,,. ,,,. .... .... ,,,. ,,,.
,,,. ,,,. / I r 2J
I /
I I
/
/
/,;/
/ ,,-,; - .... , , ..... 2,.
,,, ........ _ ' ' ' ' -..21
'''
\
\
,, - .......
,, ,, ,.. ... _,.. ,.. ....... ,,,. ,, ,,,.
.,,. .,,. / I I I
,,. ,,,. / I J..)
I I / / /,;
I I / /,,,..,,. - ........ ' ..... ;. ,,,,..., _
\
'' '' '' '\

I I
-..1
l , , __ .,,
8 A first-order differential equation has a slope field as sho,vn. y

-
,, , - , , ,,
, , - - - , ,,, ,
I
I
I
I , ,, , - __
/ I
I
I
I
I
I
(a) Sketch three possible solutions for this differential equation. I I
, ,,- - ~ , , I I I
/ ,, .,, -
J I I
(b) Which of the follo,ving first-order differential equations is -,, ,
I I
I J I
, ,, , - - , , , I I I
consistent with the slope field shown? I

I
I
I , ,, , - -, ,, , I
I
I
I
I
I
dy dy 2 I J '.! 1,.. _ {)
, , , - -,,- - "' l', I I I X
A dx = xy 8 - =x I I I
, ,, , - - , , , I I I
dx I
I
I
I - _- ,, ,,, ,,
, ,,, ,__
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
dy 3 dy I I
, , - - - -·,, , I I I
C dx =x D dx =x+ y I
J I
J I I , , - -,, ,
I
I
I I
I I
9 The slope field of xy' - y = 0 could be:

A _,,,,,,,,.,,// 8
,, .... , ...... _)' _.,.,,,,,,,// ,,,,,,,
)'
C , , ,,,, y D )'
........ - ,,,,,,, ,,,,,,

////Ill I/Ill/ / \\\1l l l JI i i / i i
,,,,
,,,,,, _ _.,..,,,,,,// ////Ill II/I/ / ✓ \\\\\\ I I I I I
,,,, ......... ... _,,,,,.,,, , , ,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,

////Ill ' ' .......
\ ' ' ........
\ '
' ' ,' ,,
....' ........ ,, \ I l l / / ,'/
,,,,,,
\\\\\\ I I I I I
,,,, ........ ... .,,,,,,,,, .... ,,.,,,,,,/, ,,,, ........ .... ....... ,,,,,
/ / / / /,,,,.
.,,,.,,.,,,,11 ................ ' \
Ill/ /
;,,,,,,.,,. __ _
/
\ \ \ \ \ , ...
,,,,,,,, ____ ,,,____
.,.,.,.,,,.,,.,,.,,,,,./ I ,,
/
.......... ..._ ... ............. \
'\
// / ///.,,.
,,,,,,,,,.,,,,.,.,,.
/,,,.. ___ _ _____ _,
///////
.,,,.. ____ _
\\\\\\, ----,,'
,,,, , x
,,,,, f> ....,,,,1 ___ .._, . . o ,,.,,.,,,,,,,,,.. __ x -----,, -- - --- 0 .,,,.. _ _ _ _ _ X
__ _,,,,.,,.,,. f>
' , , ____ X
,,,,,,,,. \ ......... ,,,, , ,,. ,,,,,,,,_,.. I ,,,,, __ I,,,,,,,. __ _
............ ,,,, ,,,,,,.,,.,,,,.,,. ,,,, ........... ... .... ,,,, I I / ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,,.
I I I I / ,,. ,., , , , , \ \ \ .,,,,,,,./ / / /
,,,,,, ....
,,,,,,, ,,,,,,
////✓/-
,,,,.,,. ... .,,. __..........

//// /
,,,,,,
,,._,,,, ........... , , , , '''-'\\
''''''
Ill////
1/1/ ✓ / ✓
///////
// / ////
,,,,,, , \\\\\\
Ill// /
I /Ill//
/
,,,,.,,.,,.,,...,._ .............. , , , '-'''''

'-''-\\\
Ill////
Ill/I//
/ / tit/ I
/Ill/II ,,,,,,, \\\\\\
\\\11 1
I I I I I
I I I I I
10 (a) Construct the direction field for the differential equation

x and y increasing in steps of 0.5.
!= x + y, for -3 < x < 3 and-3 < y < 3, with
(b) Draw so1ne possible solutions to the differential equation Z= x + y, including one that is a straight line,
and including one that touches but does not cross the x -axis.
(c) Write the equation of the possible straight line solution.
(d) Verify whether the straight line represents a solution to the differential equation.
12.3 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FORM t= f(x)

The previous section investigated techniques used to develop a graphical and/or numerical representation of the
solution to a differential equation. However, the 1nost convenient solution (when it is available) is an expression for
the dependent variable as an explicit function of the independent variable or as an iinplicit relation between the
dependent and independent variables. This section covers a nu1nber of powerful techniques capable of determining
these analytical solutions.
Solving dy = f(x ) given y(a) = Ya

dx
Begin with the directly integrable case Z=f (
x) where y is an unkno,vn function of x and f (x) is a given function
of x. Wherever f (x) is a continuous function over an interval, y(x) can be detern1ined by using an appropriate
integration technique.

YEAR12
Solving a directly integrable first-order differential equation
Example 12
A one-para1neter family of curves f(x, y) = c has the property that the gradient of any member of the fan1ily at a
point is three tiines the square of the x-coordinate at the point.
(a) W hat is the equation of the fan1ily of functions?
(b) Plot a few 1nen1bers of the fan1ily.
(c) W hat is the equation of the particular 1nen1ber of the fa1nily that passes through the pomt (1, 6)?
Solution
(a) Possible gradient function: ! = 3x2•
Both sides of the ,node! are integrated with respect to the independent variable: J ! dx = J 3x2dx
Equation of the fan1ily of functions: y = X: + c
Note: By the chain rule, J Z

dx = Jdy. A constant of integration is required \Vhen integrating.
(b) )'
c=6
c=5
(c) The coordinates of the given point (1, 6) are substituted into the equation of the fan1ily of functions:
3
6 =1 + C
c= S
3
Solution: y = x + 5
Example 13
1
The slope of the tangent line to an unknown curve is 2
• They-intercept of the curve is (O, 1). Find the
equation of the curve. 1+ x
Solution
dy _ 1
dx - l + x 2
I dydx dx -J
-
dx
l +x 2
- 1
y=tan x + c
y (l )= O: l = tan- 1 0 + c
c= l
:. y= tan- 1x + 1

YEAR 12
Finding the particular solution of a directly integrable problen1 ix = J(x), y(a) = Ya involves the follo\ving
two-step procedure.
1 Integrate \Vith respect to tlle independent variable.
That is, y = F(x) + c where F(x) = f J(x )dx and c is the constant of integration.
2 Use the initial condition to solve the constant of integration.
That is, (x, y) = (a, y.) :. Ya= F(a) + c.
Therefore, y = F(x) + Ya - F(a).
Rearranging the previous equation, the final result is y(x) =Ya+ F(x) - F(a).
Example 14
Given y ' = ✓ 1
2
and y(O) = 2, find the solution to the differential equation.
l-x
Solution
y'= 1
✓l-x 2
y=f ✓1-x
dx2 y(O) =2 : 2 =sin- 1 0+ C
C=2
y=sin- 1 x+C . - 1
:. y=s1n x +2
Example 15
Find the solution to tlle follo\ving differential equations:
(a) !=sinx,giveny(O)=l (b) !=2-cosx,giveny(0)=2.
d 2y dy
(c) Hence, use parts (a) and (b) to solve the second-order differential equation - 2 = sinx, given that dx = I
and y = 2 \Vhere x = 0. dx
Solution
dy . dy =2-cosx
(a) - = s1nx (b)
dx dx
y = f sinxdx y= f (2-cosx)dx
y=-cosx+ C y=2x-sinx +c
y(O) = 1: y(O) =2:
l =-l + C 2 = 2 x O- sin O+ c
C=2 c=2
y=2-cosx y = 2x - sin x + 2

YEAR12
2
(c) Now: d J= fx
d (d )
dx
2
If d { = sin x then the solution of this differential equation ,viii give an equation of the forn1 Z= f(x ).
dx
From part (a) you can obtain that
d
lx
= 2- cosx.
From part (b) you can obtain the solution of this equation, it is y = 2x - sin x + 2.
2
Hence the solution to d { = sin x ,vith the given initial conditions is y = 2x - sin x + 2.
dx
EXERCISE 12.3 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FORM : = f(x)

1 Write the general solution of the follo\ving differential equations.
dy
(a) - =2x -l (b) f'(x)=x2 ✓ x (c) y'(x) = 2cos2x (d) y'(x) = 2 cos2 x
dx
dz t -x
(e) dz 1
dt = t 2 +4 (f) dt = 2 (g) dx = sin 2
0 + cos 2
0 (h) f'(x)=l-e 2
t +4 d0
2 Find the particular solution of the following differential equations.
(a) Z = 2x 3 - x + 1, given that y = 2 ,vhere x = 1 (b) f'(x) = si,n x(l - cos x), given that!(~)= -1
(c) x'(t) = ,J1 + t, given that x(O) = 3 (d) ~~ = te' -, given that V = 2 ,vhen t = 0
dx sin0 . du x2
(e) dB = + cosB' given that x= 1 where 0= n (f) dx = 2 , given that u = 5 ,vhere x = 0
2 x +l
(g) dt = t.Jt2 -9, t > 3, given that y = 1 ,vhen t = 3
3 Find the particular solution of the following differential equations.

dy 1 dx t
(a) -d = I 2
,y(O)= l (b) dt = 2 ,x = l wheret=O
x v9-x t +l
dx Y dz= t
(c) dy= 21 _ 2 ,given that x= l wherey=2 (d) dt Jl-t'z(-2)=0
4 The solution to Jx = x \vith initial condition y(O) = -1 is:

A ahvays concave do,vn B ahvays concave up C always decreasing D ahvays increasing
5 (a) Show that f (xex) =ex+ xex. (b) Hence find Jxex dx.
(c) Find the particular solution of the differential equation Z = xeX, given y(O) = -1.
(d) Find the particular solution of the differential equation Z

= xex - ex, given y(O) = -2.
d 2y dy
(e) Hence find the particular solution for the second-order differential equation - , = xeX, given that dx = -1
and y = -2 where x = 0. dx-
1
6 Find the particular solution of the differential equation y' = 2 if y(O) = 1.
x +l
7 (a) Show that f( x + x tan_, x - ~ log, ( x 2 + 1)) = tan - i x + I.
(b) Using (a), find the particular solution of the differential equation Jx = tan- x + 1 ify(O) = 0.
1

YEAR 12
8 (a) If Z = ; ( ex - e-x) ,vith initial condition y(O) = 1, find y.
(b) If: = ; ( ex + e-x) with initial condition z(O) = 0, find z.
(c) Hence show that i f ~ = ; ( ex - e-x) with y(O) = 0 and y'(O) = 1, then y = ; ( ex - e-x) is a particular
solution of this equation.
9 A sin1ple economic ,node! for the rate of change t of the price P of a product with respect to time t states
that t varies directly with the difference bet\veen the de1nand D and the supply S of the product. This can be
written as c:J; = r ( D- S), P(O) = 1 with r being a positive constant.

Let us assume the supply of widgets is given by S ( t) = 2 + sin 2 ( :t) and the demand for widgets by
D (t) = 3 + cos 2 ( ~t ), ,vhere tis the tiine in 1nonths since the start of the year.
(a) Express P(t) in terms of rand t. The ,vidget price after three 1nonths is $4.
(b) Sketch the ,vidget price over the course of the year.
06
10 An oil tanker hits a reef and spills oil into the sea. The oil spills fro1n the tanker at a rate of ; t litres/day,
where t is the number of days since the tanker first hit the reef. t + 16
It is known that Jt
4 t
+ 16
dt = 1
8
arctan(f) + C.
4
(a) If V litres is the volume of oil spilled into the sea in the first T days, find Vin tern1s of T.
The local ne,vspaper report stated, 'It is expected that eventually 300 000 litres of oil ,viii spill into the sea.'
(b) Detern1ine whether the ne,vspaper report is in agreen1ent ,vith the model above.
Challenging
11 An irregularly shaped tank 10 metres high, holds 100 cubic n1etres of oil when full. The volume, V(h) cubic
metres, of oil in a partially filled tank, where the depth of oil is h n1etres, is given by V(h) = Ahsin- 1 ( .l!_)
where A is a real nu1nber. 10
(a) Find the exact value of A.
The tank is initially e1npty. Oil is then pu1nped into the tank at a constant rate of2 cubic 1netres per minute.
(b) Find, in tenns of h, an expression for the rate at ,vhich the volu1ne of the oil is increasing, in 1netres per
minute, where the depth is h n1etres.
(c) Find an expression for the derivative 1~ in tenns of h.
(d) Hence find an expression for tin tenns of h.
(e) Hence find the tin1e t (in 1ninutes) for the depth of oil depth to reach 5✓3 1netres. Express your answer in
the fonn t = aJb 1ninutes for a suitable choice of the natural numbers a, b, c.
C
12 A rocket has a 1nass 40 000 kg plus an initial n1ass mpkg of fuel. At the initial tiine t =0 seconds, the rocket is
launched vertically fro1n ground level. Ignoring the variation of gravity ,vith height h, the altitude of the rocket
d 2h 49 780000 dh
is then governed by dt 2 = - ), 0 < t < 200, starting with dt = 0 and h = 0 ,vhen t = 0.
5 + mF_ 2 00(t _
200
(a) Find !; (Assu1ne O< t < 200).
(b) Given that l!..(
dt
3900t - 49 t + 39 ( m p - 200( t - 200 )) log m F -
10
2
2 '
200
(t -
40000+mp
200
) )
49t m p + 40000
= -5+3900log, m F-200(t-200)' findh(t).
Burnout occurs at tin1e tb = ;c:o, when all the fuel has been expended.
(c) Find the altitude hb of the rocket at the time of burnout.
YEAR12
12.4 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FORM t= g(y)
Models that describe systen1s exhibiting growth or decay have the fonn :Z = g (y). In other words, the rate of
growth :Z in the dependent variable y is a functiong(y) of the variable y alone. The function g(y) on the right-hand
side of such a differential equation has no explicit dependence on the independent variable x.
To solve :Z = given that
g (y) = consideration has to be given to two separate cases.
y(O) y 0,
Case I: g(y0 ) =0
If g(y0 ) = 0, then y(x) = y 0. In other words, the solution y(x) = y 0 is not dependent on the independent variable, so it
is variously called the stationary solution, the steady state solution, or the equilibriun1 solution, y,.
Case II: g (y 0 ) *0
The n1odel :Z = g(y) can be transforn1ed to a directly integrable forn1 ( k_) = t = gty) by taking the reciprocal
of both sides, wherever g(y0) * 0. dx
The solution of this new equation gives x(y) , so the variable xis 110\v a function of y. In other words, the roles of the
dependent and independent variables in the original equation
. dx 1
:Z = g (y) have been exchanged in the transforn1ed
equation dy = g(y)"
Recall that exchanging the roles of dependent and independent variables in any relationship, such as y = fix),
requires the existence of an appropriate inverse function f - 1• In other \Vords, y = f(x) <=> x = f - 1(y), provided f is a
one-to-one function on an interval, \Vhich requiresj(x) * 0 inside that interval. In this problem, g(y) defines ix=
y as an invertible (i.e. one-to -one) function of x on an interval, wherever g(y) * 0 for any value of the variable y in
the said solution. Therefore, the solution x = g(y) of'; =

d y g y
t)
can al\vays be inverted to give the solution y = g- (x)
1
of the original problem lx

= g(y) on any interval of ywhere g(y) 0. *
A number of these kinds of differential equations will be investigated.
To find the particular solution of ix = g (y), y(a) = y 0 , g(y) * 0, requires the following five-step procedure:
• Takethereciprocalofbothsidesofz =g(y)toobtain t = gty) withx=awherey=y•.
• Integrate both sides of the equation \Vith respect to the new independent variable y:
ft dy = f gly) dy
x + c = G(y) where G'(y) = gly) and c is a constant of integration.

• Where possible, invert the equation fro1n previous step to find the general solution for the origin al dependent
variable y in tenns of the original in dependent variable x:
x + c= G(y)
:. y= G"1(x + c)
• Substitute the initial condition (x, y) = (a, y) into the equation obtained in the previous step to evaluate the
constant of integration c: :. Ya= G" 1(a + c).
• Substitute the value of the constant into the general solution obtain ed in the previous step to obtain the
particular solution.

YEAR 12
Example 16
Find the solution of ix = 2 y, given that where x = 0, y = 3.
Solution
• Take the reciprocal of both sides of the equation: • Sin1plify and express \Vith y as a function of x:
dx 1
dy = 2y x + ~ log, 3 = ~ log, Iy I
• Integrate with respect to y: 2x = log, 11 1- Iog, 3
x + c = ~log, 11 1
Logarith1ns are only defined for positive
2x = log, 3 lzl
quantities, so the absolute value sign is used.
w = e2x
• Substitute kI10\vn values of x and y, 3
x = O,y= 3: IYI= 3e2x
O+ c = -21 log , 3 This gives two solutions.
If y > 0, IYI = y = 3e2x
If y < 0, IYI = -y = 3e2x : . y = -3e2x
Con1plete solution is: y = +3e2x
Example 17
Find the particular solution of dt = -r(y-s), given that y(O) = y with r, s >
0 0 positive constants.
Solution
Take the reciprocal of both sides and transpose -r:
-r-dt = -1-
dy y -s
Integrate both sides with respect to the original dependent variable y:
-r f ddt dy
y
=f 1 dy
y -s
- rt + c = log, IY- s I
Rearrange to find the general solution:
11 -sl = e' e-''
:. y -s = Ae-''
y = s + Ae-'' where A = +e' .
To find the particular solution, substitute initial condition y(O) = y 0 :
0
y 0 -s = Ae
:. A = Yo-s
:. y = s + (y0 -s)e-''
)'
It appears that this is a single solution. However, this solution will
J'o
behave differently depending on the relative size of the initial )'o> s
condition y(O) = y 0 and the steady state solutions, as sho\vn.
s --------------------
In the case that (y0 - s) < 0, the solution y = s + (y0 - s)e-" grows
as time increases. Yo< 5
In the case that (y0 - s) > 0, the solution y = s + (y0 - s)e-'' J'o
t
decays as tin1e increases.

YEAR12
Example 17 above is related to the 1nodel of uninhibited exponential growth/decay, ddy = ry, \Vhich for y(O) = y0 has
. rx t
th e general so IutJon y = y0 e .
Assun1ing r > 0, the differential equation 1; = -r(y - y, ), y(O) = y is a 1nodel of inhibited growth for y < y, and
0 0
inhibited decay for y0 > y,. The rate of growth (or decay) in the dependent variable is called inhibited because the rate
falls to zero as the dependent variable approaches its equilibriun1 value y,.
The solution curve of an inhibited growth (or decay) proble1n is y(t) = y, + (y0 - y,)e-''.
Example 18
()sh tht 2 _ l + l
a O\V a (l-y)(l + y) - 1-y l+y·
(b) Find the general solution of! = (1- y )(1 + y ), given that y(O) = y0 .
Solution
1
(a) RHS = + 1
1-y l+ y
_ l+y+l-y
- (1-y)(l + y)
- 2 =LHS
(1-y)(l + y)
(b) Take the reciprocal of both sides of the equation:
dy
d.x=(l-y)(l+y)
d.x 1
dy = (1-y)(l + y)
Both sides of the equation are integrated \Vith respect toy:
I~; dy = I ( 1- y )\ 1+ y) dy
The result fro1n (a) is used, (l - y )\l + y) = ~ ( 1~ y + 1: y ):

x=~ J (1 2 y+l:y)dy
2x = f( 2 y +
1 1: y) dy
2x+C=(- Inll-yl + Inll+ yl)
2x+C= ln l+ y
1- y
Note: Add the constant of integration to the side with the original independent variable.

YEAR 12
Rearrange the equation fro1n the previous step to find the general solution for the original dependent
variable in tenns of the original independent variable:
e2x+C = 1+ Y
I- y
l+Y
1- y
= e2xec
I+y
- ~ =+e2xeC
I- y
I+Y = Ae2x
1- y
I+ y = Ae2x - yAe 2x
y( 1 + Ae 2x) = Ae2x -1
Ae 2x - 1
Y = l + Ae2x
The initial condition is substituted to find the particular solution, y(O) =y0 :
A- 1
Yo= l + A
Yo +Ayo= A-1
Yo + 1 = A ( 1 - Yo)
A= l + Yo
I- yo
Hence the solution is:

-1 +~e
Yo 2x - 1
Yo - -
y= -1---'--"-
1+ 1 + Yo e2x
1- Yo
This ,nay also be rearranged to give:

1- Yo -2x
1 - - ~e
l + Yo
y=
1 + 1- Yo e-2x
l + Yo
The solution of the quadratic growth rate model ! = (1- y) (1 + y ), y(O) = y 0 is:
l -( 1- Yo )e-2x
l + Yo
y=
1+ ( l -yo )e-2x
l + Yo

YEAR12
EXERCISE 12.4 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FORM : = g(y)

1 In each case, find the equation of the solution curve and then sketch its graph.
dy dy
(a) dx=-y,y(O)=I (b) dx=2y,y(O)=-l
(c) Z=-2y,y(0)=-5 (d) !=2y,y(0)=3
2 In each case, find the equation of the solution curve and then sketch its graph.
(a) ! =-2(y-3),y(0)=8 (b) ! =-2(y(x)-8),y(0)=3
(c) Z=-4(y + 3),y(0)=5 (d) ! = -4(y- 3), y(O) = -5
3 Given that ! 2
= cos y and that y = : at x = 0, then \Vhich of the following is true?
1
A y=~y+ !sin2y 8 x= tan(y + 1) C y=tan- (x+ l ) D y= tan- 1 (x-1)
4 In Biology and Ecology, the tenn desiccation refers to the drying out (i.e. the loss of \Vater) of the cells of a
living organisn1. Most cells are n1ostly made of water. Assun1e that the desiccation of a cell is n1odelled by the
2
solution of the following differential equation: ~~ = -kV , where Vis the volume of the \Vater in the cell, tis
3
tiine and k is an appropriate constant of proportionality.
During the mtense heat of the Australian su1n1ner, the cells of a newly fallen eucalyptus leaf still contain \Vater,
but the leaf loses this \Vater rapidly through the process of desiccation. Suppose that each leaf cell initially
contains 8 µn1 3 of water, but 4hours later each cell has only 1 µ111 3 of water.
2
(a) Find the particular solution of~~= -kV3 , V(O) = 8µm •
3
(b) Find the tin1e taken for the cells to lose all their water (assu1ning that the environmental conditions don't
change over this tiine).
5 The pressure of the atJnosphere, P kilopascals (kPa), decreases accordmg to tile height hkin above sea level. The rate
of change of tile pressure witll respect to tile height above sea level is proportional to tile pressure at tllat height
(a) Write a differential equation to describe this situation.
(b) The pressure at sea level is 101.3kPa and it is approxi1nately 37.3kPa at a height of Skin. Solve the
differential equation to find Pas a function of h.
(c) Estimate the air pressure at the top of Mount Everest, which is about 9 kin high.
6 In an electric circuit, a capacitor of capacitance C charged to a potential difference E is discharged through
a resistance R. If q is tile charge on the capacitor at tin1e t, then !; = - RqC is the differential equation
describing this situation. If initially q = EC then find the solution of this equation (that is, q as a function oft).
7 Newton's la\v of cooling states that 'the cooling rate of a body is proportional to the difference between the
ten1perature of the body and tllat of the surrounding n1ediun1: This ,nay be written as dT = -k(T- M),
dt
where Tis the ten1perature at any time t and Mis the te1nperature of the surrounding medium (a constant).
A pot of soup is cooked at 100°C. To cool the soup, it is placed in a room where the te1nperature is 20°C. After
20 minutes the te1nperature of the soup has dropped to 70°C.
(a) Find tile general solution of the differential equation !T = -k(T - 20).
(b) Find tile value of k. t
(c) How n1uch time will it take the pot of soup to cool to 25°C?

YEAR 12
Challenging
8 Two pieces of inforn1ation are needed for the safe medicinal use of a drug:
(i) dosage level required to achieve the desired effect (ii) tin1e interval between doses.
The body deals with a drug by first absorbing it into body tissues, then excreting it via body organs. After being
absorbed, the process of drug excretion usually begins as blood takes the drug fron1 body tisses and flows
through the kidneys. Assun1e that the kidney's excretion rate ddy is proportional to the an1ount of the drug y
in the body tissues, so that
d
J:
= -ky, k > 0.
t
Suppose that an initial dose D of a drug is given at tiine t =0 and that this dosage is repeated at intervals of
Tminutes.
(a) Show that the amount of the initial dose re1naining when the second dose is given is De-kT_
(b) Find an expression for the a1nount of drug in the body just after the nth dose has been given.
(c) Show that the maxiinum amount of the drug that can build up in the body fro1n a succession of doses
of quantity Dis D_k, . This is called the saturation level y, and is the desired dosage level for safe
1-e
maxin1u1n effectiveness.
(d) The half-life for the excretion of a drug is the tin1e for the quantity of a drug in the body to reduce from D
D . . . .
to , \Vhen no further dose 1s given. If the half-hfe 1s h, show that k =
2
log 2
h.
12.5 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FORM 'f = f(x)g(y)
USING SEPARATION OF VARIABLES x
Towards the end of his life, the great Swiss mathe1natician and teacher )'
Johann Bernoulli ( 1667- 1748) published his lectures on calculus.

In Bernoulli's discussion of integral calculus, he posed the following question:
)' = f(x)
What curve y j(x) has a subtangent ST (see diagrain at right) at any point
P that is al\vays equal to a positive multiple, a > 0, of the abscissa OS at the
point P?
The tenn abscissa is the fonnal name for the x-coordinate of point P.
()
In other words, Bernoulli is asking for the curves \Vith ST = aOS. T 0 s N X
Bernoulli's question can be rewritten using a more modern notation.

It follo\vs fron1 the right-angled t.SPT that ST = SP .
tan 0
However, TP is a tangent line to the curve y = j(x) at point P, given by tan 0 = Z.
SP is the ordinate (they-value) of point P.
Therefore: ST = t:; t)
0 = (
ST = aOS :. y = ax
(Z)
Solving for the derivative in this equation gives ddy = L.
X ax
In so1ne \vays, this problen1 is slightly n1ore co1nplicated than the equations solved so far because it has the forn1
t = f (x )g (y ). Both the independent and the dependent variables appear as separate factors in the derivative Z.
In this section you \vill learn how to answer Bernoulli's question. You will learn how to solve any first-order
differential equation of the forn1 Z= f (x )g( y ). The key to solving these equations is the separation of the t\vo
variables onto either side of the equality.

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In other words, to solve Z = f (x )g(y ), transpose the equation so that all tenns involving the dependent variable
are on the left side of the equality and all tern1s involving the independent variable are on the right side.
This would give gty) Z = f(x).
In the table belo\v, the original equation is in the left-hand colu1nn \vhile the equation \Vith variables separated is in
the right-hand colu1nn.
Original differential equation Variables Rewritten with variables separated
cosx+ y Z =0 xandy yZ=-cosx

. dw d~v
Sll1V - -COSV = 0 vandw - =cotv
dv dv
1 dz = -1
0z'=z + l 0andz
z+ l d0 0
Finding the general solution of a first-order differential equation

by the method of separation of variables
Example 19
Find the general solution of the differential equation z = x(y-1).
Solution
The dependent an d independent variables are separated onto either side of the equality, with the dependent on
1
the left and the independent variable on the right: ddy = x.
y- 1 X
z
Both sides of the equality are integrated \Vith respect to the independent variable, using the change of variable
dx = dy on the LHS:
Jy-1 dxdy dx= f xdx

1
f y~ldy= f xdx
I
log, y - 1 = I ~x2+c
Represent the dependent variable as an explicit function of the independent variable.
Exponentiating both sides:
l x 2 +c \ \ \ , ~f-,,., - I 1I 1I
IY- l l =e2
\ \ "-i T.. ., , /
=
-I x 2
e' e 2 ''~, ---///
I 2
Removing the absolute value: y = 1+ Ae2x , \Vhere A= +e<.
dy ! x2
It appears that the general solution of dx = x(y -1) is y = 1 + Ae 2 ,
Real A, A-#; 0.
The slope field of z = x(y-1) is shown at right.

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This slope field indicates that y = 1 should also be a solution curve for dxdy = x(y-1). Ho\vever, the general solution
I 2
2
y = 1 + Ae x cannot give y = 1 because A= +e<, A ,t; 0.
In the exan1ple above, the solution y = 1 is an exa1nple of a so-called singular solution because it is not part of
the general solution for any allowable value of the constant of integration. However, the singular solutions of
Jx = f (x )g(y) are often of the form y = y * for son1e root k of the equation J(y*) = O. The singular solutions are
also usually evident fron1 an investigation of the slope field.
Warning
To avoid 1nissing any possible singular solutions when finding the general solution of a differential equation of
the forn1 Jx = f (y) g( x ), always re1nen1ber to investigate the roots {y*: f (y*) = O} and/or the slope field.
Finding the particular solution of a first-order differential equation
by the method of separation of variables
Example 20
Find the particular solution of Bernoulli's problen1 Jx = 2; passing through the point (1, -4).
Solution
The dependent and independent variables are separated onto either side of the equality with the dependent on
the left and the independent variable on the right: .!_ ddxy = 2
y X
Both sides of the equality are integrated \vith respect to the independent variable, using the change of variable
Jx dx = dy on the LHS of the equation: J~ Jx dx = 2 f !dx
I ~dy=2 I !dx
log, 11 1=2log, x+c
2
log, ly l = log, x +c
Solved for the dependent variable to obtain the general solution: log, y I I- log, x 2 = c
log , [rl2 = c
X
11 1=eC
- 2
:. y=Ax2,whereA=+e' x
Constant of integration is found to satisfy the required initial condition (x, y) = (1, -4): -4 = A
2
Constant of integration is substituted to specify the particular solution of the problen1: y = -4x

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To solve the first-order differential equation Z= f (y} g( x) by the n1ethod of separation of variables:
1 Solve {y•: fly*) = O} for any steady state (or equilibrium) solutions y = y•.
2 Separate the dependent and independent variables onto either side of the equality 1 dy =g ( x ).
f (y) dx
3 Integrate both sides of the equality with respect to the independent variable:
For the integral involving y tern1s, apply the change of variable Jf ty) ix dx = f f ty) dy _
Add the constant of integration C to the side with the independent variable. This is the general solution.
4 Wherever possible, you should represent the dependant variable as an explicit function of the independent
variable. However, you ,nay need to be satisfied with an equation that determines the dependant variable as an
implicit function of the independent variable.
5 If an initial condition y(a) =b is given, solve for the constant of integration C. This is the particular solution.
You have now learnt two different n1ethods to solve the differential equation Z= f (y ).
The reciprocal method

1 Take the reciprocal of both sides of ix= f (y) to obtain t = f(y)"
2 Integrate the result with respect toy to obtain f t dy = f f (y) dy.

The separation of variables method
1 Separate the t\vo variables in ix =f (y) to obtain f (y)ix = 1.
2 Integrate the result with respect to x to obtain f (y) ix = f

f dx dx or I f (y) dy = I dx.
Each of the two 1nethods above give the original independent variable x as a function of the original dependent
variable y, which must then be inverted to give the required solution y(x).
EXERCISE 12.5 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FORM : = f(x)g(y)

USING SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
1 Use the method of separation of variables to find the general solution of each of the differential equations
below. W here reasonable, express the fa1nily of solutions as explicit functions of x.
2
(a) ( x + 4) Z= 2xy (b) dx
dy
=x
2y (d) ✓1 -x2 dy
y+ l dx
= -2x
2
(e) ( 1 + x ) ix =
xy (f) e Y COSX -
dy .
dx Sin
2
X =0 (g) (sec x) y' + y·
,
=0
2
2 Find the particular solution of e-x yy' + .xy = 0, y(O) = 1.

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3 Find the equation of each graph:

3y .
(a) The graph passes through ( 1, 2) an d has a slope - 2 at each pomt (x, y).
X
-2y
(b) The gradient of the tangent at point (x, y) on a graph is given by - '- an d the graph passes through the
• X
point ( 1, 2).
4 On a particular day, the synoptic scale airflo,v over the Coral Sea
is 1nodelled by the slope field of the follo,ving differential equation
y
/ / / / / / /
/////////
,, -___
- - -_
,.,,.
dy = 180- ___ _
h . h di . h
-- --
X ////////,;
(
dx 4 25+ y
)' as s own 111 t e agram at ng t.
/ / / / / / / ,.. ,..
- 15 I I / / / / ; ,, ,... ,.. -•- -
Here, xis the longitude and y is the latitude (both are measured in I I I / / / / ; .,- ..- - - -
/ / I I / / / / / . , . . , __
degrees, \vith southern latitudes negative). /ll/l//1;,,-..---
- 20 ///I//I//;.,..,.._
Tropical Cyclone Wendy is shown at the point longitude 175°£
and latitude 15°S.
I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 ,, -
I I I I I I I I I I I / ,..
80
(a) Find the particular solution of ddy = ( - x), y(l 75) = -15. l l L I I I I I / .,-
X 4 25 + y
X
155 160 165 170 175
(b) Hence, plot the path of Cyclone Wendy.
5 Consider the differential equation ix = 2 2

3x cos y.
(a) Find the particular solution y = fix) to the differential equation, satisfying the initial condition f (O) = TC.
4
(b) State the don1ain and range of the solution found in part (a).
6 An insect population P experiences a seasonal growth rate given by ddP = ~ sm(I£ t)P , P(O) = 1, where Pis
t 12 6
measured in n1illions and tis the nu1nber of n1onths since the beginning of spring.
Express the tin1e variation of the insect population P and sketch this variation over the course of one year.
7 The general solution of the differential equation ix = y 2 cos x is:

1 -1
A y= cosx-C 8 y= sinx + C C y= ✓2C + 2sinx D y = -✓2C + 2sinx
8 The particular solution of the differential equation ix = 2xy, y (0) = 2 is:

x2 x2
x2
A y =e 2 8 y = 2e C D y= 2e 2
Challenging
9 The altiinetry equation~~ !
= - (To ! Tz )' relates air pressure Pin pascals (Pa) to the altitude (height above
sea level) z in 1netres (n1). In this 1nodel, T 0 is the air ten1perature in kelvin (K) at sea level; r is the constan t
rate of te1nperature change as th e altitude increases (Kim); P0 is the air pressure (Pa) at sea level; R is the gas
constan t of air; and g is the gravitational acceleration.
(a) Find the rule for the air pressure Pas a function of the altitude z.
(b) Hence, find the rule for altitude z as a function of the air pressure P.
(c) Use the table belo,v to find the altitude corresponding to an air pressure of 6 1640 Pa. Express the ans,ver
correct to the nearest 1netre.
g (m s- 2) R (J/kgK) r (K/n1) P0 (Pa) T 0 (K)

9.80 287.053 0.0065 101325 288.15

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2
10 Consider the differential equation dxdy = - x Y , y > 0.
1og,y
(a) Find the general solution g(x, y) = c of this differential equation as an iinplicit relation between x and y ,
using the substitution u = log, y to co1nplete the integration.
(b) Find the particular solution passing through the point (O, e).
(c) Explain why x = I cannot exist in the solution to part (b).
11 Consider the differential equation: ! = 5; x

(a) Let y = fix) be the particular solution to the differential equation O< x < IO, such that the line y = 5 is a
tangent to the graph of y = fix) . Find the x-coordinate of the point P of tangency.
d2 5 - x) 2 d
. h y I
(b) G1ven t at dx 2 = - - - ( · th e nature o f t he so1ut1on
, eterm1ne
. o f th e ong1na
. . 1 d·a: . 1 equation
111erenl!a .
3
y y
in the vicinity of point P.
(c) Let y = g(x) be the particular solution to the given differential equation for O< x < IO, ,vith the initial
condition g(5) = -5. Find the rule y = g(x).
12 The fuel- air pressure P (Pa) inside the cylinder of a co1nbustion engine ,vith a 10: 1 compression ratio is
3
related to the volume V (c1n ) of the cylinder by the differential equation ;~ = -1.400 ~-
(a) Find the particular solution of this equation, if the volun1e of the fuel- air in the uncompressed cylinder is
600c,n3 when the fuel- air pressure is 100000Pa.
3
(b) Hence, find the air pressure P when the cylinder is fully con1pressed to 60 c1n •
13 Tropical cyclones can only forn1 over water \vith surface temperatures of at least 26°C. After these cyclones
have forn1ed they tend to strengthen when passing over wanner water and weaken over colder water.
The strength of a cyclone S is related to the ,vater surface te1nperature T by
proportionality.
J~
= k ~ where k is the constant of
(a) What is the sign of the constant of proportionality k? Explain why this is so.
(b) Find S('f) in tern1s of k.
14 A space probe is launched vertically up,vards fro1n the surface of a spherical planet with a radius R. If the
at1nospheric drag is ignored, the upwards velocity (v n1s- 1) of the probe at height hmetres above the surface
2
of the planet is 1nodelled by the solution of the differential equation :~ = - gR 2 , v = u, where h = 0 and
g is the gravitational acceleration on the surface of the planet. v ( R + h)
2
(a) Show that v2 = u2 - gR .
I+ R
h
(b) Hence find the minimun1 launch velocity u for the probe to escape the planet's gravity.
15 In a dry, still atmosphere, the air temperature T(K) usually decreases with the altitude h (m) above sea level
according to !r = -0.00649, \vith T(O) = 288K.
(a) Find a formula for the variation of temperature \vith height.

The barometric pressure P (Pa) also depends on the altitude above sea level h and the local air temperature T
according to the differential equation ~r = -0.0352 ~ , P(O) = 101325 Pa.
Whereas the te1nperature Bat which water boils is related to air pressure P by the differential equation
2
dB B
dP =0.000 189p, ,vithB(l01325)=373K.
(b) Show that dB = -6.65 x 10-6B2

dh 288 - 0.00649h.

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(c) Hence find a formula for the altitude h (1n) as a function of the boiling point ten1perature B (K).
During a clin1b of Mount Everest, 1nountaineers observe \Vater boiling at 84°C (that is, 357K).
(d) Find the height of the 1now1taineers above sea level.
16 According to Torricelli's Law, the rate of outflo\v fro1n a tank filled to a depth h with a volwne V of fluid
draining under the influence of gravity alone is ~~ = -k-./h, where k > 0.
Consider a hemispherical tank of radius l 1n, filled to a depth h m with V(h) =.!.3 nh 2 (3 - h) cubic metres of
water. Assu1ne that this tank drains through a hole at its lowest point.
dh k
(a) Use the 1nethod of related rates to sho\v that: dt = - ,r JF, ( _ h).
2
(b) Initially, the tank is filled to a depth of 1 n1. Find a fonnula for the tin1e t taken for the water level to fall to
a given depth h. (Express your answer in tenns of the unkno\vn constant of proportionality k.)
(c) Find the constant of proportionality k if it takes \
8
fn1inutes for the depth to fall to ~ 1n.
(d) Hence find the tin1e taken (in n1inutes) for the tank to en1pty.
12.6 MODELLING WITH FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Models of uninhibited growth

The British econonlist Tho1nas R. Malthus ( 1766- 1834) proposed a 1nodel of natural population gro\vth that asswnes that
both the birth rate and the death rate of a population are proportional to the current size of the population at each instant.
Consequently, the net rate of change in population can be restated as:
'net rate of change in population = birth rate - death rate'.
In other words: Let P(t) represent the size of a population at time t. Assun1ing that the population level is specified at
the initial tiine t = 0 as P(O) = P0, predict the population at later times t.
dP =bP-dP
dt
dP =(b-d)P
dt
';J; = r P, where r = b - d \vith P(0) = Po.
In swnmary, Malthus' uninhibited growth model ~ ';J; = r has a constant relative gro\vth rate r. This model results
in exponential growth for P. In n1ore general tenns:
A dependent variable y(t) is said to have an exponential growth rate if its relative growth rate .!. ddy = k > 0, or an
y t
exponential rate of decay if its relative growth rate ~ Jt = -k < 0 for some positive constant k.
Finding the doubling-time in a model of exponential growth
Example 21
Consider the differential equation Jt = f...y, given that y(O) = y > 0, with k > 0.
0
Find the tin1e T for y to double its initial value y 0•

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Solution
Rearrange to separate the two variables: 7t = ky
.!. dy =k
y dt
Integrate with respect to the independent variable: J .!. dy dt = J k dt
y dt
log, ly l = kt+ c
Exponentiate: IYI= ekt+<
The general solution is: y = Aek' where A = +e'
Apply the initial condition y(O) = y 0 to solve for the constant of integration: y0 = A
Substitute to find the n1odel of exponential growth:
kt
y=yoe
At time T, y = 2y0:
kT
2yo =yoe
2 =ekT
1
T = - log 2
k '
y
For a syste1n y = y0 e' t, r > 0 experiencing exponential growth, the doubling- Doubling- time T
8yo ------------ ' y = Yoe'r
tin1e (T) is the time it takes the system to double in size. The fonnula for the
do.,bling-Hm, ;, T - l log, 2 -
r
(tr
log
1
') ) log, 2
y(t1)
4yo
2yo
-------
I
' y(t2) Yo
T 2T 3T t
Radioactive decay
Example 22
The New Zealand-born physicist Ernest Rutherford is often called the father of nuclear physics. Rutherford was
able to formulate a model of radioactive decay as a simple differential equation. From his laboratory experin1ents
Rutherford discovered that the relative rater, at \Vhich aton1s of radioactive materials disintegrate, is proportional
to the nun1ber of aton1s N still present in the sainple. In other words, this model states that ~~ = -rN, N ( 0) = N 0 •
(a) Show that the solution of this model is N = N 0e-, '.
(b) Hence find the tin1e t½ required for the nun1ber of aton1s still present (N) to fall to ~ N 0•
Solution
(a) The two variables are separated: ~ ~~ = -r
Both sides of the equation are integrated \Vith respect to the independent variable:
J ~ ~~ dt = - J r dt
log, IN I = -rt + c
N = +e- rt+c
N = +e' e- rt
· N = Ae-'' where A= +e'
The initial conditions are substituted in the last equation to find the constant of integration, N(O) = N0 , N 0 > 0:
A = +e' =N0
:. N = N e-,t as require
0
. d.

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(b) The conditions required are su bstituted into the equation from part (a): N = N 0 e-" \Vith N = ~ N0
1 N _ N - ,,
- o- oe
2
1 - ,,
2=e
The exponential equations are ch anged into a logarithn1ic form: t = .!.Jog, 2.
r
Hence t1 = .!. log, 2, where tl. is the h alf-life of the radioactive n1aterial.
2 r 2
For a systen1 y = y0e-'', r > 0 experiencing exponential decay, the half-life, )' Half- life I~
t1 is the tiine it takes the value of y to h alve. The fonnula for the half-life is
2 1
Yo '
(t2 -t1)
t = - log, 2 =
1 ( ) log, 2. yof2
"i" r I y(t1)
og, y(t2) yof4 y =Yoe-11
yofS
0 r 2r 3r t
First-order decay reactions

In a si1nple first-order decay reaction, the rate of decrease - d~: ] of the concentration of a reactant A varies directly
\Vith the value of the concentration [A] of that reactant.
That is, the concentration [A] of the reactant A is modelled by the differential equation d~:] = -r( A], where the
relative decay rate r is usually called the reaction rate.
Exa1nples of so1ne first-order decay reactions are included in the table belo\v.
Reactant Reaction rater (s- 1) Half-life t 1

2
23su
92 4.87 X 10- 18 9
4.51 x 10 years
1: c 3.83 X 10- 12 3
5.73 x 10 years
32 p
15 5.61 X 10- 7 14.3 days
Newton's law of cooling

Ne\vton's law of cooling states that the time rate of decrease in the te1nperature T of an object varies directly with
the difference between the object's ten1perature and the a1nbient temperature ( the ten1perature of the surrounding
1nediu1n, T,,).
dT
Therefore: dt = -r(T - T. ), r > 0, T (O) = T0
If T0 > T., the body's mitial te1nperature is higher than the te1nperature of its surrounding, so the body is cooling.
The model predicts that the body will cool quickly at first, reducing the excess of its ten1perature to that of the
surrounding environment. This cooling reduces the excess ten1perature of the body, thus continually slowing its rate
of cooling.
However, if T 0 < T., then the body's initial temperature is lower than th e temperature of its surroundings, so the
body is wanning. Again, this change in te1nperature reduces the te1nperature difference \vith the surroundmg
1nediu1n, thus slowing the rate of warn1ing.

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Example 23
Newton's la,v of cooling can be used to model the ten1perature of a cup of coffee cooling on a kitchen bench.
If the ten1perature of the kitchen is a constant 20°C and the initial ten1perature of the coffee is 95°C, after
20 minutes the coffee will have cooled to 65°C.
(a) Find the temperature of the coffee after an additional 20 1ninutes.
(b) Sketch a graph of the ten1perature of the coffee for the first 2 hours.
Solution
(a) This problem models the process of cooling, so Newton's la,v of cooling is: ~T = -r(T- 20), r > 0,
no)= 95. r
The two variables are separated: (T ~ ~; = -r
20
Both sides of the equation are integrate~ ,vith respect to t and a change of variable is applied on the LHS
of the equation: f (T ~ 20 ) ~; dt = -frdt
f(T ~ 20) dT =- f r dt
log, IT- 201=-rt+ c
Both sides of the equation are exponentiated and solved for the dependent variable: T - 20 = Ae-, ',
where A = +e'.
The initial condition is substituted and the constant of integration is determined:
T(O) = 95: 95 - 20 = A
:. T=20 +75e -''
t = 20, T = 65, is substituted to detennine the constant of proportionality: log, ( ~~) = -20r
r = i
Olog, ( ~)
1
los,(1)
- -
The constant of proportionality is substituted in the general solution: T = 20 + 75e 20 3
t
_.!._log,(1) .!._log,(1) log,(1)20 ( 3 );O
No,v: e 20 3 = e 20 s =e s = 5
t
20
Simplify:T(t) = 20+75( ~)
2
After an additional 20 minutes, t = 40: T ( 40) = 20 + 75( ~) = 20 + 27 = 47°C
The ten1perature of the coffee is 47°C.
(b) Using the 1nodel fro1n part (a) to plot the changing value of T:
n·c>
95
20 - - - - - - - - - - -
0 306090
t(min)

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Models of modified growth and decay

The uninhibited growth model \vith its constant relative gro\vth rate r = .!_ ddy does not take into account the
y t
inherent lin1itations on the gro\vth of a population. In practice, n1ost populations have a size (the carrying capacity C)
beyond which their enviro111nent can no longer sustain the1n. To account for the finite carrying capacity inherent in
1nost systen1s, the Belgian 1nathe1natician Pierre Fran<;ois Verhulst (1804- 1849) modified the uninhibited growth
,node! by replacing constant relative gro\vth rater \Vith a dan1ped gro\vth rate ,(1- ~ ).
Verhulst's modified gro\vth rate model is then equivalent to ~ ! = ,(1- ~),which slo\vs the rate of growth as the
population approaches the 'carrying capacity' y = C of the syste1n.
The differential equation 7t 1(

=r 1- ~ ), y(O) = y 0
where r > 0 is called a
y
Yo
Yo> C
logistic equation. This 1nodels population gro\vth in an enviro111nent \Vith a
C --------------- ·
finite carrying capacity C > 0.
Yo
I
Example 24
Rabbit Island currently has 5000 rabbits, but has sufficient space and food for 20 000 rabbits in total.
The n1odel describing this rabbit population Pis then ';J; = io (1- 20~00 ).
Find the particular solution of this differential equation, given that 20 OOO = _!_ + 1
P(20000-P) P 20000-P
Solution
Take the reciprocal of both sides of the differential equation: ';J; = io (1- 20~ 00)
dt 200000
dP = P(20000-P)
Integrate both sides of the equation with respect to the original dependent variable:
. 200 000 (1 1 )
Given th at P(20000-P) = lO P + 20000-P
I dt
dPdP=
I P(20000-P)dP
200000
1
1~ I dt = I ( ~ + 20000- p)dP
t p
lO + c=log, 20000-P
t p
Find the general solution: AeTo = _ p ' where A= +e'
20 000
Substitute t~e initial conditions t = 0, P = 5000: A =
200
0
gg~
5000
= !
p = 20000elO
t
3+ elO
20000
_,
1 + 3e 10

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Modelling the time dependence of a conserved substance

Differential equations can be used to n1odel the time behaviour of a conserved quantity within a confined region of
space, if you know the rate at which the quantity flo\vs into and out of the region. Such models are of great practical
value in the fields of Science and Engineering.
If a substance m is conserved (that is, neither created nor destroyed), then the rate of change of m within a
confined region (called a control volume) is equal to the difference between the rate at which it flo\vs into the
region (Rin), and the rate at which it flows out of the region (R001). That is, ~7
= R;n -R0111 •
Consider the situation shown at right: q i.n
• m(t) is the 1nass of so1ne conserved substance (e.g. salt or sugar) in the control 'in7 .__________ .,
volun1e at tin1e t
• V(t) is the volun1e of the well-mixed solution within the control volume at tiine t
. u111ts
• q.m , n1easure d 111 . of ( volume)
t· . th e rate at \Vh"1ch th e so IutJon
, 1s . flows into
. th e V-./ell•mixed solution
tme m(I), V(I)
control volume
• q0 ., 1neasured in units of volume, is the rate at which the solution flows out of
u time
the control volun1e ---------- · L qout
' out
• c. , 1neasured in units of ( ~ass ), is the concentration of the conserved
m voume
substance in the inflow
• c0 , 1neasured in units of ( ~ass ). is the concentration of the conserved substance in the outflow
u1 vo ume
The rate R. at \Vhich the conserved substance m(t) flows into the control volu1ne is n1easured in units of ~ass so
,n time
that 0 _ [mass] = . [volume] x c- [ mass ]
" i" time q.,, time "' volume
Sin1ilarly, the rate at which m(t) flows out of the control volun1e is R0111 [~ass]= q 0111 [ vo(ume] x c0111 [ ~ass ]
time time vo ume
Assu1ne that m(t) is conserved, so it is neither created nor destroyed \Vithin the control volun1e. Therefore
dm
dt = R;,, - R.ut•
This n1eans that the net rate of change in the mass of the solute m(t) within the control volu1ne at tin1e t, is modelled
by the solution of differential equation ~7
= q ;,, X C;,, - q 0111 X c0111 •
To solve this equation, the mass concentration of the solute in the outflo\v c0 ., n1ust be expressed in terms of the
dependent variable m(t) and the control volume V(t) as c0 111 = ~ ~: ~.
Ho\vever, the net rate of change of the volu1ne of the solution \vi thin the control volun1e is modelled by the sin1ple
differential equation ~~ = q ;,, - q 0111 , which gives the solution V ( t) = V ( 0) + ( q ;,, - q 0111 ) t.
The differential equation for the tin1e rate of change of the conserved substance \vithin the control volun1e can now
. dm m(t)
be written as d =q ;,, x c;,. - q o111 x V (O) ( . _ ) •
t + q,., qoul t

YEAR 12
Modelling the mass of a conserved quantity
Example 25
A holding tank at a desalination plant contains 200cubic metres of brine solution (salt in \Vater), 20 tonnes of
which is salt. At tin1e t = 0 minutes, seawater starts to flow into this at a rate of 10 cubic metres per minute. This
seawater has a salt concentration of 35 kilograms per cubic 1netre. The 'well-mixed' solution (brine mixed with
seawater) also flows out of the holding tank at the san1e rate of 10 cubic metres per minute.
(a) Construct a differential equation to n1odel the n1ass m kg of salt in the tank after tn1inutes.
(b) State the amount of salt within the holding tank m(t) kg after t 1ninutes.
(c) As the water continues to flo\v through the tank, over time the concentration of salt within the tank
3
approaches a 'long-tern1' value. What is this value, in units ofkg/in ?
(d) Sketch the time dependence of th e salt concentration of the 'well-mixed' outflow.
Solution qin = 10m3/ min
(a) Volume of the solution is fixed at 2001n3,

c,,, = 35kg/ m3 ♦
------~
3
because qin = q0u, = 101n hnin.
Concentration of the inflow cin = 35 kg per n13.
Holding tank
Concentration of the outflo\v m(O) = 20000kg, V = 200m 3
m(t) 3 •
c""' = kg perm , where m(t) 1s the
200
kilograms of salt \Vithin th e tank after t minutes. q0 0 1 = 10m3/ min
,n(/) 3
Initial mass of salt is m(O) = 20000kg. <ou1 = 200 kgi,n
Net rate of change of salt ( k~ ) = rate of inflo\v ( k~ )- rate of outflow ( k~ )

mm nun nun
-dm =350--m
dt 20
= io (7 000-m) given that m(O) = 20000kg
(b) The model is an exrunple of the general inhibited decay n1odel:

7t = r(a- y),y(O) =Yo:. y =a+ (y0 -a)e-"
_,
and thus, has the solution m(t) = 7000 + 13000e 20
(c) Any decaying exponentials will vanish over time:

c001(kg/ m 3)
li1n m( t) = lin11000(7 + 13e;i) = 7000 kg
t ➔ oo t➔oo
100
(d) The concentration c0 u, of the outflow is the mass divided by the
m
volun1e of the tru1k: Cout =
200
3
kg/n1 . 35 - - -~-""-~----
The mass exhibits an inhibited decay to\vards its equilibrium value of 7000 kg. 0 60 120
3
This corresponds to a n1ass concentration of35kg/m • l(min)

YEAR12
EXERCISE 12.6 MODELLING W ITH FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1 Market research in a large city indicates that the n1axi1nun1 sales of a soon-to-be-released mobile device, is 10
truckloads per 1nonth ( 1 truckload = 10000 devices).
Past experience ,vith 1nodels iThingiel through to iThingie6 indicates that the rate of growth in the truckloads
of sales ~:, t n1onths after the release of an iThingie, is directly proportional to the difference between the
current sales and the 1naxin1u1n monthly sales.
(a) Find an equation for the rate of growth t in the sales s as a function of the tin1e tin months after the new
product is first released onto the n1arket. Express your answer in tenns of the constant of proportionality r.
(b) Find the solution curve of your ,node!. Express your answer in terms of the constant of proportionality r.
(c) If two truckloads are sold after one n1onth, find the predicted nu1nber of truckloads per 1nonth after three
months. (Express your ans,ver correct to the nearest truckload.)
2 A siinple n1odel for the spread of a contagious illness assumes that the rate at which the illness spreads ~I
varies jointly with the product of the nun1ber of ill people I and the number of people still susceptible to \he
illness S. This means that ~; = rIS , r > 0.
Assu1ne that one infected person is introduced into a fixed population of size P.
Then P + 1 = J + S :. S = P + 1 - J. Therefore, ~; = rI ( P + 1- I), I(O ) = 1 and r > 0.
1 _ 1 [ 1 + 1] (b) Find I as a function of time.

(a) Show that I(P + l -I) - (l + P) (l + P-I) I.
3 A pond initially contains 200 000 litres of unpolluted water. A stream begins to flow mto the pond at rate of
10 000 litres per day. The strean1 is polluted with a concentration of 2 gran1s of pollutant per litre. The pond
also has an outlet that spills 10 000 litres of well-mixed water per day.
(a) State the initial value problen1 that n1odels the mass of pollutant m (t) grams in the pond, t days after the
polluted strea1n first begins to flow into the pond.
(b) Hence find a differential equation that n1odels the concentration of pollutant c(t) = ;{;/~~0 grains per
2
litre in the pond, t days after the polluted strean1 first begins to flo,v into the pond.
(c) Solve the n1odel fron1 part (a).
(d) What is the concentration of pollutant in the pond after 10 days?
4 A tank initially contams 1000 litres of salt solution of concentration 0.01 kg/ L. A solution of the san1e salt, but
concentration 0.04kg/L, flows into the tank at a rate of 10 litres per minute. The mixture iI1 the tank is kept
uniform by stirring and the n1ixture flows out at a rate of 5 litres per n1inute.
Let Q kg be the quantity of salt in the tank after t n1inutes. Set up (but do not solve) the differential equation
for Q in tern1s oft, and specify the initial conditions.
5 Carbon monoxide (che1nical sy1nbol CO) is toxic to hun1ans. Two hours of exposure to air ,vith a volu1ne
concentration of CO at 0.02% will cause headaches and confusion.
During World War I, so1ne generals co1n1nanded their soldiers from inside a bombproof bunker ,vith an
3
internal volu1ne of 80 m • Troops restmg near the air intake to the bunker ,vould often smoke cigarettes.
Unfortunately, the air intake to the bunker sucked the carbon-monoxide-filled sn1oke fro1n the cigarettes
back into the bunker.
3
Assu1ne that smoky air is sucked into the bunker at a rate of21n /inin, and that 0.03% of this air (by volun1e)
is carbon n1onoxide. Ventilation fans keep the air well mixed inside the bunker, and the well-n1ixed air is
extracted fron1 the bunker at the same rate of 21n3/inin. It can be sho,vn that ~~ = 0.025(0.0003 - v ), v(O) = 0.
(a) Solve this differential equation to find v(t).
(b) Hence find the tiine for the volume fraction of carbon monoxide to reach 0.02% by volun1e inside the
bunker. Express your ans,ver in minutes, correct to the nearest minute.

YEAR 12
6 A lottery winner puts $5 000 000 in ,vinnings into a fund that has a 5% annual rate of return, paid continuously
throughout the year. Each year the ,vinner spends $300000, ,vithdra,vn fro1n the account at a continuous rate
over the course of the year.
(a) Show that the differential equation to ,node! the fund balance x(t) after t years is
and state the value of x(O).
t = 0.05(x - 600000)
(b) Solve the differential equation in part (a).

(c) Hence detennine the balance after 20 years. Express your answer correct to the nearest 5 cents.
7 Which of the follo,ving is not a ,node! for exponential growth y?
A y = 1 t>0
e
3,, 8 y = 10(0.5)', t > 0
C log, .!_ = log, 10- 2t, t > 0 D log,(y) = log,( 10) + t, t > 0
y
8 A can of soft drink at a temperature of 24°C is placed in a freezer. The temperature inside the freezer is
maintained at -4°C. When the can has been in the freezer fort minutes, the temperature of the can is T'C.
The rate of decrease in the ten1perature of the can is proportional to the excess of its te1nperature over the
temperature inside the freezer.
If k is a positive constant, the temperature of the can is modelled by the solution of:
dT dT
A dt =-k(T-24); t=O,T=-4 8 dt=-k(T-24); t=O,T=-4
dT = -k(T + 4);
dt t = 0, T = 24 dT = -k(T - 4);
C D dt t = 0, T = 24
9 The rate at ,vhich a ru1nour spreads throughout a population of 1000 students is proportional to the product
of the nun1ber N of students ,vho kno,v the run1our and the nu1nber of students ,vho haven't yet heard the
ru1nour after t hours. If hvo students decide to start a ru1nour, the model that best decribes the spread of the
ru1nour t hours later is:
A dN =k(lOOO-N) N(O)=O dN
8 dt = k(N - 2)(1000- N), N(O) = 2
dt 1000 '
dN
C dt = kN( l OOO- N), N(O) = 0 D ft = kN(lOOO- N), N(O) = 2
10 A chemical dissolves in a pool at a rate equal to 10% of the a1nount of undissolved chen1ical. Initially the
ainount of undissolved chen1ical is 5 kg and after t hours x kilogra1ns has dissolved. The differential equation
that 1nodels this process is:
dx x dx 5-x x-5 -dx =5- -x
A dt = 10 B dt = 10 C D dt 10
10
11 The rate of increase in the nu1nber of bacteria in a laboratory is directly proportional to the nun1ber present. If
the nu1nber of bacteria triples every 2hours, after how many hours will the number of bacteria be quadruple
its initial value?
A 2log, ! 8
2log, 4
log, 3 D
log, 3
log, 2
12 In a simple ,node! for the body mass m of an adult, the rate of change of body 1nass in kg/day varies directly
with the difference benveen the total energy (food) intake C per day and the total energy expended per day.
The energy expenditure per day depends upon the metabolic rate of the individual, but 165 kJ/kg of body n1ass
is a realistic average value.
Assun1ing t is n1easured in days, the differential equation 1nodelling the rate of change of body 1nass in kg/day
could be:
dC
A ~7=k(l65-C), k>O 8 dt = k(l65m-C), k>O
dm dC
C dt =k(C- 165m), k>O D dt =k(C- 165m), k>O

YEAR12
13 A population P(t) of an ani1nal satisfies';/;= / P( 2- ~ ), P(O) = 100 \Vith t n1easured in years. What is P(t)
0 5 0
?Yi . th 1 _ 1 (1 1 )
as t ➔ =. ou are given at P(lOOO-P) - 1000 p - 1000-P .
A 25 B 250 C 500 D 1000

14 The growth rate of a tree varies jointly with the product of the current height h and the difference between the
current height and the 1naxin1u1n height H. The differential equation modelling this growth could be:
A -dH = r(h - H) r >0 B -dH

dt
=rh(H - h)
'
r>0
dt '
C -dh =rh(h-H ) r>O D
dh
- =rh(H-h) r>O
dt ' dt '
15 At any tin1e t > 0 (in days), the rate of gro\vth in the number of bacteria in a laboratory is directly proportional
to the number N currently present. The initial population of bacteria is 1000.
(a) Asstuning this gro\vth rate continues indefinitely, \Vrite a differential equation to model the nun1ber of
bacteria present in the dish after t > 0 days.
The initial population of 1000 bacteria triples during the first 2 days.
t
(b) Hence, sho\v that N(t) =ax 3b for a suitable choice of the positive integers a and b.
(c) By what factor will the population have increased in the first 4 days?
(d) How n1uch time will it take for the population to gro\v to 10 tiines its initial value? Express your answer
correct to the nearest hour.
Challenging
16 Ahnost all carbon in the \Vorld is carbon- 12, \Vhich is the 1nost common stable 'isotope' (nuclear form)
of carbon. In the late 1940s the A1nerican scientist Willard Libby studied carbon-14, which is not stable:
it radioactively decays according to the reaction 14 C ➔ 14 N + e- + v,, in \Vhich a neutron spontaneously
transforn1s into a proton (thus changing the ato1n fron1 carbon C to nitrogen N) as it emits an electron and
an antineutrino. In the upper attnosphere, carbon- 12 son1etiines transforn1s back into carbon-14 due to
interactions with cosmic rays, so the proportion of both isotopes in the atmosphere stays relatively constant.
But whenever carbon is absorbed by plants to becon1e part of living organis1ns in the \Vorld the carbon- 12 is
n1ostly shielded fron1 transfonning into carbon- 14. This 1neans that when an organisn1 dies, its concentration
12 14
of carbon- 12 { [ C ] ) ren1ains relatively constant, but its concentration of carbon- 14 {[ C ]) radioactively
d [ 14 c ]
decaysat therate dt = -r[ 14 C], r=l.2097xl0--4 years- 1•
(a) Find the half-life (t½) of carbon-14, correct to the nearest year.
The ratio of carbon- 12 to carbon-14 remains relatively constant in living organis1ns, roughly
[14c]
R = [ 12C] "'1.3 x 10- 12, but this ratio changes after the organisn1 dies (because it stops absorbing new
carbon-14 atoms from the at1nosphere, while any carbon-14 present is still decaying). Consequently, you can
detennine the length of tiine since an organis1n's death by measuring how much this ratio has changed.
(b) Half the original carbon- 14 has radioactively decayed. How 1nany years ago did the tree die?
[ 14c]
(c) Find a differential equation for the ratio R = [ 12C]. (Hint: [12C] can be considered a constant.)

YEAR 12
t
(d) Hence find a formula for the ratio R after t years in the form R(t) = a(.!.);;
2
for a suitable choice of real
nun1ber a and integer n.
(e) The skeleton of an extinct n1ega-marsupial is found to have a carbon ratio ~ ::c~ = 0.9 x 10""". How many
years ago, to the nearest year, did the anin1al die? C
17 Bubonic plague (known as the Black Death) ravaged Europe most severely between the years 1347 and 1351. It
is estiinated that the plague killed n1ore than one in three people living in Europe at that tiine. The disease was
survivable only in about 5% of cases.
Epide1niologists com1nonly use S to represent the fraction of a population that have survived an epide1nic
disease, t days after its arrival. The change in this fraction over tiine can be modelled by the differential equation:
~; = -r(S-I), S(O) = 1, ,vhere I is the fraction of the population that ultimately recover (and hence survive).
(a) Find a fonnula for the survivability fraction Sas a function of the tin1e t days.
2
d S
(b) Show that - 2 = r 2 ( S - I)
dt
After l n1onth, the survivability fraction S approaches a steady state value of 0.05.
(c) Find I.
(d) Find the value of r if after 14 days, only 6% of the population has survived.
(e) Find the tin1e when the death rate reaches its n1aximun1 value and state this death rate.
(f) Plot the survivability fraction over the first 2 ,veeks.
18 Two types of bacteria, type A and type B, coexist in a biological system. Assu1ne that each population
grows exponentially. The proportion of the total bacteria population belonging to type A is given by
A(t)
p(t) = A(t) + B(t).
(a) Express the growth rate ddp in tern1s of A(t), B(t), A'(t) and B'(t).
t
(b) Given that A'(t) = rAA(t), rA> 0 and B'(t) = r ii3(t), r 8 > 0, express the gro,vth rate
d
ft
in terms r 11 , r 8, A and B.
(c) Hence write the growth rate dp in tern1s rA' r 8 and p.
dt
(d) If p (O) = /
0
and r,1 - r8 =
1 0
t hour- 1 , and given that p (l ~ p) = 2
~ + 1 P' find p(lO).
19 Toxins that enter an ecosystem are generally observed to be 1nore concentrated per unit of biomass as you n1ove
up the food chain. This phenon1enon is known as bioaccun1ulation.
Following one gro,vth rate model, the length L (111) of a species of tuna at age t (years) is given by
ddL = .!.(3-L), L(O) =0, 0 < t < 20.
t 5
(a) Find L(t).
3
The weight W (kg) of a tuna is related to its length L by the equation W(t) = 16L • Let H (t) (mg) be the
accu1nulated mass of mercury (in n1illigrams) in a tuna after t years. The rate at which mercury is added to
the tissue of the tuna is ddH = 1 W, H(O) = 0.
100
(b) Find H(t). t
(c) Find a fonnula for the concentration C of n1ercury in units of milligra1ns of mercury per kilograin of
tuna, for a tuna of age t years.
(d) Assun1ing the tuna has a lifespan of 20 years, plot the 1nercury concentration in the tuna over its lifetime,
0 < t < 20.

YEAR12
20 The British actuary and 1nathe111atician Benja1nin Gompertz (1779- 1865) proposed the following growth rate
n1odel: dd~ = rW log, ( ~) [1]
Nun1erous experimental studies have den1onstrated that the growth rate dd~ of tu1nours is modelled by
dt
dW =
20
1 W ( 10-log, W ) , [2] W ( 0) = e
\Vhere Wis the weight of the tun1our (in n1illigrams) and tis the tin1e in days.
(a) Given that W grows according to the Gon1pertz growth rate ,node! [ 1], find the Gon1pertz parameters r
and C from [2] .
=.l.
20
(b) Verify that W = e 10- 9'
is the solution of the differential equation [2].
(c) Find the equilibriu1n weight of the tumour, i.e. the weight of the tun1our when it stops gro\ving.
(d) Find the maxin1um growth rate for this tumour.
Treatn1ent of many tun1ours is n1ost effective when the tun1our is growing at its fastest rate.
(e) After ho\v long is the tumour growing at the fastest rate?
(f) Sketch the graph of W for the first 3 n1onths, sho\ving any equilibriu1n solutions and the point of
maxiinum gro\vth rate.
21 Oil is pumped fro1n a Bass Strait oil well at a rate proportional to the volwne V of oil (in w1its of 'barrels')
remainmg in the well after t years. Initially, the \veil had 1 000 000 barrels of oil, but 5 years later, only 600 000
barrels of oil remam. It \viii not be profitable to continue pumping oil \Vhen fewer than 1000 barrels of oil ren1ain.
t
(a) Show that the volume of oil V re1naining after t years is given by V(t) = a ( b )dfor a suitable choice of
positive integers a, b, c and d. c
(b) At \Vhat rate is the remaining nu1nber of barrels of oil decreasing after 5 years?
(c) For how many years \viii the oil well remain profitable? Express your answer to the nearest 1nonth.
22 A nature conservation group releases 21 Tasmanian devils onto a remote island off the coast ofTas1nania. The
group believes the island can support at most 588 Tas1nanian devils. The growth rate of the Tas1nanian devil
population pis 1 111( = 1- : ),

5 8
p( 0) = 21, with r > 0 and t n1easured in years.
1 1 1
(a) Show that ( P ) =- - _ .
p l- 588 p p 588
(b) State the ,node! for the Tasn1anian devil population p in terms of rand tiine t.
Three years after the beginning of the breeding progran1, the population is 294.
(c) Find r.
(d) Use the model fro1n part (c) to estiinate the devil population after 6 years.
Six years after the Tasn1anian devils are first taken to the island, the nature conservation group decides it is
tin1e to repopulate the 1nainland with the island's devils. A decision is made to take 140 devils from the island
each year.
(e) Find a differential equation t
= f (P) for a suitable choice of the function f(P) that n1odels the modified
growth rate in the island population P(t), t years after the devils \Vere first taken from the island back to
the 1nainland. Assume that the value of r and the carrying capacity of devils on the island both re1nain
unchanged
dP . 1 1 ( 1 1 )
(f) Ifdt = -K(P-a)(P-b),P(O) =P0, findP(t),g1ven that (P-a)(P-b ) = b-a P-b - P-a ·
More challenging question parts:
(g) Express the functionfiP) found in part (e) in the forn1 f (P) = -
10 3
5
i8
(P-a)(P-b), a< b, for a suitable
choice of real nu1nbers a and b.
(h) Hence find a solution curve for the island population P(t), t years after the decision to repopulate the
mainland.
(ij Plot the Tas1nanian devil population over the first 14 years of the breeding prograin. Hence, comment
on the effectiveness of the breeding progra1n.

YEAR 12
CHAPTER REVIEW 12
1 A can1era at ground level is 400 n1etres a,vay fro1n a hot air balloon just prior to the balloon lifting off.
The balloon lifts off and the can1era records the balloon rising into the sky at a constant rate of 10 n1etres
per second.
(a) If 0 is the angle of elevation of the balloon, express the height h of the balloon in terms of this angle.
(b) Ho,v fast is the angle of elevation 0 radians changing when the balloon is 300 m above the ground?
2
2 Verify that y = e-•cos x is a solution of d ; + 2 ddxy + 2 y = 0.
dx
3 The gradient of the tangent to a curve at any point (x, y) is x I' x > -1. If the curve passes through the point
(1, 1), find the equation of the curve. x+
4 (a) If f'(x) =cos2x-3sinx andf'(O) = 3, findf'(x).
(b) Hence if f ( 1) = 3, find fix).

5 Solve the differential equation Z = 1- 2 y, given that y = - 1 where x = 0.
4 1 1
6 (a) Show that + .
y 2 -4
y- 2 y 2 d
(b) Find y as a function of x if y satisfies the differential equation
2
Jx
= y - 4 and y = 0 where x = 0.
7 A species of tuna is declining so that T, the nu1nber of tuna at a time t years fro1n no,v, satisfies the differential
. dT
equation dt = - O.1T .
(a) Write the general solution to this differential equation, where T(O) = A > 0 is the initial population.
(b) Find the tin1e it ,viii take for the nun1bers to fall to one-quarter of their present value.
8 Consider the initial value problen1

equation.
Z = 2x (1 + y
2
), y(O) = 1. Find the exact solution to the differential
9 If sin x = if, 0 < x < n, ,vhat is Z in tern1s of x?

A -cot x B tan x C - tan x D cotx
10 Which one of the follo,ving differential equations is not satisfied by x = e- 31?
(-dx)
2 2 2
A 2
-9x =0 B d
- x -9x=O C d
- x +9x=O D dx
- +3x=O
dt dt2 dt2 dt
d2 y dy
11 Ify = e'"' satisfies the differential equation dx 2
+ dx - 6 y = 0, then the possible values of k are:
A land-6 B -land6 C -2and3 D 2and-3
12 If f = 2- 3✓x and y = 3 ,vhere x = 1, then y is given by the rule:

A 1+3x(l- ✓x) B 3+2x(l- ✓x) C 3+2x + 2x ✓x D 6✓3-5+2x-2x ✓x

YEAR12
2
13 What is the slope field of y' = x 2 ?
y
A ,
y
- ,- - ,,,,, ,
- - -___ B .... , _____ ___ )'
- - ___-,,,,.,,
,..,;/
' ' --
.,,,
, /
/
/
-, ---
, ,.,., -
/
__- --,
-- , , ,
, ,; /
/
' ,,, ___ , - ,,,
/
- ,,-_,,
I I ,,,,. / I
' ,, / /
I
, -- - - I
' ' ' ''' .... ....
I I / I I \ I
I I
- -, I I \
I I I I I I I \ / / I I I I
I I I I I / I I I I I
''' I \
I I I ' / I I I I I
' ' I I I I / / I I I I
' I
''' I I I I I I
f) () I X
I
' , I
- -,
, - - -___
I I I / I I I I I I X
I' '' '' ' ' ' I I I I I
' I
--___
I I I I I I,, I I I I I I \ / I I I I I I
- '.... '' '-

I I I I I I I \ \ \ I I I I I
,,,, - -- /
' - ,,,,
/
- -- ___ .,.,,,,, ' ' ,.... ,.... ,- --

I I I I
I
,I / / / \
' ' __ /
,, / ,
___ ,,,.,,,.,,,,,,
/ / I
-- -- -- - - -
I I
,I I
.......
____ ,,,,,,,,,,,,
/
,, .... , ... , ___
I / I I
, /,, -· .,., .,, / I
C .,, ..., -
y
- D , ,, __)' --,
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.,,,,,,. __- - - .,, , - - - ,.,,
/ I I I I
-- - - I I I I
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I J I I
/
/
-,
/
I I I I J I I
/
, ,, __ __ , I I J I
-- - -
I I I I I I I I I J I I I I I
I I
' I I / - ,, I I I I I I I I I I / / I I I I
X , /,, -__ __- ,,

.0 - X
' ' ,' ,.0 ,,
I I ' ' \
I
\ ' ' I I I I I / I I I I
' ' ',' '__- _,,' ' ' ' , ,, __ - - ,,

I I I J I
_,, J I I I I
--
- - --,
I I I \ I I I I I I I I I
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I \ \ \ I I I I I I I J I
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\
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14 If
A
z = -3 y, an d y = 1 where x = 2, then which of the following is true?
y= 2e3-3x B
y=e6-3x C
y= 2e3x-3 D
y=e3x-6
15 The general solution of Z= -(2 + y) is:

A y = e-x + A, A is a real nu1nber B y = Ae-x + 2, A is a real number
C y = Ae' + 2, A is a real nun1ber D y = Ae-x - 2, A is a real nun1ber
16 Consider the differential equation ix = x - 2 y , for \Vhich the solution is g(x). Which of the follo\ving
staten1ents about the particular solution that contains the point (O, - 1) is true at x = O?
A the graph is increasing and concave up B the graph is increasing and concave do\vn
C the graph is decreasing and concave up D the graph is decreasing and concave down
Questions 17 and 18 refer to the following information.
Consider the differential equation ix = ysinx, for which the solution is y = f(x). LetfiO) = 1.
17 Which of the following staten1ents about the graph off(x) are true?
(i) The slope off(x) at the point ( ~ , 1) is 1.

(ii) fix) has a horizontal tangent where x = 0.
(iii) fix) has a vertical tangent where y = 0.
A i only B ii only C i and ii only D ii and iii only
18 The particular solution is:
- sinx
A y=e
1 - cosx
B y=ecosx - I
C y=e D y=e
sinx

YEAR 12
19 When added to water, 5 grams of a substance dissolves at a rate equal to 10% of the ainount of undissolved
chemical per hour. If xis the nu1nber of grains of undissolved chen1ical after t hours, then x satisfies the
differential equation:
dx 1 dx =--1 x dx = -1 (10-x)
- dx = _!._(5-x)
A dt=-1ox 8 - C D
dt 5 dt 5 dt 10
20 The population P(t) of a certain species satisfies the differential equation clJ: = P( 2- ~ ) with an initial
10 00
population P(O) = 4000, \Vhere tis the time in years. What is the population as t approaches infinity?
1 1 20000
th
Note at P + 20000- P - P(20000-P)"
A 4000 8 5000 C 10000 D 20000
21 A quantity of sugar is dissolved in a tank containing 100 litres of pure \Vater. At tin1e t = 0 n1inutes, pure
water is poured into the tank at a rate of 4 litres per 1ninute. The tank is kept well stirred at all times. At the
sa1ne time, the sugar solution is drained from a tap at the bottom of the tai1k at a rate of 6 litres per minute. A
differential equation for the mass m gran1s of sugar in the tai1k is:
A dm 8 dm =4 _ 3m C dm _ _ 3m D dm =4 - 3m
dt = -6m dt 50 dt - 50- t dt 50-t
22 According to Fourier's law of heat conduction, the rate of heat transfer~~ through an ice sheet in Antarctica
is given by the differential equation ~~ = k(Twh- T. ), \Vhere k is the thern1al conductivity of the ice, h is
the thickness of the ice sheet and Twand T. are the te1nperatures at the ice/water boundary and the ice/air
boundary respectively.
As the \Vater loses Q joules of heat through the ice sheet, the rate of increase in ice thickness h is given by
f3 = Llp' where Lis the latent heat of sea water (in other words, the amount of heat loss required to freeze
1 kilogran1 of it) and p is the density of the ice.
(a) Find the rate of increase of the ice sheet thickness ~;.
(b) If h(O) =h0 , find h(t), assu1ning that k(TL~ T. ) is a positive constai1t.
23 The quantity q sold of a new product is a function of the selling price p. The revenue R(p) =p q(p) from selling
q units at price p is also a function of the selling price. It can be sho\vn that ~R = q ( 1 + P 7" )·
d p q p
Econon1ists call E = P dq the price elasticity of de1nand q with respect to price p. This price elasticity of
q p
den1and measures the relative change of the quantity den1anded in response to given relative change in price.
(a) Show that revenue is a 1naxin1u1n \Vhere E =-1.
The inverse den1and curve of a product n1easures the selling price p(q) in tern1s of the available supply q. The
la\v of de1nand states that, 'when the price of a good rises, and everything else re1nains the san1e, the quantity
of the good den1anded will fall'. In other words, selling price varies inversely \Vith the de1nanded supply.
Suppose that a business has the exclusive right to iinport a new product into a large city. Market research
indicates that the selling price $p for a new product is modelled by p = J25 -
q 2 , \vhere the supply q is
n1easured in units of 1000.
(b) State the don1ain of the n1odel.
(c) Find the rate of change of the den1anded quantity q \vith respect to the selling price p. (Express your
ai1swer in tenns of q.)
(d) Hence find the selling price that will n1axi1nise revenue.

YEAR12
24 The relationship behveen air temperature T Kand wind speed V m s- 1 is 1nodelled by the differential equation
dT =- V , where CP is a constant kI10\vn as the specific heat of the air mass.
dV Cp
(a) Find the general solution for the wind speed V(T) as a function ofte1nperature.
Near a particular tropical cyclone the wind speed is zero and the ten1perature is 308 K.
(b) Find the particular solution for the wind speed V(T) as a function of ten1perature.
(c) If CP = 1004.6, find the wind speed near the centre of a tropical cyclone if the te1nperature there is 307 K.
25 A mathematical ,node! for the relationship between x the number of predators (in hundreds) and y the
nu1nber of prey (in thousands), in a particular environn1ent at tin1e t years, gives the follo\ving pair of
a: .al equations.
diuerent1 . . -ddy = - - 1 ( x - 2) dx = - 1 (y - 1)
-d
t 400 t 100 d
(a) Use the chain rule to obtain a differential equation involving fx,
x and y only.
(b) At so1ne point in tiine there are 100 predators (x = 1) and 3000 prey (y = 3). Hence show that
a2(x- h) 2 + b2(y- k) 2 = 1 for real numbers a, b, hand k.
(c) The graph of the solution in part (b) is an ellipse with a centre at (h, k). Sketch your solution from part (b).
(d) Fron1 your previous answers, find the maxin1u1n and 1ninin1um nun1ber of predators the environn1ent
can support.
26 This question uses data fro1n the table below.
V(h) = l ,rh2 (3R-h) Volu1ne of spherical cap (m

3
)
3
A 1(h) = nh(2R - h) Free surface area of a spherical cap (n/)
2
A/h) =2nhR Curved surface area of a spherical cap (1n )
£ Evaporation coefficient for lake surface (m 3/in2 day)

3 2
a Seepage coefficient for lake bottom (n1 /m day)
Qm Net rate of inflow from rivers (m 3/day)
The Lake Eyre basin is the lo\vest point in Australia and usually dry. However, the southern lake of the Lake Eyre
co1nplex fills to a depth of about 3 n1etres via inflo\v fro1n flooding rivers, a fe\v tin1es each century.
This southern lake can be n1odelled as the cap of a sphere of radius R (1n), with a
centre at 0, as sho\vn. Assume the inflow from the flooding rivers has stopped so
3
that Q111 "" 0 (1n /day).
'
A possible balance for the volun1e of \Vater in the southern lake of the Lake Eyre con1plex
during a flood year is ~~ =Q.,, - £A1( h )- a A2 ( h ).
(a) Use the information from the table above to express ~~ as an explicit function of h.
(b) Show that !r = nh (2R - h) and hence find ~; in simplest forn1.
The depth of the \Vater in the lake can now be n1odelled iinmediately after an inflow of 1 gigalitre
(1000000 n1 3), which fills the lake to a depth of 31n above its centre so that h0 = 3 1n. (Assume no further
inflows or precipitation.)
(c) Find the radius R of the hen1ispherical cap.
27 The coroner arrives at Frog1norton Manor on a cold winter evening. Lady Frogmorton has just been found
dead in her clin1atically controlled greenhouse by the butler. The temperature of the body is taken, and is
recorded as 29°C at precisely 7:20 pn1. The coroner checks the progran1n1able thermostat and detern1ines the
greenhouse has been kept at a constant 20°C for the past 12 months. At precisely 8:20pm, the coroner takes
the te1nperature of the body once more, and it is recorded as 27.4°C.

YEAR 12
Sn1iggins is Lady Frogn1orton's chauffer. Under questioning by the police, he claims that he delivered Lady
Frogmorton to the manor at around 6 pm that evening, after a day at the Chelsea Flower Show.
(a) Assun1ing a normal body ten1perature of 37°C, propose a differential equation to n1odel the te1nperature
T(t) of the deceased at a tin1e t hours since death.
(b) Solve the initial value problem in part (a). Recall that the coroner arrived on the scene at precisely
7:20 pm, which is r hours since death.
(c) Show that at r hours after death e'' = 1;.
(d) Find an expression, similar to your answer in part (c), for the ten1perature at 8:20 pn1.
(e) Hence find r.
(f) The coroner inforn1s the police that the chauffer's story may need further investigation. Explain why this is so.
Challenging
28 Bob's credit card bill Bis initially $15 000 and he pays 18% interest on this debt per year, co1npounded
continuously. He decides to pay it off by transferring 1noney fro1n his savings account continuously at the rate
of $300 per n1011th .
(a) Find and solve a differential equation to n1odel the credit card balance B after t years.
(b) Ho\v n1uch tiine \viii it take to pay off the credit card bill (to the nearest day)?
(c) What is the sum total of Bob's repayments?
Assun1e Bob has $40 000 in a savings account that accu1nulates interest at an annual rate of 6%, also
co1npounded continuously.
(d) Find and solve a differential equation to n1odel the balance S of Bob's savings account.
(e) Ho\v n1uch n1011ey \viii Bob have in his savings account when the debt is finally paid off (assu1ning no
other transactions)?
29 An abandoned open-cut ,nine just outside a large city has been purchased as a landfill for solid waste by a city
council. When purchased, the open-cut ,nine had a volume of 1 1nillion cubic 1netres. At the beginning of
2015, the landfill already had 100 000 cubic metres of solid \Vaste. The volu1ne of solid \Vaste W in the landfill
(n1easured in units of 100000 cubic metres) t years after the beginning of2015 is modelled by the solution of
the differential equation dd~ = ~ (10- W) , W(O) = 1.
1
(a) Find the volun1e of solid waste in the landfill t years after 2015.
(b) Hence detennine the volun1e of solid waste in the landfill at the beginning of 2035. (Express your answer
in cubic n1etres, correct to the nearest cubic n1etre.)
30 The population P(t) of penguins on an island in the Southern Ocean t years after the beginning of2015 grows
at a rate directly proportional to 1000 - P(t), where the constant of proportionality is k.
(a) If the population at the beginning of 2015 is 200, express the penguin population t years after the
beginning of2015 in tenns oft and k.
(b) If the population after 2 years is 300, find k.
(c) Hence detennine the long-tenn population of penguins on the island.
31 While on an unauthorised trip to the local fast food restaurant during their study period, a pair of Year 12 students
are convinced that they have just seen the Priine Minister buying a hamburger. On returning to the school,
their ainazing discovery spreads throughout the school community at the rate f=
1
~ p(l- p), where p is the
proportion of the school con1n1unity that has already heard the ru1nour, t minutes after their return to school.
(a) What proportion of the school community has heard the rumour \vhen it is spreading most rapidly?
By the beginning of the afternoon period, 20% of the school co1n1nunity had already heard the rumour.
1
(b) Find p(t), at time t 1ninutes since the beginning of the afternoon period, given (l l ) =.!. _ .
p -p p p- 1
(c) At \Vhat time (correct to the nearest 1ninute) is the run1our spreading most rapidly?

CHAPTER13
Motion, forces and projectiles
13.1 PROBLEMS INVOLVING DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY
Displacement
When considering the ,notion of an object, you need to consider the position of the object, how fast it is travelling
and the cause of the motion.
The position of an object n1ust be defined relative to a reference point, \Vhich is usually its starting point. The
position can be described by both its distance and its direction from the starting point. This is a vector quantity,
called displacement. On the other hand, if you are only concerned with how far the object has travelled then the
direction can be ignored, so you can consider the distance travelled by the object. The international syste1n of units
(SI) uses the metre (n1) as the standard unit for displace1nent and for distance. Other common SI units include the
centiinetre (c1n), n1illi1netre (mm) and kilometre (kn1).
For exa1nple, if you walk around a square park of side length 500 m, the distance you travel is 2000111. Ho\vever, as
you arrive back at your starting point, your displace1nent is zero.
Velocity
The rate at \Vhich the displacement of an object changes \Vith respect to tin1e can be described by the vector quantity
velocity. As a vector quantity, velocity is defined by its 1nagnitude and direction. The 1nagnitude of velocity is the
scalar quantity speed. The SI standard unit for velocity and speed is 1netres per second (n1/s or ,ns- 1). Another
co1n1non unit is kilometres per hour (km/h or kn1 h - I).
The average velocity of an object between two positions is defined as:
. change in position displacen1ent
1
average ve ocity = ti1ne taken = ti1ne
On the other hand, the average speed between two points is defined as:
average speed = dist~nce t~velled
t1n1e ta en
---------
+ 3.6
Note: Speed ,nay need to be converted from ms-1 tokinh- 1 or fro1n kmh- 1 to n1s-1:
For exa1nple: 90kinh- 1 = 90 x 1000 + (60 x 60) = 90 + 3.6 = 25 n1s-1
and 15n1s-1 = 15 x 3.6 = 54km h- 1• X 3.6
• Displacement is the change in position of an object relative to its starting point. It is a vector quantity \Vith
both magnitude an d direction.
• Distance is ho\v far an object has travelled. It is a scalar quantity with 1nagnitude only.
• Velocity is the rate at \Vhich the displacement of an object is changing with respect to tin1e. It is a vector
quantity with both magnitude an d direction.
• Speed is the magnitude of the object's velocity. It is a scalar quantity \Vith 1nagnitude only.

YEAR 12
Example 1
Marli is going for a \Valk around the block. She starts at 0 c- - - - - - - - - - - - - B N
and 1Tioves to point A and then to point B, where she stops
to talk to a friend.
Detern1ine:
(a) the distance Marli travels fron1 0 to B
O'----------------'
750m
A
250 m
+
(b) Marli's displacement fron1 0 to B, correct to one deciITial place.
If Marli takes 10 minutes to reach point B, determine:

(c) her average speed in 1Tietres per second, correct to one decin1al place
(d) her average velocity in 1Tietres per second, correct to one decin1al place.
Solution
(a) Distance travelled fro1TI Oto point A to point B = 750 + 250 = 1000 !TI
(b) Using Pythagoras' theorem to find the distance c ,--------------=~ B
N
bet\veen the startmg and finishing points:
1001= ✓750
.
2
= 790.61TI
+ 250
. o f n1ot1on:
.
2
0 = tan -1(250)
0 ~=--'"----- - - - - - - - - - ~ A
750 m
250 m
+
D1rect1on
750
= 18.4°
Bearing is N(90 - 18.4) 0 E = N71.6°E
Marli's displace1Tient is 790.6n1 fro1TI O in a direction ofN71.6°E.
(c) 101Tiin=600s . displacement

(d) average velocity = - ~- . - - -
tln1e
average speed = dist~nce t~velled
tln1e ta en - 790.6
600
1000
600 = 1.3 m s- 1 in the direction N7 l.6°E.
= l.7 n1s- 1
Finding resultant velocity
Example 2
Magayi can swi1TI in still water at a rate of 3.0 !TI s- 1• If she swiITis in a river that is flo\ving at 4.0 n1s- 1 and keeps
her direction (\vith respect to the water) perpendicular to the flo\v, find the n1agnitude of her velocity with
respect to the riverbank.
Solution
Vector diagra1TI to illustrate the situation: Using Pythagoras' theore1TI to find the 1Tiagnitude of
Flow4ms- l the resultant velocity !'.:
11'. I = .J32 +42

Magayi
3m s-l Resultant velocity =5n1s- 1
vms- 1
-
Chapter 13 Motion, forces and projectiles 311

YEAR12
Finding resultant velocity using component form
Example 3
Let .£ and j be unit vectors in the directions of east and north, respectively. Pravat is s\vimming in the ocean and
his velocity relative to the water 1'.'i 1n s-I is given by the vector 1:'.i = 2.5 .!, + 1.0 j. The ocean's current has a velocity
]'.' 21n s- 1 where ]'.'2 = 0.5.£ - 3.0 j. Find the 1nagnitude and direction of Pravat's-resultant velocity):'. 1n s- 1, correct to
one decin1al place. -
Solution
Vector diagram to illustrate the situation: Adding vectors to find the resultant velocity:
N j
3 -
= 2.Sf + l.Oj + 0.Sf-3.0j
2 L~ = 3.0f- 2.0 j
- -
11'.'I = ✓(3.0)2 +c-2.0)2
I
=JD.a
v,
- = 3.6n1s- 1
-I 3 E
0 is an acute angle in the diagran1, so use positive
-1 values for side lengths.
20
-2 0 = tan- 1 ( 3.0
· )
= 33.7°
-3
The direction bearing: 90 + 33.7 = 123.7°T.
Pravat is swimming at 3.6 m s-1 in a direction of
123.7°T.
EXPLORING FURTHER
Velocity vectors
0
Use technology to explore combinations of velocity vectors.
EXERCISE 13.1 PROBLEMS INVOLVING D ISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY

650m
1 Jaide is going for a walk around the block. She starts at 0 A~ - - - - - - - - - - - ~ B N
+
and 1noves to point A and then to point B, \vhere she stops
200m
to have a rest.
(a) What is the distance Jaide has travelled fro1n Oto B? O ' - - - - -- - - - - - ' C
(b) What is Jaide's displacen1ent from O to B, correct to one decin1al place, and \Vhat is her direction?
Jaide has taken 12 1ninutes to reach point B.
(c) What is Jaide's average speed in 1netres per second, correct to one decin1al place?
(d) What is Jaide's average velocity in 1netres per second, correct to one decin1al place, and what is her direction?
2 Courtney \valks 2001n south, then 330 n1 east, and finally 190 m south N
(diagran1 shown is not to scale).
What is Courtney's displacement for her entire walk, correct to

one decin1al place, and what is the direction?
200m
330m
+
190m

YEAR 12
3 A 1nountain-clin1bing expedition establishes its base camp and hvo intern1ediate ca1nps at positions A and
B. Camp A is 8400 m west of and 18001n above base can1p. Ca1np Bis 5900 m west of and 8501n higher than
Camp A. What is the displace1nent of can1p B fro1n the base can1p and what is its angle of elevation? Give
answers correct to one decin1al place.
t
130m
,.__ _ _ Start N
4 Kenneth is taking his dog for a walk along the path in the local park,
Finish
as shown in the diagran1 on the right (not to scale). 210m
What is the 1nagnitude and direction of Kenneth's resultant

displace1nent, correct to the nearest \Vhole nun1ber? 30°
160m
5 While exploring a recently discovered cave system, a spelunker (cave explorer) starts at the entrance and
makes the follo\ving movements: 85 m north , 1901n east, 250 m N45°E, and 1001n south.
What is the spelunker's final displacen1ent fro1n the cave entrance and what is their direction?
6 Brianna can swiin in still \Vater at a rate of 6.0kin h- 1• If she S\Vin1s in a river flowing at 4.5 kin h- 1 and keeps
her direction (with respect to the water) perpendicular to the flo\v, then \Vhat is the 1nagnitude of her velocity
(correct to one decin1al place) with respect to the riverbank?
7 (a) A river flows at 5 kin h- 1 and Rhani rows at 10 kin h- 1• In what direction should Rhani row to go straight
across the river?
A Angle of 30° to the riverbank downstrea1n B Angle of 60° to the riverbank do\vnstream
C Angle of30° to the riverbank upstrean1 D Angle of 60° to the riverbank upstream
(b) If the river flo\vs at l Okn1h- 1 and Rhani rows at 5kinh- 1, then in \Vhat direction should she row to go
straight across the river?
A Angle of 30° to the riverbank downstream B Angle of 60° to the riverbank do\vnstream
C Angle of 30° to the riverbank upstrean1 D It is not possible
8 Youlin and Nick are riding in a boat that has a speed relative to the water of3.00ms-1• The boat points at an
angle of 35° to the shore, moving upstream on a river that is flo\ving at 0. 75 n1s-1•
Ho\v n1uch tiine does it take for the boat to reach the opposite shore, correct to two decin1al places, if the river
is 50 1n \vide?
9 (a) Raphaela is \Vatching an aircraft that is flying at a velocity of l OOms-1 N with respect to the flow of air. If
the velocity of the \Vind is 101n s- 1 north, what is the resultant velocity of the aircraft relative to Raphaela?
(b) Later, she observes a second aircraft flying with a velocity of 125 1n s- 1 N \Vith respect to the flow of the air.
If the flow of the air has a velocity of 10 m s-1 south, then the resultant velocity of this aircraft is 115 n1s-1.
What is the direction of this resultant velocity, relative to Raphaela?
(c) The next day, Raphaela observes another aircraft flying with a velocity of 1001n s- 1 N \Vhich encounters a
\Vmd coining fro1n the side at a rate of25 n1s- 1 W What is the resultant velocity of this aircraft relative to
Raphaela, correct to one decimal place, and \vhat is its direction?
10 Let !. and j be unit vectors in the directions of east and north respectively. Mitchell is swi1n1ning in the ocean
and his velocity !'.i 1n s- 1 is given by the vector !'.i = I.Of - 2.0 j. The ocean's current has a velocity !'.2 n1s-1 \Vhere
!'.2 = -0.5i + 2.5 j. What is the 1nagnitude and direction of Mitchell's resultant velocity!'. m s-1, correct to one
-
decimal place, and \Vhat is its direction?
11 Let i and j be unit vectors in the directions of east and north respectively. Give answers correct to two decin1al
places \vhere required.
(a) Express each vector in the forn1 xi + yz.
-
~) OA = 5.0 mat 053°T
-
(ii) AB = 6.0 mat 315°T (iii) BC = 4.0 n1 at 240°T (iv) CD= 3.0 n1 at 150°T.
(b) Express the swn of the four displacen1ent vectors in the fonn xi+ y l, with values correct to two decm1al places.
(c) What is the 1nagnitude and direction of the resultant vector OD, correct to hvo decimal places, and what
is its direction?

YEAR12
12 Let f and j be unit vectors in the directions of east and north respectively. Morgan and Eilish finish their
last day of school and in1n1ediately decide to take a road trip across the desert in Eilish's ne\v car. Their trip
involves the following moven1ents: 43kr11 at 337°T, 65kI11 at 270°T and 22kin at 93°T. Eilish's car breaks down
after the last leg of the trip.
At this tiI11e, how far are Morgan and Eilish fron1 the school and in what direction?
13 Johanna is driving along the free\vay at 108 kin h- I when it begins to rain.
She observes the raindrops running do\vn the driver's side windo\v.
Calculate the angle that the raindrops 111ake \Vith the vertical windo\v, as seen by
Johanna, if the raindrops have a speed of 10 111 s-I relative to the Earth's surface.
Assu111e that the raindrops fall vertically down, relative to the Earth's surface.
14 Bus # 1 is moving at a speed of 50kn1h-1, while Bus #2 is 111oving at 30kinh-1 in the opposite direction. What
is the relative velocity of Bus # 1 with respect to Bus #2?
A 20kn1h- 1 in the direction of Bus #1 8 20kn1h-1 in the direction of Bus #2
C 80kn1h-1 in the direction of Bus #1 D 80kI11h- 1 in the direction of Bus #2
15 On her \Vay hon1e fron1 school, Teluila \valks along three streets after exiting the school gate. She walks 240 m
east, 720 n1 north and 75111 east. What is the magnitude ofTeluila's resultant displacement?
A 555111 8 763n1 C 786m D 1035n1
16 Freddie rows his boat in a direction perpendicular to the riverbanks. The river is 200 n1 wide. The boat's speed
in this direction is 2 m s-1. The speed of the river's flow is 1 n1s - I and the riverbanks are parallel straight lines.
(a) Calculate the velocity of the boat relative to the riverbank.
(b) At \Vhat distance, in the direction downstrean1 fro111 his starting point, will Freddie get to the other
riverbank?
(c) Calculate Freddie's final displacen1ent from his starting point.
(d) Rohanne is going to cross the river in another ro\vboat. She can ro\v at the speed of 2 111 s- I relative to
the river's flow. At what direction should Rohanne ro\v to get to the other riverbank at the san1e point as
Freddie, and how n1uch tiI11e will this take?
17 The pilot of an aircraft flying due south is notified by the flight controller that there is a second aircraft flying
due north in the same general area and at the san1e altitude. The pilot is told that the northbound aircraft is
currently located at a position that is 12.6 kin, 170°T \vith respect to the pilot's aircraft.
(a) Ho\v n1any kilon1etres to the south is the second aircraft?
(b) Ho\v n1any kilon1etres to the east is the second aircraft?
(c) If the hvo aircrafts both have an airspeed of 300 kin h-1, how much tiI11e (in seconds) will elapse before
they are side by side?
18 An aircraft drops a package of emergency rations to a fan1ily stranded in the floods. The aircraft is travelling
horizontally at 45.0n1s-1 and is 100111 above the ground. A parachute allo\vs the package to fall with constant
speed and hit the ground 10 s after release.
(a) Find where the package hits the ground, relative to the point fro111 where it was dropped, to the nearest n1etre.
(b) Find the velocity of the package just before it hits the ground, correct to one decimal place.
13.2 PROBLEMS INVOLVING FORCES

Forces exist everywhere and are funda111ental to the structure of the universe and to the nature of 111atter.
A force can be thought of as a push or a pull acting on an object For most siI11ple objects, it is reasonable to consider
the forces to be acting through a single point at the object's centre of n1ass. (This 111eans the object is being considered
as a particle, as defined earlier in Chapter 7, section 7.2 Velocity and acceleration as rates of change.)
The action of a force can affect an object by changing the speed or direction of its n1otion, or by deforming the object.
The amount of force acting on an object is measured using the SI standard unit called the ne\vton (N). A force of
1 ne\vton will accelerate an object of 111ass 1 kilogran1 at a rate of 1 metre per second, so 1 N = 1 kg111s-2 .

YEAR 12
Every object near the Earth's surface is subject to a force called gravity. This force is called the weight of the object
and it acts vertically downwards on every object, to\vards the centre of n1ass of the Earth. The force due to gravity
(the weight force) of a body of mass 1 kilogram is 9.8 N. For exa1nple, a person whose n1ass is 80 kg has a weight
equal to their n1ass multiplied by g, where g= 9.8 n1 s-2, so an 80 kg person weighs 80 x 9.8 = 784 N.
Force is a vector quantity, so it needs both magnitude and direction to fully describe it.
If more than one force is acting on an object, the su1n of all the forces is the
resultant force or net force. The object will n1ove as if the net force is the only
force that is actually acting on the object.
For exan1ple, in the diagran1 on the right, the resultant force acting on the object is f,
the sun1 of the two forces f 1and f 2 acting on the object: f = f 1 + f 2• This principle can F,
be extended to involve the addition of many forces. -
The resultant force or net force f is the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object.
If forces f 1, f 2 , f 3 , ••• f,, act on an object, then f = f 1 + f 2 + f 3 + ... f,,
Calculating resultant forces
Example 4
Forces are acting on an object. Calculate the resultant force on the object for each of the following.
(a) F1 = 130N east, F2 = 210N \Vest (b) f1 = 240 N north, f 2 = 165 N west
- -
Solution
North
(a) Vector diagran1 to show the forces acting on the object:
f = f1 + f2
= 130N east + 2 10N west= 80N \Vest
Fi ,.
210N I. • I 130N., F,
- +
(b) Vector diagran1 to sho\v the forces acting on the object: Vector diagram to add the forces:
F,
- 165 N
240 N F 240 N
North
0
-
165 N r-t--,
F,---._.
+
Using Pythagoras' theoren1: If I= ✓2402 + 165 2
= 291.25 N
Direction of resultan t force: tan 0 = ~~~
0 = tan- ( ~~~)
1
0 = 34.5 1°
The resultant force is 291.25 N in the direction N34.5 l 0 W.
If the forces acting on an object are in the sa1ne plane, then each of the forces
and the resultant force can be expressed in component form as a su1n of two ~ 1D sin (0)j
perpendicular vectors, using horizontal(£) and vertical (z)
components. The
force f can be resolved into the hvo perpendicular con1ponents as f = xf + yz.
For exan1ple, fron1 the diagram: f = If Icos 0{ + If Isin 0;_·.
0
_ _.____..,___ -
J
l~icos(0)f

YEAR12
Calcu lating resultant forces using vector components
Example 5
Two forces are acting on an object: f 1 = 120 N acting at N60°E and f 2 = 150 N acting at N50°W Calculate the
resultant force f acting on the object.
Solution
Vector diagram to show the forces acting on the object: Resolving forces into horizontal (i) and vertical (1)
N components:
F, F,
-
N
• LL
!SON 120N
F, !SON 120N F1 -i
150sin (40°) 120sin (30°)
40°
\V - - - -- E
w-----0~1-----E 150cos (400)
'
120cos(30°)
'
s
s
f 1 =120cos30°f+ l 20sin30°z f 2 =-150cos40°f+ l 50sin40°z
= 103.92.i, + 60.00 j = -1 14.91£ + 96.42}
-
f = f1 +f2
= 103.92.i, + 60.00j- 114.9 1{ + 96.42}
- - 156.42
= (103.92-l 14.91)f + (60.00 + 96.42)}
= -10.98£ + 156.421
10.99
Using Pythagoras' theorem:

IEI= -J<-10.98) 2
+ 156.42
2
= 156.80N
0 = tan - I (156.42)
10.98
=86°
:. Bearing is (270 + 86) = 356°T
f = 156.80 N acting in the direction 356°T.
The n1ethod shown in Example 5, above, can be used sin1ilarly in situations where n1ore than two forces are acting
on an object.

YEAR 12
Calculating the resultant of three forces using vector components
Example 6
Three forces f 1, f 2and f 3are acting on an object: f 1= 100 N at 045°T, f 2= 130 N at 120°T an d f 3= 80 N at 325°T.
(a) Resolve each of the forces into horizontal f components and vertical j co1nponents.
(b) Detennine the resultant force f.
-
Solution
(a) Vector force diagram:
F · F,
3 '
, IOON
'
SON 35•: 45•
-
r
130N
F,
- +
Resolving forces into horizontal f and vertical j con1ponents:
-
100sin (45°)j
30°
-
130 cos (300) i
80sin(55°)j F,
- 130sin(300)j
100cos(45°)i
F,
- 55°
- 80cos(55°)i
f 1 = 100cos45°f + 100sin45° j f 2 = 130cos30°f-130sin30°j f 3 = -80cos55°f + 80sin55°j

- - -
= 70.71f + 70.7lj = 112.58£ - 65.00j = -45.89£ + 65.53j
- -
(b) Sum of horizontal f and vertical j co1nponents:
-
f = f1 + f2+ f3
= (70.71 + 112.58- 45.89).i, + (70.71- 65.00 + 65.53)1
= 137.41£ + 7L24j
-
Magnitude and direction of resultant vector:
lr l = ✓137.41 2 +11.24 2
-
F
7 1.24j
= 154.77 N
tan0 = 7 1.24
137.41
0=27.41°
137.4 l i
-
The resultant force is 154.77N acting at an angle of062.59°T.
Forces in equilibrium
If the resultant force acting on an object is zero, then the forces on the object are said to be in equilibrium. The
object's ,notion \Vill not change, which n1eans that the object \Vill remain at rest or continue \Vith constant velocity.
This is known as Ne\vton's first la\v of n1otion.

YEAR12
Newton's first law of motion states that an object at rest stays at rest and an object in n1otion stays in ,notion
with the same velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
If the forces acting on an object are in equilibriun1, then the resultant

force or net force acting on the object is zero. For exrunple, if the three F,
forces f 1, f 2 and f 3 that act on a particle are in equilibriun1, then -
f 1 + f 2 + f 3 = Q. The forces can be displayed using a triangle of forces, F,
as shown at right. -
The n1agnitude of the forces acting and the angles behveen the forces
can then be found using trigonon1etric ratios (if the triangle contains a right
ru1gle) or by using the sine or cosine rule.
In the problems in this course, strings ru1d ropes are considered to have
negligible (effectively zero) 1nass. A s1nooth , light pulley is also considered F,
to have negligible 1nass and the friction behveen a string or rope and a pulley
is considered to be negligible.
Example 7
A particle of mass 10kg is suspended by two strin gs attached to 40°
two points in the same horizontal plane. If the two strings n1ake
angles of25° an d 40° respectively to the horizontal, find the
n1agnitude of the tension force in each string in newtons correct to
two decimal places.
IOgN
Solution
Representing the forces in a triangle:
so•
The triangle of forces is best obtained by
producing the vertical force up\vards,
translating f 2 to the head of f 1 and
producing it until it n1eets the vertical line.
In the original diagran1 the forces are not
dra\vn to scale, so the triangle is not drawn --~----==------4------,,40::•- , , - -
so•
to scale.
Using the sine rule to determine the F2 N
1nagnitudes of the tension forces:

- I OgN
75°
lf1 I _ 1£2 I _ 10g

sin50° sin 65° sin75°
65°
IOgN
Magnitude of the first force: Magnitude of the second force:

If, I _ 10g lf2 I _ 10g
sin50° sin 75° sin 65° sin 75°
I I=
F1
-
98
sin 75°
x sin50°
lf I=si:~50 x sin65°
2
= 77.72N = 9 1.95N

YEAR 12
The magnitude of the forces acting and the angles between the forces can also be found by expressing vectors in
con1ponent forn1. If there are not three forces acting on an object, then a triangle of forces obviously cannot be used.
However, if more than one force acts on an object, then the resultant force can ahvays be determined from adding
the forces. If the object is in equilibritun, then the sum of the i co1nponents and the su1n of the j components 1nust
each be zero. -
Calculating forces in equilibrium using components
Example 8
A particle of 1nass 20 kg is suspended by hvo strings attached to hvo 30° 40•
points in the sam e horizontal plane. If the two strings 1nake angles
of 30° and 40° respectively to the horizontal, use component form
to find the magnitude of the tension force in each string, in newtons
correct to one decimal place.
20gN
Solution
Resolving the forces into i and l components:
F 1N
- F2N
- ~L
40°
-
I
20gN
Vector sum in the i direction: Vector sum in the l direction:

lf2 icos40° - lf 1icos30° = 0 lf1 Isin 30° + lf2 lsin40° - 20g = 0
0. 76601f 2I- 0.86601f I I = 0 O.SOOOlf1 I+ 0.6428lf2 1-196 = 0 [2]
lf2 I= l.1305lf1 I I1l

Substituting [l] into [2] gives: 0.5000lf, I+ 0.6428 X l. 1305lf, 1-196 = 0
1.1227lf, I= 196
If, I= 159.8N
Then, fron1 [l ]: lf 2I= 1.1305 x 159.8
= 180.6N
The tension forces in the strings have 1nagnitudes of If, I = 159.8 N and lf 2 I= 180.6 N respectively.
EXPLORING FURTHER
1- ---=============0
Forces in equilibrium
Use technology to invest igate forces on an object at equilibrium.

YEAR12
EXERCISE 13.2 PROBLEMS INVOLVING FORCES
1 Forces are acting on an object. Calculate the resultant force acting on the object for each of the following:
(a) f 1 = 150 N north, f 2 = 120 N south (b) f, = 67 N east, f 2 = 83 N west
(c) f 1 = 320 N east, f 2 = 2 10 N west, f 3 = 140 N east (d) f, = 64 N south, f 2 = 56 N north, f 3 = 48 N south
2 Forces are acting on an object. Calculate the n1agnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the
object for each of the follo\ving:
(a) f 1 = 160N north, f 2 = 120N west (b) f, = 80 N east, f 2 = 90 N south
(c) f 1 = 125 N \Vest, f 2 = 85 N south (d) f, = 340 N north, f 2 = 110 N east
3 Two tugboats are applying simultaneous forces to a container ship as it atte1npts to come into port. One
tugboat is applying a force of 3200 N in an easterly direction and the second tugboat is applying a 2300 N force
directly south. What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force being applied to the container ship?
4 Two forces are acting on an object: calculate the resultant force f acting on the object for each of the
following. Give answers correct to two decin1al places.
(a) f 1 = 100 N acting at N40°E and f 2 = 90 N acting at N35°W
(b)f 1 = 200 N acting at N39°W and f 2 = 160 N acting at S40°W
(c)f 1 = 15 N acting at 152°T and f 2 = 23 N acting at 065°T
(d)f 1 = 2050N acting at 037°T and f 2 = 1560N acting at 226°T
5 Three forces f 1, f 2 and f 3 are acting on an object: f 1 = 200 Nat 057°T, f 2 = 220 Nat 170°T and f 3 = 150 Nat
245°T.
(a) Resolve each force into horizontal f and vertical j co1nponents.
(b) Detennine the resultant force f. Give answers in-co1nponent fonn.
6 Three forces are acting on an object: f 1 = 250 Nat N45°E, f 2 = 270 Nat S35°W and f 3 = 350 Nat S25°E.
(a) Resolve each force into horizontal f con1ponents and vertical j components.
(b) Detennine the resultant force f. Give answers in co1nponent fonn.
-
7 A particle of mass 20 kg is suspended by two strings
attached to hvo points in the sa1ne horizontal plane.
If the hvo strings make angles of 20° and 45° respectively
to the horizontal, find the n1agnitude of the tension force in
each string, in newtons correct to two decimal places.
20g
8 (a) A particle of n1ass 25 kg is suspended by two strings attached to two points in the same horizontal plane. If
the hvo strings make angles of27° and 42° respectively to the horizontal, draw a force diagrain ai1d find the
n1agnitude of the tension forces, F1 ai1d F2 respectively in each string, in newtons correct to two deciinal places.
(b) A particle of n1ass 56 kg is suspended by two strings attached to two points in the san1e horizontal plane.
If the two strings n1ake angles of 18° ai1d 54° respectively to the horizontal, draw a force diagra1n and
find the n1agnitude of the tension forces, F 1 and F2 respectively in each string, in newtons correct to hvo
deciinal places.
9 A particle of mass 25 kg is suspended by two strings 45°
attached to hvo points in the sa1ne horizontal plane.
If the hvo strings make angles of 20° and 45° respectively
to the horizontal, use co1nponent fonn to find the
n1agnitude of the tension forces, F 1 ai1d F2 respectively
in each string, in ne\vtons correct to one deciinal place. 25g

YEAR 12
10 (a) A particle of mass 15kg is suspended by two strings attached to two points in the same horizontal plane.
If the t\vo strings make angles of 22° and 38° respectively to the horizontal, dra\v a force diagran1 and
use co1nponent fonn to find the 1nagnitude of the tension forces, F1 and F2 respectively in each string, in
newtons correct to two deciinal places.
(b) A particle of mass 45 kg is suspended by two strings attached to two points in the same horizontal plane.
If the t\vo strings make angles of 36° and 34° respectively to the horizontal, dra\v a force diagran1 and
use co1nponent fonn to find the 1nagnitude of the tension forces, F1 and F2 respectively in each string, in
newtons correct to two deci1nal places.
11 An object that is being pulled vertically downwards by a force of 70 N is attached
to a wall by a string of negligible 1nass. The object is also being pulled to the right by 350
a horizontal force so that the object is not n1oving and the string makes an angle T
of 35° \Vith the vertical, as shown. -
Find the 1nagnitudes of the horizontal force fN and the tension force in the string,
IN. Give answers correct to two decin1al places.
70 N
12 An object that is being pulled vertically downwards by a force of 250 N is attached to a wall by a string of
negligible mass. The object is also being pulled to the right by a horizontal force so that the object is not
moving and the string 1nakes an angle of 22° with the vertical.
(a) Con1plete the force diagran1 for this situation. Label the horizontal force fN and the tension in the
string IN.
(b) Find the magnitudes of the horizontal force, fN, and the tension in the string, IN.
13 Three forces are acting on an object sin1ultaneously in the san1e plane. The resultant force is f = 360 N due
north. Which of the following co1nbinations of forces \viii give this resultant force?
A f 1 =440 N south, f 2 = 560 N north, f 3 =480 N south
B f 1 = 120 N north, f 2 = 250 N south, f 3 =480 N north
C f 1 = 440 N north, f 2 = 560 N south, f 3 =480 N north
D f 1 = 120 N south, f 2 = 240 N north, f 3 =480 N south
14 (a) Two tugboats are to\ving a large boat of 1nass 15 000 kg in an easterly direction to\vards a dock. The first
tugboat pulls with a force of f 1 = 8000 N at an angle of 28° north of the forward motion while the second
tugboat pulls \Vith a force of f 2 =8250 N at an angle fJ> south of the forward motion. Given that there is
a resistive force of 4200 N opposing the eastern n1otion of the large boat, calculate the total easterly force
acting on the large boat, to the nearest ne\vton.
(b) Two tugboats are to\ving a large boat of 1nass Mkg back to shore. The first tugboat pulls \vith a force of f 1 N at
an angle of27° north of the for\vard n1otion and the second tugboat pulls with a force of f 2 Nat an angle 30°
south of the for\vard n1otion. If the large boat is moving with constant velocity and there is a resistive force of
5500 N opposing this ,notion, calculate the n1agnitudes of the t\vo forces f 1 and f 2 to the nearest newton.
15 A section of a new bridge is being n1oved by four cranes that will move it horizontally into position. The
chains that are connected from the cranes to the bridge section exert forces that are acting on the bridge
si1nultaneously and in the san1e plane. The four forces are f 1 = 2050 Nat 037°T, f 2 = 1560 Nat 130°T,
f 3 = 1650N acting at 237°T and f 4 = 1930 N acting at 316°T.
(a) Resolve each force into horizontal i and vertical j con1ponents.
(b) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force applied to the bridge section.
13.3 PROJECTILE MOTION

Projectile n1otion is an exan1ple of two-din1ensional n1otion in the vertical plane under gravity. In this course, the
effect of air resistance is ignored, so projectile n1otion is a vector co1nbination of horizontal constant motion with
vertical motion under gravity.

YEAR12
The assun1ptions made in this ,node! are:

• the projectile is a point
• the force due to air resistance is negligible
• the only force acting on the projectile is a constant force due to gravity, assuming that the projectile is
1noving close to the Earth's surface.
• the acceleration due to gravity is given by the constantg = 9.8 ,n s-2 , unless given otherwise.
In this vector approach the acceleration vector will be written as g(t) = axi + a1 z,the velocity vector as
y(t) = vxf + vrl• and the position vector as 1:(t) = xf + Yl- As the only vertical acceleration is due to gravity and there
is no horizontal acceleration, the acceleration vector becon1es g(t) = -gz.
Projectile motion-a typical problem
In projectile motion, a typical problem to be considered ,night look like the following exan1ple:
'A particle is projected in the vertical plane from a point on horizontal ground \Vith an initial velocity y(O) 1n s- 1 at an
angle cf to the horizontal:
In this situation, cf is called the angle of projection. The only force acting on the projectile is due to gravity and it
acts only in the vertical plane.
It is standard to take the directions to the right and upwards as the positive directions of motion. This 1neans that
the acceleration due to gravity is negative in this case, as it is acting in the opposite direction to the ,notion, and so
g=-9.8ms-2 .
)' -V (0)
g = - 9.8ms- 2 .. -------
- I
'
l~(O)I sina
'
! -,, (0)
!:(t)
' a
-- ~'
li•(O)I cosa
0 1-- - - - - - -Range - - - - - - --i X
-
A particle is projected from the point O with an initial velocity y(O) at an angle a to the horizontal as shown. The
position vector of the particle is 1:(t) = xf + yj. The only force acting on the particle is the gravitational acceleration g
- -
acting vertically downwards. When t= 0, g(t) = -gj, while y(O) = ly(O)lcosaf + ly(O) lsinaj and 1:(0) = Q.
You can use integration and the initial conditions to derive the equations for y(t) and 1:(t).
To find velocity, integrate g(t): To find position, integrate y(t):
I
y(t) = g(t)dt 1:(t) = I y(t)dt
= f -gzdt = I (ly(O) Icos af + (ly(O) Isin a - gt) z)dt
= -gtj + £
- = (ly(O) Icos at )i + (ly(O) lsinat -1 gt )L + g
2
y(O) = -gx(O)j +~
- From initial conditions: 1:(0) = Q
=c :. d- = O
- -
From initial conditions:
y(O) = ly(O) lcos a f + ly(O) Isinaz
:. £ = ly(O) Icos af + ly(O) lsinaz
:. y(t) = -gtj+ ly(O) lcossaf + ly(O) lsinaj
= ly(O)lcos af + (ly(O) Isin a - gt) l
In component form, 1:(t) =xi,+ y l so x = ly(O) Icos at and y = ly(O) Isin at -1 gt 2

•

YEAR 12
Example 9
A particle is projected from a horizontal plane at an angle of 30° with speed of 1001n s- 1• The acceleration due to
gravity is 9.8n1s-2 .
(a) Write ~(O) in con1ponent forn1.
(b) Find !'.(t) and r(t) in con1ponent form.
(c) Find the velocity and position after 4 seconds.
Solution
(a) l~(O) I = 100, a= 30°: ~(O) = lOOcos 30°.i, + lOOsin 30°l
=50✓3f +SOj
(b) Find ~(t): ~(t) = -9.Sj (c) t=4: !'.(t)=S0 ✓3f + (50-9.St)j
Integrate ~(t) \Vith respect tot: ~(4) =S0 ✓3f +(50-9.8x4)j
I
~(t) = ~(t)dt = 50✓3.i, + 10.Sj
-
2
= f -9.Bf dt i:(t) = so../3 tf + ( sot -4.9t )t
=-9.Stj+~ r(4) = so../3 x4f + (SOx 4-4.9x 16)}
-
!'.(O) = 50 ✓3 i + 50 j: 50✓3 i + 50 j = ~ = 200../3 i + 121.6L
- -
!'.(t) = 50✓3 i + (50-9.St)j
-
Integrate !'.(t) \Vith respect tot:
i:(t) = I ~(t)dt
= f (so../3f +(so-9.Bt)f)dt
2
= soJ3 tf + (sot-4.9t )t + rJ
i:(O) =Q: q=Q
r(t) = so../3 tf + ( sot-4.9t
2
) t
Equation of the path of a projectile

Previously, it \Vas found that r(t) = (l!'.(O) icosat) i + (1!'.(0) Isin at - ~ g t 2) f,which in tenns of its components gives
x = l~(O)lcosat and y= l~(O) lsinat- ~gt 2.
These expressions for x and y give the paran1etric equation of the path (or trajectory) of the projectile in tern1s oft.
Con1bining these equations to eli1ninate t gives the Cartesian equation of the path of the projectile.
x = l~(O) icosat gives t = I ( )I

v O cosa
2
Substitute this into y= l!'.(O)lsinat-~gt : y= lv(O) lsinax
-
x _.!.g( x
l!'.(O)icosa 2 l!'.(O)icosa
J
g x2
y=xtana-- x - - ~ - -
2 1~(0) l2cos2a
The equation of the trajectory is y = xtana -
2
21!'.(0)I cos a
g: 2
This trajectory is a concave down parabola and the properties of the parabola may be used to answer questions
about this path.

YEAR12
Greatest height of the projectile

A particle reaches its greatest height when it stops rising, which is ,vhen vertical con1ponent of 1:'.(t) is zero.
Hence the greatest heigh t occurs where 11:'.(0)Isin a- gt = O: t = lr (O)lsina

g
To find this greatest height, you can substitu te this value oft into the vertical component of !'.( t ).
Vertical co1nponent: y = 11:'. (0) Isin at - ~ gt 2
2
lv(O)Isin a 1 ( lv(O) Isin a )
Greatest heigh t: y = lr (O) lsinax - g - g - g
2
2 2 2 2
lr(O) l ___ __
_ ,_____, sin a ___
lr(O) l sin a
1 ,_____,
g 2 g
_ l1:'.(0)l2 sin2 a
2g
Alternatively, this result could have been found using the Cartesian equation of the trajectory.
A parabola is syn1n1etric about its turning point, so the greatest value of a concave down parabola occurs at its
turning point. The abscissa (horizontal coordinate) of the turning point is the average of the abscissae of the points of
intersection with the x -axis.
gx 2 gx2
Substitu ting y = 0 into y = x tan a - 2 2
: x tan a - - -~ 2- -2- = 0
2lr (O) I cos a 2 lr (O) l cos a
x ( tana- g2x 2 ) =o
211:'. (0)1 cos a
2 2
2lr (O) l cos a tan a
x = O or x= ~ - - - ' - - - - - -
g
2
_ 2 lr(O)l sinacosa
g
2
_ 11:'. (0)1 sin2a
g
2
lv(O) l sin2a
:. Greatest height occurs at x = ,_----'----
2g
2 2 2
lv(O)l sin2a g lr (O) l sin 2a
Greatest heigh t is: y = - x tan a - 2 x
2g 2
211:'. co)I cos a 2g
2 4 2 2
_ 11:'.( 0)1 2sinacosa sin a g 11:'.(0) 1 x4sin acos a
- ' - ~ - - - - - x - - - - -~ - - x
2g cosa 2 lr (O)l2 cos2 a 4g2
2 2 2 2
_ l1:'. (0) l sin a ly(O) l sin a
g 2g
2 2
_ lr (O) l sin a
2g
Time of flight
In the typical case, the tilne of flight is the tilne taken for the projectile to return to the ground.
This is ,vhen the vertical co1nponent of !'.(t) is equal to zero.
y = 11:'.(0)lsinat- ~ gt
2

YEAR 12
l~(O) lsinat- ~ gt 2 = 0
t(l~(O) lsina- ~gt)=o

Zlv(O) lsina
t = 0 or t = -'--- - ' - - -
g
2lv(O) Isin a
:. Projectile returns to the ground \Vhen t = - .
g
Range of flight
The range is the horizontal distance fro1n the point of projection to the point where the particle hits the ground.
It is the value of x, the horizontal con1ponent of r(t) when t - gIsin a .

= 2lv(O)
-
2lv(O) Isin a
t= - g : x = l~(O) lcosat
2l~(O)
lsina
=I-v(O) Icos ax -'---'---
g
,
_ l~(O) I- sin 2a
g
2
1~(0)1__
:. Range: R =,..___,_ sin2a
_
g
This result is also i1nplied when finding the greatest height using the equation of the trajectory. It is double the
horizontal distance to the greatest height, which makes sense when you consider that the trajectory is a parabola.
Maximum range 2
lv(O) l sin2a
For a given speed of projection 11:'.(0) I, the equation R = - g defines the range Ras a function of the angle of
projection a. This function has its greatest value where sin 2a= 1 or a= 45°.
2
Thus the greatest range of the particle occurs where a= 45° and is given by: Rmax = l1:'.(0)l
g
Example 10
t,
In Example 9, you found that 1:'.(0) = 50 ✓3£ +50 1:'.(t) = 50 ✓3 i + (50-9.St)t and r(t) = 50 ✓3 ti+ (sot -4.9t 2 )L
Use this infonnation to find:
(a) the equation of the trajectory
(b) the greatest height reached
(c) the time of flight and the range of the flight.
Solution
(a) r(t) = so ✓3 tf + (sot-4.9t 2 )t x = so ✓3 t, y = sot-4.9t 2
2
Hence t =
50 3
JJ so y = 50 x JJ -
50 3
4.9 x ( JJ )
50 3
X 4.9x 2
= ✓3- 7500
x ✓3 49x 2
- 3 75000

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(b) y(t) = 50✓3 i + (50-9.8t)j: Greatest height occurs when 50-9.8t = 0

t = 50 = 250 s
9.8 49
2
y = 50t-4.9t : Greatest height is Ymax = SOX
2
19°-4.9x( 19°) 2
2
12500 4.9 X250 2

49 492
= 127.55,n
2 2
(c) y = SOt - 4.9 t : Tin1e of flight when SOt - 4.9 t = 0
t(S0-4.9t) = 0
t=O or t= -50
4.9
Time of flight is 10.2 s.
For the range, substitute t = !.~ into x = 50✓3 t: Range= 50✓3 x I.~= 883.7111
You can see from the calculations above why you are often giveng= l Oms-2 rather than g= 9.81ns-2 .
A particle is not always projected from level ground, so you will usually need to draw a diagrain to show all the
given information and so you can form the appropriate vector for ~(t) and the initial conditions for y(t) and !'.(t).
Example 11 20ms- 1
A particle is projected fron1 a \vindo\v 9 n1etres above the y
horizontal ground at an angle a to the horizontal, where
3 .h
tai1 a= , \Vlt uutla1ve1oc1ty
an ... . o f20 111 s_, . Use g = 10 1n s- 2 .
4
a
(a) Write y(O) and r(O) in co1nponent fonn. w - . -------
...
(b) Find v(t) and r(t ).
- - .:9m
(c) When does the particle hit the ground?
...
..
(d) What is the horizontal distai1ce fro1n the base of the
0 Ground level X
building to where the particle hits th e ground?
(e) What is the n1aximun1 height of the particle above the ground?
(f) What is the Cartesian equation of the path of the particle?
Solution
(a) sin a= l, cos a= 4 , lv(O) I = 20:
5 5 -
y(O) = 20cosa£ + 20sinaj
- 5 3
= 20 X 4 i + 20 X J ].
s- 5-
= 16f +12j a
- 4
t = 0, x= O,y= 9: r(O) = Of +9z

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(b) ~(t) = -gz Integrate );'.(t) with respect tot:

= -lOj r(t)= J!'.(t)dt
Integrate ~(t) with respect tot: );'.(t) = J~(t)dt = J(16£ +c12- 1ot)z)dt
=- f1ozdt = 16tf + (12t -St )z +4

2
= £-lOtj r(O)=Of +9j: 9j =4

);'.(O) = 16£ + 12}: 16£ + 12} = ~
- - )f + 9f
r(t) = 16tf + (12t -St
2
);'.(t) = 16f + 12l - l Ot l

= 16tf + (9+ 12t-5t )t
2
=16£+(12-lOt)j
(c) The particle hits the ground where y = 0: (d) Find x when t = 3: x = 16x3=481n
9+ 12t-St2 =0 The particle hits the ground 48 1netres
(3 + 5t)(3 - t) = 0 from the base of the building.
t= _l or t= 3
5
As t > 0, t = 3 and the particle hits the ground
after 3 seconds.
2
(e) The n1aximun1 height occurs when the vertical (f) t;(t)= l 6tf +(9+ 12t-St )z:
velocity is zero: 12 - 1Ot = 0
x= 16t,y=9+ 12t-St2
t = 1.2s 2
Find y \Vhen t = 1.2: t = ~: y =9+ 12x ~-sx( ~ )

1 1 1
y= 9 + 12 X 1.2- 5 X 1.22 = 16.2m
3x 5x 2
y = 9 +4- 256
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Projectile motion
Use techno logy to graph the motion of a projectile under the fo rce of g ravity.
Example 12
)'
A particle is projected horizontally fro1n the top of a cliff 20 m above
the water, \Vith a velocityof30n1s-1. Useg= l Oms-2•
0 30m/s
(a) Write );'.(O) and t;(O) in con1ponent forn1.
...I X
(b) Find );'.(t) and r(t).

20 m:.
.
(c) When does the particle hit the \Vater? ...
.
(d) How far from the base of the cliff does the particle hit Water level (x, - 20)
the \Vater?

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Solution
(a) Horizontal velocity, (b) q(t)=-gj
-
so ~(O) = 30f +Oj·
- J
Integrate ~(t) with respect tot: ~(t) = ~(t)dt
The top of cliff is taken as the
origin, so r( 0) =Q = f -gzdt
The particle hits the water \Vhen =-gtz+£
y=-20,n. ~(0)=30f + Oj: 30f =~
~(t) = 30f-gtj
Integrate ~(t) with respect tot: r(t) = J~(t)dt

= J(301- gtz)dt
= 30ti _ .!.gt 2 1· +d
- 2 - -
- d =0
-r(O)=O: ,., _,
r(t) =30ti _ .!.gt 2 1·

- - 2 -
(c) y = -20: _.!. gt 2 = -20 (d) Find x when t =2:

2 X= 30t = 30 X 2 = 60 !TI
t2 = 40 The particle hits the water 60 1netres fron1 the base
g of the cliff.
2 40
g= 10: t = 10 =4
t=2ast>O
The particle hits the water after
2 seconds.
Note: If there is no vertical co1nponent of projection, then the velocity of projection does not affect the tiine taken
to reach the water. If you drop an object and at the sa1ne tiine throw another object horizontally, you will notice that
both objects reach the ground at the san1e tiine (assuming that air resistance is not significantly different for the
objects). In both cases the vertical n1otion is governed by y = - ~ gt 2 , independent of any horizontal ,notion, just as
in the previous exa1nple.
Example 13
A particle is projected fron1 ground level and 1.5 seconds later it just clears a \Vall 3. 75 1netres high
I~( I I
at a horizontal distance of 36 1netres. If the initial velocity is 0) = cos af + sin al n1 s-l and I
~(t) =l~(O)Itcosa i + (l~(O)It sin a-5t
2
) t
(a) Calculate the initial velocity and the angle of projection.
(b) Find expressions for r(t) and ~(t) in component form. (c) Find the range.
)'
I!'. (OJI
(36, 3¾)
0 ............................ 36m ····························--I X

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Solution
(a) t = 1.5, x = 36, y = 3.75: r(t) = l~(O) Itcosa i + (l~(O) It sina-5t
2
) l
2
Hence x = l~(O) Itcosa and y = l~(O) Itsina-5t
Solve simultaneously to find the angle of projection a.
t = 1.5, x = 36: 36 = 1.51~(0)1cos a (1)
t = 1.5, y = 3.75: 3.75 = 1.51~(0)1sin a - 5 x 1.52
15 = L5l~(O)lsina (2)
15 L5l~(O) lsina
(2) + (1):
36 = L5l~(O) icosa
tana=2-
12
a= 22°37'
5
To calculate the velocity of projection lv(O) Isubstitute into [ 1): cos(a) = ~;, as tan a=
12
36 =I~(O) IX l3
1.5 12
v(O) I = 360 x .Ll. = 26,ns- 1

l- 15 12
i
(b) r(t) = 26tcosa + ( 26t sin a - 5t
2
)z (c) y=O: 10t-5t2=0
5t(2 - t) = 0
12
= 26t X i + (26t X 2_ - 5t 2 ) j t= 2s
13- 13 -
x=24x2=48 m
= 24t i + ( l Ot - 5t
2
) z The range is 48 metres.
Differentiate r(t) ,vith respect to t:
~(t) = 24f + (10-lOt)j
Example 14 )'
A stone is thro,vn to hit a s1nall object sitting on 40 ms- 1
top of a wall that is 20 metres horizontally fro1n
the point of projection and 5 n1etres high. If the
stone is thrown from ground level with a speed , P (20, 5)
of 401ns- 1, show that there are hvo angles of
projection that will allow the object to be hit.
The position vector of the particle is given by
r(t) = l~(O) It cosaf + o~(O) It sin a-5t ) f where l~(O) I
2 X
O
is the initial velocity and a the angle of projection fron1 th e horizontal.

YEAR12
Solution
l~(O) I= 40, i:(t) = 40tcosaf + ( 40tsina-5t 2 )L, x = 20, y = 5.
x = 20: 40tcos a= 20
1
t= ---'c...._
2cosa
y= 5: 40tsin a-Sr= 5 [l]
2
Substitute t =
1
2 cos a
into [l]: 40sinax
1
2 cos a
-s( 1
2 cos a
) =5
5
20tan a- cos 2 a= 5
4
80tan a-Ssec 2 a= 20 [2]
Substitute the identity sec2 a= I + tan 2 a into [2] to solve for a: 80 tan a - 5 ( 1+ tan 2 a) = 20
5tan2 a-80tana+25 = 0
tan 2 a-16tan a+5 = 0
Quadratic fonnula·. tan a= 1 6 ± ✓256

2 -
20
_ 16± ✓236
2
=8 + ✓59
tan a= 15.68 or 0.3 189
a= 86°21' or 17°41'
There are two angles of projection that allow the object to be hit, 17° 41' and 86° 21'.
EXERCISE 13.3 PROJECTILE MOTION
1 A particle is projected with a speed of 100 n1etres per second from a horizontal plane at an angle of 60°.
Given ~(t) = 100cos60°f + (lOOsin 60° - I Ot)l, find: Y
(a) when the particle reaches its greatest height
(b) its position vector r(t)
(c) the greatest height reached 1oo ms- 1
(d) the time of flight
(e) the horizontal range
(f) the equation of the trajectory.
60°
1
2 A particle is projected with a speed of801ns- fron1 a horizontal 0 X
plane at an angle of 30°.

(a) Write the vector for v(O)·
2
(b) Given that ~(t) = l~(O) Icosaf + (l~(O) Isin a - gt) L, find i:(t), using g = IO m s- •
(c) Hence find the tiine of flight and the range of the projectile.
(d) Find the maxin1um height reached by the projectile.
2
(e) Show that the equation of the trajectory is y = ~ - ;;, .
0

YEAR 12
y
3 An object is projected horizontally from the top of a building
125111 high at a speed of 10 n1s-1. Usingg = 10111 s-2 , find:
!Oms- 1
(a) !'.(t) and r(t)
(b) the tiI11e \Vhen the object hits the ground and its distance .
fron1 the base of the building ...
125m :
..
(c) the n1axi111un1 height reached by the object.
0 X
4 A cricket ball is hit with a velocity of 12.5 m s-1 at an angle with the horizontal whose tangent is i·
(a) If ):'.(t) = l!'.(O)Icosaf + (l!'.(O)Isma - z,
gt) find ):'.(t) and r(t), given that g = IO m s-2 and tan a= i·
(b) Find the greatest height reached.
(c) Find the tin1e of flight and the horizontal distance travelled.
5 A particle is projected so that at time tits position is given by r(t) = 36tf + ( 15t - ~ gt 2 )f, \Vhere distances are
in metres and time is in seconds. If a is the angle of projection and l!'.(O)Iis the initial velocity, which of the
follo\ving staten1ents is correct?
A l!'.(O)I =36 n1s-1 and a = sin- • (i53 ) 8 l!'.(O)I = 15111s- 1 and a = cos- •( ~;)
5
D l!'.(O)I = 39111s- 1 and a = tan- 1 ( )
12
2
6 The equation of the trajectory of a particle projected fron1 the origin is given by y= ; - :Oo. Find:
(a) where it hits the ground (b) the greatest height reached.
7 A particle is projected at an angle a to the horizontal with a velocity of 50 111 s-l. It passes through the point
(200, 25) where distance is measured in n1etres and g = IO 111 s- 2 .
(a) Write the expression for ):'.(O). (b) Find the vectors ):'.(t) and r(t).
(c) Find a given that the particle passes through the point (200, 25).
8 A ball is projected so that its horizontal range is 45 metres. It passes through a point l l .25111etres vertically
above and 22.5 metres horizontally fro111 the pomt of projection.
(a) Ifl):'.(O) I is the initial velocity and a the angle of projection, find expressions for ):'.(t) and r(t).
(b) Giveng= lOms-2 , find the angle of projection and the speed of projection.
y
(22.5, 11.25)
0 - ···························45m················································· - I x
9 A stone is projected fro111 the edge of a cliff \Vith a speed of 30 n1s-1 to hit an object 120 n1 horizontally fro111
the edge and 35111 belo\v. Giveng= l On1s-2 , find:
(a) expressions for ):'.(t) and r(t) (b) the angle of projection.
10 A ball is thro\vn horizontally with speed v 111 s-l fron1 a point h n1etres above the ground and lands at a
horizontal distanced 111etres fron1 the point of release. Useg = lOms-2 .
(a) Find expressions for ):'.(t) and r(t). (b) Find v given d = 3 and h = 1.25.
(c) Find h given v = IO and d = 20.

YEAR12
11 A particle is projected fron1 a point \Vhose coordinates are (O, O) \Vith a velocity 20 Ill s- 1 horizontally and
l OOms-1 vertically. Assumeg= 101lls-2 .
(a) What is the angle of projection? (b) Find expressions for !'.(t) and r (t ).
(c) Find the tin1e when the projectile passes through the point whose horizontal distance from O is 120 Ill.
(d) What is the vertical height at this time in (c)?
12 A particle is projected so that at any tin1e tits position is given by r(t ) = 36tf + (15 t -5t 2 ) f, \Vhere distances
are llleasured in metres. Find:
(a) the velocity of projection (b) the angle of projection
(c) the greatest height reached (d) the range.
13 A particle is projected so that at any tin1e tits position is given by r(t ) = 15 tf + ( 20 t - 5t 2 ) l, where distances
are llleasured in metres. Find:
(a) the point of projection (b) the angle of projection
(c) the speed of projection (d) the coordinates of the highest point on the path.
14 A shell is fired at 200 1lletres per second to strike a target 2 lull a\vay. Using g = 10 ms- 2 , find:
(a) expressions for y(t) and r(t) (b) the angle of projection.
15 An aircraft travelling at 630lunh-1 drops a package fro1ll a height of lOOOn1. Usingg = lOn1s-2, find:
(a) expressions for y(t) and r(t) (b) the tiille taken for the package to hit the ground
(c) the horizontal distance travelled by the package.
16 A particle is projected to just clear two walls that are each 7 Ill tall, and 7 m and 14 Ill respectively a\vay from
the point of projection. It is given that r(t) = Vt cosaf + ( Vt sin a -5 t 2 ) L-
(a) If a is the angle of projection, prove that tan a= 1.5.
(b) Show that if the walls are h llletres high and are respectively b metres and c n1etres distant fron1 the point
. . th h(b + c)
of proJectlon, en tan a = be .
17 A particle is projected with a speed of 25 ill s- 1 in the direction of a point P that is 7 n1 vertically above and
24 m horizontally fron1 the point of projection. Use g = 10 Ill s-2 .
(a) Draw a diagram to sho\v this infonllation. (b) What is the angle of projection?
(c) Find expressions for y(t ) and r(t).
(d) Find the coordinates of the pomt on the trajectory directly below P.
(e) At the mstant of the particle's projection, a second particle is dropped from P. Find the position vector for
this second particle.
(f) Prove that the two particles will collide (i.e. will be in the same place at the san1e tiille).
2
18 A particle projected at an angle of 15° has a horizontal range of 80 Ill. Use g= 10 n1 s- •
(a) Find expressions for y(t ) and ~(t). (b) What is the velocity of projection?
(c) What would be the range if the angle of projection were increased to 45° \vith the sa1lle speed of projection?
19 A stone is projected horizontally with a velocity of 15 ms- I fro1ll the top of a building 30 m high.
-2
Useg = lOn1s .
(a) Find expressions for y ,(t) and!'. 1(t ), the velocity and position of the stone.
At the same instant another stone is projected fron1 the base of the same building \vith a velocity of 30 m s-1 at
an angle of 60° to the horizontal. The two stones collide.
(b) Find expressions for !'. 2 (t) and r 2 (t ), the velocity and position of the second stone.
(c) If the coordinates of the base of the building are (O, 0), find the coordmates of the point of collision.

YEAR 12
20 A golfer hits a ball fron1 a point on a flat golf course. Two seconds later, it strikes the ground 50 m a\vay.
Usingg= 101ns-2 , find:
(a) expressions for ~(t) and r(t) (b) the velocity and angle of projection
(c) the n1axi1nun1 height of the ball above the golf course.
21 A particle is projected \Vith velocity 20n1s-1 to hit a target at a horizontal distance 20m fron1 the point of
projection and a vertical height of 10111. Usingg= 101ns-2 , find:
(a) expressions for ~(t) and r(t) (b) t\vo possible angles of projection.
22 A particle is projected so that its position vector is given by r(t) = 30t i + ( 40t -5t 2 ) j, where distances are
measured in n1etres and tin1e in seconds. Find:
(a) the expression for ~(t) (b) the velocity of projection (c) the angle of projection
(d) the Cartesian coordinates of th e highest point on the path.
23 A particle projected from a point 1neets the horizontal plane through the point of projection after travelling a
horizontal distance a. In the course of its trajectory it reaches a greatest height b above the point of projection.
(a) Find expressions for ~(t) and r(t).
(b) Find the horizontal and vertical con1ponents of the velocity of projection in tern1s of a and b.
4
(c) Show that \Vhen the particle has travelled a horizontal distance x, it has reached a height of bx(~ - x).
a-
1
24 A football kicked at 16ms- just passes over a crossbar 4n1 high and l6n1 away.
(a) If ais the angle of projection, finds expressions for ~(t) and r(t).
(b) Usingg= 101ns-2, show that a satisfies 5 tan2 a- 16tan a+ 9 = 0.
CHAPTER REVIEW 13
1 A car is moving at a speed of 100 kn1 h-1 and a truck is n1oving at 90 km h- 1in the opposite direction.
The relative velocity of the car with respect to the truck is:
A 10 km h- 1 in the direction of the truck B 10 km h- 1in the direction of the car
C 190 kin h_, in the direction of the truck D 190 kin h-1in the direction of the car
2 On his way home from training, Mitch walks along three streets. He \valks 1501n north, 300 n1 east and 250 n1
north. The n1agnitude of Mitch's resultant displace1nent is:
A 200111 B 400 m C 500111 D 700 n1
3 Three forces are acting sin1ultaneously in the san1e plane on an object. The resultant force is f = 520 N due
east. Which of the following combinations of forces will give this resultant force?
A f 1 = 350 N west, f 2 = 270 N east, f 3 = 440 N west
B f 1 = 350 N east, f 2 = 270 N west, f 3 = 440 N east
C f 1 = 350 N east, f 2 = 270 N west, f 3 = 440 N \Vest
D f 1 = 350 N west, f 2 = 270 N east, f 3 = 440 N east
4 A soccer ball is struck with a force of 420 N in the direction N22°E. The northerly and easterly components of
this force are f 1 and f 2 respectively. The 1nagnitudes of these forces are:
A f 1 =87N,f2 =411N B f 1 =411N,f2 =87N
C f 1 = 157N, f 2 = 389N D f 1 = 389N, f 2 = 157N
5 Forces are acting on an object. Calculate the resultant force acting on the object for each of the following:
(a) f 1 = 250 N north, f 2 = 450 N south, f 3 = 125 N north (b) f 1 = 100 N east, f 2 = 100 N south

YEAR12
6 A particle of mass 50 kg is suspended by two strings attached to two points in the same horizontal plane.
If the t\vo strings each 111ake angles of 30° respectively to the horizontal, find the n1agnitude of the tension in
each string, in newtons, given that sin 30° = ~.
7 Jaide paddles her canoe in a direction perpendicular to the riverbanks. The river is 120 n1 wide. The canoe's
speed in this direction is l.5ms-1. The water in the river is flowing at 0.8ms-1 and you can assume that the
riverbanks are parallel straight lines.
(a) Calculate the velocity of the canoe relative to the bank. Give the angle correct to t\vo deci111al places.
(b) At \Vhat distance, in the direction downstrean1 fro111 the starting point, will Jaide get to the other
riverbank?
(c) Calculate Jaide's final displacen1ent fro111 the starting point.
(d) Jake is going to cross the river in another canoe. He can paddle at the speed of l.8111 s-I relative to the
water's flow. At what direction should Jake row to get to the sai11e end-point as Jaide, and how 111uch tin1e
will this take?
8 A particle is projected with a velocity whose horizontal and vertical components are 6 m s-1and 4 m s-1
respectively. Use g = l On1s- 2 .
(a) Draw a diagram to sho\v this infon11ation. (b) What is the angle of projection?
(c) Find expressions for ~(t) and r(t). (d) Find the greatest height reached.
(e) Find the horizontal range.
9 A cricketer hits a cricket ball off the ground towards a fielder \Vho is 65 m away. The ball reaches a maxin1u111
height of 4.9 n1 and the horizontal component of the velocity is 28 n1s-1. Use g= 9.8 n1 s-2 .
(a) Find expressions for ~(t) and r(t).
(b) How n1uch time does it take for the ball to reach its greatest height?
(c) Ho\v far has the ball travelled horizontally when it has descended to a height of 1.3111?
(d) Find the constant speed with which the fielder must run forward, starting at the instant the ball is hit, in
order to catch the ball at a height of 1.3 m above the ground.
10 A particle is projected fron1 a point 15111 above horizontal ground. At its highest point it just clears the top of a
wall 26.25m high and 30m away. Use g= 10 ms-2 .
(a) Draw a diagram to sho\v this infon11ation. (b) Find expressions for ~(t) and r(t).
(c) Find the speed ai1d the ai1gle of projection of the particle.
11 A tennis ball is struck \Vith a force of 300 N in the direction S40°W The southerly and \Vesterly con1ponents of
this force are f 1 ai1d f 2 respectively. The n1agnitudes of these forces are:
A f 1 =230N,f2 =230N B f 1 =193N,f2 =230N
C f 1 =230N,f2 = 193N D f 1 = 150N,f2 =260N

14.1 BERNOULLI TRIALS
When a coin is flipped, there are hvo outcomes possible: heads or tails. When a standard die is rolled, there are six
outcomes possible: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. If you are interested in \Vhether or not you roll a particular number, like 6 for
exainple, there are only two outco1nes of interest in this scenario: 'getting a 6' ai1d 'not getting a 6'.
The saine argu1nent can be applied to n1ai1y practical situations: aJ1 archer hits the target or 1nisses the target; a footballer
scores a goal or 1nisses; a 1nedical test indicates the presence or absence of a disease. In all of these cases, you need to
consider success aJ1d failure. When you attach a probability ofp to success, then the probability of failure will be 1 - p.
Bernoulli trials are a \Vay of an alysing situations like these where there are exactly two possible outcomes: success or
failure. The trials are independent, so the outcon1e of one trial has no influence over the outco1ne of the next trial,
aJ1d the number of trials is fixed. Bernoulli trials are nan1ed after Jacob Bernoulli ( 1654-1705).
Example 1
Decide \Vhether each state1nent could represent a Bernoulli trial.
(a) You can either pass or fail an exa1nination.
(b) You can either buy a particular braJ1d of phone or not buy it.
(c) You can either \Valk, ride your bike or catch the bus to school.
(d) You can either get the job that you applied for or not get that job.
Solution
(a) Only two outcon1es, so it is a Bernoulli trial. (b) Only two outco1nes, so it is a Bernoulli trial.
(c) Three possible outcomes, so it is not a Bernoulli trial. (d) O nly t\vo outco1nes, so it is a Bern oulli trial.
Bernoulli random variables

Associated \Vith Bernoulli trials are Bernoulli raJ1do1n variables. Bernoulli randon1 variables are often encoded using
the convention that the nu1nber 1 is success, and Ois failure. If X represents a Bernoulli randon1 variable, aJ1d
a probability of p is associated to success, where O< p < 1, then:
p ifx= l
P(X = x )=
1-p ifx = O
The probability distribution table for this situation is: 0 1
1-p p
The expected value is given by: The variaJ1ce is given by:

E(X) =0 X (1 - p) + 1 X p Var(X) =E(X2) - [E(X)]2
=p = 02 X ( 1 - p) + 12 X p- p2
2
=p -p
For a Bernoulli random variable X: =p(l-p)
E(X) =p
Var(X) =p(l - p)
Chapter 14 The binomial distribution 335

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EXERCISE 14.1 BERNOUL LI TRIALS
1 In an exa1nination there are 10 multiple-choice questions \vith four possible answers, only one of which is
correct.
(a) If you just guess your ans\vers, does this form a sequence of Bernoulli trials?
(b) Use Pascal's triangle (or the binomial expansion) to calculate the number of different ways you could get
6 out of the 10 questions correct.
2 At the recent local government elections, 20 people are selected at random after leaving the polling booth and
asked if they have voted for a particular candidate. Would the list of responses represent a Bernoulli trial?
3 The babies born at a hospital in one 111011th have their sex recorded as '1nale' or 'female'.
(a) Would the list of sexes represent a Bernoulli trial?
(b) In 20 births at the hospital during the 111onth, 11 are male. Use Pascal's triangle (or the bino1nial
expansion) to calculate the number of different ways this result could occur.
4 A coin is tossed four tin1es.
(a) Would the list of outco1nes represent a Bernoulli trial?
(b) If the possible outcomes are recorded as H (heads) or T (tails), list all possible sets of outcomes \Vith at
least three heads.
5 Two standard dice are rolled together and the sun1 of the numbers rolled is noted. The result is recorded as either
7 or not 7.
(a) Does this experiment represent a Bernoulli trial?
(b) If pis the probability of a sun1 of 7, find the value of p.
(c) In 36 rolls of the dice, how many tin1es would you expect the su1n to be 7?
14.2 BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

Bernoulli trials can help you to understand the 1nost in1portant of the discrete probability distributions, the binomial
distribution.
Suppose you are conducting an experiinent, consisting of n trials, where:
• n is detennined before the experiinent begins
• all n trials are identical Bernoulli trials, \vith probability of success p and probability of failure q= 1- p
• all the trials are independent, so that the outco1ne fro1n any one trial has no effect on the outco1ne of
any other trial.
In these cases there is a binomial random variable, which in turn has a binomial probability distribution.
There is a shorthand notation to indicate a binon1ial distribution:
X - B(n, p) indicates a random variable X that has a binomial distribution \vith n identical trials and a
probability of success of p.
n and p are called the parameters of the distribution.

X - B(n, p) is read as 'X is distributed as a bino1nial variable \vith para1neters n and p'.
Consider the experi1nent of dra\ving three cards, one at a tiine \Vith replace1nent, fron1 a standard pack of 52 playing
cards. If interested in the nun1ber X of hearts cards selected, then Xis a binomial variable. Consider dra\ving a heart
card to be a success. In tern1s of notation, n = 3 (the nun1ber of trials) and p = .!. (the probability of success on any
4
particular trial, as P(heart) = .!..
4
So,x-B(3,:).

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If you were drawing three cards fron1 a pack without replace1nent, then X would not be a bino1nial variable because
the probability of success p would change with each draw.
Even if an experin1ent has only two possible outcomes, it is not auto1natically bino1nial.
Example 2
Find the probability of obtaining exactly hvo hearts in a selection of three cards if the card is replaced after
each selection.
Solution
There are three ways to obtain exactly hvo hearts: HHN, HNH, NHH, ,vhere H represents 'getting a heart'
and N represents 'not getting a heart'.
In each case, the probability is equal to .!.x .!.xi.
4 4 4
2
P(exactlytwohearts)=3x ( -1 ) x -3 = - 9
4 4 64
Binomial theorem
In Chapter 6 Pern1utations and combinations, you developed Pascal's triangle and the general expansion of (a + b)"
using the binomial theore1n.
This is ,vritten as:
(a + b)" = "C0a" + "C1a''- 1b + "C2a" - 2b2 + .... + "C,a" - ' b' + ... + "C,,b"
where "C = ·
n'
' (n-r)!r!
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Pascal's triangle and the binomial theorem

Use tech nology to construct Pascal's triangle and explore its relationship to the binomial theorem .
Example 3
Calculate, using technology or by hand, the coefficients in the expansion of (a + b) 6•
Solution
6
C0 = 1, 6C1 = 6, 6C2 = 15, 6 C3 = 20, 6C4 = 15, 6 C5 = 6, 6C6 = 1
Thus (a+ b)6 = a6 + 6a 5b + 15a4b 2 + 20a3 b3 + 15a2b4 + 6ab 5 + b6 .
It is usual to replace "C, by (~) when working with binon1ial probabilities. Do not n1ix up this notation with the
colu1nn vector!
It is easy to ,vork out sin1ple exan1ples like Exan1ple 2, but when finding the probability of dra,ving 13 hearts
3
°
from 30 draws, it is not as easy to list all the possible outco1nes. Instead you can use C13 to find the total nun1ber
of possible outcon1es. With the binomial distribution, use the alternative notation (;) or in this case, ( :~}

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Consider the probability of obtaining any one of these outco1nes, such as 13H followed by 17N. The probability of
3 7
thisis ( 1 ) ' x ( 3) '
4 4
When you consider all possible outcomes:

3 7
P(exactly 13 hearts fro1n 30 draws)= ( 30) x ( 1 ) ' x (3)'
13 4 4
Using technology to evaluate, the expression is equal to 0.013414448 8 ... which can be rounded to 0.0134.
A general expression for the probability that X takes a particular value x is as follo,vs:
P(X = x) = (:) px(l - p)" - x
Recalling that the probability of failure is so1netimes ,vritten as q, ,vhere p + q = 1, this can also be ,vritten as:
Example 4
A variable x follo,vs the distribu tion X - B( 10, 0.6).
Find P(X = 5) for this distribution, expressing your answer correct to four decin1al places.
Solution
Identify n (the n un1ber of trials), x (the nu1nber of successes), p (the probability of success), and
1 - p (the probability of failure):
n = 10 X=5 p = 0.6 1- p = 0.4
Substitu te into the forn1ula: P(X = x) = (:) px( 1 - p )" - x
P(X = 5) = (lsO) (0.6) 5

(0.4) 5
P(X = 5) = 0.2007
There is a clear link between the binomial probability distribution and the binon1ial theorem, although the order
of the terms has been reversed. You can use this link to show that the sun1 of the bino1nial probabilities equals one.
Reme1nber, it is a condition for a probability distribution that the su1n of the probabilities equals one.
Using the expansion of the binomial theore1n:
L(n). p" - i (l-p)i =(p + l -p)"

II
i=O I
= l"
=l
You can also think of a binomial distribution in tern1s of the expansion of (p + q)", where p + q= 1, and pis the
probability of success.

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Example 5
The probability of any particular egg being cracked in a carton containing a dozen eggs is 0.05.
Find the probability that exactly three eggs are cracked, stating your ans\ver correct to three deciinal places.
Solution
Binomial probability is appropriate because there are two outcon1es, a fixed probability of success and a
defined nu1nber of trials.
Identify n (the number of trials), x (the nun1ber of successes, i.e. cracked eggs), p (the probability of success),
and 1 - p (the probability of failure):
n = 12, X = 3, p = 0.05, 1 - p = 0.95
Substitute into the forn1ula: P(X = x ) = (:) px( I - p) ,, _x
1
P(X = 3) = ( : )(0.05) 3 (0.95) 9
P(X=3) = 0.017
Example 6
A particular medical test correctly identifies whether or not a person has an illness 98% of the tin1e. If 10 people
are tested, find the following probabilities, correct to three deci1nal places:
(a) No people are incorrectly diagnosed.
(b) At least one person is incorrectly diagnosed.
Solution
(a) Identify n, x and p: n = IO, x = IO, p = 0.98
Substitute into the fonnula: P(X = x) = (: )px(l - p)" - x
P(X = 10) = (~~) (0.98) 10 (0.02) 0
P(X= 10)= 0.8 17

(b) P(at least one incorrectly diagnosed) = 1 - p (none incorrectly diagnosed)
(None incorrectly diagnosed is the same as all correctly diagnosed)
P(X < 10) = 1 - P(X = 10)
= 1-0.817
= 0.183
Note that P(X > a) = 1 - P(X < a).

This can be a useful result in many situations.

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Example 7
Accurate Andy is a darts player whose favourite shot is the triple-hventy. Andy is successful with this shot 80%
of the time. In each of the following situations, An dy has five shots. In each case state your answer correct to
four decin1al places where necessary.
(a) Find the probability that Andy makes exactly two triple-hventies.
(b) Find the probability that Andy 1nakes n1ore than three triple-twenties.
(c) Find the probability that Andy 1nakes triple-hventies on his first and fifth attempts only.
Solution
(a) n = 5, x = 2, p = 0.8
Substitute into the formula: P(X = x) = (: )px(l - p)" - x
3
P(X=2l= (~)co.8)2(0.2)
P(X = 2) = 0.0512
(b) P (more than three successes)= P(four successes)+ P(five successes)
P(X > 3) = P(X = 4) + P(X = 5)
= (!) 1 5
(0.8)4(0.2) + (:) (0.8) (0.2)
0
= 0.4096 + 0.32768
""0.7373
(c) Certain conditions have been specified, therefore you cannot use a complete tern1 fro1n the binon1ial
distribution. In this case, consider only the sequence SFFFS, not the 1nore general case
of hvo successes anywhere within the five trials.
P(triple-twenty on first and fifth only)= 0.8 x 0.2 x 0.2 x 0.2 x 0.8
= 0.00512
"'0.005 1
Graph of the binomial distribution

Consider again the experiment where you draw three cards, \Vith replacement, fron1 a standard pack of 52 playing
cards. Reme1nber, you are interested in the nun1ber of hearts that occur in the three cards drawn, so X - B(3, 0.25).
The following table shows the distribution of the rando1n variable:
X 0 1 2 3
P(X=x) 0.422 0.422 0. 141 0.016
P(X= x)
Here, the su1n of the probabilities is 1.001. This is due to the rounding of
the probabilities and can therefore be regarded as 1. A graph of this distribution 0.45
0.422 0.422
is shown: 0.40 +
0.35 +
0.30 ·•
0.25 "
0.20
0.15 + 0. 14 1
0.10 +
0.05 ·• 0.0 16
'
0 1 2 3 X

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No,v, consider the effect that the values n and p have on the graph of the distribution. The following diagrams ,vill
help you understand the effect each of these variables has on the graph.
Set n = 10.
B( lO, 0.25) B(lO, 0.5) B(lO, 0.75)

P(X= x) P(X=x)
0.30 P(X =x) 0.30 -

II= 10, p = 0.25
0.25 0.25 II= 10, p = 0.5 0_25 _ t1=10, p=0.75
0.20 0.20 •• 0.20 -

0.15 0. 15 + 0. 15
0.10 0. 10 •• 0.10
0.05 0.05 0.05 -
.n. .n .• ..• .n
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X 0 . 1 . 2 3 " 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Graphing binomial distributions

Move the sliders to explore the effects of changing n and p on the graph of a binomial distri bution.
For graphs of the binomial distribution, a,vhere X - B(n, p):

• Ifp < 0.5 the graph is skewed to the right (positively skewed).
• Ifp = 0.5 the graph is symmetric about the mean .
• Ifp > 0.5 the graph is skewed to the left (negatively skewed).
• As n increases, the graph clusters n1ore tightly about the n1ode but retains the sa1ne shape as other
distributions with the same value of p.
EXERCISE 14.2 BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
1 Find the stated probability for the following bi1101nial distributions. Give your answers correct to
four decin1al places (d.p.).
(a) P(X = 4) if X - B( l 2, 0.7) (b) P(X = 6) if X - B(20, 0.45)
(c) P(X = 2) if X - B(B, 0.3) (d) P(X = 30) if X - B(50, 0.6)
2 A spinner is divided into eight equal sections, of which three are shaded. Find the probability, correct to four
decimal places, of the spinner landing on a shaded section exactly five tiines out of 10 spms.
3 A stan dard six-sided die is rolled 50 tin1es. Find the probability, correct to five deciinal places, of the
follo,ving outcomes:
(a) exactly 30 even nun1bers are rolled (b) at least one 6 is rolled.
4 Peter, a keen gardener, knows fro1n past experience that only 60% of his tulip bulbs will flower. He plants
20 bulbs. Fmd the probability, correct to five decin1al places, of the follo,ving outcomes:
(a) exactly 15 bulbs flower (b) n1ore than 15 bulbs flo,ver.

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5 For each of the following situations, state \vhether or not it is suitable for binomial 1nodelling. For those that
are not, explain why the binon1ial model is not suitable.
(a) You are playing a gan1e where you are required to roll a 6 before you can start. The number of rolls
required for the eight players is recorded.
1
(b) A die is biased in such a way that P(4) = - .The die is rolled 40 tiines and the nu1nber of 4s rolled
is recorded. 3
6 If 100 cards are dra\vn with replacen1ent fro1n a standard pack of 52 playing cards, find the probability of the
following events, correct to four deciinal places:
(a) exactly 25 hearts are dra\vn (b) exactly 40 cards are clubs
(c) exactly 55 red cards are dra\vn (d) exactly 60 cards are black.
4
7 The probability that an archer will shoot a bullseye \Vith any particular arrow is - . The archer shoots
5
10 arrows. Which of the follo\ving expressions best represents the probability that the archer misses
the bullseye \Vith exactly two of the arrows?
8 In Amazonia, 62% of all births are girls. Find the probability, correct to four decin1al places, that of eight births
exactly half are girls.
9 In the town of Sinistraville, 35% of the population is left-handed. Find the probability, correct to four decimal
places, that exactly 35 people out of a randon1 san1ple of 100 will be left-handed.
10 A coin is biased in such a \Vay that P(heads) = 3 x P( tails).

Find the probability, correct to three deciinal places, that exactly six tosses out of 10 land on heads.
11 For the graph shown, choose the best P(X=x)
representation for its binon1ial distribution. 0.25

A X - B( 12, 0.5) B X - B(20, 0.3) 0.20
C X - B( l 2, 0.3) D X - B(20, 0.5)
0.15
0. 10
0.05
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 x
12 Cards are dealt from a standard pack of 52 playing cards without replacen1ent. Let X be the nun1ber of hearts
dealt and assu1ne five cards are dealt. Can this experiinent be described as X - B ( 5,:)?
13 On the way to work, Philo1nena 1nust drive through six sets of traffic lights. The lights are independent of each
other and the probability that Philon1ena must stop at any particular set is 0.7. Find the probability, correct to
four decin1al places, that Philo1nena stops at the following sets of lights:
(a) exactly five sets of lights (b) fe\ver than two sets of lights
(c) more than five sets of lights (d) the first three sets of lights
(e) the second and sixth sets of lights only ( f) four sets of lights, including the first t\vo.

YEAR 12
14 Boxes of matches are supposed to contain 47 ,natches. Production records indicate that 80% of boxes contain
47 ,natches. A batch of20 boxes is sa1npled. If 1nore than four boxes do not contain exactly 47 ,natches,
production is stopped.
(a) Find the probability, correct to four deci1nal places, that of the 20 boxes selected, the nu1nber of boxes
that do not contain 47 ,natches is the following:
~) 0 boxes (ii) 1 box (iii) 2 boxes (iv) 3 boxes (v) 4 boxes
(b) Find the probability that the nun1ber of boxes that do not have 47 matches is no n1ore than four.
(c) Find the probability that production is stopped.
15 The local baker kno\vs that, on average, 8% of the loaves of bread baked each day are slightly burnt and
cannot be sold at full price. The likelihood of a particular loaf being slightly burnt is independent of any other
loaf being slightly burnt. For each of the follo\ving, give your answers correct to four decimal places \Vhere
necessary.
(a) If a random sample of 12 loaves is selected, what is the probability that exactly one loaf cannot be sold
at full price?
(b) For the san1e rando1n sa1nple, calculate the probability that exactly three loaves are slightly burnt.
(c) What is the probability that all loaves in the random sample are sold at full price?
(d) To make a profit, the baker has to sell more than 40% of the loaves at full price. Calculate the probability
that the baker n1akes a profit selling the 12 loaves.
16 A recording co1npany receives a large number of ne\v songs from various artists. On average, only 4% of the
ne\v songs become popular hits. One of the producers decides to select a random sample of 35 new songs.
(a) What is the probability that a maxin1um of three new songs fro1n the sample \vill become popular hits?
State your ans\ver correct to three deciinal places.
(b) What is the probability that 1nore than four but less than six songs fro1n the sample \vill become popular
hits? State your ans\ver correct to three deci1nal places.
(c) Detern1ine the 1nost likely number of songs fron1 this san1ple that will becon1e popular hits. Explain your
answer using appropriate calculations.
(d) The producer decides to select 70 songs at rando1n from the new songs received. If the probability of a
new song becon1ing a popular hit has not changed, \Vhat is the probability that exactly one ne\v song will
become a popular hit?
(e) What \vould be the n1ost likely nu1nber of new songs fro1n this sa1nple to beco1ne popular hits? Explain
your answer using appropriate calculations.
17 Black n1arket DVDs have a 0. 15 chance of being faulty. Five DVDs are purchased independently.
(a) Draw a table to sho\v the probability distribution of X, the nun1ber of faulty DVDs purchased.
(b) Find the probability that fe\ver than four faulty DVDs are purchased if you know there is at least one
faulty DVD.
14.3 MEAN AND VARIANCE OF THE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

Consider a rando1n variable X - B(5, 0.4). The probability distribution for Xis shown in the follo\ving table:
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X=x) 0.07776 0.2592 0.3456 0.2304 0.0768 0.0 1024
Using the 1nethod outlined earlier in this chapter, you can find the expected value of X, E(X), and the Variance of X, Var(X).
5
E(X)= L X;P ;
;=o
= 0 X 0.07776 + 1 X 0.2592 + 2 X 0.3456 + 3 X 0.2304 + 4 X 0.0768 + 5 X 0.01024
= 0 + 0.2592 + 0.6912 + 0.6912 + 0.3072 + 0.0512
=2
2
So, [E(X) ] =4
C hapter 14 The binomial distribution 343

YEAR12
5
E(X
2
) ='I,x; P;
i=(J
= 0 X 0.07776 + 1 X 0.2592 + 4 X 0.3456 + 9 X 0.2304 + 16 X 0.0768 + 25 X 0.01024
= 0 + 0.2592 + 1.3824 + 2.0736 + 1.2288 + 0.256
= 5.2
So, Var(X) =E(X2) - [E(X)]2
= 5.2 -4
= 1.2
When dealing with a binon1ial distribution, if Xis the randon1 variable representing the nu1nber of successes
in n trials and p is the (constant) probability of success, then:
E(X) = np = µ (1nean)
Var(X)=np(l - p)
a(X) = Jnp( l - p)
You can check these results for the example given at the very beginning of this section, where X - B(5, 0.4).
Using the rules:
E(X) = np Var(X) =np(l - p)
= 5 X 0.4 = 5 X 0.4 X 0.6

=2 = 1.2
The same answers are obtained.
Example 8
Find the follo,ving statistics for X - B(l5, 0.3). If necessary, give answers correct to hvo deciinal places.
(a) E(X) (b) Var(X) (c) a(X)
Solution
(a) E(X) = np (b) Var(X) = np(l - p) (c) a(X) = .Jnp(1- p)
= 15 X 0.3 =4.5 X (1 - 0.3)
=4.5 = 3. 15 = ✓3.15
= 1.77
Example 9
Given X - B(20, p) and E(X) =5, find the value of p.
Solution
Use E(X) = np: np = 5
Substitute the kI10,vn value: 20 x p = 5
5 1
Solve for the unknown: p = - = - = 0.25
20 4

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Example 10
Given X - B(n, p), µ = 9 and a 2 = 6.3, find the values of n and p.
Solution
µ=np a 2 =np(I-p)
µ =9 :.np=9 a 2 = 6.3 :. np(I - p) = 6.3
Substitute for the known value of np in the a 2 equation: 9(1 - p) = 6.3
1-p =0.7
p= 0.3
Fin d n: n x 0.3 = 9
9
n= -
0.3
n=30
n = 30, p = 0.3, so X - B(30, 0.3)
EXERCISE 14.3 MEAN AND VARIANCE OF THE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
1 Find the stated values for each of the following binon1ial distributions.
(a) X - B(20, 0.7). Find E(X), Var(X), a (X) (b) X - B(IOO, 0.55). Find E(X), Var(X), a (X)
(c) X ~ B( 50, ~ ). Find E(X), Var(X), a (X) (d) X ~ B( 10,0.5). Find E(X), Var(X), a (X)
(e) X ~ B(25,0.8). Find E(X) , Var(X), a(X) (f) X ~B( 40,0.4). Find E(X), Var(X)
2 For each of the follo\ving, find the value of the unknown.
(a) X - B(l5, p), E(X) = 5, p =? (b) X - B(30, p), E(X) = 3, p =?
(c) X - B(n, 0.2), E(X) = 7, n =? (d) X - B(n, 0.4), E(X) = 10, n = ?
3 For each of the follo\ving, find the values of n and p for X - B (n, p).
(a) X - B(n, p), µ = 4.8, a 2 = 2.88 (b) X - B(n, p), µ= 2 and a = 1.8
2
(c) X - B(n, p), µ = 4.5 and a 2 = 3.825 (d) X - B(n, p), µ= 11 and a 2 = 8.58
(e) X-B(n,p),µ=65anda 1 =22.75 (f) X-B(n,p),µ=41.25anda 2 =29.90625.
4 Given X - B(30, 0.4), which of the following pairs of values is correct?
A E(X) = 12, Var(X) = ✓ 72 B E(X) = 12, a 2 = 7.2
C E(X) = 18, a 2 = 7.2 D E(X) = 18, a = ✓ 72
5 Given X - B(n, p), µ=IO and a 2 = 8, \Vhich of the following pairs of values is correct?
A n = 80, p = 0.8 B n = 50, p = 0.8 C n = 80, p = 0.2 D n = 50, p = 0.2
6 Find P(X = 3) given that E(X) = 3 and Var(X) = 0.75 and X ~ B(n, p).
7 A spinner is divided into four equal sections, one of \Vhich is coloured blue. If the spinner is spun eight times,
calculate the probability of obtaining less than the expected number of blue outcomes, correct to three deci1nal
places.
8 For the variable X - B(40, p), a 2 = 9.6. The correct value(s) of pis:
A 0.4 B 0.6 C 0.4 and 0.6 D none of these.

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9 Consider X - B(8, 0.25).

(a) Construct a table showing the probability distribution. Round probabilities to four deci1nal places.
(b) Use the ruleµ= np to find E(X).
(c) Use the rule a= ✓Var(X) to find a(X), correct to hvo deciinal places.
10 A fan1ily has six children ,vho are all boys or girls. Assu1ne the probability of any child being a boy is 0.5 and
that the probability is independent for each child. Find the probability of each of the follo,ving, roundmg
ans,vers to four deci1nal places:
(a) the first two children born are n1ale (b) there are three boys and three girls, in any order
(c) there are n1ore girls than boys (d) there is at least one boy, but more girls than boys
(e) there are no consecutive births of the san1e sex.
11 A researcher has calculated the n1ean and the variance for a san1ple of a given random variable that has a
binon1ial distribution.
(a) If the mean of the data set is 42 and the variance is six, determine the nu1nber of trials (n) and the
probability of success (p).
(b) A new set of data is collected and the researcher notices that the mean and variance of the new set of
data are double the corresponding values of the first set of data. Co1npare the hvo sets of data using
appropriate calculations involving n and p.
(c) The researcher realises that the results for 10 trials have been on1itted fro1n the first set of data. When
the 1nean is recalculated with the 10 additional results, the n1ean is unchanged atµ= 42. What variance
should the researcher expect for this set of data? Give your answer correct to two decimal places.
(d) Another researcher conducts the same experilnent and records the data for 56 trials. The probability of
6
success for this set of data is calculated to be p = . What values of the mean and variance should the
7
researcher expect to calculate for this set of data? Give your answer correct to hvo decimal places.
(e) Write a statement to describe the effect on the 1nean and variance as the nu1nber of trials increases.
14.4 NORMAL APPROXIMATION FOR THE SAMPLE PROPORTION

You can make sense of the ,vorld around you by studying particular features or characteristics that occur ,vithin
populations. To study a whole population can be impractical, costly, time-consun1ing and so1netimes in1possible.
In real-life situations, this 1neans it is rare to kI10,v the probability of a certain characteristic occurring within a
given population.
This issue can be overcome by obtainmg a sample and usmg the inforn1ation from this san1ple to infer particular
characteristics about the population. In other words, you study the 'part' in order to predict information about the
'whole'. This is the basis of statistical inference.
In your previous studies you have analysed sets of data, sun1n1arised and then presented the mforn1ation. This is
kilown as descriptive statistics. In this chapter, you will be using inferential statistics. While descriptive statistics
sun1n1arises and presents infonnation, inferential statistics uses the statistics fro1n a rando1n san1ple to draw
conclusions about the population. Recall that a san1ple is considered random if every unit of the population has an
equally likely chance of being selected in the sainple.
Sampling distributions and variability

The statistical results of rando1n sa1nples taken from a population ,viii vary. This leads to the idea that statistics
associated with samples from a population can be represented by a rando1n variable ,vith its own probability
distribution. This applies when ,vorking ,vith either sample 1neans or sainple proportions.
To understand the behaviour of a probability distribution of results fro1n sa1nples, you need to look at what
happens when n1any samples are taken. One way of doing this is to create a sinlulation and observe the behaviour
of the data.

YEAR 12
Probability distribution of a fair ten-sided die
The probability distribution of a fair ten-sided die is shown on the right. P(X=x)
This is a discrete unifonn distribution.
In theory, it is expected that the results will follow a discrete uniform 0.11 ...
distribution. 0.10 "
Using the formulas for the expected value and standard deviation of a 0.09 "
unifonn distribution: 0.08 ...
2 0.07 ...
(u-1)
0.06 ...
u+l
E(X)= ando- =2
a=JN
2 12 12
0.05 "
10+ 1 2 =2.60
_ (10-1) 0.04 "
2 12 0.03 ...
11
=- 81
=- 0.02 ...
2 12 0.01 ...
=5.5 =6.75
1 23456 78910x
M==S.36
The graph on the right displays the results fro1n 1000 observations of P(X =x) St:wcbrd d,:,,iatioo = 2.8 7
rolling a fair ten-sided die. This can be considered as a very large san1ple
120
of a random variable fron1 a discrete unifonn distribution. The sample
1nean and standard deviation were calculated. 100 -
80 . -
Note that this sample distribution is very close to the discrete uniforn1
distribution, but not identical. This would be expected in n1ost cases.
60 .-
Such a random sam ple ,vould have a n1ean around 5.5 and the expected 40
number of tin1es of each value occurring is close to one-tenth of the 20
san1ple size, in this case 100. This sample's 1nean is 5.36 and the standard
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X
deviation is 2.87.
Now consider what happens if you take 100 samples of size ...
,., 20
.£
50 and plot the n1ean of each sa1nple. Note in this case a
E 15 ...
"-
histograin is used to plot the means of the sa1nples, so that
similar sized n1eans are grouped within one interval, providing -
~
"' 10
0
ti
..0
...
a better picture of the overall pattern thai1 plotting each E
:;;
5
individual sam ple 1neai1 separately. z . . . . . . . . I' . I
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Mean of samples
Repeating the same process 1000 tin1es

gives a better indication of the shape of the
distribution of the san1ple 1neai1s.
"'
<.>
c"..
E
100...
80 ...
- .....
- -.....
Here it can be seen that the distribution
is beco1ning more bell-shaped and
-
~
"'0
"
~
..0
60
40
-
-
- .....
- -
syin1netrical, 1nuch like a norn1al
distribution. From the histogram it can
E
:,
z 20
. . .
_r - -
- -
. . .
be seen that the mean is very close to 5.5, 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
,vhich reflects the probability of the discrete Mean of samples
unifonn distribution.
The central limit theorem

This sin1ulation de1nonstrates one of the 1nost important theore1ns in statistics- the central limit theorem (CLT).
While the central lin1it theore1n is not required knowledge for this course, it is helpful to understand the significance of
this concept ai1d the part this plays in inferential statistics. Informally, the CLT says that the san1pling distribution for
a given statistic is essentially norn1ally distributed, regardless of the nature of the parent distribution. This means that
you can use a norn1al distribution to 1nodel the sampling distribution for that statistic, and hence develop confidence
intervals for estimates for a population parameter.

YEAR12
In most cases, the population para111eters are unknown, so the CLT is used in reverse. Taking samples of size n fro1n
any distribution, you can calculate the 1nean for each san1ple and kno,v that the collection of sample 1neans will be
approxilnately norn1ally distributed. This implies that the average of the san1ple means ,viii be approxilnately equal
to the population 1nean.
Consider obtainmg san1ples of size 50 ,vhen rolling a ten-sided fair die. When a s1nall nu1nber of samples of size 50
are generated, the distribution of the san1ple means does not show a norn1al distribution as clearly as when larger
sa1nples are taken. The shape is n1ore randon1 and often can be ske,ved to the left or the right, or very spaced out.
When a large nun1ber of sainples of size 50 are generated, the distribution of the san1ple means starts to resemble the
shape of the nonnal curve 1nore closely; the larger the number of san1ples generated, the 1nore evident this is.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
- - - - - - - - = = = = = = = -10
Central lim it theorem and sample proportions
Explore how the shape of a distribution changes as more samples are taken.
2
If a large enough san1ple is taken fro1n any population where the n1ean JL and the variance cr are known, then the
sa1nple observations have a distribution ,vhich is approximately nonnal ,vith 1nean nµ. and variance ncr 2• In n1ost
cases, a san1ple size greater than or equal to 30 is usually enough to assun1e that the san1ple means will follow a
normal distribution.
If X 1, X 2, X3, ••• , X,, are independent identically distributed randon1 variables, each ,vith 1nean µ and varian ce
er 2, then as n ➔ 00 , D= X 1 + X2 + X3 + ... + X11 ~ N(nJL,ncr 2 ).
The central li1nit theore1n is often expressed in another way. Instead of dealing ,vith the sun1 of the san1ples,
you can instead deal with the n1ean of the samples, X. In this case, you have X ~ NG,: 2
) .
This n1eans that no matter what the distribution of XI> X2, X3, ••. , X11 looks like, if there are lots of distributions
then the san1ple statistics will be approxilnately nonnal. In fact, 'lots' is often not a very large number, only n > 30 as
stated above.
If the underlying population has a norn1al distribution, then the sample size is usually not an issue. It is only
when the distribution of the underlying population is son1ething other than nonnal that the sa1nple size is n1ore
iinportant.
Sample proportions-notation and terminology

Medical research indicates that 4% of the Australian population carry the gene for cystic fibrosis, one of the most
co1n1non life-threatening genetic conditions in Australia. You could ask, 'Ho,v accurate is 4% with respect to the
population?'
Realistically, the exact population paran1eter is unknown . Unless you are willing to perforn1 a census, your
infonnation and subsequent calculations ,viii con1e from a rando1n sa1nple. However, it can be shown that
a proportion calculated fro1n a simple random san1ple can provide a reasonable estimate of the population
paran1eter.
For exa1nple, consider if a randon1 san1ple of 4000 people is tested for the cystic fibrosis gene. Fron1 this san1ple, it is
140
found that 140 people are carrying the gene. This gives a proportion of- - = 0.035. As this proportion is obtamed
from the random sample, it is called the sam ple proportion. 4ooo

YEAR 12
The table below illustrates definitions and terminology associated with sample proportions fron1 this example.
Notation Definition Example

X Observation The observation is the
For any one san1ple, the number of people or things that possess a 140 people \Vho carry the
certain characteristic is called the observation. gene.
n Sample size The san1ple size is 4000.
This is the number of people or things that n1ake up the san1ple.
' X Sample proportion 140 out of 4000 carry the
p=-
n This is the number of people or things with a characteristic that gene.
occurs \vi thin the san1ple (observation), as a proportion of the ' 140
nu1nber in the sainple. p= 4000
=0.035
p Population proportion (Unknown.)
This is the true proportion of the people or things with a
characteristic that occur within the whole population.
The sainple proportion p= ~ is not the population proportion; rather, it is the best estiinate of the population
n
proportion fro1n a single sa1nple. Because of this, the sa1nple proportion is sometiines called the point estimate.
Example 11
Consider a san1ple of2000 18-year-olds in NSW Fron1 this sa1nple, 210 have their provisional driver's licence
(P plates). Using this inforn1ation, identify:
(a) the population proportion (b) the sa1nple size
(c) the observation value (d) the san1ple proportion.
Solution
(a) p is the population proportion.
The population proportion, \Vhich is unkno\vn, is the proportion of all 18-year-olds in NSW
who have their provisional licence.
(b) The sample size is n, the nu1nber of people in the san1ple: n = 2000
(c) The observation value is the nun1ber of people in the sample \Vho have their provisional driver's
licence: x = 210
,., X ,., X
(d) The sample proportion is given by p=- : p=-
n n
210
2000
=0.105

YEAR12
The CLT and proportions

Earlier in this chapter, the variability of results benveen rando1n Probability distribution of a fair ten-sided die
sa1nples taken from a single population was explored. Recall that any P(X= x)
statistic from all of the possible sa1nples is a randon1 variable and 0.11
each of these rando1n variables has a probability distribution.
0.10
To understand the behaviour of a sa1npling distribution for 0.09 .
proportions, a sin1ulation has been created that will allo\v you to 0.08 . -
observe the behaviour of the data.
0.07 .
From the previous section, recall the probability distribution of a fair 0.06
IO-sided die. This is a discrete unifonn distribution. 0.05
Rather than considering the san1pling distribution of the 1neans, you 0.04 .
will now consider \Vhat happens if a particular number occurs, in 0.03 . -
this case the nun1ber '3'. This simulation \viii observe 100 samples of
0.02 . -
size 50. In each san1ple, the die has been rolled 50 tin1es and the
0.01
nun1ber of threes 'recorded' for each sa1nple.
'
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x
A histogram is used to plot the occurrences of the nu1nber '3'

20 .,.
as it provides a better picture of the whole pattern than .
plotting each individual result separately.
.
This n1eans that in san1ples of 50 rolls, 3 samples had one .,.
'three', 12 samples had 2 'threes', 11 samples had 3 'threes'
.
(and so on); up to one sample had 10 'threes'. ..,.
Note that the distribution of the occurrence of the nun1ber .I '
'three' does not resemble a unifonn distribution.
12 345678910
Number of threes rolled
Repeating the saine process 1000 times .

gives a better indication of the shape of the 200 .,.
distribution of the occurrence of the nun1ber "'~ 150
three. .
~ .,.
Rolling a IO -sided die 50 tiines, with the 'o 100
~
probability of a 'three' being 0.1 means that ~ .

§ 50 ,.
.
you would expect 50 x 0.1 = 5 'threes'. In fact, z
you n1ay get n1ore or less 'threes' in son1e .I
sa1nples. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II ' 12 13 ' 14
Number of threes rolled
The n1ore sa1nples that you take, the n1ore the distribution beco1nes bell-shaped and syin1netrical, like a norn1al
distribution. The tallest column on this histogran1 is above five, meaning that the expected result of 5 'threes' per
sa1nple n1ore often thai1 any other result.
The CLT applies equally to the proportion of a specific randon1 variable in a san1pling distribution, as it does to
the sampling distribution of meai1s.
Taking samples of size n, fro1n any distribution, a specific proportion of a randon1 variable can be calculated and
it will be approxiinately norn1ally distributed. This implies that the proportion of a specific randon1 variable in a
sa1nple will be approxin1ately equal to the proportion of the same specific random variable in the population.

YEAR 12
MAKING CONNECTIONS
The CLT and sample proportions

The activity simulates obtaining samples of size 50 for a 10-sided fair die. Observe how the shape of the d istribution of
the number of threes obtained changes as more samples of size 50 are taken.
When a s1nall nu1nber of san1ples of size 50 are generated, the distribution of the nun1ber of threes does not clearly
show a normal distribution. The shape is more random and often skewed to the left or the right or very spaced out.
When a large number of san1ples of size 50 are generated, the distribution of the nu1nber of threes starts to rese1nble
the shape of a nonnal curve. The larger the nun1ber of samples generated, the n1ore evident this is.
Sampling distribution for sample proportions

It is useful to explore the relationship behveen Bernoulli randon1 variables and binomial distributions, and how
these relate to san1ple proportions.
Recall fro1n your work on discrete random variables that a Bernoulli rando1n variable is a discrete random variable
,vhich has hvo outco1nes: a 'success' with an associated probability of p and a 'failure' with the associated probability
of 1 - p. Within a binon1ial situation, if n units are chosen at rando1n, then the variable X (the count of successes in a
san1ple) has a binon1ial distribution X ~ B( n, p).
The sainple proportion p= Xn is the bino1nial count divided by the sa1nple size, ,vhich gives a value between
, ,
0 and 1. This 1neans that the set of p values are related to a rando1n variable called P and follow a binomial
distribution.
Notice the differences in notation. The values X and pare used ,vhen observing a single random sample. However,
,vhen considering the ,vhole set of values that can be obtained fron1 all sainples, X and P' are used.
The standard deviation of a binomial distribution can be estin1ated fron1 the sa1nple proportion pof one sample,
rather than 1nany. This cannot be done easily for other distributions.
As previously discussed, both the 1nean and the standard deviation are defined using the population para1neter p.
However, the value ofp is unknown, so the exact meai1 and standard deviation cannot be calculated.
To overcon1e this problem, use the sample proportion pas an estin1ate for both the expected value and standard
deviation, and replace p ,vith p. When preplaces p in the standard deviation, then it is often called the standard
j,)
error S ( instead. This is to distinguish between the use of a paran1eter and a statistic.
The distribution off, for the sample proportions is defined as f, ~ N p,) p(lnP) ,
,vhere the expected value E(P)"' pand the standard deviation SD"' ✓p(ln p) =S(P).
Example 12
A social 1nedia survey found that 134 out of 265 respondents had used son1e forn1 of social n1edia within
the past year. Using this infonnation:
(a) calculate the expected value for the proportion of people ,vho access social n1edia, correct to
two decimal places
(b) calculate the standard error, correct to three decimal places.
Chapter 14 T he binomia l distribution 351

YEAR12
Solution
(a) Use the formula for the expected value: E ( P) "' p
n
Substitute the given values into the fonnula: E(fa) "' 134
265
"' 0.51
The expected value E( f>) "' 0.51, to hvo deciinal places.
(b) Use the formula for the standard error: s(f>) = ~
Substitute the given values into the fonnula: s( fa) =~
0.5lx0.49
265
"' 0.03 1
The standard errors( f>) = 0.031, to three deci1nal places.
Example 13
A recent survey of 1500 Year 12 students sho\ved that 990 were intending to apply for university.
(a) Calculate the expected value.
(b) Calculate the standard error, correct to four deciinal places.
Solution
(a) Find the expected value using the forn1ula: E(i>)"' p
__
,,, 990
1500
"' 0.66
(b) Use the formula for the standard error: s( p) = ~

0.66(1-0.66)
1500
"' 0.012231
The standard error is s(f>) = 0.0122.

YEAR 12
The size of n
Fro1n the CLT, you know that where a randon1 sample of size n has X 'successes: ,vhen n is sufficiently
large, the san1pling distribution of the san1ple proportion pwill be approxin1ately normal with mean p and
standard deviation ✓P(1n P) .

Sampling distribution of pro portion Sampling distribution of proportion Sampling distribution of proportion
11=50, p=O.I t1 = 100, p = 0.1 t1 = 500, p= 0.1
,._
V
~
0.20
0.18
0.16
"
" --
'""
0. 14
1;- 0. 12
C
>-
E o.os
:,
0.06
5- 0.14 - "'g. 0.10

,l: 0.12
" 8" 0.04
J::
_g 0.08
§1 0.10
" - !/
·.!E= .~ 0.03
~ 0.08 " - -
0.06 ~
.!E
~ 0.02
~ 0.06 ~ 0.04
0.04
"- - 0.02 0.0 1
0.02 -,
j,
0.05 0. 10 0.15 '
0.20 '
0.25 '
0.30 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0. 12 0.14 0. 16
Here you can see that for a value of p = 0. 1 and n = 50, the distribution ,nay look bell-shaped but it is noticeably
skewed. However, as the value for n increases, the shape, ,vhile retaining the bell shape, becomes 1nore syn1n1etrical
about p. This means that even if the value of pis not close to 0.5 (i.e. the population is unbalanced), the larger the
san1ple, the n1ore the sampling distribution of presembles a nonnal distribution.
So what value of n is considered sufficiently large? The following conditions allow you to detennine if the CLT
can be applied.
The following hvo conditions n1ust be n1et for the CLT to apply:
-
• np>5
• n(1-p)>5
You also need to approxin1ate the population proportion p with the sample proportion p.
However, note that if tile population already has a norn1al distribution then the conditions are not necessary.
Example 14
A survey of 25 people has obtained a sa1nple proportion of 0.2. Detern1ine if tile distribution can be
approxiinated by a normal distribution.
Solution
Define the parameters: n = 25 and p= 0.2.
Test these paran1eters for each condition: np > 5 And: n(l- p)> 5
25x0.2=5 25x0.8=20
5>s 20>5
Botll staten1ents are true, so the distribution can be approximated by a norn1al distribution.
EXERCISE 14.4 NORMAL APPROXIMATION FOR THE SAMPLE PROPORTION
1 Read through tile following scenarios and identify the population proportion, san1ple size, observation
value and sample proportion. Give answers correct to two decilnal places where necessary.
(a) A report by an IT data con1pany in tile Northern Territory surveys 800 people and reports that
42% of then1 have received a fake en1ail clain1mg tlley have won a large ainount of 1noney.
(b) A database search shows tllat approximately 215000 Tas1nanians own a Holden. A survey of2500 Holden
owners in Tasn1ania sho,vs that 1893 prefer a n1ediun1 - to large-sized car over a s1naller ,node!.

YEAR12
2 A survey has found that 64 of 104 Year 12 students are not sure what to do after they leave school. Using this
inforn1ation, calculate the expected value and standard error for the population proportion of Year 12 students
who are not sure what to do after they leave school. Give answers correct to three deciinal places.
3 The results of a survey of 334 people give a sa1nple proportion of0.98. Do these given values allo,v the
distribution to be approxin1ated by a normal distribution?
4 Calculate the expected value and standard error for the follo,ving proportion elements. Give answers to three
decin1al places where necessary.
(a) x = 507 and n = 1300 (b) x = 415 and n = 500 (c) x = 50 and n = 1000
5 Detennine ,vhether the following values satisfy the conditions for normality.
(a) p=0.55 and n = 1000 (b) p=0.9 and n = 10 (c) p=O. l and n = 50
6 For each of the following, given the san1ple proportion and observation value, find the sa1nple size.
Give your ans,vers correct to the nearest whole nu1nber.
(a) p=0.7andx=9 1 (b) p=0. 15andx=300 (c) p=0.83andx= l 5
7 For each of the following, given the san1ple proportion and the sa1nple size, find the observation value.
A A A
(a) p = 0.34 and n = 2500 (b) p = 0.02 and n = 100 (c) p = 0.98 and n = 5000
8 The 'san1pling error' is considered to be the difference between the values of the population proportion and
the san1ple proportion. Why is the value of the sampling error difficult to calculate?
9 In the follo,ving cases, calculate the expected value, correct to two deciinal places. Then calculate the standard
error, correct to three decin1al places. Finally, describe the shape of the sa1npling distribution.
(a) Jess is running for school captain. From a simple random sample of900 students, the proportion
of students who favour Jess is 0.75.
(b) A siinple rando1n sa1nple of 50 people found that five people were prepared to quit s1noking \vithin
the ,veek.
(c) Last year 67 000 children were hospitalised. Of these ad1nissions, 42 600 were boys.
10 Explain the difference between p and p.
11 In your own words, explain the standard error.
12 What happens to the value of the standard error as the sa1nple size increases and what does this 1nean?
13 According to a survey of 500 e1nployers, it was found that 78% of employers agreed that the de1nand for
jobs has increased. This survey ,vas repeated many tiines with randon1 san1ples being taken fro1n the saine
population and the san1ple proportions recorded.
(a) Do you think that the san1ple proportion from each survey \viii always be 0. 78?
(b) Would a sa1nple proportion value ofO be possible? What ,vould this 1nean?
(c) Could some of the sa1nple proportions be lower than 0.45? What could this be caused by?
(d) Is the sample proportion of0.78 close to the true population proportion? Justify your answer.
(e) In what scenario could the sample proportion value not be representative of the true population
proportion?
14 A randon1 san1ple of 1500 patient records showed that since the introduction of heparin injections for all
patients, only 7% of patients developed blood clots. This research was repeated n1any times with random
samples being taken from the san1e population and the san1ple proportions recorded.
(a) Why do you think that the sainple proportion varies for each sainple?
(b) Would a sa1nple proportion value of one be possible? What ,vould this 1nean?
(c) If a sa1nple proportion appeared abnormally high, for example 0.23, ,vhat could this indicate?
(d) A proportion of 7% is fairly s1nall. Does this indicate a proble1n with the sampling process?
(e) In what scenario could the sample proportion value not be representative of the true population
proportion?
YEAR 12
15 A fitness club surveys a sainple of 120 of its me1nbers on \Vhether they are satisfied with the club's facilities or not.
The survey results show that half of the n1e1nbers are satisfied, a third are indifferent aJ1d a sixth are dissatisfied.
(a) Calculate the observation value for each type of response.
(b) Calculate the point estimate for each type of response, correct to hvo deci1nal places where necessary.
(c) Ho\v would the point estiinate of the dissatisfied n1embers change if the sa1nple size is doubled but the
results are in the saine proportion?
(d) Ho\v would the point estiinate of the dissatisfied n1embers changes if the san1ple size is the san1e but the
proportion of dissatisfied custo1ners changes to one-fifth of the sample?
16 The sales 1nanager from a publishing co1npany believes that 35% of the con1pany's sales come from returning
custo1ners. A randon1 san1ple of 200 sales has been chosen.
(a) For this san1ple, state the expected value, correct to two decin1al places. Then calculate the standard error,
correct to four decimal places.
(b) Assun1mg nonnality, plot the san1pling distribution of p.
(c) The sales 1naJ1ager chooses a second randon1 san1ple of 200 sales and notices that only 55 of the sales are
fron1 returning customers.
~) For the new san1ple, calculate the expected value, correct to three decin1al places. Then, calculate
the stai1dard error, correct to four decin1al places.
(ii) Assun1ing nonnality, plot the saI11pling distribution of this saI11ple on the same axes as the first sainple.
(d) If a third rando1n sa1nple is chosen and the nu1nber of sales from returning custo1ners is 80, aJ1d assun1mg
normality, how \vould the new san1pling distribution co1npare to the other hvo sainpling distributions?
Plot the third saI11plmg distribution on the san1e axes as the first and second san1ples.
CHAPTER REVIEW 14
1 Find the stated probability for the follo\ving bino1nial distributions. Express your answers as fractions
in siinplest form.
(a) P(X=3)ifX-B(5,;). (b) P(X=4)ifX-B(6, 1:)-
2 For the variable Y - B(n, p) it is known that E(Y) = 32 and Var(Y) = 6.4.
(a) Find the probability of success, p. (b) Find the nu1nber of trials, n.
3 A coin is biased in such a way that P(heads) = 3 x P(tails). The coin is tossed 100 tin1es. Let X stai1d for the
nun1ber of tails obtained. Find the value of E(X).
4 When Yehudi and Carlos play racquetball, the probability that Yehudi wins a point is 0.35.
(a) Ho\v n1aJ1y points would you expect Yehudi to win from the first 15 points? Give your ans\ver to the
nearest whole number of points.
(b) Choose the correct terms in the following staten1ent.
If Yehudi won 10 out of the first 15 points, I would [not be/ be slightly/ be very) surprised as the nun1ber
is [about the saine as / just above/ well above) the expected nu1nber.
5 A saI11ple of three ite1ns is selected at raJ1don1 fro1n a box containing 10 ite1ns of which three are defective.
Let Y represent the nu1nber of defective ite1ns selected.
(a) Con1plete the table to sho\v the probability distribution of the variable. State the probabilities in sin1plest
fraction forn1.
0 3
(b) Find the expected number of defective items, E(Y).

YEAR12
6 A jar contains seven white marbles, three green n1arbles and t\vo blue marbles. Two marbles are dra\vn,
with replacen1ent, fro1n the jar. What is the probability of dra\ving exactly one white 1narble?
A 77
12x l 2
B (7 5) (5 7)
12xii + 12xii
C 2 75
x12x12
D -7 x -5
12 12
7 Find tile value oft in the following probability X 0 1 2 3
distribution table.
P(X=x) t 2t 3t 4t
A 10 B 0.1 C 6 D 0.6
8 A coin, which is biased so that P(heads) = 2 x P(tails), is tossed eight tilnes. The probability that the result is
heads exactly three times, P(X = 3), is best represented by:
A (!)(!)5(~)3 B (!)(!)3(~)5 C (:)(!)3(~)2 D (!)(~)3+(:)(~)5

9 If Y - B( l OO, 0.2), what is the value ofµ?
A 0.8 B 16 C 20 D 80
10 For a particular binon1ial rando1n variable Y, it is known that Var(Y) = 14.4. If 60 trials are conducted,
what is tile probability p of success?
A 0.4 B 0.6 C 0.24 or 0.76 D 0.4 or 0.6
11 A die, with sides labelled 1-6, is biased so tllat P(odd) = 3 x P(even).
(a} If rolling an odd nu1nber is considered a success, find P(success).
(b} The die is rolled 30 times.
~) Write this infonnation in the form X - B(n, p).
(ii) What is tile expected ntunber of odd nu1nbers that will occur in the 30 rolls?
(iii) Ho\v unusual would you consider it to roll 28 odd nu1nbers in the 30 rolls? Explain with reference
to the 95% confidence interval.
(c} ~) What is tile probability of any pair of rolls resulting in two odd nun1bers?
(ii) Draw a table to sho\v the probability distribution of tile nu1nber of odd nu1nbers in the two rolls.
12 A cereal manufacturer is running a pron1otion on single-serving boxes of cereal, which states that one in five
cereal boxes contains a free gift. Carol likes to win free gifts and intends to buy one cereal box every day for
one week. State your answers correct to three decimal places where necessary.
(a} If tile variable X represents tile nun1ber of cereal boxes with a free gift, calculate tile probability that
Carol will win exactly one free gift fro1n tile seven cereal boxes she intends to buy.
(b} What is tile probability that Carol \Vins no free gifts from the seven cereal boxes she intends to buy?
(c} Given that Carol wins one free gift on the first day, calculate the probability that she \Vins exactly one
more free gift in the next six days.
(d} Given that Carol does not win a free gift in the first five days, calculate the probability tllat she \Vins more
than one free gift in the next two days.
(e} Carol thinks that if she buys one cereal box per day for 10 days, her chances of \Vinning 1nore than two
free gifts will increase. Explain why Carol is correct in her thinking, using appropriate calculations.

SUMMARY x 2 +7x+ l 2
• - - - - , x-:1:-3
,
or (x· + 7x + 12) + (x+ 3),
x+3
1 FURTHER WORK WITH x -:I: -3 are two ways of writing a long division of
FUNCTIONS polynon1ials.
• Dividend = Divisor x Quotient + Ren1ainder
Properties of inequalities Degree of the ren1ainder < degree of the divisor.
• Adding or subtracting the same nun1ber fro1n both Degree of the quotient< degree of the dividend.
sides does not alter an inequality. • When the divisor is a linear function (first degree) ,
• Multiplying both sides of an inequality by a negative the remainder will be a constant.
nun1ber reverses the direction of the inequality.
The remainder theorem
• Multiplication by a positive number does not alter
If a poly110111ial P(x) is divided by (x - a) until the
the direction of the inequality.
ren1ainder R does not contain x, then R = P(a).
• Taking the reciprocal of both sides of an inequality
For any polyno111ial: P(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + R
reverses its direction \Vhen both sides have the same
where Q(x) is another polynomial.
sign, but not if the signs are different.
Note:
• Squaring both sides of an inequality: this produces
a positive nu1nber on both sides, so the direction of • If P(x) is divided by x + a, as x + a= x - (-a),
the inequality a 2 ~ b2 depends on \Vhich oflal and lbl then R = P(-a).
is larger. • If P(x) is divided by ax- b, as ax-b=a(x- b) , then
• Square root of both sides of an inequality: this is only
defined if both sides of the inequality are positive. R=P(:). a
The direction of the inequality does not change, i.e.
The factor theorem
if a > b then ✓a> ✓b, provided a is positive and b is
When the remainder of a division is zero, the divisor is
positive or zero.
a factor of the expression being divided:
2 POLYNOMIALS • For a polynomial P(x), if P(a) = 0 then (x - a) is a
• A real polynomial P(x) is an algebraic expression of factor of P(x).
the fonn P(x) = a,,x" + a11 - 1x"- 1 + .. . + a 1x + a0, \Vhere • Conversely: if (x - a) is a factor of P(x) then
n, n - 1, ... are all positive integers and P(a) =0.
a11 , aIf- 1 , ••• are the coefficients, \Vhich for By finding the zeros of a poly110111ial (i.e. values of a
convenience will usually be chosen as integers. such that P(a) = 0), \Ve can factorise the polynon1ial.
• The tenn a,,x" is the leading term. If a11 -:I: 0, the Zeros can be found by trial and error and then by long
polynomial is said to be of then -th degree. division.
• P(x ) is defined for all real x and is a continuous and Multiple roots of a polynomial equation
differentiable function of x. A polynomial of degree n has n zeros, but they are
• P(x) = 0 is a poly110111ial equation of degree n. Real not necessarily all different. You say that c is a zero of
nun1bers x that satisfy this polynomial equation are multiplicity r (r > 1) when the factor (x - c) occurs r tiines.
called the real roots of the equation or the real zeros If x = c is a zero of multiplicity r of the real polynonlial
of the corresponding poly110111ial. P(x), then x = c is also a zero of 1nultiplicity (r - 1) of the
1
• The polynon1ial equation a,,x" + a11 _ 1x"- + ... + derived polynomial P'(x), a zero of 111ultiplicity (r - 2) of
a 1x + a0 = 0 \Viii have at most n real roots. the second derived polyno111ial P''(x), and so on.
• Expressions are not polyno111ials if they include If P(x) is a polynon1ial of degree n, then P'(x) must be
po\vers of x that are not positive integers, a polynon1ial of degree (n - 1), P''(x) a polynon1ial of
e.g.x½+ 2 +x,X+ 1 2 X -3• degree (n - 2), and so on.
Division of polynomials Polynomial functions

2
• If P(x) = 3x + 7x + 4, then P( l) is the value of P(x) The general polynomial function is the function f
when x = 1, which is found by substituting x = 1 into where f(x) = a,,x" + a11 _ 1x"- 1+ ... + a 1x + a0 (a11 -:I: O).
2
the polynon1ial: P(l) = 3(1) + 7(1) + 4 = 14 This function is defined for all real values of x and is
2 continuous and differentiable.
i.e. P(a) = 3a + 7a + 4.
Summary 357
For a ;c 0, \Ve have: 5 Odd functions will have an inverse function, although
• f (x) = ax + b (general linear function) so1ne n1ay require a restriction on the domain.
• f(x) = ax2 + bx + e (general quadratic function) 6 Even functions will not have a single inverse function,
3 2 but can be split into two parts (by restricting the
• f (x) = ax + bx + ex + d (general cubic function)
don1ain) so that each part has an inverse function.
If the coefficient of the highest power of x is unity ( 1), (Inverse functions are covered in Chapter 5.)
the polynon1ial is said to be monic.
7 Note that n1ost functions are neither even nor odd,
Graphs of polynomial functions e.g. J(x) = x 2 + x , f (x) = ex.
The simplest polyno1nial function of degree n is f (x) = x". Cubic functions
Graphs of these basic polynomials for n = 1, 3, 5 follow, A general cubic function is a polynon1ial function f of
and for n =2, 4 below: 3 2
the third degree, defined by f(x) =ax + bx + ex + d,
Odd functions y n=3 where a, b, e, dare constants and a ;c 0.
,. = 1
f(-x) =-f(x) Every cubic polynomial has at least one linear factor of
n=S
the form (x + a ), \Vhere a is a real number.
(I, I) Summary of polynomial functions

If P(x) =a,,x" + a11 _ 1x"- 1 + ... + a 1x + a0 _ a11 ;c 0, then:
0 X
1 For very large lxl, P(x) ,., a,,x".
2 A polyno1nial of odd degree always has at least one
(- 1,- 1)
real zero (i.e. its graph cuts the x -axis at least once).
3 At least one n1aximun1 or 1ninin1u1n value of P
n=S occurs between any two distinct real zeros.
n=3 4 For a polynon1ial of odd degree, the ends of the
graph go in opposite directions.
Even functions Y tJ =2
f(-x) =J(x) 5 For a polynon1ial of even degree, the ends of the
graph go in the san1e direction.
6 When the graph of a polynomial function 1neets the
(- 1, I) (I , I) x -axis, it may cut it (single zero), touch it (double
zero) or cut it at a point of inflexion (triple zero).
0 X Polynomial graphs, standard forms
y
Degree O
(constant)
C
P(x) = e
0 X
Important features of f(x) =x'

1 The x -axis is a tangent to each graph at the origin Does not cut
(n ;c 1). No zeros
2 f (x) = x" for even values of n defines even functions. )'
Degree 1
For even functions,f(-x) =f(x), so their graphs are
(linear )
sy1n1netrical about the y-axis.
P(x) = mx + b
3 f(x) = x" for odd values of n defines odd functions. 0 X
For odd functions, f(-x) =-f(x). Because f(-x) and
f(x) are opposite in sign, the graph offfor x < 0
can be obtained by rotating the graph off for x > 0
through 180° about the origin. Cuts once
4 Recognising that a function is odd or even 1neans One zero
that you only need to draw half of the graph in
detail. The other half can then be drawn using the
sy1n1netry properties.

Degree 2 (quadratic)
P(x) =ax2 + bx + c
a> 0:
)'
2 )' y
6 6
4 4
- 3 - 2 _, 0 l X -2 - 1 O I 2 X
Cuts twice Touches Does not cut

ll > 0 ll = 0 ll < 0
Two zeros Double zero No real zeros
a< 0:
)' )'
2 )'
0 X X
-3 - - '- 2 1 I 2
-4 -4
I X
-6 -6
Cuts twice Touches Does not cut

ll > 0 ll = 0 ll < 0
Two zeros Double zero No real zeros
A quadratic polynomial may have t\vo, one or no real zeros.
Degree 3 (cubic)
P(x) =ax3 + bx-, + ex + d
a> 0:
)' y )' y
2 2
I I 2
I
-2 - _,0 1 2
X
-2 0
- 1
I 2 X
-2 _, 1 2
X
0 X
-2 I 1 2
-2 -2 -2 -1
Cuts once Cuts three times Cuts once and touches Cuts once
a< 0:
y )' y y
2 2 2 I
I I I
-2 - _,0 X
X X X
- 2 - 1_,0 2 -2 - 2 -2 I 2
2
-2 -2
Cuts once Cuts three times Cuts once and touches Cuts once
A cubic polynomial ,nay have one, two or three real zeros.

A cubic polynomial always has at least one real zero.
Summary 359
Degree 4 (quartic)
P(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e
a> 0: )'
)' )'
3
2
2
I I
0 2 X
- -2 I 1
-1
- 2 _, 0 l 2 X
-1 X -2
- 1 I
Touches Touches twice Touches once, cuts hvice

Quadruple zero Two double zeros Two zeros, one double zero
)'
)' )' 4
2
l X
-2 _, 0 I 2 X
-2 - 1
Cuts twice Cuts four tiines Does not cut

Onezero,onetr~lezero ~ ur zeros No real zeros
The addition of an appropriate constant to each equation can create a polynon1ial with no real zeros.
a< 0: A negative a mverts each of the six graphs above so that they open downwards, with the properties
of their zeros the sa1ne.
Summary of quartic polynomials
1 A quartic polyno1nial n1ay have four, three, two, one or no real zeros.
2 If a quartic polynon1ial has only one real zero, then it 1nust be a quadruple zero.
3 If a quartic polynon1ial has only two distinct real zeros, then they are either a triple zero and a single zero or they
are both double zeros.
4 If a quartic polynon1ial has only three distinct real zeros, then they are a double zero and two single zeros.
5 If a quartic polynon1ial has four distinct real zeros, then it can be factorised into four real lmear factors.
6 If a quartic polynon1ial has no real zeros, then it cannot be factorised into any real linear factors.
Relationship between roots and coefficients

Quadratic equations Cubic equations
3 2
The, general quadratic equation is The general cubic equation is ax + bx + ex + d = 0, a ;t 0.
ax- + bx + c = 0, a ;t 0. The roots of this equation are a, f3 and r, so that
The roots of this equation are a and /3, so that (x - a)(x - /3)(x - y) =0.
(x - a)(x- /3) =0. b
• Sum of roots: a + f3 + y =--
b a
• Sum of roots:a + /3 =-
0 • Sun1 of products of pairs of roots: a/3 + ay+ f3r = ~
• Product of roots: a/3 = ~ • Product of roots: af3r = -ad
Identities: Identity:
• a2 + /32 = (a + /3>2 -2af3 • a 2 + /3 2 + r 2 = (a + f3 + r >2 - 2(af3 + ay+ /3r)
• a + f33 = (a + /3>3 - 3af3(a + /3)
3
Note: These relationships bet\veen roots and coefficients are
not enough to find the roots of an equation \Vithout so1ne
additional infonnation.

Quartic equations (4th degree) Parametric equation
, of the parabola
The general quartic equation is • The parabola x- = 4ay can be represented by the
4 3 2
ax + bx + cx + dx + e = 0, a-:;; 0. para1netric equations x = 2at , y = at2.
The roots of this equation are a, /3, y and f>, so that • The point (2at, at2) on the parabola is frequently
(x - a)(x- /3)(x - y)(x - f>) = 0. called 'the point t'.
b
• Sum of roots: a + /3 + y+ f> = - -
a
4 FURTHER TRIGONOMETRIC
• Sum of products of pairs of roots: IDENTITIES
a/3 + ay+ af> + /3r+ /3f> + yf> = ~ Sum and difference of two angles
• Sum of products of triplets of roots: • cos (0 +</I)= cos 8cos </I- sin 0sin + ayf> + /3rf> = - : • cos (0- ¢)=cos 8cos </I+ sin 0sin = ! • sin (0 +</I)= sin 8cos <fi + cos 8sin <fi
• sin (0- ¢)=sin 0cos <fi- cos 0sin <fi
3 GRAPHING FUNCTIONS m) tan 8 + tan </I
• tan (0 + 'I' = - - - - ' -
l - tan8 tan¢
Reciprocal functions
1 m) _ tan 8 - tan </I
• tan (0 - 'I' - - - - - ' -
Given the graph of y = f(x) , the graph of y = f( )' the 1+ tan 8 tan¢
reciprocal function offix) . x
Double angle formulae
It is iinportant to find where fix) = 0, as these x values • cos28 = cos2 8- sm 28 = 2cos 20- 1 = 1- 2sin 20
\Viii give the equations of the vertical asyn1ptotes.
1 • sin28= 2sin 0cos8
As fix) ➔ +oo, then f ➔ 0. 2tan8
(x) • tan28 = , tan8-:;; + 1
1- tan 28
Graphing polynomials by adding ordinates
Given the graphs for two polynon1ial functions y = fix) Half-angle formulae
and y = g(x), the graph of the new function, y = fix) + • cos 8 = cos 28 - sin
. 28
2 2
g(x) can be obtained by a process of adding the ordinates. . 8 = 2 Sin
. 8 COS 8
• Sin
2 2
Graphing polynomials by multiplying
ordinates 2 tan~
• tan8 = 2 , tan 8 -:1; + 1
Given the graphs for two polynon1ial functions y = fix) 1- tan 8 2
and y = g(x), the graph of the new function, y = fix) g(x)
2
can be obtained by a process of 1nultiplying the ordinates t formulae { where t = tan 1)
for a particular x-value. 2t
• tanA =
1- t 2
Parametric representation
2t
Parametric representation is \Vhen hvo related variables • sinA= 2
(e.g. x and y) are expressed in terms of a third variable l+t
l -t 2
(e.g. tor 8), so that, for exa1nple: • cosA=
X = f(t), y = g(t) l +t 2
X = f(8), y = g(8) Identities to simplify expressions
• 2 8 + cos2 8 = 1 sin
sin . 2 8 = 1 - cos-' 8
Equations like these are called parametric equations and
the third variable (e.g. tor 0) is called the parameter. cos2 8 = 1-sin2 0
2 2 2 2
• Recall that cosine and sine can be defined as x - and sec 0- tan 0 = 1 sec 8 = 1 + tan 8
2
y-coordinates respectively of a point on the unit ta1/ 8 = sec 0- 1
2 2
circle x + y = 1. The unit circle can be represented cosec2 8- cot 20 = 1 cosec 20 = 1 + cot2 8
by the parametric equations x = cos 8, y = sin 0, cot2 8 = cosec20 - 1
where 8 is the para1neter.
Trigonometric products as sums or differences
• When the unit circle is described by the equation
sin A cosB = .!.(sin (A+ B) + sin (A - B))
x 2 + y2 = 1 (i.e. without the parameter), it is said to be 2
in Cartesian forn1.
cosAsinB = .!.(sin (A+ B) - sin (A - B))
2
Summary 361
1 and x 2 in the do1nain, if x 2 > x 1 then f(x 2) <f(x1). This
cos A cosB = - (cos (A + B) + cos(A - B))
2 1neans that the curve always slopes down to the right.
sin A sinB = .!.. (cos(A - B) - cos (A + B)) Strictly monotonic increasing or decreasing functions
2 are one-to-one.
sinA+sinB=2sin ( ;¢)
0
cos(
8
;¢) Inverse functions
If f (g(x)) = g(f (x)) =x then g(x) = f - 1(x) is the inverse
sinA-sinB=2cos (0+¢) 2 sin
(0-¢)2
function off
• If dis the do1nain and r is the range off, then r is the
cosA + cosB=2cos (0+¢) 2 cos
(0-¢)
2
don1ain and d is the range of f -1 • Thus, if (a, b) is a
point on/then (b,a) is a point on f - 1•
cosB-cosA=2sin (0+¢) 2 sin

(8-¢)2
• y = f -' (x) is the reflection of y = f(x) in the line
y = x, when the inverse exists. This means that if
y = f (x) and y = f - 1 (x) intersect, then they do so
cosA-cosB=-2sin (8+¢) 2
sin
(0-¢) 2
ony =x.
Existence of inverse functions

General solution of trigonometric equations A function f will have an inverse function f -1 if and
• For sin 0= sin a: only if f is a one-to-one function.
0= nn+ (-l)"a (in radians)
0 = n x 180° + (-1 )" c{' (in degrees) for any integer n. Exponential and logarithmic functions
• For cos 8= cos a: log,. ax = x for all real x (i.e. for all x in the domain of
0=2nn+ a (in radians) the exponential function), and a 1og• x = x for all x > 0
0 = n X 360° + fJ> (in degrees) for any integer n. (i.e. for all x in the domain of the logarithmic function).
Hence y = log.x and y = ax are inverse functions.
• For tan 0= tan a:
0=nn+ a (in radians) The inverse sine function
0 = n X 360° + cf' (in degrees) for any integer n. By restricting the don1ain of y = sin x to -1
<x < 1,
a one-to-one function is forn1ed whose inverse is
5 INVERSE FUNCTIONS
• If any line drawn parallel to the y-axis intersects the
that part of x = sin y for \Vhich
• -I • •
-1< y < 1·
graph off(x) no 1nore than once, then there are no y = sin x 1s \Vntten to 1nean
ordered pairs \Vith the sa1ne y-coordinate. This is the 'that part of x = siny for which -1< y < 1'·
vertical line test. Note that y = sin- 1 x does not m ean y = (sinx)- 1, as that
• If any line drawn parallel to the x-axis intersects the would be y= cosecx.
graph off(x) no 1nore than once, then there are no Features of sin- 1 x:
ordered pairs \Vith the sa1ne x-coordinate. This is the • increasing function
horizontal line test.
• don1ain is -1 < x < 1 (you can only take sin - i of
• If the graph off(x) satisfies both the vertical line test values fron1 -1 to 1 inclusive)
and the horizontal line test, then it is a one-to-one
• range .,s - ,r<
_ y <,r
_
function. This 1neans that for each value of x there is 2 2
only one value of y, and for each value of y there is
only one value of x.
(sin- 1 gives values fron1 -1to 1inclusive)
• The necessary and sufficient condition for the
• gradient of 1 at (O, O)
reflection of the graph of f(x) in the line y = x to be
the graph of a function is thatf(x) is one-to-one. • for all x in the do1nain,f(-x) = -f(x), i.e. it is an odd
function. Hence sin- 1 (-x) = -sin- 1 x.
Increasing and decreasing functions • y = sin (sin- 1 x) exists only for values of x bet\veen -1
• A function f defined on the interval a < x x 1 then f(x 2) > f(x 1). This
• y = sin- 1 (sin x) exists for all real x, but it is equivalent
n1eans that the curve always slopes up to the right.
• A function f defined on the interval a < x < b is said to y = x only for -1< x < 1.
to be strictly monotonic decreasing when, for all x 1 • its graph has a 'sa\vtooth' shape.
The inverse cosine function • it is equivalent toy= x only for -1< x < 1·
By restricting the don1ain of y = cosx to O< x < n, a • its graph is like an infinite set of parallel intervals
one-to-one function is forn1ed whose inverse is that
'with open circles on each end' (i.e. 1nissing the
part of x = cosy for which O< y < n.
y = cos_, x is written to mean 'that part of x = cosy for
values that are multiples of n + 1>-
. h O<
\VhIC -Y< - ,r.' 6 PERMUTATIONS AND
1
Features of cos- x: COMBINATIONS
• decreasing function
Fundamental counting principle
• do1nain is - 1 < x < 1 (you can only take cos_, of If an outco1ne can happen in m different ways, and a
values fro1n -1 to 1 inclusive) second outcon1e can happen in n different ways, then
• range is O< y < ,r the total number of ,vays in which the two outcon1es
(cos- t gives values fro1n Oto n inclusive) can happen together is m x n.
Pigeonhole principle
• gradient of-1 at 1) (o, If (n + 1) iten1s occupy n containers, then at least one of
• the function is neither even nor odd, but it does have the containers 1nust contain at least l\vo ite1ns.
rotational syininetry about its y-intercept. If n iten1s are sitting in k containers, where n > k, then
• in particular: for any x in the don1ain, the sun1 of there is at least one container ,vith at least n iten1s in it.
the function's heights at x and -x will always be ,r. k
cos- • (-x) + cos- •x = ,r Permutations
cos- • (-x) = n-cos- 1 x A permutation is an ordered selection or arrangeinent
of all or part of a set of objects.
• y = cos (cos_, x) exists only for values of x between -1
and 1 inclusive; y = cos (cos- 1 x) is equivalent toy= x Number of permutations nP,
for this entire do1nain. The syinbol "P, means the nun1ber of arrange1nents
• y= cos- 1 (cosx) exists for all real x, but it is equivalent (i.e. ordered subsets, permutations) of any n different
to y = x only for O< x < n objects taken rat a tin1e.
Its graph has a 'sawtooth' shape. This denotes the number of ,vays of filling r places with
then different objects that are available (r < n).
The inverse tangent function
-1 1,
By restricting the don1ain of y = tan x to <x < • "P = n(n - l)(n- 2) ... (n - r + 1) =
'
n!
(n - r)!
a one-to-one function is fonned whose inverse is Arrangements in a circle
that part of x = tany for which - 1 < y< 1· • The nun1ber of ways of arranging n different objects
- I . . in a circle, regarding clockwise and anticlockwise
y = tan x IS ,vnttten to n1ean n!
'that part of x = tany for which -1< y < 1'. arrangements as different, is - = (n- 1)!.
n
Features of tan - t x: • In a circular arrange1nent there is no start or finish,
so to count the arrange1nents ,ve need to fix one
• increasing function
object as our 'starting' object.
• do1nain is all real x
(you can take tan- • of any real value) Mutually exclusive operations-the addition
. - n <y<n principle
• range IS Mutually exclusive arrange1nents cannot both be true at
2 2
(tan_, gives values fron1-1to 1not inclusive) the same tilne.
horizontal asyinptotes at y = + 1
For exainple, 'A is first and B is fifth' excludes the
•
possibility that 'A is first ai1d Bis sixth'- these two
• gradient of 1 at (O, O) descriptions cannot both be true at the saine time.
• for all x in the domain, f (-x) = -f(x), i.e. it is an odd Arrangement of n objects when some are
function. Hence tan_, (-x) =-tan_, x.
identical
• y = tan (tan- 1 x) is equivalent toy= x for all real x. The number of ,vays of arranging n objects in a ro,v
• y = tan- 1 (tanx) exists for all real x except when p of the objects are identical, and q of the objects
=+n +3n are identical (but different to the others), and so on, is
X - 2• - 2•··· n!
p!q!...
Summary 363
Combinations This 1neans that the nu1nber of con1binations of n
A combination (or 'selection') is an unordered objects taken rat a tilne is equal to the nu1nber of
pern1utation of all or part of a set of objects. con1binations of n objects taken (n - r) at a tilne.
The order is not important. For each set of r objects selected, there is left behind a
set containing ( n - r) objects. Thus there must be the
Number of combinations "c, or ( ; )
same nun1ber of sets containmg (n - r) objects as there
The sy1nbol II C, or r (n) denotes the nun1ber of are containing r objects.
co1nbinations of n different objects taken rat a tilne. Combinations of any number of objects
The symbol "C, also represents the nun1ber of r-subsets
An unordered san1ple can be ordered in r! ways:
in a given set, where O< r < n.
"C - n - "Pr -n.' If no specific value of r is stated, r cai1 assume ai1y value
• , - ()
r - -;:;- - r! (n - r )! between Oand n inclusive. Hence the nun1ber of subsets
• An ordered sample of r objects taken fro1n n different that each contain at least one elen1ent, i.e. the nun1ber
objects can be chosen in "P, ways. of non-en1pty su bsets in an n-set, is:
11
• An unordered sainple of r objects taken fron1 n "Cl + "C2 + C3 + ... + "C,
different objects can be chosen in "C, ways. Fron1 a set of n objects, each object can be dealt \Vith in
Important result: two ways: it can be included or it can be excluded. The
n! nu1nber of ways of dealing \Vith the n objects is thus
• "C11- r 2 x 2 x 2 x ... to n factors, or 2 11• But this includes the
(n - r )!r!
so "Cr ="C11 - r or r (n) =( n )
n- r
case when all n objects are excluded, so the n un1ber of
11
con1binations of at least one object is 2 - 1.
:. "Cl + "C2 + 11 C3 + ... + "C, = 211 - 1
Expansion of (1 + x)", Pascal's triangle ( I +x)0 I
The coefficients of the successive powers of the (1 + x )" ( I +x)' I I
expansion can be arranged in a triangular pattern ( I +x)' I 2 I
called Pascal's triangle, as shown on the right. ( I +x)' I 3 3 I
( I +x)' I 4 6 4 I
( I +x)' I 5 I
Properties of Pascal's triangle 5~ 10
( I +x)• I 6 15 '@' 15 6 I
1 The first and last number in each row is 1.
2 Every nu1nber not at the end of a ro\v is the su1n of the
two nun1bers in the row above it to the left and right
(e.g. 10 = 4 + 6, 15 = 5 + 10, 20 = 10 + 10).
3 The nun1ber of tern1s in each row is one 1nore than the value of n.
4 The second and second-last terms in each row are the value of n.
Binomial expansion
n
(a) (1 + x ) = Co + C1x + C2 x + ... + 11 Crx' + ... + 11 C11 x 11 =
11 11 11 11 2
L, 11C,x'
r=O
II
(b) (a +b),, = "Coa" + ,,Clan- lb+ ,,C2a11-2b2 + . .. + ,,Cra11-rbr + ... + ,,C,,b,, = L ,,Cra11-rbr
r=O
(c) "C0 = 1' "C,r = 1' "Cr = "C11 - r
(d) "Cr ="- 1Cr - 1 + 11 - 1Cr for l <r<n-1
(e) The general tern1 in the expai1sion of (a + b)" is T,+i ="C,a" - 'b'
n- r+ l b
(f) The ratio of successive terms of the bino1nial expansion of (a + b)" is T,+i - - -x -
. T r a
Alternate notation: r
n n! (n
• Cr= r!(n - r)! = r
)

Useful results:
(a) x= 1:
(l+l)n =(:)+(~) 1+(;) 1+... +(~) l' +... +(:)

X X
2
X X In
2n =(:) +(:)+(;) +... +(~) +... +(:)=t(~)

2" -1=(:) +(;)+... +(~) +... +(:)=t(~) as ( ~) =1
(b) x=-1:
(1-1)" =(:)+ (~)x(-1) +(;)x (-1) +(;) x(-1) +... +(~)x(-1)'+... +(:)x(-1)"
2 3
0=(~)-(~)+(;)-(;)+ ... +(~)x(-1)'+... +(:)x(-1)"

(:) +(;) +(:) +...=(:) +(;) +(;) +... =i 2n =2 X
11
-I
In the expansion of (1 + x)": Sum of coefficients of even tern1s = Sun1 of coefficients of odd tern1s = 2"- 1
Probability
• P(A) = nu1nber of favourable outcon1es, 0 < P(A) < 1 • P(A)=I - P(A)
nwnber of possible outcomes
• Mutually exclusive events: P(A or B) =P(A) + P(B)
• Not mutually exclusive events: P(A or B) =P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
• Independent events: P(A and B) =P(A) x P(B)
7 RATES OF CHANGE AND THEIR distance travelled. Unlike displacen1ent, distance is

APPLICATION always a positive quantity.
• Note that the origin of the motion (when t =0) is not
Motion of a particle in a straight line necessarily at 0.
A particle is a body that behaves such that all forces
acting on it can be regarded as acting through a single Velocity
point. This n1eans ,ve can represent the body as a single • Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position
point, regardless of its actual size and shape. Quite large (i.e. of displacen1ent) ,vith respect to tiine, or as the
bodies, e.g. trains, can still be classified as 'particles' time rate of change of position in a given direction:
provided this condition applies.
v(t) =f'(t)= dxdt = x =li n f(t+h)-
h-+0 h
f(t)
Displacement
• For a particle represented by a point P, moving in a • Velocity can be positive or negative, depending on
straight line X' OX: the direction of travel. Speed is the n1agnitude of the
velocity and is always positive.
X' X Acceleration
0 A p
• Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of
The displacement x is the particle's position relative velocity with respect to time:
to the fixed point 0. It may be a positive or negative 2
-
a (t) -v'(t) - - x2 -_ -dv -_ x.. -_ 1un
_ d . ~ v(t+
- h)
~-v(t)
-~
nun1ber, according to ,vhether P is to the right or left
dt dt ,,...o h
of 0 , so it does not necessarily represent the total
Summary 365
• Acceleration can be positive or negative. Positive both x and y are also functions of another variable,
acceleration means the velocity is increasing (i.e. in
the direction of positive displacement), while negative
e.g. tiine t. For exan1ple, we n1ay need to detennine 7t
acceleration means the velocity is decreasing, \Vhich is
when '1j; is known. In such cases it is necessary to use
. dy dy dx
often called deceleration or retardation. the chain rule, dt = dx x dt .
Important motion terms Exponential growth and decay

• 'initially': t = 0 dy .
dx = ky 1neans that the rate of change of a quanl!ty y
• 'at the origin': x = 0 with respect to another quantity x is proportional
• 'at rest': v = 0 toy. The solution of this differential equation is the
• 'velocity is constant': a= 0 exponential rate of change:
• y = Aekx for exponential growth
Units and symbols
• y = Ae-kx for exponential decline
Physical quantity Unit Sy1nbol (or 'exponential decay').
Time s t
kx
For y = Ae , we have dx
dv kx
= kAe = ky:
• A is the value ofy \Vhen x = 0 (i.e. the initial value)
X
Displace1nent cn1, 1n • k is the growth rate.
(ors in Physics)
Velocity cm s- 1, n1s- 1 V,
dx .
dt, X The equation ~~ = k(N - P), where k, Pare
constants
-2 -2 dv d 2x ..
Acceleration ems , n1 s a, dt' dt2 'x • N = Aekl.1s th e so1utJon
. ofth e equation
. d= -,
dN kN
\Vhere A is the initial value of N. t
• Note that's' is the abbreviation for second, 'cm' for
centimetre and 'm' for n1etre. • N = P + Aek' is a solution of the equation
• Constant acceleration due to gravity= 9.8 n1s- 2 dN
dt = k(N - P) , where A is a constant.
(=lO n1s- 2)
• If k < 0, Aekt ➔ 0 as t ➔ oo and hence N ➔ P fron1
Displacement, velocity, acceleration-
above.
important links
• Given the displacen1ent function, you can find Newton's law of cooling
velocity and acceleration functions by differentiating The cooling rate of a body is proportional to the
with respect to time. difference behveen the te1nperature of the body and the
• Given the velocity function, you can find the te1nperature of the surrounding mediu1n:
displacement function by integrating with respect
to tilne; you can find the acceleration function by
~~ =-k(T-M)
differentiating with respect to time. where Tis the te1nperature at any time t and Mis the
• If ,notion information is given as a graph, remember te1nperature of the surrounding mediu1n (a constant).
that the definite integral is linked to the area under Wilhelmy's law
the graph, while the derivative is linked to the Many che1nical reactions follow the law that states that
gradient of the curve. the rate of the reaction is proportional to the difference
• For example: given the graph of velocity '1j;
against between the initial concentration of the reagent (i.e. the
tilne, then the value of the definite integral gives the chen1ical reacting) and the am ount transforn1ed at any
displacement and the slope of the curve gives the time:
dx
acceleration. - =k(a-x),O<x<a
dt
Related rates where a is the initial concentration and xis the amount
Problen1s with related rates arise when there is a transfonned at tin1e t.
function that relates two variables, e.g. x and y, where

8 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS 3 Write a conclusion:
t formulae ( where t = tan 1) The statement is true for n = k + 1 (As proved

if it is true for n = k. in Step 2.)
2t
• tanA= The statement is true for n = 1 (As proved
1-t 2
2t (i.e. for the first possible case). in Step 1.)
• sinA=- -
l+t2 Thus the state1nent is true for all integers n > 1.
l-t 2
• cosA= 2 When induction doesn't work
l+t
One counter-exan1ple is all that it takes to disprove
Auxiliary angle method a result.
In each case r = ✓a 2 + b2 and a is in the first quadrant So1ne proofs by 1nathe1natical induction seem to be
b correct, but turn out to be incorrect. The most likely
such that tan a= a:
reason is that you have failed to prove Step 1, that is, the
• asinx + bcosx = rsin (x + a) result is true at the beginning ( usually for n = 1). This
• asinx- bcosx = rsin (x - a) means that the assumed result (n = k) is false, so when
• acosx+bsinx=rcos(x-a) you prove the result true for n = k + 1 you are proving it
• a cosx- b sinx = rcos (x + a) from an incorrect assun1ption.
Note: 10 VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS

(a) Writing asinx + bcosx in the fonn rsin (x + a) tells
Vectors and vector notation
you that the greatest and least values of the function
are r and -r respectively. This 1nakes sketching The 1nagnitude of vector AB is written IABI, the
functions like y = a sinx + bcosx a lot easier. magnitude of vector ~ is written I~ I, and the 1nagnitude
(b) Writing a sin x + b cos x in the fonn r sin (x + a) of vector a is written Ia I-
allows you to solve equations of the type Two vectors are equal if, and only if, they have the san1e
asinx + bcosx = c. magnitude and the saine direction, regardless of their
(c) If you use t formulae substitution to solve equations positions.
of the type acosx + bsinx = c, you 1nust also test to The negative of vector AB = a is the vector
see whether x = +nn: is a solution of the equation. - -
-AB= BA= -a.
-
-
9 PROOF BY MATHEMATICAL The zero vector, denoted Q, is a vector of zero n1agnitude.
Its direction cai1not be defined. Adding a vector to its
INDUCTION
negative will produce the zero vector.~+(-~) = Q
Note: It only takes one counter-example to disprove a
The unit vector in the direction of~ is denoted ~. \Vhere
general statement.
Mathematical induction is a 1nethod of proof that can ~ = 1!1and l~I = 1.
be used, for example, to prove that something is true
for all positive integers n, or for all positive integers n Scalar multiplication of vectors
greater than a specified starting value, or for all positive • If k > 0, then k13 has the saine direction as 13 but has
odd integers n. k tiines the 1nagnitude.
• If k = 0, then k~ = Q.
A proof by induction consists of a two-step process
followed by a conclusion: • If k < 0, then k~ is in the opposite direction to 13 and
1 Prove that the state1nent is true in the first case has k tin1es the n1agnitude.
possible. Addition of vectors
2 Prove that if the statement is true in any one case (i.e. For MBC, AB+ BC = AC or~ + ~ = £.
for n = k), then it 1nust also be true in the next case B
(i.e. for n = k + 1, or for n = k + 2 if the state1nent is
true for even integers only, etc.).
-a -b
A
- C
Summary 367
The parallelogram rule for the addition )'
of vectors
-
Xi+ )'j
-
The diagran1 shows that ~ + £ = £ + ~ = ~ and this rule

is kno\vn as the parallelogra1n rule for addition of
vectors.
The parallelogran1 rule for addition of vectors illustrates Addition and subtraction of vectors in
that vector addition is commutative. component form
If~= x 1£+ y 1j and£= x 2 £+ y2 j
Subtraction of vectors - -
Subtraction of a vector is defined as addition of its
!! + ~ = (Xi + Xz)i, + (Yi + Y2 )
i
negative. That is, to subtract £ fro1n ~' add - £ to ~' and
so ~ - £ = ~ + (-£). ~ - ~ = (Xi - Xz)£+(Yi - Y2 )i
Scalar multiplication of vectors in
-b component form
a a -
- - If!!= xi, + yj, then k!! = kxi, + ky j
a-b Equality of vectors in component form

If~= x 1f + y 1j and~= x2 £+ y2 j, then!!= ~ if and only
-
if x 1 = x 2 and y 1 = y 2 •
-
Position vectors
A position vector can be represented by a coordinate Parallel vectors
pair (a, b). This represents the vector that is a units Two vectors are parallel if they are scalar n1ultiples of
from O in the positive x direction and b units fro1n O in each other.
the positive y direction. This can be represented as the If£ = k~, where k e R, then ~ is parallel to ~-
column vector ( : ), [: ] or by the coordinates (a, b). Unit vectors in component form
1
Any vector that is equivalent to a translation of a units If!!= xi, + y z, then~= .JX
2
+y 2
(xi, +Yi) or
in the positive x-direction and b units in the positive
y-direction can be represented in this way. A
~=
.Jx 2 + y2 ( •
2 2
•)
XL+ YJ ·
X +y -
The magnitude of a vector
Scalar product of vectors
The n1agnitude of a position vector OA = ( :)can be The scalar product (also called the dot product or
calculated using Pythagoras' theoren1. the inner product) is a \Vay of n1ultiplying two vectors.
The result of the multiplication is a scalar quantity
l0A i=.Ja2+ b2.
(1nagnitude but no direction). The scalar product of two
Vectors in component form vectors~ and~ is \Vritten as~ • ~ (and read as'~ dot£ ').
The fonn !! = xi, + y l is called component form or i,, l If 0 is the angle bet\veen the positive directions of two
form of a vector. The vector!! may also be represented vectors !! and ~' then the scalar product is defined to be
~ • £ = 1~11£1cos0.
in column vector forn1 as(;).
-a
-b -b
0
-a

Note that we always use the acute or obtuse angle, never Indefinite integrals and substitution
the reflex angle. • f u11 du= l u11+1 +c
For a straight angle, 0= rr:, so!! • ~= - l!!ll ~I, n+l
since cos 1r: = - 1. f
• Let y= f(u)du, where u = g(x), so that dy = f(u)
du
If the scalar product of two non-zero vectors is zero, dy dy du du
then the vectors are perpendicular, i.e. if, for two But - = - X- =f(u)x-
dx du dx dx
non-zero vectors!! and~. !! • ~= 0, then!! and~ are
perpendicular. f
so y= f(u)x: dx= f(u)du f
If~ = X i i + Yi} and ~ = x 2 i, + y 2 j the inner product This 'back\vards' form of the chain rule is convenient
- -
formula for the scalar product of two vectors expressed when the substitution of u = g(x) will let you express
in coinponent fonn is!! • ~= X i X 2 + Y i Y 2 - du
a function being integrated as the product of- and
This gives use hvo expressions for the scalar product, a function of u. dx
!! • ~ = l!!ll ~lcos0 = X i X2 + YiY2·
Definite integrals and substitution
Projections of vectors A
When using a substitution to evaluate a definite integral
The scalar projection of~ onto ~ is !! • ~. \Vhere be careful \Vith the lin1its of integration. The original
A a• b li1nits are for values for x, but after substitution the
a • b=- -
- - 1~1· variable will becon1e u (or soine other new variable),
In general, the scalar projection of~ onto ~ does not so the lin1its similarly need to becon1e values for u (or
equal the scalar projection of~ onto !!· the other ne\v variable). To do this, substitute the limits
into the change-of-variable equation to find the li1nits
The vector projection of!! onto~ is ( ~ • ~)~-
for the ne\v variable.
The vecbtor projection of!! perpendicular to ~ is
a• Useful results:
a - - - b.
- b • b- • J:J(x)dx =-J:f(x)dx: if you reverse the li1nits of
integration, you change the sign of the integral.
11 APPLICATIONS OF CALCULUS
• For an integral of the forn1 f f '(x)(f (x) )" dx,
Volume of solids of revolution du
• When the arc CD of the curve y = f (x) on the the substitution u = f(x) gives - = f'(x)
dx
interval a < x < b is rotated about the x-axis, so that the integral becon1es:
the volume of the solid of revolution forn1ed is 11 1
11 1
given by: f f'(xXJ(x)) dx= f u11
du= u + +c
n+l
V= 7r: J: (f(x)}2 dx =7r: J:y dx2 = 1 (f (x) )n+I + C
n+l
y • If you can recognise that
)' =/(x) --71\D
f f'(xXJ (x) )11 dx = n +
1 (J(x) )11+1+C,
l
C you can obtain your answer faster.
Integration of sin 2 x and cos 2 x
0 b X J sin 2x dx and Jcos 2x dx can be found using
substitutions fron1 the formulae for cos 2x. This will
generally not be given in a question, but you must be
able to use it \Vhen necessary.
2 . 2 2 2
• COS 2 X = COS X - SIU X = COS X -
1 = 1 - 2· 2
• When the arc CD of the curve x = g(y) on the SIU X
interval c < y < dis rotated about the y-axis, the 2 l+cos2x
• cos x= ,
volun1e of the solid of revolution forn1ed is given by: 2
J"x Jcos2 x dx = 1J(1 +cos2x)dx= 1x+ l sin2x+ C
V = 7r:
f
cd (g(y)) 2 dy = 1r: c
2
dy
Summary 369
• 2 l - cos2x Derivative of sin_,~
• SlllX= ,
2 Let y=sin- 1 ~ for-a< x < a
Jsin2x dx = 1J(l - cos2x) dx= 1x - !sin2x+C
... x -- as1n
. y, _ 1C<
- Y <1(
-
2 2
Integrals of the type Jf '(x)(f(x))" dx dx . dy I
- =acosy - = ,or - -fC <y< -fC
C
dy dx acosy 2 2
In trigonometric integrals of this type such as
J cosxsin 2xdx, i.e. wheref(x) = sinx and As for the derivative of sin- t x:
f '(x) = cosx, the substitution \viii not always be given. dy _ I
· - - -;===== for -a < x < a
· · dx ✓a 2 -a 2 sin 2 y
• Jcos xsin 2 xdx=1sin 3 x + C
d ( . _1 x) 1
: . dx sm a = ✓a2- x2 ' -a<x< a
Substitution simplified
If you treat '%:c as a fraction, then '%:c x dx = du. Derivative of cos- 1 x
Let y = cos - t x for -1 < x < I
If u = sin x, th en '%:c = cosx can be written as
:. x = cosywhereO<y<tr
du =cosxdx.
dx . . dy I
You are really replacing f '(x) dx by du. - = - s1ny .. - = - for O< y< 1C
dy dx smy
Integrals involving trigonometric substitution dy I
2 2 :. -dx
- = - -,.=== for-1 <x< 1
If an expression of the fonn a - x occurs in the ✓l - cos y
2
integrand, the standard trigono1netric substitutions are

d ( _1 ) 1
x = a sin 0 or x = a cos 0. :. dx cos x = - ✓i -x 2 , -1 <x< 1
If an expression of the fonn a 2 + x2 occurs in the
integrand, the standard substitution is x = a tan 0. Derivative of cos_, ~
Note: If these substitutions are needed then they should Let cos a
- IX i:
,or -a < X < a :.x =acosy, O<y<1C
be given in the question. dx . . dy 1
- = - as1n y .. - = - for O< y < 1C
dy dx asm y
Differentiation of inverse trigonometric
dy I
functions :. -dx
- =- for-a<x<a
dy dx ✓a -a cos y
2 2 2
Note: - X- =l
dx dy d ( - 1 x) 1
: . dx cos a = - ✓a2- x2' -a<x<a
Derivative of sin_, x
Lety = sin- 1 x for- I <x < 1 Derivative of tan_, x
:. x=siny \vhere - 1 <y<1
Let y = tan- t x for all x : . x = tan y where - 1 < y < 1
dx , 2
dx . dy I - =sec-y= l +tan y
- =cosy - = - - noting that cos y* O dy
dy dx cos y
. dy I 1C tr
.. - = 2 for - 2 < y < 2
:. - 1< 1 <1 dx l + tan y
dy 1
Using cos2y + sili y = I: - = - -.==== . dy _ I
.. - - for all x
dx +✓l - sin 2 y dx l +x 2
As y is an angle in the first or fourth quadrants, cosy 1
:. !!...(tan- 1 x)= for all x
must be positive. dx l+x 2
· dy - 1 1 for -1 < x < I

·· dx - ✓l - sin y - ✓1 - x
2 2 Derivative of tan_, ~
:. -dd (. -1 )
sin x= 1
1
, -l<x<l Lety = tan- 1 x forallx
a
X l - X2
...
:.x =atany where - l< 1 <l
Note that the derivative is not defined at x = + I (the
graph of sin- 1 x has vertical tangents at its endpoints). dx , ,
dy =asec-y=a(l+tan-y)
Also note that the derivative is positive for all x in its
do1nain (as sin - t xis an increasing function). . dy a
,or - -tr <y<-tr
C
·· dx = a 2+a 2 tan 2y 2 2
. dy a Direction fields
.. - = , 2
for all x
dx a- +x Qualitative methods are a set of graphical methods
to describe the general behaviour of the solution to a
... - d ( tan _1 x=
) a for all x
dx 2
a +x 2 differential equation \vithout solving the equation.
Integration involving inverse Solving differential equations of

trigonometric functions the form dy = f(x)
dx
1 dx =sin - l -X + C
J / 2
-va -x 2 a '
-a<x<a Finding the particular solution of a directly integrable
problem ix= f(x),y(a) = Ya involves the following
-l dx=cos- 1 ~+C
J-va -x
/ 2 2
a '
-a<x<a
t\vo-step procedure:
1dx= -I tan - Ix 1 Integration with respect to the inde,rendent variable.
J 2
a +x 2
a
- +C,
a
for all x
That is,y=F(x) +c, \Vhere F(x) = Jf(x)dx and cis
the constant of integration.
12 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 2 Use the initial condition to solve for the constant of
A differential equation is an equation that relates son1e integration.
unla10\vn differentiable function to one or n1ore of its That is, (x, y) = (a, y,) ⇒ Ya= F(a) + c.
derivatives.
Therefore, y = F(x) + Ya - F(a).
A differentiable function y = g(x) is a solution of a
Upon rearranging the previous equation, the final
differential equation if the equation is satisfied when
result is y(x) =Ya+ F(x) - F(a).
y and its derivatives are replaced with g(x) and its
corresponding derivatives. The initial condition n1ay also be referred to as the
'boundary value'.
To verify that a function y = g(x) is a solution of a
differential equation, substitute the function and its Solving differential equations of the
derivative(s) into both sides of the differential equation dy
and check that both sides are identically equal. fo rm dx = g(y)
A particular solution (or solution curve) of a To find the particular solution of ix = g(y ), y(a) = Ya•
differential equation is a w1ique function that is found
by giving specific values to the panuneters in the general g(ya) -:I: 0, requires the follo\ving five-step procedure:
solution. The paran1eters in the solution are chosen so
1 Take the reciprocal of both sides of ix = g(y) to
that the particular solution satisfies one or n1ore extra dx I
requirements called initial conditions. Initial conditions obtain dy = g(y) with x = a where y = Ya·
are sometin1es called boundary values.
2 Integrate both sides of the equation \Vith respect to
An initial value problem of a first-order differential
the new independent variable y:
y' = f (t, y(t ))
equation: y(a) = Ya f dydx dy = f g(y)
1 dy
t e [a,b] x + c = G(y)
consists of the differential equation together \Vith 1
\Vhere G'(y) = and c is a constant of
its initial condition, requiring you to detennine a g(y)
particular solution y(t) over a specific interval of the integration.
independent variable a < t < b. 3 Where possible, invert the equation fro1n previous
step to find the general solution for the original
The order of a differential equation is equal to the
dependent variable y in tenns of the original
highest order derivative of the dependent variable and
independent variable .x:
the degree of the equation, is the highest power of that
th x + c= G(y)
highest order derivative. In the n order differential
:. y = G-1(x + c)
.
d" y ( dy d"- y
equation dx" = f x,y, dx ,..., dx"_ 1
1
J the dependent
,
4 Substitute the initial condition (x, y) = (a, y.) into the
variable (y) always appears in the nu1nerator of any equation obtained in the previous step to evaluate the
derivativesand the independent variable x appears in constant of integration c:
the denon1inator.
:. Ya= G-l(a + c).
Summary 371
5 Substitute the value of the constant into the general 5 If an initial condition y(a) =bis given, solve for the
solution obtained in the previous step to obtain the constant of integration C. This is the particular solution.
particular solution. To avoid 1nissing any possible singular solutions
The solution of the uninhibited growth-decay ,node! when finding the general solution of a differential
dy = ry, y(O) =Yo is Y =Yoe'x. equation of the fonn dy = f(y )g(x ), always
dt dx
Assu1ning r > 0, the differential equation remember to investigate the roots {y• : f (y*) = 0}
dy = - r(y - y, ), y(O) = y 0 is a model of inhibited and/or the slope field.
dt
gro\vth if y 0 < y, and inhibited decay if y0 > y,. The Modelling with first-order differential equations
rate of growth (or decay) in the dependent variable A dependent variable y(t) is said to have an exponential
is inhibited as the dependent variable approaches growth rate if its relative gro\vth rate .!_ dy = k > 0 and
its equilibriun1 value y,. The solution curve of an y dt
inhibited growth (or decay) proble1n is an exponential rate of decay if its relative gro\vth rate
y(t) =Y, + (yo -y) e-''.
The solution of the quadratic gro\vth rate model .!.. dy = - k < 0 for son1e positive constant k.
y dt
dy =(1 -y)(1+ y),y(O)=y0 is For a system y = y0 e'', r > 0 experiencing exponential
dx
gro\vth, the doubling-time CD is the tiine it takes the
l - ( 1 - Yo )e -2x systen1 to double in size. The formula for the doubling-
1 + Yo .
time . T = -11og, 2 = --'--=,~-'-'--~
1s (t2 - t , ) I
og, 2
y=
1+(l - yo)e-2x r I
og,
(y(ty(t2)
1) )
1 + Yo
y Doubling time T
Solving differential equations of the form ------------
Syo 'y =Yoe"
dy = f(x)g(y) using separation of variables I
dx 4J'o -------
To solve the first-order differential equation 2J'o
Yo
dy = J(y )g(x) by the n1ethod of separation of t
T 2T 3T
dx
variables: 1
For a system y= y0e·' , r > 0 experiencing exponential
1 Solve { y•: J(y*) = O} for any steady state decay, the half-life t1., is the tiine it takes the value
(or equilibriun1) solutions y = y• of y to halve. The fonnula for the half-life is:
2 Separate the dependent and independent variables 1 Ct2 - t,)
1 dy t1. = - log, 2 = ( ) log, 2.
onto either side of the equality J(y) dx = g(x) , r log y (t,)
e y(t2)
3 Integrate both sides of the equality \Vith respect to
the independent variable: First-order decay reactions
In a sin1ple first-order decay reaction, the rate of
• For the integral involving y tern1s, apply the
. I 1 dy I
change of variable J(y) dx dx = f (y) dy
1 decrease - d[ A] in the concentration of a reactant
dt
A, varies directly with the concentration [A] of that
• Add the constant of integration C to the side reactant.
with the independent variable. This is the general
That is, the concentration [A] of the reactant A is
solution.
4 Whenever possible, represent the dependent variable n1odelled by the differential equation d[ A] = - r [ A],
dt
as an explicit function of the independent variable.
where the relative decay rate r is usually called the
However, you ,nay need to be satisfied with an
reaction rate.
equation that detern1ines the dependent variable as
an in1plicit function of the independent variable.

Newton's law of cooling Distance is ho\v far an object has travelled in total. It is a
Ne\vton's law of cooling states that the tin1e rate of scalar quantity, so has n1agnitude only.
decrease in the ten1perature T of an object varies directly Velocity is the rate at which the displacen1ent of an object
\vith the difference between the object's te1nperature chai1ges \vith respect to tin1e. It is a vector quantity, so
and the ainbient temperature (the temperature of the needs 'to be described by both n1agnitude and direction'.
surrounding n1ediu1n 7;,).
Speed is the n1agnitude of the object's velocity. It is a
dT scalar quantity, so has n1agnitude only.
Therefore: - = - r(T - T0 ), r > 0, T(O) = T0.
dt
If T0 > T0 , the body's initial te1nperature is higher than Problems involving forces
the ten1perature of its surroundings, so the body is The resultant or net force, f, is the vector sum of all the
cooling. The model predicts that the body \vill cool forces acting on an object.
quickly at first, reducing the excess of its te1nperature 6 , fi, & ,.. . act on a particle, then
If forces
to that of the surrounding environment. This cooling f=6 + f2 + fJ+ .. .
reduces the excess te1nperature of the body, thus Newton's First Law of Motion states that an object
continually slo\ving its rate of cooling. at rest stays at rest and an object in n1otion stays in
However, if T 0 < T0 , then the body's initial temperature motion with the same velocity unless acted upon by an
is lower than the ten1perature of its surroundings, unbalai1ced force.
so the body is wanning. Again, this change in
Projectile motion
temperature reduces the temperature difference \Vith
Projectile ,notion is an exainple of two-diinensional
the surrounding 1nediu1n, thus slowing the rate of
motion in the vertical plane under gravity. The effect of
\Varm1ng.
air resistance is ignored. It is a vector combination of
Models of modified growth and decay horizontal constai1t n1otion \vith vertical ,notion under
gravity.
The differential equation dt = ry( 1 - ~ ), y(O) = Yo The assu1nptions made in this model are:
where r > 0 is called a logistic equation. This n1odels • the projectile is a point
population gro\vth in an environment \vith a finite • the force due to air resistance is negligible
carrying-capacity C > 0.
)' • the only force acting on the projectile is the constant
Yo force due to gravity, asstuning that the projectile is
Case II: y0 > C n1oving close to the Earth's surface
C --------------- · • the acceleration due to gravity is taken to be a
constant, g = 9.8 ms• 2, unless given other\vise.
In this vector approach you \viii use ~(t) = axi + arz as
0
I
the acceleration vector, ~(t) = vxi +vrl as the velocity
Modelling the time dependence of a vector and r(t) = xf + yj as the position vector. Since
conserved substance
-
the only acceleration is due to gravity the acceleration
If a substance m is conserved, (that is, it is neither vector becomes ~(t) = - g j as there is no horizontal
created, nor destroyed by chemical reaction), then the acceleration. -
rate of change of m within a confined region (called For a given speed of projection, l~(O)I, the equation
a control volun1e) is equal to the difference bet\veen 2
the rate at which it flo\vs into the region (Ri0 ) , and the lv(O)l sin2a
R= - defines the range as a function of
d;;: at which it flows out of the region (R0 u1). That is, g
-dt = Rin - Ro11t"
the angle of projection, a. This function has its greatest
value when sin 2a = 1 or a= 45°.
Thus, the greatest range of the particle occurs
13 MOTION, FORCES AND 2
PROJECTILES when a= 45° and is given by Rmax = l~(O)l

g
Displacement is the change in position of an object
relative to its starting point. It is a vector quantity, so
needs to be described by both magnitude and direction.
Summary 373
14 THE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION in n trials and p is the (constant) probability of success,
then:
Bernoulli trials
E(X) = np = µ = mean
Bernoulli trials refer to situations where there are
exactly hvo possible outco1nes. This 1neans there are Var(X) = np(l - p)
only hvo possible outco1nes: success and failure. The cr(X) = ✓np( l - p)
trials are independent, the outco1ne of one trial has
no influence over the outcon1e of the next trial. The Normal approximation for the sample
nun1ber of trials is fixed. proportion
If XI> X 2 , X3, ... , X,, are independent identically
For a Bernoulli random variable X:
distributed random variables, each \Vith
E(X) =p n1ean µ and variance a 2, tllen as n ➔ oo,
Var(X) =p(l - p) D = X1 + X2 + X3 + .. . + X,, ~ N( nµ,na 2 ).
Binomial distribution The central limit th eoren1 is often expressed in another
X ~ B( n, p) indicates a random variable, X, which has way. Instead of dealing witll the sum of the samples,
a binomial distribution with n identical trials and a you can instead deal \Vith tlle(me:~ o)f tile sa1nples, X.
probability of success of p.
In this case, you have X ~N µ,-;; .
n and p are called the parameters of tile distribution.
X ~ B( n, p) is read: ' X is distributed as a binomial , X
The sa1nple proportion p = - is not tile population
variable \Vith parameters n and p'. n
proportion; rather it is the best estin1ate of the
Just because an experi1nent has only two possible
population proportion from a single sainple. This leads
outcomes does not n1ean it is automatically binomial. If
to the san1ple proportion sometin1es being referred to
you were drawing the cards above without replacement,
as the point estimate.
then X would not be a bino1nial variable because tile
probability of success, p, would change \Vith each draw. The CLT and proportions
The CLT applies equally to tile proportion of a specific
Binomial theorem
rando1n variable in a sainpling distribution, such as the
P(X = x) = (:) px( l - p)"-x nu1nber of threes obtained in san1ples of size of 50, as it
does to the san1pling distribution of n1eans.
Recalling that the probability of failure is so1netimes
written as q, where p + q = l , this can also be written as: Sampling distribution for sample proportions
The standard deviation of a bino1nial distribution
,
can
P(X = x) = (:) pxqn-x be estiinated from the sainple proportion p of one
sample, ratller than n1any. This cannot be done easily
Note: P(X >a)= l - P(X < a). for other distributions.
This can be a useful result in n1any situations. The distribution of j, for tile sa1nple proportions is
For graphs of the bino1nial distribution,
where X ~ B(n, p): defined as P~ N p, p(l- p) ,
n
If p < 0.5 tile graph is ske\ved to the right or positively
skewed. where the expected value E ( P) = pand the standard
If p =0.5 tile graph is syn1n1etric about the 1nean.
If p > 0.5 tile graph is ske\ved to the left or negatively deviation SD = p(i-p) = S (')
1- ' - - --'--P .
skewed. n
The follo\ving two conditions must be n1et for the CLT
,
As n increases, tile graph clusters more tightly about tile np >5
mode but retains the same shape as oilier distributions to apply: ( ,)
n l -p> 5
with the same value of p.
You \vould also need to approxi1nate the population
Mean and variance of the binomial distribution proportion p witll the san1ple proportion p.
When dealing with a binon1ial distribution, if Xis tile
randon1 variable representing the nu1nber of successes

Mathematics Extension 1 Course Outcomes
Objective
Students:
• develop efficient strategies to solve problems using patter n recognition, generalisation, proof and modelling
techniques
Year 11 Mathematics Extension I outcomes Year 12 Mathematics Extension I outcomes

A student: A student:
MEIi - I MEI2- 1
uses algebraic and graphical concepts in the modelling applies techniques involving proof or calculus to model
and solving of problems involving functions and their and solve problems
inverses
Objective
Students:
• develop the ability to use concepts and skills and apply complex techniques to the solution of problems and modelling
in the areas of trigonometry, functions, calculus, proof, vectors and statistical analysis
Year 11 Mathematics Extension I outcomes Year 12 Mathematics Extension I outcomes

MEII- 2 MEI2- 2
manipulates algebraic expressions and graphical functions applies concepts and techniques involving vectors and
to solve problems projectiles to solve problems
MAII- 3 MEI2- 3
applies concepts and techniques of inverse trigonometric applies advanced concepts and techniques in simplifying
functions and simplifying expressions involving expressions involving compound angles and solving
compound angles in the solution of problems trigonometric equations
MAII - 4 MEI 2- 4
applies understanding of the concept of a derivative uses calculus in the solution of applied problems,
in the solution of problems, including rates of change, including differential equations and volumes of solids of
exponential growth and decay and related rates of change revolution
MEII- 5 MEI 2- 5
uses concepts of permutations and combinations to solve applies appropriate statistical processes to present, analyse
problems involving counting or ordering and interpret data
Mathematics Extension 1 Course Outcomes 375

Mathematics Extension 1 Course Outcomes
Objective
Students:
• use technology effectively and apply critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use
Year 11 Mathematics Extension 1 outcomes Year 12 Mathematics Extension 1 outcomes

MEl l - 6 ME12- 6
uses appropriate technology to investigate, organise and chooses and uses appropriate technology to solve
interpret infor mation to solve problems in a range of problems in a range of contexts
contexts
Objective
Students:
• develop the ability to interpret, justify and communicate mathematics in a variety of forms
Year 11 Mathematics Extension 1 outcomes Year 12 Mathematics Extension 1 outcomes

MEl l - 7 ME12- 7
communicates making comprehensive use of evaluates and justifies conclusions, communicating a
mathematical language, notation, diagrams and graphs position clearly in appropriate mathematical forms
Mathematics Extension 1 Stage 6 Syllabus 2017 extracts © NSW Education Standards Author ity
for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South \.Yales, 2017, reproduced by permission.

ANSWERS
9 (a) y
CHAPTER 1
EXERCISE 1.1 r=lx-51
1 OSxS I 2 - 3SxSS 3 all real x
4 - 2SxS 3 5 x< - 3, I <x< 2 6 x::;-f,x~4
7 xSI 8 x< - l, 2<x<5 9 0SxS2
X
10 x =O 11 0<x<3 -1 0 5
EXERCISE 1.2
1 (a ) Student D
(b) Student A multiplied by 2(x - I), which could be positive or (b)
2 y=2x - 4
negative; B multiplied by (x - I) , but did not note x >' I; C
took reciprocals, but can't be sure that both sides are positive.
y =6
2 x< - l,x> 3
3 x< - 3,x>-f 4 xS - 3,x>-½ X
-1 0 5
5 x<l,x>3 6 ¾<x< :~ 7 l <x<3
8 x<-4, - 3<x<3,x>4 9 x< - 1, 0<x 'f (C) X < _ l. ,, X
'
> !l (d) - I SxSS
11 (a) j(x) = ,x , f(-x) = -: =-f(x)
X -4 (-x) -4
EXERCISE 1.4
(b) y (c) x< - 2,-1 <x<2,x>4 1 (a) y (b) y
4
2 I
,, -- - - '2
I
'
'
0 ,2
I
'
7
X
-4 -2 0
-2
2 X
- 2• _, 0
''
_, I ,•2
X
,,
I
-4
' --2
EXERCISE 1.3
(c) )'
- ---
1 x<-.!.,x> .!. 3
2 (a) ' ' (b) X > ¼ , '2 '
''
, I
1 \
' '
- 2' 0 I 2 3 ,,4 X
' ' -2 ,,
y= l +x ,
-' 3' -- -
2 C
3 (a) y (b) y
3 (a) )' y= 2x (b) x>f 3 4
2
2
, -, 1
I 2
0 2 X - 6 - 5 - - J ..-'2 0 X
-2 - 2 _, 0 1 2 X
-3
4 x< - 1,x> I y y
(c) (d)
5 (a) y (b) x<O,x> I + ✓2 3
y=2 - x
2 1 2
y=x y=x - 2 4
I
0 X
2 0 3 X
-2 - I 0 1 2 X
(e) y ,, (f) '

y I
I
4I '' 4
6 x> - 1 7 - 2SxSO
I
, '
'' ,,
'2
I
' ,,'2
, ' ' II
- 3 ,• 2 0 2 3 X -4 -2 0 X
Answers Chapter 1 377

4 (a) )' (b) y (g) )' (h) )'
3
2
2
,, ' 2
1 1 'I
,
, '
1
''
-2 - 1 0 l 2 X -10 l 2 X -4 -2 10 X
-'-1.l./ -1
2
-2
y y , ,
(c) (d) , (i) )' 0) )'
4
, , '' 3
,, 3 2
,, 'I
'
'
2
, ,1 ,
, ,,
'
2 1
,' 2 I ; '1 I 1
, I '
-2 0 l 2 X
- 10 l 2 3 0
,,
X -1
I
,t 2 0 2' X 7 (a) correct (b) incorrect (c) incorrect (d) correct

I
(e) y (f) ' , )'

2 ' 4
CHAPTER REVIEW 1
'' 1 C
1 '2'
2 (a) - l <x<l (b) - 6Sx< - 3, x>O (c) x>O,x ;ol
''
X ' (d) x< - 1,0Sx<l (e) x< - 2, - 1 Sx<3, x~6 (f) O<x2 (h) - 1 - ✓2 SxS - 1+ ✓ 2,x = I
3 y 4
-2
3
2
1
(g) ' )' , (h) )'
4' ,
,
' ; --- -,--- 1 1 2 X
2 ' ,
' ' ' ,, -2 0 2 X
1 , - 1
-2 5 y 6 (6, 8) satisfies both equations:

0 2 4 X
y
(i) )' 0) y
1 1
2
0 1 X
- 10 1 X 4
-1
l 2 X 0 1 X
5 A 7 )' 8 y
6 (a) (b) )' 2 ,, .. i - , 4
4
3
, '
o
'I
1 ,
2 ' ' ' ,,
-10 X
1 1 2
-1 ' -2 0 l 2 X
-2 0 l 2 X
- 2 - 10 l 2 X
(c) Y (d) )' -4

8 1.------ 4
2 CHAPTER2
0 6 X EXERCISE 2.1
1 C
(e) Y (f) 2 - x3+cl +6x
(a) 3 (b) O (c) I (d) - x' (e) 3 (f) x = - 2, 0, 3
3
3 (a) s.l + cl - 6x + 7 (i) 3 (iO7 (iiQ I (iv) not monic (v) 3
1 (b) -.I+ 27 (i) 3 (ii) 27 (iii) 0 (iv) not monic (v) 3
-6 -3 0 3 X (c) ax'+ ex'+ bx - d (i) 3 (ii) -d (iiQ c (iv) not monic (v) 3
-3 (d) Sx4 - 3.1 + 2x (i) 4 (ii) 0 (iiQO (iv) not monic (v) 4
-1 0 1 2 X
(e) 6x'1 + 2x" - 15x- 5 ©4 (iQ- 5 (iiQ O (rv) notmonic (v) 4
(f) 9x' - IZK + 4 (i) 4 (ii) 4 (iii) - 12 (iv) not monic (v) 4

4 (a ) polynomial (b) polynomial (c) polynomial x• + Sx' - x - 5 ,
-~ - - - = x + 4x - 5
(d) polynomial (e) not polynomial, x-• term (f) polynomial 2
x + x+I
(g) not polynomial, fractional and negative powers of x 2 - 1, - 97, 2a3 - 4a2 + 1a - I, - 37 3 0, 0, a4 - 2a3 + a' - 4
(h) not polyn omial, rational function
4 A 5 p = 1, q = 3 6 a = 3, b = 4, c = 12
(Q not polyn omial, x in exponent
5 D 7 (a) - 7 (b) 74 (c) 4 (d) 142 (e ) - 30 :: (f) 1 .~
6 (a ) 2x4 - 2x2 +x+ 5 (b) !Ox6 -4x'- 2ox'+ 8x2 - 15x + 6 8 14 9 a = 3, b = 8 10 m = 2, n = I 11 11
2 3 2
(c) 2x' - 2/ + x - 3x -7 (d) 15x - J6x + 9x - 2 12 a =6, b= - 1 13 a =4,b =- 9 14 a = 3, remainder = - 5
(e ) - 6x• + J8x2 - x - 15
3 2 3 2
7 (a) 3x + 2x - 9x - 6 (b) 3x + 8x + 7x + 2 (c) - x' + 18x - 5 EXERCISE 2.3
(d) x' - x' - 5x - 3 (e) 9x2 + 12x+4 (f) x' + Sx3 - 9x2 - 6x+ I 1 (a) correct (b) incorrect (c) correct (d) incorrect
2 (a) (x + l )(x- 2)(x + 5) (b) (x + l )(x + 7)(x - 6)
EXERCISE 2.2 (c) (x- 2)(x + 4)(2x - 3) (d) (x - 2)(3x + 2) (2x + I)
1 (a ) 3x + 4, remainder 13 (b) x' +I, reminder 0 (e) (x + 1)(3x + J)(x + 2) (f) (x + 4)(2x + 3)(x - 2)
(c) 2.x' - Sx + 6.5, remainder - 7.5 3 (a) (x- 5)(2x + 1)(3x - I) (b) (x + 3)(2x + 1)(2x - I)
(d) x' + 3x + 2, re mainder 2 (e) x' + 3x + 9, remainder 0 (c) (x + 4)(3x - 2)(2x + 5) (d) (2x + 1)(3x + 2)(x - 6)
(f) x' + x' + 3x - I 2, remainder I 6 (g) - x' + 5x - 11, remainder 34 (e) x(x- 2) (x - 3) (f) (x + 2)(x - 2)(x + 2)
(h) x' + x' - 2x - 2, remainder 0 4 (a) (x - I )(3x - I)(2x + I) (b) x(3 - 2x)(3x + I)
x+3 (c) (x- 1)(2x - J)(x - 2) (d) x(2x - 3)(x + 3)
(Q x I )x' + 3x
2
-
2
- 2x + I (e) ( I +x)(2 - x)(3 + x) (f) (x + l)(x+ 2)(x- 4)
x3 - x 5 D 6 a = 7,b = 12 7 p = - l,q = 30
8 a = 8, b = -4, ora = - •~, b = 2.8
3x 2 - x 9 a = - l , b = i 6,(2x - 1)(3x - 2) 10 a = - 1, b =-6
3x 2 - 3 11 (x+2)(x-½- f )(x - ½+ f )
- x +4 12 (a) a = 2,b = 6 (b) 2x + 6 13 a = 2, c = - 2;/3 = - 5 14 2
x' + 3x2 - 2x + I _ x- 4
------ - x + 3 - ~- EXERCISE 2.4
x2 - I x' - I
1 sx' + 74x+5 = 0
x' +2x - 4 2 (a) -4 (b) 1 (c) 14 (d) - 52
3 2
(J) x' + 1) x'' + 2x - 3x + x
3 a /3 4 (a) - q (b) q' - 2 pr 5 C
x'1 + xi f3 • a r r'
6 x = - 2, 2, 3 7 x = 0.5, 2, 8 8 x = - 1.5, - 2.5,-4
2x 3 - 4x 2 + x
_ , s(2+ ✓ 3)
2x3 + 2x 9 x =6,-¾,-I 10 X - 2 ,
2
2
- 4X - X 11 m = - 12,-20; 1± ./s, -3 ± ✓ 5 12 ½,1
13 Let the roots be a, a, {3.
-4x 2 - 4
1a+ /3= o so /3= - 2a
- x +4 a' +1af3 = q sod - 4« = q, - 3d = q, a' = -1
x -
-
4
+ 2x 3
- --3x-+-
2
x = x2 + x - - x - 4
2 4 a'/3 = - r so - 2a' = - r, a' = t
x' + I x' + I
Hence (d)' = -f, sod= -f,
x' +x + 5
(k) x' - x+ i )x• + 5x2 +x + I
•
and (a')' = 2. so d = 2-
,,
x4 - xJ + xi so -f,
= •: or4q + 27r2 = 0
3
14 (a) 9 (b) - 2
x' +4x 2 + x 15 x = 0.5,0.5, 2 16 f,-f, 1 ± ✓3
x3 - x2 +x 17 1,-f, 1 + ✓2 18 l
4, 2, 4
l 3
Sx 2 +I 19 +✓3 , ¾ ,-½ 20 1.
3
sx' - sx + s 21 ..fi_, - ..fi_, I + ..fi_, I - ..fi_ 22 I + ..fi_, I - ..fi_

Sx - 4
4
x +5x'+x+ I , Sx - 4 EXERCISE 2.5
2
= x + x+ 5 + 2
x - X +I X - X +I
1 B P'(x) = 3x' - 2x = (3x - S)(x + l). P(- l ) = OorP(x) ismonic,
x 2 +4x - 5 SOX ;t ½·
(Q x' + x + I )x'' + sx' - x - 5
2 (a) P(x) =x• - 4x' + 6.x' - 4x + I
x '1+x3+ x 2 P'(x) = 4K - 12.x' + 12x - 4. P'( l) = 4 - 12 + 12 - 4 = 0
P"(x) = 12x' - 24x+ 12. P''( l ) = 12 - 24 + 12 = 0
4x' - x' - x
P"'(x) = 24x - 24 = 24(x- I). P'"( l) = 0
4x 3 +4x2 +4x x = I is a zero o f multiplicity 4.
- sx' - Sx - 5 (b) P(x) =(x - 1)4
,
- sx- - Sx - 5
0
An swers Chapter 2 379

3 (a) P(x) = x'' + x' - 3x' - 5x - 2 P(- 1) = -a - b+c = O
P'(x) = 4x' + 3x' - 6x - 5 - a - b + c = 0 Qi)
P" (x) = 12x'+ 6x - 6 = 6(2x' +x - I) = 6(2x - I) (x + I) (i) + Qi): 2c= 8
P"(x) = 0 when x =½ or x =- 1. c=4
Since P(x) is monic the only p ossibility is x = - 1. a+ b = 4 QiQ
P(- 1) = 1 - 1 - 3 + 5 - 2 = 0 P'(x) = 3ax' + b
P'(- 1) = - 4 + 3 + 6 - 5 = 0 P'(- 1) = 3a+b = O
x = - I is a zero of multiplicity 3. 3a + b = 0 (iv)
(b) P(x) = (x+ J)'(x - a) (c) x = - 1,2 (iv) - (iii): 2a = -4
1
But - 2 = 1 X(- a)soa = 2. a =- 2
P(x) = (x+ 1)' (x - 2) b =6
l
4 (a) P(x) = x' - x' - 8x + 12 P(x) = - 2x +6x+4
P'(x) = 3x' - 2x - 8 = (3x+4) (x - 2) 9 (a) P(x) = 4x' - Bx' + 5x - I, is the root of multiplicity 2.
P'(x) = 0 when x = -1 or x = 2 P '(x) = 12x' - 16x + 5
Since P(x) is monic the only possibility is x = 2. (6x - 5) (2x - I) = 0
P(2) = 8 - 4 - 16 + 12 = 0
x = 2 is a zero of multiplicity 2.
P(
..½) '
x = .i l
= 4 X ½- 8 X ¼+ ½- I = ½- 2 + ½- I = 0
(b) P(x) = (x - 2) 2 (x - a) (c) x = 2, - 3
2
But 12 = (- 2) x (- a) x= ½is the root of multiplicity 2.
a =- 3 P(x) = (2x - 1) 2 (x - a)
P(x) = (x - 2) 2 (x + 3) - 1 = (- l)'xa
5 (a) P(x) = 3x4 - sx' + 6x' - 24x + 40 a =- 1
P'(x) = 12x' - 24x' + 12x - 24 = 12(x' - 2x' + x - 2) P(x) = (2x - 1)2 (x + I)
= 12[x'(x - 2) + l(x - 2)) = 12(x - 2)(x' + I) Roots are x = ½ , ½, - 1
The only possibility is x = 2
(b) P(x) = x' + 4x' - 16x - 16, is the root of multiplicity 3.
P(2) = 48 - 64 + 24 - 48 + 40 = 0
P '(x) = 4x1 + 12x' - 16
x = 2 is a zero of multiplicity 2.
P"(x) = 12x' +24x = 12x(x+ 2)
(b) P(x) = (x - 2) 2 (ax' + bx+ c)
P"(x) = 0, x = 0, - 2. x = 0 is not possible because P(x) has a
Coefficient of x4 is 3, so a = 3
constant term.
Constant term is 40, so (- 2)2 x c = 40, soc = JO
P '(- 2) = - 32+48 - 16 = 0
Hence P(x) = (x - 2) 2 (3x' +bx + JO)
P(- 2) = 16 - 32 + 32 - 16 = 0
P(x) = (x' - 4x + 4) (3x' + bx+ JO)
P(x) = (x + 2)'(x - a)
Write an expression for the term in r. 4bx - 40x = - 24x - 16 = 21 X (- a)
4b =16, sob = 4
a =2
Hence P(x) = (x - 2) 2 (3x' + 4x + JO)
P(x) = (x + 2)'(x - 2)
(c) x = 2 as 3x' + 4x + JO= 0 has no real roots Roots are x = - 2, - 2, - 2, 2
(t. = 16 - 4 X 3 X JO= - 104 < 0)
1 O (a) P(x) = 9x' + 12x' - I Ix+ 2, is the root o f multiplicity 2.
6 (a) P(x) = ax4 + bx' + ex' +e, P(- 1) = -4, P( l) = P'(l ) = 0
P '(x) = 27x' + 24x - 11
a - b + c+e = - 4 (i) (3x - 1)(9x+ 11) = 0
a+b + c+e = O (iQ
x = ½, - •; .The most likely answer is x = ½ because (3x - I )2
Qi) - (Q: 2b = 4, so b = 2
generates 9x' in its expansion.
P'(x) =4ax' + 3bx' + 2cx
P'( l ) = 0: 4a + 3b + 2c = O P(½) =9x ;1 +12x¼ - +2 =½+½ - ½=0
1
;
b = 2:4a + 6+2c = O x = ½is a root of multiplicity 2.

2a+c = - 3 P(x) = (3x - 1)2(x - a)
(b) P'(- 1) = - 4a + 3b - 2c 2 = (- 1) 2 X (- a)
= - 2 (2a + c) +6 a =- 2
= - 2x(- 3) + 6 P(x) = (3x - 1)2(x+ 2)
=12 Roots are x = ½, ½, - 2
7 P(x) = x' +ax' + bx - 4, (x - 2) 2 is a factor.
P(2) = 8 + 4a + 2b - 4 = 0 (b) P(x) = 2x• + 5x' + 3x' - x - I, is the root of multiplicity 3.
4a+2b =-4 P '(x) = Bx'+ 15x' + 6x - I
2a+b = - 2 (Q P"(x) = 24x' + 30x + 6
P'(x) = 3x' + 2ax + b 6(4x'+sx + l ) = O
P'(2) = 12 + 4a + b = 0 (4x+ l )(x+ 1) = 0
4a+b = - 12 (iQ x = -¼, - 1. x = - I is th e most likely answer.
0) - (iQ: - 2a = JO P'(- 1) = - 8+ 15 - 6 - 1 = 0
a =- 5 P(- 1) = 2 - 5+3 + 1 - 1 = 0
Substitute in (i): - JO+ b = - 2 P(x) = (x + 1)'(2x - a), because the coefficient of x• is 2.
b=8 - l = l'x(- a)
P(x) = x' - 5x' + Bx - 4
a= I
8 P(x) = ax'+ bx+ c, P( I) = 8, multiple zero at - 1 P(x) = (x + 1)'(2x - I)
P( l ) = a+b + c = 8
Roots are x = - 1, - 1, - 1, ½
sa+b + c = 8 (i)

EXERC ISE 2.6 4 (a) (x - l )(x - 2)(x - 2) (c) y
1 (a) (i) o, 2, - 3 (b) (0 - 1.5, - 1, 0. 5 (b) (0 1, 2 I
(ii) - 3 <x<0, x>2 (i0 - l. 5<x< - l ,x> 0.5 (iO 1 <x<2,x>2
y y 0 2 3 X
I -I
-2
4 - 1 0 I
2 -I -3
0 X -4
- 4 - ~2
-4
5 (a) ( l - x)(x + l)(x - 2) (c) y
(b) x< - 1, 1 <x<2 I
(c) y (i) 0, 2
I (ii) 0 < X < 2, X > 2 X
2
0 I 2 3 X
2 (a) - 2 S XS 0, X ~ 2 (b) x~O, x = - 2 6 D

y 7 (a) Sh ift the graph horizontally to the left 3 units (parallel to the
)'
3 x-axis) so that it cuts the x-axis at x = - 3.
2
(b) Shift the graph horizontally to the left 3 units (parallel to the
I x-axis), then move it down 2 units (parallel to the y -axis).
The graph now cuts th e y-axis at y = 25.
8 x' - 8 = (x - 2)(x2 + 2x + 4) = 0 gives x = 2.
- 1_ 0
1 I 3 X
-3 -2 -1 O I
X
For x'+ 2x + 4 = 0, .1.= 4 - 16 <0, no real roots.
-2 Hence graph of/ o nly cuts x-axis at x = 2.
9 f(x) = (x + 3){x - 2) 2
-3 -2 Cuts x-axis at x = - 3, touches at x = 2.
10 f (x) = (x - 2) (x' - 2x + 4) . .1. = - 12.
O nly zero is x = 2. Cuts o nly at x = 2.
:d - 1 0 I 2
I •
3
• I
-2 - I O I 2
I •
3
11 (a) Y
4
(b) Y
2
(C) XS 2 (d) - 2 S x S - l, x ~ 4 2
y y I
2 IO I 2 3 X
0 3 4 X
0 X -I
-2 - I I 2 3
- IO
-I 0 I 3
X
(c) Y (d) y
-I - 20 I I
-2
0 X 0 I 2 X
I 2
• I
-2 -I 0 I 2
I •
3
·Sl
-4 - 2 0 2 4
I •
6
-1
3 (a) (x + l )(x + 3)(2 - x) (c) y

(e) )' (f) )'
(b) (i) - 1, - 3, 2 100 - ...
(iOx< - 3, - 1 <x<2 IO
80 ...
60 ...
X 0 X
-2 2 -4 2 4 40 -
-5 I 20 -
•
-4
·o
-2 4
X

(g) y CHAPTER REVIEW 2 CHAPTER3
0.2 1 (a) x 2 +3x+- 4-
x- 1 EXERCISE 3.1
(b) 4x 3 - 12x 2 + 30x - 80 + 200
x+3 1 B 2 B 3 A
0 0.5 I 1.5
X 2 (a) - 7 (b) - 11 4 ',Y
3 (a) (x - l )(x + 2)(x - 3) 4
'
(h) y (b) (x+ l )(x + 2)(x +4) 3' ''
'
0 X (c) (x - l )(x+ l )(x + 5) 2 ' '
'
I 2 ' '
'
(d) (x - 2)(x + 2)(x + 3)(x - 4) I ' '
'
'
4 (a) a= 2, b = 4 (b) 2x+4 ' .,''
5 a = 2, P(- 3) = - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - !10 1: 3 4 X
6 a = -4,b = - 2; P(3) = 17 -2
'
' '
7 a = 3,c = -6; a = --4 -3 ''
(i) y 8 (a) I (b) 0 '
-4 ''
9 (a) 4 (b) - 12 (c) - 3
0 X
10 (a) - 2 < x < l , x> 3
- 0.1 5 y
y :4
- 0.2 '
l3
'
'
0) y 6 :' , '
,,
'
'
' ,.
0.5
4
2
- 4 - 3 - 2 'l 0
, '' 2~I
1 r-
'
3 4
X
0
0.5 I 1.5 2 , '
:' ',
, :3 ' '
- 0.5 0 2 4 X , ' '
-2
, :4
'
12 B y
-4 6
13 (a) y 4
4 3
2 (b) x> 2
' ,
, ,2 :: ,'
y ''
X '
- 10 ''
-4
I
2 0 X
-4 -3
' - !10 ' ' l 2 3 4 X
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-8 , '
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-2 '
'
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- 10 ,' ''' -3 '
- 12 ,' '' -4
- 14
-6
7 y
(b) y
-8 I
, ' 4
' 3
'' ,,
- 10
'
(c) x< - 2, - 1 <x< O,x> I -4 - I 2 3 4 X
0 X
I 2 y
- 0.5
2 -3
y -4
(c) I
80
8 y
0 X
4,
,,3 '
-1 , 2
''
:,
'
' :'
., I '
' ,.'
(d) all x, x ;t o. 2
-10 I 2
X - 4 - 3 f - !10 I 1 3 4 X
y , -2
- 20 ' :' '
(d) y
2 ,' : - 3 '
'
:'
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X I ' '
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I 2
- 30

9 )' 5 (a) )' 8 (a) )'
4 4 , ''
' ' 4
' 3 3
• 2 ,, ' ' ''' 2
' :' 1
('
-4 -3 -2 -!'f
''
1 3 4
X
1 2 3 4
X
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X
•
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'
'3 • -3 -3
4 -4 -4
10 . )' (b)
4
)' (b) ,, ' )'
,, ' • '• 4
'• 3 ' •3 ''
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1' ' 1
,' • ' ' X
0 X
--4 - 3 - 2 - !1 1 3 4 --4 - 3 - -!1 1 2 3 4 -4 - 1 2 3 4 X
'
•2 -2 -2
'
'
+3 -3 -3
' -4
,4 -4
11 )' 6 (a) )' 9 (a) )'

4 1 4
'
3 ' ,,
'3 '
'' i,, ' ••
2, ,
' '
' 1
, 1
X
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X
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X
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-2 -2 -2
'
-3 -3
-4 -4
12 )'
2
1 (b) )' (b) )'
4, 4
i '•
-4 -3 -2 - 1 X '
-1 , 3 4 '3 '
, '' ,' '
-2
''
-f '
1
-,4
' - 4 - 3 -, - ! 10 1 3 4 X 2 3 4 X
•
' '• •
EXERC ISE 3.2 ' -3
' '•
1 B
'' •
-4
2 C
3 D 7 (a) )'
)' 10 (a)
4 (a) )'
,, '
6 4
,, ' •
4 ,, ' '• 5 3
3 , ••4 •
,,
' •3
'
,, i X
1 - 4 - 3 - 2 - !P 1 2 3 4
- 4 -, J '- 2 - ! f 1 2 3 4 X •
, -2
, , -2 - 4 - 3 - 2 - !10 , ' l 2 3 4
X
-3
-3 ' -2 -4
--4
(b) )' (b) )'

(b) )'
,, 6 4
4
, , , '' ' 5 "
' •
' '••4
3 , 3
' • 2 '•
' il
'
2 3 4 X 1 3 4 X
, •
, ,
,, X
•
, --4 - 2 3 4
-3
-4 2

11 (a) y (b) 'I )' (b)
5
I 4 I
I
I
3 ' 5
\
'
' 4
3 '2
2' '1
I
- 4 - 3 - 2 - ! 10 1 2 3 4 '0
, ,J'
X
-2
'' -4 - 2 - }1 1 2 4 X
-3 - 4 - 3 - 2 - !10 1 2 3 4 X
I
~2
-2 '- 3
'
(b) )'
y
5 6 (a) y 9 (a)
4
4
' \ ' 3 3
3
' ' 2
\
2 '
' 1
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 10 ' 1 2'\ 3 4 X ' 0

- 4 - 3 - 2 .-!1 1 2 3 4 X
1 2 3 4 X -1
\ ' -2
-2 ' -3
-3 -3 I
'
- 4' ' '
'
-4
'
12 (a) There is no graph as the original
(b) )' (b) )'
function is always negative and 4 4
hence does not have a square root. 3 3
(b) There is no graph as the original 2
function is always negative, so 1
can not be equal to a positive
. y .
quantity ' - 4 - 3 - 2'- l O
' -1
1 2 3 4 X
-2 -2
EXERCISE 3.3 - 3'
' -3
1 B 2 A
y
3 C -?' ' -4
4 (a)
4 y
7 (a) 10 (a) y
4
4
2 3
1
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 10 1/"2 3 4 X 1
-1 ,,
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 10
l ' 'l 2 3 4 X
- ,2, I - - 4 - 3 - 2 - ! 10 1 2 1I 3 4 X
, , •3 ' -2
, , -4 ' -3
-2
I
-3 I
' -4
y
I -4 'I
(b)
4 (b)
3 4
)'
(b) . )'
2 3
',4
1 ,2 'J
' \
h
-4 - 3 -2 0 2 3 4 X
\
1
- 2, - 4 -3 -f - !1 0
-4 - 3 - - !1 1 3 4 X
, , ~'.l -2
-2
, , -4 -3
-4 -3
-4
5 (a) )'
7 8 (a) y
6 11 (a) y
6
5 5
5
4
4
3
3
2
1
-4 - 3 -2 - 1O 1 2' - '.l 4 X - 4 - 3 - 2 - ! 10 1 2 3 4 X
- 4 - 3 - 2 - ! 10 1 2 3 4 X rl
~2 -2
-2
'- 3
'
(b) )' (c) 2 y
' ',,'
' 5
\
y IO
' 'l,, ''
8 9
'
'\
\
2,
'
\•
:\ ; I
...:
.6
..
: 4
' .,
·
: 'i
'1
')•=Jtx)+g(x)
'
\
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8
7
: \ :1 :
' '
\
' -( . '. .( . \
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6 '
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-4 - 3 - 2 - !1
0 I 2 3 4 X -4 - l•-1
'I
.....,-:-12
.,
° !., ,.1 ,}( 4 X
'
5
-2
(
'. ~4 ' '
-6 y=i'+2x\
'
12 (a) )' ' -8 '\
' \
The new curve is a straight line with - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2' ~P0 \ 2 3 4 X

2 equation y =2.
\
-2 \
I , y=l - 2x
(d) ' y -3 ' \
- 4 - 3 - 2 - !10
X ', y =j{x + g(x)
-I 2
' '
'
3 4
3 y
-2 ' ' :'' ' 12
- 3''
\
'
\
•I
'
: '
_q' '
\
.' : ' y=i' - 2x•' IO

' •: '' '
\
' \
\ .:: ' . \
': :'
:,,'
\
'\ 8 I '
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\, .' ' I 6
I
{b) )'
:, :, : ,: X \ I
I
4 ' \ ' \
.. ' :' \4 I
. - ' :'
3 ... \
y=x'+i' - 2x', I
I
2 ' : I
I
I 4 X
-4 - 3 3
-4 - 3 - 2 - I 0
The new curve is a parabola, -4
concave up cutting the y-axis -6
-J y=x' '
at (0, -4). ' -8
'
-'4 (e) )'
'
'
''
16
14 4
EXERCISE 3.4 12 ,'' '
y
IO 12
1 (a)
y=x2 - 3x\
)'=fix)+ g(x) 8
6 '' :' ' IO
14
)'
4 '' :'
\
8
'
12 '' 2 ' :
' 6
'' '
\
IO -i - i-~ j,-f
-4 -3 .., . ":"
- ~- " \
8
-- :,' / -,;;. ' ... .:.
• ,. I '
'
'' -
6 . ,,. - - .., - ,: " :..-8"" .. '
...• .; - ---
:, I ' - IO
.' . 4
' - 12 -4 - - l ' - L20 I '' 4 X
, -:
3
-- - : ~J
-4
.• •.... .
- 4 - ~ -? -lz - 1 2 3 4 x
'
y= .<'+i' - 6x
.. -.:
The new curve is a cubic, cutting the -6
• .. •
.: •
.;.4
x-axis at about (3.5, 0) and the y-axis ' -+-y =x' - 3x
,, -8
at (0, - 8). It has th e same shape as
The new c urve is a parabola, concave y=g(x).
up cutting the x-axis at (- 1, 0) and (f) )'
16
(b)
{O, 0).
)'=fix) + g(x)
14
12
'' 5 B
y ' IO EXERCISE 3.5

': 14 y= fix)+ g(x) 8 ' ' 1 (a)
( ~ ·, y=g(x) j '
)
\
12 :
'
' ...
: ...
, : 4
. - ,.....
... ...
,. :'2 / : ...
... '.
'\
IO '
.. ... \
:•
5
8 :' 4
':
:, .... -4 -I
0
I 2' , 3 4 X
:' ' ' 3 '
6
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-6 ''
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: ,
2
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x)
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-8 '
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-3 -?- I
- 2 3 X
. -..
3 4 X '
'
The new curve is a cubic, cutting
the x-axis at about (- 2.6, 0) and the
y-axis at (0, 5). It has a similar shape
-
y-=/(x)g(x)
The new c urve is a parabola, concave toy = g(x), but flattens out more
up cutting the x-axis at (- 2, 0) and between the turning points.
(1, 0) and the y-axis at (0, - 3).

y y
(b)
'.
6
5
,,
,1,
- 2
'
5 '
6 y =x' - 6x +4,x:2:3
7 2y= 3x +8, 0SxS4
1 4 ... ,, ~ ' y=x2,' l.
:'
': ' \ .. ;;
... ,..'' ''' I I ••
: '' ,
3
.. . ... ''
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' 4
'
' 8 y = l - x', - l SxS l
~
2...
_, _ - ..._...4 - '- ...' ' . 3
' 9 y =x' - 4x +3
' '
'
y=x - 2"~, 10 y =x, - l SxS l
- f -; 3 4 X ' 2 2
11 y =8x,x :2:0
,.:,
'
' I '
' \ ' 1' / I
, : ' ' , 12 3x' + 4_)" = 12, - 2 SxS 2

'
'
' 13 y = ½.J4-x 2 , - 2SxS2
'
14 x' +y' =l ,-l SxSl
' -3 -2 -1 O
'
-7 : y =fix) g(x) -1
-8 15 (a) y = 2x+ l,y= - 2x+5
-9 T'-J -2
- 10 y = x2 - x'-;-+--1 (b) No. Boat A is at (1, 3) when t = 2,
-3 ' Boat B isat (1, 3) when t = 3.
(c) y
' 16 X' - y' = l ,x:2: 1
' 10
,I The graph is a cubic touching the x-axis x' x'
' I at (0, 0) and cutting it at (1, 0). 17 (a) y =z (b) y = -
'\ I
24
5 y '
.,'
\
3
:\
'
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I
,:
•
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,:'
'•
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y=x'•
4 ,' (c) y = (x - 2)
2
(d) y = - s
x'
• (e) y =x' + l ,x:2: O

-4 -l 2 , 1' 0 ' '2,l
I,, 4 X
18 (a) Y
:,, / .~5...
~
... .,:' \ :, ' ,
: '-', , , , 3
,I
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,, 2
,
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,, 3 X I
I
y =f(x g(x) ',
' X
, -2 , -2 -1 O 2 3 4 5
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' ,3
-1
(d) y =fix)g(x)
,,J' - 4 -2
\
I ' ,I I
' ,
' '''
I
I
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' ~ I The graph is a quartic with a horizontal
' ' :' ' /: /
point of inflection at (O, O) and cutting
,: ~
I I
.
.,' ' ' '_, - ( I
the x-axis at (2, 0). It has a least value of
~
, '
' - ,I
-4 - 3 -
-
-
© - -.-...
-- -
- 1
_. , ', . 5 X
4
about - 1.7.
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1'
. (b) )'
- 10 ' t4 y=x-2 - , 8
' '
- 20
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2 6
(e) ' '
, ' ', '
5
y=x2 - 3x' '
'
':
~
X
4
,: -3 -2 2 I 4 3
,: I
I
': -2 ' ,
2
I
' : '
' I
' -3
.
-4 - 3 ,-' - i- -4
-- , r ... ... --·-

:-4
'
:-
-5
0
- 3 - 2 - l.. 1 1 2 3
X
~I -6
~ 2
' • 4
-7 (c) y
' 16 y =Jlx) g(x) y = (x2 - 3x)(x2 - 1) 8
- 18 -8
7
(f) y 6
8 The graph is a quartic, cutting the x-axis
5
7 y =Jlx) g(x) at (- 1, 0), (O, 0), (1, 0) and (3, 0). It has
6 a least value of - 7. 4
5
--- 4 5 C 3
--- '
:'
'
' 2
- -' -
I
- EXERCISE 3.6
,I
'
1
1 2y= x +4
-2 - ~o 5 X
2 y =x' 0 2 X
I 3
:2
' \
'
'
'
'' ' --- 3 y =l.
x • x ;tO
-2 -1
-1
1
,~ 4 '
\ '' ,' 2
:,,
,: 5 ' 4 x' +y =4,-2 SxS2
,' 6 '
'
• -7
' -8
'' -9
' -- ' 5 y =.J4-x 2 , - 2SxS2

(d) y (c) 2 (a) y
y
5
10
'
I
6 ,'
4 ,
3 8
,'
2
6 2
,
I ',
4
- 5- - 3 - 2 - 10 1 2 3 5 X -6 -4 4 6x
2
-2 •I 2 ,, '
-3 I
,
,
, 4 - 4'
- 10 - 8 - 6, , _4 - 2 0 2 X
, -2
-s , -6
,, -4
,,
(e) y ,, -6 (b) y
6
-8
'
I
4
0.25 I
(d) r' y 2
10
0 .5 , ,
-0 - 0.25 0.25 X 8
,
, -6 -4 - 2, 0 ,2 4 6x
- 0.25 6 , , •2 ,
, , '' , ,
4, - 4'
,
, ,2
-6
19 (a) y = x - 1,x + y = 3 , 0 4
- 10 - 8 -6,
, - 4 - 2- 2 2 X
(c) y
(b) 2x + y+ 24 = O, x - 2y + 72 = 0 , , '' 6
(C) )' = 2x - 5, X + 2y - 5 = 0 , ,
-4
(d) y = x + 2,x + y+ 6 = 0 ,, 4
, -6
,
CHAPTER REVIEW 3 -8
1 (a) y 0
10 -6 -4 -i, ,'2 4 6x
y
,, ,
(e) ~2
10 I
8
, - 4'
,, 8 ,
6 , , ,,
,, 6 , -6
4 ,,
,, 4, y
,,2 , {d) I
6
,, I
', '
I
4 ,
,
-2 0
I
2
- 10 -8
,, 4 -2
X
- 10 -8
, , 2 4x
2
',
',
, ,, ,, ''
,, -4 ,, -4 '
,, ,, -6 -6 -4 0
:f 4 6x
, ,
, -6 I '- 2 ,, '
-8 '' , ,
-8 -4
(b) y (f) y ' -6

10 10
8 (e) y
, '
I
6
6 ,, '
,, 4
I
4, ,, ,
, ,, 2 2
,,
I
, 0 4
- 10 - 8 ... 6, , - 4 - 2 2 X 0
,, .
-6 -4 4 6x
- 10 - 8
,
-6 , , _4 -2 0 2 X
,
,
-2 '•I 2
, ,
,, -2 , -4 ' ,
,, ,, --4'
,
, -4 ,, -6
, , -6
-8
,, -6
-8

(f) y 5 (a) (i) y
6 (d) y
6
6
4 4
'<t 3
2
'' ' '
2
' I
I
0 ' 'I
-6 -4 - 4 6x
0
- 3 -2 - 1 I 2 3 4 6 7 X
0 -2
-4 2 4 X
-3
-6 -4
3 (a) )' -4 (ii) I = 2 - X, )' = 4 - X

6
(b) (i)
(e) )'
/'
-.i, 8
I
' 6
' ''
' 7
I
6
' 2 ' 'I I';\._
5
' 4
0 3
-4 2 4 X
2
-2 I
0
-4 -~ 2 4 X
- 5 -4 -3 - 2 - 10 1 2 3 4 5 X
-4 -2
II t = -X , y = -I'
C)
(b) )' -4 3 3
6
(c) (i) y
'+ 4 (a) )' =f(x) + g(x) 4

I '
' 3
' 1/ '
', I
I
14 I ' 2
1
12
0 4 ' I
,,
, - -4 - 3 - 2 - 1 1 2 3 4
X
-4 -i 2 X
' '
v' -2
, -,
-2 , - I
I -3
-4
' I
' ,
-4
-
,· >·"4 - 3 - 2 - 1 1 2 3 4 5 X
-4 (ii) x'+ I = 25
(c) )'
6 6 y =x' - 6x + 4
(b) )' y= x) g(x); 7 (a) D (b) A (c) D (d) C
16
' I
8 (a) y = 2x' + Sx + 7
'
''
'\ ', CHAPTER4
2
8
'6
I
v'
I
-,
'<t, , , -, EXERCISE 4.1
, , II
-4 -~ 0 2 4 X
, ,
,T - ', , 1 (a) sin A cos2B + cosAsin2B
-2 ,
,- X
(b) sin2xcosy - cos2xsiny
,-s ~ - -2- 1 1 2 3 4
(c) cos2xcos 3)1 + sin 2xsin 3y
-4
-4 (d) ½cos 20 - f-sin 20
(e) tan0+ tan a (f) tan A+ l
l - tan0tana 1- tan A
2 (a) sin (2A - B) (b) cos2a
(c) sin A (d) 0 (e) tan ( 0 - 20°)
(f) tan 3a (g) sin A (h) cos0
(i) tan 2x
3 D
4 (a) sin 60° = -If (b) tan 135° = - 1
(c) - 1 - ✓3 (d) 2sin xcos40°
2✓2

5 cos(A + B) = cosAcosB - sin A sinB
cos(A - B) = cosAcos(- B) - sinAsin (-B) 3 LHS = tan
tan A - tan B =
A + tan B
'°"' -'°'"
JinA
Jin A+
Ji.118
1u1s
cotA c~B
= cosAcosB + sin A sinB
= sin AcosB - cosAsinB _ sin(A - B) _
6 cos(8 - ¢) = cos8cos¢+sin 8sin¢ sin AcosB+cosAsinB - sin(A+B) - RHS
cos(90°- 8 - ¢) = cos (90° - 8)cos¢ + sin(90° - 8 ) sin¢
4 LHS = sin (8 + a)sin(8 - a)
cos (90° - ( 8 + ¢)) = sin 8cos ¢ + cos 8sin ¢
= (sin 8cos a + cos 8sin a )(sin 8cos a - cos 8sin a)
sin (8+ ¢)) = sin 8cos¢ + cos8sin ¢
= sin' 8cos' a - cos' 8sin2 a
7 (a) ,~~ (b) ¾ (c) ,~~ 8 A 9 (a) ;! (b) - ~• (c) ~ = sin2 8(1 - sin2a) - (l - sin2 8 ) sin2 a
10 (a) sin( 45° + 30°) = sin 45°cos30° + cos45° sin 30° = sin' 8 - sin' 8sin2a - sin2a + sin' 8sin2a
' x .r,
sin 75° = 7, = sin2 8 - sin' a = RHS
, + 7,
' x l.,=.
.P,+./i
(b) tan(450 + 300) = tan 45° + tan 30° 5 LHS = sin3A _ cos3A
1- tan45° tan30° sinA cosA
I+ ' r:: r:: ' r:: = sin 3AcosA - cos3AsinA
tan 75o = 7'=v3 + 1 (v 3+1) = 4+ 2v3 = 2 + ✓3
1- +, ✓ 3 -1 3- 1 2 sin A cos A
_ sin(3A - A)
11 (a) ✓6 ~ .fi. (b) 2- ✓3 (c) ✓6 : .fi. 12 E (i; ./3) sin A cos A
sin 2A 2sinAcosA
- sin AcosA = sinAcosA = 2 = RHS
EXERCISE 4.2
6 LHS = tan(45° +A)+tan(45°-A)
1 (a) 3sin8- 4sin 38 (b) 4cos'8 - 3cos8 (c) 3tan8- tan' 8
2 = l + tan A + l - tanA
2 () ,.fl {b) ,
a - - .-
() r,:;
- 8 c 3v 7 (d) 3rd quadrant
l - 3tan 8 1- tan A l + tanA
3 (a) tan A (b) sin' 8 (c) cos48 (d) ½ (e) ½sin8x _ (l +tanA)2 +(1- tan A)'
- (1 - tanA)( l+tanA)
(f) 2sin' 8 (g) ¼sin 4x (h) sin4x (i) l + sin 28 O) l - sin 2A
= 1+ 2tan A+tan2 A + l - 2 tan A+ tan' A
(k) I (I) I (m) ½cos2x (n) tan2 8 (o) cos6x
1- tan ' A
4 (a) t (b) - ¾ (c) -t
2 2
5 (a) cosec'a. (b) sin 8 (c) I (d) ½ (e) cos 8 (f) sin (8+¢) _ 2+2 tan' A 2sec' A
- 2 =
I - tan A I - tan' A
EXERCISE 4.3
- 2 2 = RHS
1 A 2 (a) tan 18° (b) cos30° = ,q. (c) sin;45° = .fi. cos' A - sin' A cos2A
7 LHS = cos4x
'
3 (a) 1 + 212- 1 (b) 4+61-41
2
(c) 2- 21 - 21
2
(d) 1- 1
21
2
= 2cos2 2x - l
I+ 1 I +1 2 I +12
(e) 1- 61'+1' (f) 1- 61'+ 1• 2 = 2(2cos'x- 1)2 - l

(g) I 2 (h) I + 12 = 8 cos'' x - 8cos2 x + I = RHS
21(1-1' ) I + 21 2 + 1'1 I +1 1-1
8 RHS = cos8 + sin 8
(Q t' (J) I (k) ! (Q I cos8 - sin 8
I _ - --"(c:.:oc:.s8..:.
=- +..:s:::
in:.:8:.,l..:.
' __
4 D 5 I= -1+ ✓1 + d' 6 -5 (cos8 - sin 8 )(cos8 + sin 8 )
d
_ 2sin8cos8 + sin 2 8 + cos2 8 =~~.c..c.=
sin28 +1 LHS
7 I = f, LHS = bcos 8 +asin8 - 2
cos 8 - sin' 8 cos28
2
= b( l - 1 ) + a x 21
9 LHS = cos8+ sin8 + cos8 - sin8
1+12 1+12 cos8 - sin 8 cos8+ sin 8
b(1- .i.)+ 2 2
"b
_ (cos8 + sin 8 )2 + (cos8- sin8) 2
_ r,2
- (cos 8 -sin 8 )(cos8 + sin 8 )
l +L ,,,' _ 2(cos' 8 + sin' 8) 2
cos28 - cos28 = 2sec28 = RHS
_ b'- a' b +2a 2b
b' +a' 10 LHS = 1- cosx
sinx
_ b(b' + a') 2sin 2 a!.
b = RHS
b' +a' -- ----=--'-
2sin£cos~
8 x = sec8 - tan8 ' '
_ 1+12 21 (1 - 1)2 1- 1 sin£
: = tan~ = RHS
- 1- 12 - I - 12 = I - 12 = I + I cos '
EXERCISE 4.4 11 LHS = sin A+ sin(90°- A)+ l

sin A - sin(90°- A)+ 1
1 LHS = sin A+cosA tanB = ~ _+ tanB _ sinA+cosA+l
cosA -smA tanB 1- cotA
, mA tanB sin A - cosA+l
= tan A + tan B = tan(A + B) = RHS
1- tan AtanB
= 2sin fcos T+ 2cos t 2
2sin i cos 1+ 2sin i

2
2 LHS = sin28 cos8 - cos28sin8
cos28cos8 + sin 28sin8 2cos 1(sin 1+ cos 1) cos.A 2
sin(28 - 8) sin8 = - ~'-+~ '--.:..:.:~ = = cot ,i = RHS 2
2sinj{sini +cosj) sinf
= cos(28-8) = cos8 = tan 9 = RHS

12 LHS=sinx + l - cosx _ J - tan 2 8 - 2tan 2 0
smx - l +cosx
- J - tan 2 8 + 2tan 2 0
2 2sin· ~
2
_ 2sin~2 cos~+ 2
J - 3tan 2 8
- 2 su1
' ' cos • - 2 sin
·2 :r
2 2 2 - l + tan 2 8
_ cost + sin-} = 1 + tanf = RHS
= ( 1- 3sin'2 8 ) cos' 8
cos; - sin~ 1- tan·; cos 0
13 LHS = sin ((A + B) + C) = cos' 8 - 3sin 2 8 = 4cos28 - 3 = RHS
= sin (A + B)cosC + cos(A + B) sin C 22 (a) p (b) q
= (sinAcosB + cos A sinB) cos C + (cosAcosB 23 A + B + C =i 80°
- sin A sinB) sinC Hence sin (A + B + C) = sin 180° = 0
= sinAcosBcosC + sinBcosCcosA + sin CcosAcosB From question 14 we have:
- sin A sinBsinC = RHS sin(A + B + q = sin AcosBcosC + sinBcosCcosA
sin(A + 90°) = cosA + sinCcosAcosB - sin A sinBsin C
14 LHS = cos ((A + B) + CJ So: sinAcosBcosC + sinBcosCcosA + sin CcosAcosB
= cos (A + B) cosC - sin(A + B)sin C - sin A sin Bsin C = 0
= (cosAcosB - sin A sinB) cos C - (sin A cosB sinCcosAcosB - sin A sinBsin C = - (sin A cosBcos C
+ cos A sin B) sin C + sin Bcos CcosA)
= cos A cosBcosC - cosAsinBsinC - cosBsinCsinA sinC (cos A cosB - sinAsin B) = - cosC(sinAcosB + sinBcosA)
- cosCsinA sinB. sin (180° -(A + B)) (cosAcosB - sinAsinB) = -cosCsin (A + B)
cos (A + 90°) = - sin A sin(A + B) (cosAcosB - sinA sinB) = -cosCsin (A + B)
15 LHS= tan(8 + a) tan(8 - a) Hence: cosAcosB - sin A sinB + cosC = 0
_ tan8 + tan a x tan0 - tan a l + ✓S J- tan0
- J - tan8tana l + tan8tana 24 25
4 tan8(1+ tan 0)
= tan28 - tan2 a = RHS 26 PT + TQ = PQ =x
I - tan' 8tan' a PT = y , TQ= y
tan a tan/3
· ' 0 + cos' 0
16 LHS= Slll
sm0+cos8
y + y =x
tan a tan /3
_ (sin8+ cos8)(sin 2 0 - sin 0cos8 + cos 28)
- sin0+cos8 ,( tan/3 + tan
> tan a tan /3
a)=x
= J - sin0cos8 = J- ½sin28 = RHS
x tan a tan/3
2cos.!!. - I - cos8
17 LHS= - ----s2------:- Y = tan a + tan/3
2cos~ + l + cos8
27 ✓2-1
_ 2cosf - 2cos' 4
- 2cos.1!.+ 2cos2J!.
28 B 29 (a) - J;;. (b) - ,m (c) .~
' ' 30 (a) -If (b) -'f[i (c) -'f
2cos~( l - cos~) I - cos~
= - ---;--- -.,-,. =
2cosf( i + cosf) !+cos,
• = RHS 31 (a) 'i (b) ;!~
32 (a) LHS = 2cos( 1+ x )cos( 1- x)
18 LHS=cot(x+ y )
= 2( cos! cosx - sin ! sinx )(cos! cosx + sin ! sinx)
J 1- tan xtan y
= tan(x + y) = tanx + tan y = 2(-j;cosx - -j;sinx )(-j;cosx+-j;sin x)
_ __,._._;_,.,,~,~·-_ 1_ = cotxcot y - 1 = RHS = cos' x - sin2 x = cos2x = RHS
lan Jt + tany cot x + cot y (b) LHS = tan(0 + !)tan(8 - !)
lanx lany lanx l!lny
tan8 + tan1 tan8 - tan;

19 LHS= tan28 - tan0 = - - - -~ x- - - -~
tan28+cot8 l - tan8 tan1 l + tan0tan ;
= ( 2tan0 - tane) x I = tan8 + 1 x tan 0 - J = _ 1 = RHS
J- tan28 2tan0 + I J - tan8 l + tan0
J- tan28 tan8
(c) LHS = (sec28 - J) tan (; - 8)
2 --l+tan2
= tan 8 ( - -~- 8 ) x -tan8(1-
~~ - -~ -
tan' 0) = tan' 0cot8 = tan8 = RHS
1- tan' 0 2tan' 8 + I - tan' 0
(d) LHS = tan( x+ 't)
tan' 0( i + tan'8) ,
= ---~ - - =tan 8 = RHS "
tan x+tan 4 = tanx - 1 = RHS
l + tan 2 8 1- tanxtan ': tanx + l
20 LHS = tan (8 + 45°) tan (8 - 45°) I - sin( ~ - 2x)
(e) LHS = .
= tan8+1 x tan 8 - J = _ 1 = RHS sin 2 x
J - tan8 l + tan8 1- cos2x
- sin2x
21 LHS = J- tan0tan28
I + tan0tan28
_ tan8x2tan8 - 2sin2 x = sin x = tan x = RHS
1 2sinxcosx cosx
_ J- tan 2 8
- I + tan8x2tan8
l - tan 2 8

(f) LHS = tan(1 + A)+ tan(! - A) 41 I or kI
= l + tan A+l - tanA 42 B - A = C- B and A = 2B - C
1- tan A l+ tanA
cos (B - A) = cos(C - B)
_ (l+tanA)2 +(1- tan A) 2
cos (B - A) = cosCcosB + sinCsinB
- 1- tan'A
2sinBcos(B - A)= 2sin BcosCcosB + 2sinBsin CsinB
_ 2(1 + tan' A) ,
2sinBcos(B - A) = sin2BcosC+ 2sin- BsinC
- I - tan' A
2sinBcos(B - A)= sin2Bcos C+ (I - cos 2B)sin C
2
- cos A (adapting t formula) 2sinBcos(B - A)= sin2Bcos C - cos2Bsin C + sinC
2
= 2sec2A = RHS 2sinBcos(B - A) = sin(2B - CJ + sin C
( tanx - tan y ¼- ½ 45 - 4
33 tan x - y) = l +tanxtany = J+¾x½ = 36 + 5 = 1
2sinBcos(B - A) = sin A + sinC
21m 4/m(/2 - 2
111 )
43 2 2
1C / +m 2 ) 2
- 111 ' (1 2
x - y =-
4 44 LHS = (k - J)sin(a+ ,BJ
34 (a) - 1 {b) -½ = k(sin acos,B + cos a sin ,BJ - (sinacos,B + cos a sin ,8)
35 LHS = sin(8+;)sin(8-:) = k(sin acos,B - cos a sin ,B + 2cosasin ,BJ + (sina cos,B
= ( sin8cos; + cos8sin: )( sin 0cos: - cos0sin;) - cos a sin ,B- 2sinacos ,B)
= ( fsin 8 +½cos 0 )(f sin0 - ½cos8) = ¾sin' 8 - ¼cos' 8 = ksin(a - ,B) + 2kcosa sin ,B + sin(a - ,B)- 2sinacos,B
= sin' 8 - ¼(sin' 8 +cos' 8) = sin' 8 - ¼= RHS = (k+ J)sin(a- ,BJ+ 2 tan; cosasin,B - 2sinacos,B
tan
36 RHS = J- cos28 = (k + l )sin(a - ,BJ+ 2sina cos,B - 2sinacos,B
l + cos28 = (k+ l )sin(a- ,BJ = RHS
2
_ 2sin 8 = sin8 = tan 8 = LHS 45 LHS = 4sin 0sin(8 - ;)sin(8 - ';)
2cos28 cos0
tan.!'..= 1- cosf = 1- 1 =
-- (✓2 - 1)' = ✓2 - 1
= 4 sin8( sin8cos·; - cos0sin 1)( sin 0cos 2;
= 4 sin8(½sin8 -
-
./f cos8)( - ½sin 8 - -If cos8)

cos8sin 2; )
• l +cos1 l +i 2_ 1
8 9 = 4 sin8(- ¼sin' 8+¾cos28) = sin8(3cos' 8 - sin' 8 )
37 (a) 2sinAcosB {b) 2sin( ;¢)cos( ;¢)
RHS = sin 38 = sin(28 + 8)
38 sec8 - tan0 = ¾
= sin 20cos8+cos20sin0
I + t' 21 = l
1- t' 1- t' 5 = 2sin0cos 28 + (cos' 8 - sin' 0)sin8
(1 - 1)' 3 = sin 8(3cos20 - sin' 0) = LHS
1- 1' = 5
1- 1 3 EXERCISE 4.5
l +I = s 1 C 2 sin 68 + sin 28
S- St = 3+31 3 cos SA + cos 2A 4 ½(sin 6A - sin 2A)
t= ! 5 ½(sin 20+ sin 2a)
7 ½( cos (48) + cos (2a)
6 I - sin 2A
21 .1 8
sin8 = = 2
1 = - 8 sin (4a + ,BJ - sin (2a + 3,8)
l +I 2 1+ 16 17 9 cos8 - cos 38 10 ½(cos 68 - cos 2(/)
39 4tan(a - ,8) = 3tan a 11 ½(sin 3x + sin y) 12 I + Jj2
4(tana - tan,B)
~ - - -~~= 3 tana
l +tanatan,B 13 ½(cos 2,8 - cos 2A) 14 ✓3 - 1
4
4 tana - 4 tan,B = 3tana + 3tan' a tan,B 15 sin 28 + sin 2</) 16 ½(sin A + sin B)
17 ½( ;' + cos50°) 18 sin 48 + sin 28
( 3tan 2a+4 )tan,B = tan a
.!!!!!!. 19 ½(sin(38 + 3</)) + sin(8 - </)) 20 sin 6A - sin 2A
tan,B = tan a = «..a 21 sin JOA + sin 4A 22 D
2 2
3tan a+4 ,,,., ,,
Hn «+4
23 2cos 2x sin x 24 2cos (x+ 1) sin 1
-------------
sin a cos a
3sin2a+ 4cos2 a
6
sin2a
6+ 2cos 2a
sin2a
7 + cos2a
25 - 2sin (x+4) sin ½
27 2 cos .i..2 cos !!.2
26 2sin 8 cos a
28 - 2sin (A+ C) sin B
40 LHS = cos• 8 - sin 8
3
= (cos' 8 - sin' 8)(cos 8 + sin' 8)
3 3
29 2cos( x; Y) cos( x;y ) 30 2cos ( A;B) cos ( A;B)
= (cos8 - sin 8)(cos20 + sin 8cos8 + sin' 8)(cos8 + sin8) 31 2cos 2A cos A 32 0
x (cos' 8 - sin 8cos8 + sin' 8) 33 - 2sin ( 3 A; 2 B) sin ( A;B)

= (cos' 8 - sin' 0)( I + sin8cos8)( 1- sin8cos8) 34 2cos A cos (B + C) 35 2sin ~ cos ~
_ Ji 2 2
36 2 cos 2A sin 2B 37
= cos28(1 - sin' 0cos28) = (1- ¼sin' 20)cos20 = RHS 2

0 8 53 LHS = cos 35° + cos 45° + cos 75° + cos 85°
38 2cos( ;4>+45° )sin( ;4' _ 45° )
= cos 75° + cos 45° + cos 85° + cos 35°
39 - ,J3 sin 15° 40 ../3 cos 10° = 2cos 60° cos 15° + 2cos 60° cos 25°
= cos 25° + cos 15°
2
41 - 2cos ( A - B) sin ~ 42 - ,J3 si n 20° = 2cos 20° cos s•
2
54 LHS = 2cos 37.5° sin 7.5°
43 LHS = sin 50 - sin 30 = sin 45° - sin 30°
cos50 +cos30 =-'Ji _ .12
_ 2cos40sin 0
2cos40cos0 - ✓2-1
= tan 0 2
55 LHS = sin 25° sin 35° - sin 20° sin Io•
44 LHS = sinx + sin y = ½(cos (- 10°)- cos 60°) - ½(cos 10° - cos 30°)
cosx+cosy
= l.(cos 10° - l. - cos 10° + .r,)
= 2sin(~)cos(~) _✓
2
3 -1
2 2
2cos(x;')cos(x;-' ) 4
56 LHS = sin 10° + cos 40°
= tan( -o/) = sin 50° + sin 10°
= 2 sin 30° cos 20°
45 LHS = cosx - cos3x = cos 20°
sinx - sin 3x
_ - 2sin2xsin(-x) = sin 70°
2cos 2x sin(- x) 57 LHS = sin 48°+sin l 2°
= - tan 2x cos48°+ cos!2°
_ 2sin 30°cos!8°
46 LHS = sin 2A - sin 2B 2 cos 30° cos 18°
sin 2A +sin2B
_ 2cos(A + B)sin(A - B) =-'.r,
- 2sin(A + B)cos(A - B)
_ tan(A- B)
=f
58 LHS = sin3x - sinx
- tan(A+ B) cosx - cos3x
47 LHS = cos(0+a) - cos(0 - a) 2cos2xsinx
sin( 0 +a )+ sin( 0 - a) - 2sin2xsin(- x)
_ - 2sin0sina _ cos2xsinx
- 2sin 0cosa sin2xsinx
= - tan a = cot 2x
- sin x+sin(x+ y) + sin(x + 2y) 59 LHS = cos (A + B) cos(A - B)
48 LHS - = tan(x+y)
cosx+cos(x+ y)+cos(x+2y) = ½(cos 2A + cos 2B)
_ sin(x +2y ) +sinx+sin(x+ y) 2
= ½(2cos A - I + I - 2 sin B)
2
- cos(x+2y)+cosx+cos(x+ y)
= cos2A - sin 2B
_ 2sin(x+ y)cosy+sin(x + y)
- 2cos(x + y)cosy+cos(x+ y) 60 LHS = sin 0+sin 70
sin 30 + sin 50
= sin(x + y)(2cosy+ I 2sin40cos30
cos(x+ y)(2cosy + I) 2 sin 40cos0
= tan (x +y) for 2cosy + I-¢ 0 cos30
49 LHS = sin 50 + sin 30 - 2sin 20cos 0 cos0
= 2sin 40cos0 - 2sin 20cos0 _ cos20cos0 - sin 20sin0
= 2cos0(sin 40 - sin 28) cos0
= 2cos0 x 2cos 30sin 0 = cos 20 - _ 2sin
_0cos0sin0
, cos0
. . :. : ~ =-=-
= 2sin 20cos 30 = cos20 - 2sin-0
50 LHS = sin 2x + sin 4x + sin 6x = cos20 + cos20 - I
= sin 4x + sin 2x + sin 6x = 2cos20 - I
= 2sin 3x cos x + 2sin 3x cos 3x
= 2sin 3x (cos 3x+ cos x) 61 LHS = sin(0 + 4>) - sin(8 - 4>)
cos(0+ 4> )- cos(0 - 4>)
= 2sin 3x x 2cos 2x cos x
_ 2cos0sin 4>
= 4 cos x cos 2x sin 3x
51 LHS = sin' 50- sin' 30 - 2sin0sin4>
= (sin 50 + sin 30)(sin 50 - sin 30) = - cot0
= 2sin 40cos0x 2cos 40si n 0 62 LHS = cos75° + cos!5°
sin 75° - sin !5°
= 2sin 402cos 40x 2 sin 0cos 0
= sin 80sin 20 _ 2cos45°cos30°
2cos45° sin30°
52 LHS = sin 35° - sin 25°
= cot 30°
= 2 cos 60° sin 5°
= ✓3 sin 5° = ✓3

63 LHS = sin A +sin(A + B)+ sin(A + 2B) EXERCISE 4.7
cosA +cos(A + B)+cos(A + 2B) 1 (a) .!!.. ' ' (b) 1 -• 7• (c) ,.. -".!!.. (d) 1!. 1,
3,3 ◄ ' 4 3 , 3 6'6
_ 2sin(A + B)cos(- B) + sin(A+B)
2cos(A + B)cos(- B)+cos(A + B) (9) 1.!L I l.'t 19,'f 23,r (f\ 7 ,r l I."
l2 ' l2 ' 12 ' J2 ., 6 ' 6
_ sin(A+B)(2cosB + I) , (h) .!!.. u ll.!.
- cos(A+ B)(2cosB+ I) (g) 12 '
1,
12 '
'"
12 '
,. ,
12
1,
I ' 8 ' 8 ' 8
= tan (A + B) 2 (a) 66°25', 293° 35'
(b) 71° 34', 161° 34', 251° 34', 341° 34'
64 LHS = sin(n + 1)0 + 2 sinn0 + sin(n - 1)0
cos(n - 1)0 - cos(n + 1)0 3 C 4 (a) - ,..) ) _ 1!.
3,3.!!.. , ' 3' (b) - 1.!!..
g, -
5
.!!.. ' "8
' '8
8
2sin n0cos0+ 2sin n0 5 (a) o.; ,211: (b) O, n,2n (c) o, 2; , n .'; , 211:
- 2sinn0 sin(-0)
7
(d) 6• • T• • T • " (e) O, ·•2• -"' 2'·• ' 2-"'
= co~ 0; 1 [usecos0 = 2cos'~ - I and sin0 = 2sin ~ cos~)
1
•T
sin (g) 5i• 'lil ' ' "l ' S
15
• (h) .!!..4' l4l
2cos' .ll. - l + I 6 (a) 128° 12'. 171° 48', 308° 12', 351° 48'
- '
2 sin !l. cos !l. (b) 8° 26', 151° 34', 188° 26', 331° 34'
c.os 2
' '
• 7 D
sin ~ 8 (a) : s X s ': (b) 1 < X < ';' (c) 0 < X < 11:
= cot !l. ' (d) 0 S XS! ,
1
~• <XS 211: (e) 0 S XS 2n, X ;t, ;
'
65 a + f3 + r = n, (a + /3) = 11: - r
LHS = sin 2a + sin 2/3 + sin 2y (n Os X < ·;. ': < X s 211: (g) 1 < X < ; • 'r < X < ';
= 2sin (a + f3) cos (a - fJ) + sin 2y
= 2sin(n - y) cos (a - /3) + sin 2y
(hl os x < 'r. 'r < x s 111:
= 2sin ycos (a - fJ) + 2sin ycos y • <
9 (a) 12 -
X <
-
5
12
• (b) .!!..
4 -
< X -< ll.
4
= 2sin y(cos (a - f3) + cos ii 1 0 (a) - - < X < _ l6)
I I, ] <
l _ l.!!.. - X <
- - .!!.. J <
6) .!!.. - X < 11:
= 2sin r( 2cos( a- ~ + y) cos ( a- ~- r )) (b) - n < x <- 2

·• - .!!.. <
3 ' 3
x < .!!..
J' 3
LIL< x < 1t
EXERCISE 4.8
= 4sin ycos ( n ~Z/3 ) cos( 2 a; n) 1 (a) o, ','. 't , 211: (b) ; , 't (c) o, n, 211:
= 4sin ycos(; - f3)cos( - ; +a) (d) 45°, 63°26', 225°, 243° 26'
2 C 3 (a) IT '" , T7• (b) - n , - 65• , O, 6• , n
·• , T'-' , 12
= 4sin ysin f3 cos(~ - a) ,r 3-" 5K 7,r 2
4 C 5 0, -;r , -:r-, H , -,, , -,1 , ,r
= 4 sin a sin f3 sin y. 6 128° 10', 231° 50' 7 1!. .!!.. 7• , . 8 o. 11:, 211:
6'3 ' 6 ' 3
EXERCISE 4.6 9 (a) 0 =o, z.':. 11:.

1 (a) x = ; (b) x = ; (c) x = ' <1' 1.!!.. 1d) x = 1!. ,3.
(b) 9 = 0, ~, ~1, ~:, i, ~1, 1: : , if.'C, n
' <1 \ 3'
(C) 0 -- 0, g, , T, , • g, . , g1, , n
(e) X = 2'
3 ' • 3• ( 11
,, X = 1!.
6 ' l.!.
6
=- J' n' J•
10 (a) x = O' .ll. 5
(b) x =.!!..!..
6 ◄
"<1 . 566 7 5 7
' . '. ' . ' . "'
◄ 46
(g) X - 1!.
6
1!. l l lll.
6' 6 ' 6
(c) x = 0.39, 2.23, 3.53, 5.37 (d) x = o, ; • 11:, ' f , 211:
x = O, <1{,2n
11 (a) 0 = f, f , 't (b) 0 = f , 1f, ':
(h) x == O (i) x = ! , ':, ':, '." G) x = 0.4, 2.74
2 C (c) 0 = 0.0205, 2.074 (d) 0 = 0, 1, 1, n
3 (a) x = O (b) x = - 11:, 0, ~ . n (c) x = - ; • : • ': 12 Solve for OS x S 211:, the equations:
(d) x = - ;,o,; (e) x = - n,n (n x = -':. - ;.: .'t (a) X -- 0, z• , T7 • , 6l . .' 2 n (b) X -- 0, 2, , 3, . ,n, 2,. , 3•• , 2'IC
(g) x =- 'f , 0, 'f (h) x = ±;, ±':

(ij X =- 'JC, - 3: ' 0, ! ' 1t CHAPTER REVIEW 4
4 D
5 (b) 0 =0, n, 211: 1 (a) cos 0 (b) tan (0 - :)
(c) LHS = sin20 - sin0
(C) X = .!L ll.
12 , ◄ '
11
12 '
' ll
4
(d) 0 -- 0, -:r,
• ◄ ,. • -n, T
5•
• -,• , 2-"
7
cos20 - cos0 + 1
_ 2sin0cos0 - sin0
(n 0 = 0, f , n. ' f . 211:
2cos2 0 - l - cos0 + 1
(g) x = _5:, - n, - ;, - :, 0,: , ~' n, 5: _ sin0(2cos0 - I)
6 (a) 0 = - n, - f,0, f , n (b) 0 = - t,t (c) 0 = 0, +n 2cos' 0 - cos0
(d) 0 -- - 2• , o, z,
• n (e) 0 - --rr-,' " - 4" , TI•
• ◄ I\ 0 = - 1!. 0 .!!..
• ( ,, 3' ' 3
_ sin 0(2cos0 - 1)
7 (a) x = - 138° ll ',-41° 49', 30°, 150° cos0(2cos0 - I)
(b) x = 45°, 135° =tan0
(c) x = - 150°, - 30° 2 13° 17', 103° 17', 193° 17',283° 17'
8 (a) 0 = 0,f, 't , n, ':. 1: , 211: (b) 0 =0, n, 111: 3 (a) sin 0 (b) tan0
1d) 0 - 0 , ,, \: -
5• 7• 2
' ◄• - <1 , n., T • T • 'IC (c) Exp = ½sin 2x cos 2x cos 4x
(e) X = 0, 2 ·.,
~ 1!.
s • .l..!!. ~ 7 • .ll. = ¼sin 4x cos 4x
s• '.,s's
--.-
_ ~ n 8x

4 (a) RHS = cosAcosa(1 - sinA x sin B) (i) 1-1(x) = x' - 4x+ 6, x S 2, y 2: 2
cosA cosB
0) g- 1(x) =- x' - 2x +4,x2: - l ,yS5
= cosAcosa(cosAcosB - sinAsin B)
= cos(A + B) = LHS
cosAcosB (k) r (x) = - log,x, O<x< 1,y> O
1
(b) cos (A + B) = 0 so A + B = ~ (I) h- 1(x) = ! - 1,x>O, y>-l

4 (a) y
5 (a) LHS = cos 8(1 - 2sin8) I
l - sin 8
_ cos8(1 -sin8)
- cos' 8 X
-1 0 I
= I - s~ B = sec8 - tan8 = RHS - 1
cos
2sin 2 8 , (b) X 2: 0, XS 0
(b) RHS = = tan 8 = LHS
2cos2 8
6 tan 450 = 2 tan 22.50
(c) y = ✓! - 1,0<xS l ,y 2:0 or y = -✓! - 1, 0<xS l, ySO
1- tan' 22.5° )' y
I x (I - tan' 22.5°) = 2 tan 22.5°
I - tan' 22.5° = 2tan 22.5°
tan' 22.5° + 2tan 22.5° - I = 0
tan 22 5° - - 2 + ✓ 4+4 0 X
. - 2
0 I
X
tan 22.5° = - 1 ±✓ 2
Since 22.5° is an acute angle, tan 22.5° = ✓2 - I
Now tan 22.50 = 2 tan I 1.250
I - tan' ll.25° 5 (a) not one-to-one, - a S x s 0, 0 s x s a
(✓2 - 1)(1 - tan' 11.25°) = 2tan 11.25° (b) not one-to-one, x S 0, x 2: 0
(c) not one-to-one, x < 0, x > O
(✓
2 - l) tan2 l l.25°+ 2tan 1 1.25°+ 1 - ✓2 =0
6 (a) l(g(x)) = l(½(x+1)) = 2X½(x+ l)- l = x,
o _ -2± ✓4 - 4( ✓2- 1)(1 - ✓2) g(l(x) ) = g(2x - I) =½((2x - l)+ I) = x
tan 11.25 - ( )
2 ✓2 -1
(b) l(g(x)) = l(log, 2x) = ½e'*'' =½X2x =x,
-1±J1+(✓2 - 1)' g(l(x) ) = g(½e' )= log,{2 x ½e' ) = x
tan 11.25° = ( J2 _ I)
(c) l(g(x)) =1(-./16-x' ) =./16-(-../16- x' )'
tan 11.25° = - I± J 4- 2 ✓2
(✓2 - 1) =& = x asO s x s 4
Since l l.25° isanacuteangle,tan 11.25° = J4 - 2 ✓2 -l 20 2

g(l(x)) = g(./16- x') = - .Jr
;6-- -;-
(,/=i6=- =
x )
(✓2 - 1)
7 (a) x =O, ~. n =- & =- (-x)=x as -4 SxS 0
(b) x -- 10'
,r J R' 1r 11t 9 1t or x 1t 21t 41 .1!' S.1!'
10' 2 ' 10 ' 10 - 3' 3 ' 3 ' 3 (d) l(g(x)) = 1(1+~
8 (a) x = -4, O 2
s, • • 0 • • s, = 2X(l +../1 - x) - (1+ ~
(b) X =- T , - 'JC, -"I, -'i", , 6 , 2 , n, 6
(c) x = 2,•, O = 2+ 2../1- x - (1+2..fl=x + 1- x)=x,
g(l(x) )= g(2x - x')= I+ .J1- (2x - x')
CHAPTERS
= l + ✓(x - 1)2 =x asx2: l
EXERCISE 5.1
1 A, B, 0 , E, H (e) l(g(x)) =1( x2:1) = 2x ~ - 1 ,,
2 (a) - 2SxSO (b) x2:2 (c) x< - 2,x> - 2 (d) xS l.5 (e) x2: - 3 I
3 (a) 1- (x) =½x+2,all real x, allreal y
1 x+l-.x =X,
X
l+Zt-1
(b) 1-1(x) = ../x+ I, x 2: - 1, y 2: O g(l(x)) = g( I ) = ,;:;- + I ?x-1
_..L-
_ X
2x - l 2x(_i_)
2.x- 1 ?x-1
(c) g-1 (x) = x'+ 3, x2: O,y 2: 3
7 D
(d) 1-1(x) =- .J9-x' , 0 s XS 3, - 3 sys 0
8 (a) % = 3x 2 - 9 :. stationary points at x = ±./3
(e) 1-1(x) = x',J. all real x, all real y d'
---2:'.. = 6x :
(f) 1- 1 (x) = -✓X - 2, X 2: 0, JS - 2 dx'
d'
Where x = ./3, { = 6./3 which is positive
(g) 1-1(x) = - 1+../x+ I , x 2: 0, y 2: 0 dx
:. max turning point at (./3, O)
(h) 1-1(x) = e'-1, all real x,y> - 1
d'y
\.Yh ere x = -✓3 , - 2 = -6✓3 which is negative 3 (a) f (b) - .5, (c) 65° {d) !80° (e) ½ (f) -½
dx (g) - :~~ (h) ''f
:. min turning point at (- ./3, 12✓3)
4 (a) 0 < tan-' ¾< tan-• 4 < f , so O<tan- 1 4 - tan-' ¾< ~
(b) As there is a turning point at x = ./3 o n the x-axis, x = ./3 is
Now tan (tan-• 4 - tan-'¾)
a double zero o f th e polynomial.
Let the zeros of th e polynomial be ✓ 3, ✓ 3 and a tan(tan- 1 4) - tan( tan-' ¾) 4- ¾
= -----~--~= - ~ - = I
Usingsumofroots = _ b: 2✓3 + a = O l+tan(tan- 1 4) tan{tan -' ¾) 1+4x¾
a
:. Cl = -2✓3 :. tan-L4 - tan- 1 ! t=
:. other x-intercept is at ( -2✓3 , 0)
(b) sin_,¾ + sin-•(- ¾) = sin_,¾ - sin_,¾ = O
(c) (- '/3, 12'/3) >' (because sin-' xis an odd fun ction)
12.JJ
(c) 0 < tan_, u<zan
' • d O<cos _, s < • ,
11 2
so 0 < tan -I 12
5
+ cos-I u<
5
n
s
Now cos ( tan - l 12 + cos- l S )
rr
= cos(tan- 1 ,~) cos(cos- 1 ,~) - sin(tan- 1 .5,) sin(cos-' .5, ) = 0
-1 5
:. tan IT + cos rr= 2z
-1 5
0 X
(d) 0 <cos_, s<zan

' • d O< tan _, ' < 2• ,
4
(d) O$;x$;!2✓3, -✓3$;y$; ✓3 so O < cos- 1 .l. + tan-• .1 < n
5 '
(e) >'
-./3 Now cos( cos- 1 ¾- tan- 1 (- ¼))
= cos (cos- 1 ¾+ tan- 1 ¼)
0 X
= cos(cos- ¾) cos( tan- ¾) - sin(cos- f )sin( tan- ¾) = 0
1 1 1 1
- '/3 :. cos- 1 f - tan- 1 (- ¾) =;

(12 3, - '/3)
(e) 0 < sin -• 1.S < sin-' ( "'Ji
' ) = 1t. so O< 2sin-• .l.5 < 1t.
(f) For 1-•th e equation is x = y' - 9y + 6✓3 , but we can't make 4> 2
. dy Now sin (2sin- 1 ¾) = 2sin (sin -• ¾)cos(sin-1 ¾)

y the subiect so we can't find dx . However, we can find
= 2xl.x.i
5 S -
- 2"
ZS
~ = 3y 2 - 9 , soEl.dx =
ay 3Xy - 9
1, . ' ·
· 1- 12S -- sm
· 2su · -l 1!
25
At th e point (6✓3, O): ddy = 1, =- 1 (f) O < sin- 1 .1S < lt.and
2 O < tan-' L24 < '1..2 ,
3 X0 - 9 9
so O< sin- 1 f + tan- 1 { 4 < n:
X
Thus, equation of tangent: y - 0 = (x - 6✓3) -! Now cos (sin- 1 ¾+ tan_, {, ) = cos (sin_, ¾)
or x+9y = 6✓3
cos(tan- 1 J,) - sin(sin-'¾) sin(tan- 1 {, ) = ¾
9 (a) ;Z = e' which is positive for all x :. sin- 1 f+ tan- 1 J.i = cos-' ¾
:. th e function is increasing for all x
(g) 0 < sin_, .5, <~and O < tan-•~~<;,
(b) \.Yherex = O, i = e0 = I
so O< sin- 1 2...
13
+ tan-
·
1
~
63
< n:
(c) From (b) we see that y =xis a tangent to the curve at (0, 0):
Nowcos(sin- 1 153 + tan- 1 !~)
y = e' - I
y = cos(sin-• i', ) cos(tan-1 ~~) - sin(sin- • i', ) sin(tan- 1 ~~) = f
y =x
:. sitC 1 153 + tan- 1 !~ = cos- 1 t
5 (a) o (b) o (c) ~~ (d) ~
(el ~ (fl b (gJ -•:
X 6 (a) Leta = sin-' xwhereOSxS l
:. OS a$; 1 and s ina = x = ·;
By Pythagoras' theorem : cos a = .Ji~ x' = .Ji- x'

(d) Equation of 1- is x = e" - I, which becomes y = log,. (x + I)
1
:. a = cos- 1 ./1- x' and sosin-' x = cos- 1 ./1- x '

(e) From the graph of(c), log,(x + I) <x for - I <x< O, x> 0
EXERCISE 5.2 (b) Let a = cos- ' xwhere 0$;x$; I
1 B :. Osas ~ and cosa = x = ;
2 (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) - 1 (d) 1 (e) - 1 (f) 0 (g) 1 (h) n By Pythagoras' theorem: sin a = .Ji~ x ' = .Ji- x'
(~ 1 0)s; ! (Q -! (m) ; (n) - :
(k) (o) ! (p) 80°
(q) 1 (r) - ! (s)1 (t) 2f (u) 1 (v) : :. a = sin- 1 ./1- x' andsocos-' x = sin- 1 ✓1 - x'

7 (a) - I SxSl, - n Sy Sn (f) all real x, - n s y s n (c) y
y y ;r;
31< y = 2sin- 1(2x - 1)
" y= 2sin- 1 x
. - - - - - - - - -
2
- jf - - - - - - - - - - - .
)t
2
"2 il
y= 2 ta n- 1(x - 1)
X X
-4 -3 -2 1 2 3 4 -3 -2 - 10 1 2 3
-4 - 3 - 2 - 1 . - - - - - - - - - -If
31<
--)t
2 y= 2sin- ' ( l - 2x)

-T
- Jt
" (g) - 2 S XS 2, 0 SJ S 2n 9 (a) x = O, I (b) x = 1.5 (c) x = - 0.47

y
10 (a) x = - ½, y = -j; (b) x = - },, y = :lf-
y 2,, 11 (a) LHS = sin (sin_, x) cos (cos-' x)
3;r
2
3,, - cos (sin- ' x)sin (cos-' x)
2
if
y = 2sin- 13x y = 2 c.os- 10.5x
= xx x - .Ji -x' x .Ji - x'
)t
= x' - (1 - x') = 2x' - l
2 ;r;
2 (b) - I SxSI
X
:. Osx' S I, OS zx' S 2,
-2
2--
- 1 Jt O 1 2 3 4
-2 -1 0 1 2
X
- 1 s2x' - 1s 1
-, (c) From (a) and (b), sin_, x - cos- ' x
--3,r2 = sin-' (zx' - I)
So the equation becomes
(h) - 1 s x s 1, - ns y s n sin-' (2x' - I) = sin- ' (Sx - 4)
(c) - 1 sxs o, - '{s y s '{ y
:. zx' - I = Sx - 4
31<
y
" This has solutions x = I, ½but the
" y = 2sin- 1(- x) domain is - IS xs I
2 y= 3 sin- '(2x+ l ) ?
Hence the only solution is x = I.
"
)t
0 X 12 f (- x) = tan ( cos_, (- x))
-2 -1 1 2
X
--" 2
= tan (n - cos-' x)
= - tan(cos- 1 x)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 - 1'
)t
= - f (x) :. odd function
2
-,, 13 y = 2cos ·; ,os x s3n, - 1SyS1
31< 0) Let a.= cos- ' xwhere OS as n, 14 (a) sin-'x+ cos-'x = ~ for - I SxS I,
2 i.e. cos a = x so the graph is:
From sin' a + cos' a = I:
y
1d) - l. <X < + I <- J < J ,r + I sin a = ± ./1- x'
\ 2 -
l. -
- 2•
, .•
2 - 2 " y= sin-I x+ cos- Ix
y
Which one? OS as n so "2
sin a = + ./1- x'
21' 0 X
3it
Hence y = sin (cos_, x ) becomes
y = sina,
-2 -1
--"2 1 2
2 - Jr
y= 3 sin- t 2x + l which becomes y = .Ji - x'
" i.e. a semicircle
"2 (b) J~ (sin- 1 x+cos-' x )dx
Domain - I S x S I, Range Osys I 1
0 X
y
-2 -1
--2Ji 1 2 3 4
.,..1--t-,.;,_
y = sin(cos-'x)
= Area of rectangle between interval
and x-axis = n
-,
CHAPTER REVIEW 5
--3Jt2 0 2 1 (a) vertex ( 1,- 9), intercepts (0, - 8),
-2 -1 1 X
(4, 0), (- 2, 0)
-1
(e) all real x, - ns yS n (b) x SI (c) y = i - .Jx + 9
y
3;r; (d) y
2
8 (a) Both have domain OS x S I,
·----------Jt -----------· range - n s y s n
Jt
2 y= 2tan- 1x (b) g(x) = 2sin_, (I - 2x) = 2sin- 1 (- [- I (- 9, 1)
X + 2x)) 0 X
-4 - 3 - 2 2 3 4 -8
2 = - 2sin- 1 (- 1 + 2x) = - f (x)
. - - - - - - - - - -Jt
3Jt
-T
-8
( 1, - 9)

(e) Intersect on line y = x. Solving simultaneously y = f(x) and (c) osxs 1, - ! sys~
y = x to find the point of intersection: )'
x - 3x - 8 = 0• x = 3 +m
1
2 ,r
2
But domain of/ is x SI :. a =
3
-{41 ,r
_, dy I 4
(f) For / - - - - ?==
' dx - 2../x+9
Evaluating this for x = - 3
F is very difficult.
-2 - 1
--
,r
4
0 1 2
X
Better method: use th e fact that at points of intersection of

/ and 1-•, product of their gradients is I .
For f, %= 2x - 2 . At T, x = 3 -{41,gradient of
1=2( 3 - F )- 2=1 - m )'
:. gradient of /- 1 at T= I = - l +m I ,r)
i- m 40 ( - ..,..,
2
2 (a) ; (b) ': (c) 1 {d) : (e) - ! (f) ¾ (g) 'ff ,r
2
3 (a) Both tan -' ¾and tan-' ½are between O and !
:. 0 < tan-
1
¾+ tan- 1 ½< ~ -2 -1 O .!_ 1 2
X
i.e. tan-' ¾+ tan-'½ is a first quadrant angle. 2
Now, tan(tan- 1 ¾+ tan-' ½l = 2

using tan (a + f3) expansion (e) -1sxs 1,0s y s 1
:. tan-1 ¼+ tan- 1 ½=tan-l2 y
2
1
(b) Both tan-'¾ an d tan- ½are between O and ; ,
and tan_, .l. > tan_, !.
4 2
:. O< tan- 1 ¾- tan-'t<; -2 -1 O I 2 X
i.e. tan-•¾ - tan-'½ is a first quadrant angle.

Now, sin. ( tan _, ' - tan _, 1.) -- , -&
4 2 25
5 y = - x - 1- 1
using sin (a - /3) expansion 6 )'
:. tan- 1 ¾- tan- 1 ½=sin- 1 \./j 4
2 ...,....___
4 (a) - 2SxS2, 0S y S21r
)'
0 ,r ,r 3,r
-2 2 2
-4
,r
2 7 (a) O<x < I
)'
0 X
-4 -2 2 4
,r
(b) OSxS I,- ! s y s; y = sin- 1 x

2
y
,r
-3 -2
_, 2 3 4
X
2
,r
(1, :) 2
-2 -1 0 X {b) (1,0)
1 2
-- ,r
4

(c) y = log,(sin- 1 x) - log,(cos- 1 x) 10 (a) incorrect (b) correct (c) incorrect (d) correct
11 2X 5! X 5! = 28800 12 (a) 12 (b) 128 13 216
:. dy = l + 1 14 (a) 120 (b) 2880 15 5! X4! X 2! X 3! = 34560
2
dx sin_, x .J1 -x cos-• x .J1- x 2 16 30240 17 (a) 1440 (b) 2520 (c) 720
Over the domain O< x < l , every factor in the expression 18 (a) 625 (b) 1250 (c) 1875
is positive :. :t > 0 for all x in the domain
19
(d) 625 (number ends in 12, 24, 32, 44, 52)
288 20 120 = 6x 5X4, r = 3 21 720
Hence the function is increasing for all x in the domain. 22 (a) 48 (b) 72 23 3600 24 144
(d) >' 25 3 26 4
27 RHS = rr ! +rx rr !
(rr-r)! (rr-(r- 1))!
_ n! + rx n!
(n - r) ! (n+ l - r)!
0 2 3 4 X
"I [
= (n+ l '...r)! n+l -r+r l
- ,r! X(n+ l ) = (n+ l )! = n+l p_ = LHS

(n+ l -r)! (n+ l - r)! '
28 RHS = (n - 2)! +2rx (n - 2)! + r(r - l)(n - 2)!

(n-2-r)! (n-2-(r- l ))! (n - 2-(r- 2))!
CHAPTER6 ( )•[ 1 2r r(r - 1)]
= n - 2 · (rr-r-2)!+(,r-r- l )!+ (n - r)!
EXERCISE 6.1
20 = ~n - 2;; [(n- r)(n - r - 1)+ 2r(rr - r)+ r(r - 1)]
1 5X2 = 10 2 72 3 5040 4 4 n- r .
3 2
5 45 6 A 7 26 x 10 x26 = 45697600 (n - 2) 1 [ 2 2 , 2 ]
8 6! = 720 9 (a) 60 (b) 120 = (rr-r)i 11 - 2,rr - n+r +r+2nr-2r +r - r
10 (a) 45697600 (n - 2)! n! n
(b) Answers will vary. It creates about 28 million more possible = ( n -r )'. Xn(n- 1) = (n -r )'. = P, = LHS
number plates. 29 2880; 864
9
11 40320 12 (a) 9x9! = 3265920 (b) 9 x 10
EXERCISE 6.4
EXERCISE 6.2
1 There are four suits, so four pigeonholes. You need to select five
1 60 2 D 3 (a) !~! ! = 90720 (b) 20 160
2 2
cards. 5
2 Each of the five cards can belong to one o f four suits. By the 4 (a) •p2 ~ ! = 720 (b) 72 5 (a) l81440 {b) l 440
2
pigeonhole principle, at least two of the cards must belong to the
6 (a) ' P2 X 8! = 141120 (b) 20 160
same suit: ¼= 1¼- 3!x 2!
3 There are th ree colours, so three pigeonholes. You need to select 7 (a) incorrect (b) incorrect (c) correct (d) correct
four socks. 8 37 800 9 35 10 (a) 1680 (b) 140
4 There are six pairs of shoes, so six pigeonholes. You need to take 11 840 12 2(,r - l )! 13 {a) 10! (b) 10! - 2 x 8!
seven shoes from the wardrobe. 4
14 4 or 4 + 48 + 36 + 144 + 24 = 256
5 Each student shakes hands with 24 other students, so there are
24 pigeonholes for 25 students, thus two students must have EXERCISE 6.5
shaken hands with the same number of students.
1 (a) 21 (b) 9 (c) 70 (d) 66 (e) 495 (f) 15 (g) 1
6 In a leap year there are 366 days, so 366 pigeonholes. Since there
are 400 students, then at least two of them will celebrate their (h) 15 (i) n(n2- l ) O) n(n - l )(n - 2)(,r - 3) (k) 1
birthday on the same day. 24
7 (a) Pairs of integers, 1 + 8 = 2 + 7 = 3 + 6 = 4 + 5 = 9. (I) rr(n - l )(rr-2) ...(n - k+l)
(b) There are four pairs of integers that add up to nine. There k!
are four pigeonholes, so you need to pick five numbers to be 2 (a) 252 (b) 167960 (c) 3 268 760
sure of having two numbers that add to nine.
8 There are 12 months (pigeonholes) and 13 people (pigeons), so (d) rr(n - l )(rr-2)(n-3)(rr-4) (e) 3003 (f) 31 824
by the pigeonhole principle two of the people must be born in 120
(g) 12870 (h) 17296
the same month.
3 •c 3 = 56 4 2598960 5 125970
EXERCISE 6.3 6 A 7 ' c 2 x'c3 = 40 8 20 9 1470
1 (a) 60 (b) 12 (c) 720 (d) 1680 (e) 9 (f) 3628800 10 (a) incorrect (b) incorrect (c) correct (d) correct
(g) n{n - 1) (h) n{rr - l)(n - 2)(,r - 3) 11 •c, x 1 = 56 12 (a) •c, = 10 (b) •c. + •c, + •c , = 140
2 (a) 120 (b) 24 (c) 40320 (d) 5040 (e) 60 (f) 7
13 (a) (~)-('~) = 4804 (b) (~•)+4(~•) = 21808
(g) 90 (h) n(n - I)
3 120 4 C 5 336 14 700 15 5x(': )(~)+ 5x('.~)(~) +5x (~•)(~) = 73080
3
6 (a) 2 x 4! = 48 (b) P2 X 3! = 36 16 (a) 280 (b) 742 17 595 18 98
7 (a) 4! x 5! = 2880 (b) 'P, x 6! = 8640 (c) 2 x 4! x 4! = 1152 19 (a) 720 (b) 45 20 1946 21 466
8 (a) 720 (b) 4! X 3! = 144 9 720,360 22 375 23 (a) 336 (b) 336 X 5! = 40 320

24 •c, x •c, x 7! = 756000, •c, x •c, x 4! x 4! = 86400 EXERCISE 6.6
25 7200, 'c, x ' c, x 3 x 4! = 4320 26 1440 4X "C, _ 33 I 'C, X 4 C I
1 (a) "c, - 16660 (b) 54145 (c) "c, ' = 108290
27 (n -4)(n - 5) = 30, n = 10 28 9 C4 X 'C, XI = 1260
.2_ _ .l.. 3
29 •c J +•c 2 +'cI = 92 2 D 3 9' - 81 4 I
720 5 (a) (i (b) 44
30 •c, x •c, x •c, x I + 4! = 105 3 1 2" - 2
6 149 7
'c, x •c, _ 2 8 19
32 (a) LHS = n! + n! 198 •c,x'c, - 7 10829
(n - r)!r! (n -r- l)!(r+ l )!
10 I I I I
_ n! [ I + I ] 7 11 3 12 35 13 17576000, 67600
- (n-r- l )!r! n - r r+I
14 (a) correct (b) incorrect (c) correct (d) correct
n! [ r + l +n-r ] I I
- (n-r- l )!r! (n-r)(r+l) 15 220 16 3
-~ (n+ l)Xn!
~~,...,_- -'--,-,--'-,- ~ ~ 17 (a) i x 4 x 4 - .!..Q_ (b) .!..Q_ 18
(n- r)X (n - r - l )!x (r + I) x r ! 9 8 7 - 63 21
- (n+l)! = "• 1c = RHS 19

•c, =-
3s
(n-r)!X(r+l)! ••• •c, + •c, + •c, + •c , s 1
(b) 21 0.041 96, 0.2517, 0.4196, 0.2398, 0.0450, 0.0020
LHS = n! +2x n! + n! I 5 25 25 5 I 5 3
(n - k)!k ! (n-k+ l )!(k- 1)! (n-k+2)!(k-2)! 22 132' 44' 66' 66' 44' 132 23 14' 4
I 67 27 128
= (n- kn; )! k! [(n-k+ 2)(n - k+ I)+ 2k(n - k+ 2) + k(k - 1)] 24 2 25 0.3412 26 165 225
2
n! [ , ] 28 (a) l x 4 = 2 (b) i (c) J... x l = ..i.. (d) .1...
= (n+2-k)!k! n +3n+2 2 9 9 9 10 9 45 45
= (n+2)(n+ l )Xn! = (n+2)! = "•'c = RHS

1
29 (a) ~ (b) ~ 30 (a) } 5 (b) j (c) is
(n+2-k)!k! (n+2-k)!k! I
31 32 (a) I (b) 2 (c) I
35 15 3 5
(c) RHS = n -r+ l x
r
n! = n!
(n - r+ l )!(r- 1)! (n-r)!r!
= "C = LHS
' 33 ~ 34 (a) }JJJ0 (b) 54 : 45 (c) ~~~g
(d) I I 4 I
m! m! n! n! 35 (a) "c. = 7059052 (b) C = 1764 763
44
RHS = (m -3)!3! + (m - 2)!2! X n+m x (n-2)!2! + (n-3)!3! 6
36 (a) 60 (b) 120
m(m-l)(m-2) m(m - l )Xn mxn(n - 1) n(n - l ){n-2)
= 6 + 2 + 2 + 6 EXERCISE 6.7
2 4 6
= i![
m' - 3m 2 +2m+3m 2n-3mn+3mn 2 - 3mn+n' - 3n 2 +2n ] 1 (a) I + 6x + 15x +20x'+ 15x + 6x' +x
(b) I + 8x + 28.x' + 56x' + 70x'' + 56x' + 28x6 + 8x7 + x8
= ; ![ m' + n' - 3m 2 - 6mn - 3n 2 + 3m 2n + 3mn2 + 2m + 2n] (c) I + 7b + 21b2 + 35b' + 35b'' + 21b5 + 7b6 + b7
(d) 1 + 6x + 12.x' + sx'
2
= ; ![ m' +n' - 3(m + n) + 3mn(m +n)+ 2(m + n)] (e) I + 20x+ 160x' + 640x' + 1280x4 + 1024x5
(f) I + 18x + 135.x' + 540x' + 1215x' + 1458x5 + 729x6
= ; ![(m+n)(m 2 - mn+n 2 ) - 3(m+n) 2 +3mn(m+n)+2(m+n)] (g) l - 3x + 3x' -x'
(h) I - Sa + 28a 2 - 56a' + 70a' - 56a' + 28a6 - 8a 7 + a•
= (m+n)[! (m+n), - 3{m+n)+2] (Q I - 8x + 24x' - 32x' + 16x'
3 2 3 4 5
(J) l +5x+5x +Sx +5x + £
= (m+n)(m+n- l )(m+n-2) = m+nc, =LHS 2 2 4 16 32
3! 5 -
(k) l - 2x+ _£_ , 20 ' s '' _ 2....
x + __!__ 2 • + ..!._
•
(e) 3 27 27 8 1 729
1
RHS = n! +3X n! +3X n! n Bx'
(' 1 1 + 2 x+ 5 + 2516x' + 16x' + 32x'
(n - r) !r! (n-r+ l) !(r- 1)! (n - r + 2)!(r-2)! 125 3 125
+ n! (m) I + 3.x' + 3x' + x• (n) I - 4x2 + 6x'' - 4x6 + x•
(n - r + 3)!(r - 3)!
(o) x ' +sx' + IOx+ .!..Q. + l + - 1
X Xl XS
= n'· (n -r+ l+3r)+ n'· [3(n - r+3)] 2 (a) 6 (b) 21 (c) 10 (d) 27 (e) 40 (f) 54
(n -r+ l)!r! (n-r+3)!(r-2)! +r-2 3 (a) 32 (b) - 64 (c) ~
n! [(n+2r+ l )(n -r+ 3)(n -r+ 2) ] 4 B 5 (a) ! Ox' (b) - 280a' (c) i 35 x'
- (n -r+ 3)!r! +(3n-2r+7)(r)(r- l ) 16
6 {a) 1+4✓ 2 +6X2+4X2✓ 2 +4 = 1 7+ 12✓2
n! [ , , ]
= (n _r+ ) , 1 n +6n +lln+6
3 .r .
{b) 1 - 3✓3 +3X3-3✓3 = 10 - 6✓3
(c) I + 6✓5 + 15 x 5 + 20X 5 ✓5 + 15X 25+ 6x 25✓5 + 125
= n!(n+ l )(n+2)(n+3) = (n+3)! = "+>c = LHS
(n-r+3)!r! (n+3-r)!r! ' = 576+256✓5
33 5 (d) I+ 6✓ 3 + 36+ 24✓ 3 = 37 + 30 ✓3
(e) 1 - 12 ✓2 + 1 08 - 216✓ 2 + 324 = 433- 228✓2
(f) I + 5 ✓3 ~ 15✓ 3 45 + 9✓
2 + 2 + 4 + 16 32
3 = 362 + 209✓
32
3

7 (a) ( I - 1~)6 6 (a) (~)(;)'(3n)' = t89:,',,' (b) (1i )(',•)'(;-;)6 = 6;3
z t - 0.6+0.15 - 0.02+0.0015 - 0.00006 + ...
(c) (~)a'(-;•)' = ',::' a 3b'1
~ 0.5314
(d) (;)x•-' ( :1)' = _ 11(n - 1)(: - 2)x•-•
(b) ( I - ; 0)' = I - 0.25 + 0.025 - 0.00125 + 0.00003+ ... z 0.7738
(c) ( I - 1:,_ )' = I - 0.04 + 0.0006 - ... z 0.9606 7 (a) (!)x•-• (! )', r= 3, coefficient = 56
(b) ( 1; )(2x') 12-'(- 3x)', r = 7,
EXERCISE 6.8
coefficient= - 11 x 28 x 39 = - 55427 328
1 (a) s + 12x + 6;e +x'
(b) 243 + 405x + 270K + 90x' + t sx' + x' (c) (~ )C3al'-, (-tr. r = 4, coefficient = 378
(c) b' + 8b3 + 24b' + 32b + 16
(d) ( 1; )c2a)13 -• ( ; )', r = 2,
(d) a' + 7a6 b + 2t a 5 b2 + 3Sa' b' + 35a'b' + 2la 2b5 + 7ab6 + b7
(e) ,? - 8x7y + 28x6/ - 56x'y' + 70x'1y'- 56x'y' + 28Ky6 coefficient = I 3 x 212 x 33 = 1437 696
- 8xy7 + y 8 2n ) 2n-(k+l)bk+ I _ ( 2n}! 2n-k-Jbk+I
(f) 27 - 27x + 9;e - x' 8 ( k+ I a - (k+1}!(2n-k- J}! a
(g) 256 - I 024a + t 792a 2 - t 792a3 + 1120a' - 448a'
+ tt2a6 - t6a7 + a•
(h) Sty' - 216/x + 216/;e - 96yx' + l6x' CHAPTE R REVIEW 6
0) x' - 4x' + 6 - ..!.. + - 1 1 tree diagram 2 (a) 24 (b) 256 3 120
x2 x◄
4 (a) 'P, = 840 (b) 7' = 2401
(j) x" +6x9 + t5x6 + 20x3 + t s + ..2... + - 1 4
5 (a) 3 X P3 + 4 X4! = 168
x3 x6
2 (a) 1 6+32✓2 +24 X2+8X2✓2 +4 = 68+48 ✓2 (b) 3 X 53 + 4 x 5' - I = 2874 (c) 108
6 (a) 30 240 (b) 240 7 210 8 3003
(b) 64 -48✓3 + 36 - 3✓3 = 100 - 51✓3 9 •c ,x•c , = 8820 10 (a) 142 506 (b) 20 11 48
(c) 8 + 24./lo + 300 + 200./lo + 750 + tso./lo + 125 12 (a) (:)x(!) = 1400 (b) 7! = 5040
= 1183+374./lo
(d) 25../s + 125✓3 + 150../s + 1 50✓3 +45 ../s + 9✓3
.... - ,
(d) 14'0 _ .l,
3
P.1 X 6 P
= 220../s + 284✓3 13 0.5
t x6! I
14 s r = s6 15
7 P,
' =-73
(e) 144 - 288 ✓6 + 1296 -432✓6 +324 = 1764 - 720✓6 ... gt
ll! - 9 800 (b) m; Xm; 4
(f) 36✓6 + 3(,(J ✓J + 720✓6 + 1440 ✓3 + 720✓6 + 288✓3 16 (a ) 2!2!2!2! - 24 4 ,.;,~.,, = 165
= 1 476✓6 + 2088✓3 •I.SC
3 (a) t s (b) - 84 (c) 7 17 t - -.,--2-=0.2174 18 (:) x(t )6 =
c, 1~
4 c 5 (a) St (b) 20 (c) ts .£... ~

7!
19 (a) ! ! = 1260
22 (b) "",7 " = l7
EXERCISE 6.9 2!2!
lx.6! S
1 (a) 10 (b) 70 (c) 210 (d) 35 (e) 126 (f) 455 (d) t - ; ; =-7
2 (a) I +6x+ 15K + 20x' + lSx'+ 6x' +x6 2!2!
(b) t6x' + 96x3y + 2l6x'y' + 2t6xy3 + Sty' 20 (a) (:) x(¾)'x(¼)' = ~~

(c) x10 + s,?a + t0x6 a' + tOx' a' + s;la' + a' (b) (: ) x(¾)' x(¼)' +(:) x(¾)x(+)' +(¼)6 = ,~.
(d) a6 + 6a'1+ t sa' + 2o + li2 + ..2... + - 16
a 4
a a (c) 1-(1.)•
4
-- ~ ◄096
(e) ,? - 12x6y 2 + S4x'y' - t08Ky6 + Sty• 9c ,

(f) 32a' _ 40a' + 20a 3
_ !Sa' + 135a _ 243
21 'C,(¼)'(¼)' = ,~. 22 (a) (~) = t820 (b) ¾= 130
243 27b 3b 2 b' Sb' 32b5 23 l~! =½
(g) t6y' -48 y'x' + 54y'x' - 27 yx 6 + s :; •

CHAPTER 7
(h) X 18 - 12 X 13 + 60 X • - 160 X , + -240 - -192 + -64
xi x1 x'2
EXERCI SE 7.1
0) a 10 t 5a8 b 45a6 b2 t3Sa' b' 40Sa'b' 243 s 1 C
32 - 16 + 4 - 2 + 2 - b
2 (a) !~ = 4 (b) 4cms-1 (c) A=(41+ 1)2 cm'
3 (a) 40 (b) - 12 (c) - t (d) 540 (e) 280 (f) - 48384 (d) dA = 32t + Scm's-1 JA = 32 x 5 + 8 = t 68cm 2/s
d1 , d1
4 (a) so;! (b) - t OSx (c) - x' (d) 540y'x' (e) 560x'/
(f) - t 08864x'z' 5 A 3 (a) 20 litres (b) V = 20t litres (c) 45 = 201, t = 2.25 minutes
4 (a) ~~ = 100000(I - ~) x(- ; 0 = - 25oo( I - ;0 ) Lper minute
1 1
(i) ~~ = - 2187.5 Lmin- (ii) •~~ = - 1875 Lmin-
(iii) :~ = - 1250 Lmin-1

(b) V = 12500 L (C) V
6
(c) 2sooo = soooo(1- ~.)'
s -------------------- ·
0.5 =(I - .:0 ) '
4
)- -'40 =-'Ji
3
I = 40( I - ;2) = 11.7 minutes 2
5 {a) I = 0, V = 1000 L {b) ~~ = :0 - 2
5 I
(c) I = 25, ·:,~ = 5~ - 2 = - I.OS Lmin-l

_,0 I 5 10 15 20 I
(d) s:O - 2 = 0, I = 1000 m inutes
-2
6 (a) 1= O' ddtV = -500
' = O· 002mLs-' {b) 1 = 60 seconds
-3
7 (a) ~,? = 31 2
- 121 + 12 -4
-s
1= 0.5, ~,? = 6.75 amp -6
{b) I = I, ~? = 3 amp (c) 5 C
4 C
(d) ~? = 0: 3(1 - 2) 2
= 0. t = 2 seconds 5 (a) v = 2 + ~(r+l
V
EXERCISE 7.2 3
1 (a) v = 6r - 101 - 4, a = 121 - 10
(b) I = 0, v = -4 m s-•, a = - 10 m s-'
(c) v = 0: 3r - St - 2 = 0
(3t+ 1)(1 - 2) = 0 2 --------
I = 2s
{d) a = 0: 121 - IO= 0
l = ls
6
I
v = 6x(l)'
6
- IOxl
6
- 4 = -S l.m
6
s- 1
x = 2X (6s)' - sx (s)' s ,s
6 - 4X 6 = - 5 54 m
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 I
2 (a) v = 3r - 7t - 6, a = 61 - 7
(b) v ➔ 2ms-'
(b) v = 0: 3r - 7t - 6 = 0
(3t+ 2)(1 - 3) = 0 (c) a = (,::r
I = 3 sec
a
(c) a< 0: 61 - 7 < O I
I< I¼ sec. During the first I¼ seconds.
(d) V
2
x=I ! 0 I 4 5 6 7 I
0 I I 2 4 t _,
I
-2
-4
-6 -2
-8
{d) Since I~ 0 th en (I + 1) 3 > 0 so a< 0 to all I~ 0.
- 10 6 A
7 (a) For A, 1 = 0: v = IOOkmh- 1• For B, I = 3,
\<\Then a < 0, th e velocity is negative, it is a decreasing v = 60 + 40e-3 ~ 62km h- 1
function reaching its least value when a = 0. {b) (Q a = - 40e-• (ii) a = 60 - v
(e) a> 0 when t >I¼- The velocity is now an increasing
function.
3 (a) 1= 0, v = - Sms-1
{b) v = 0: 5 = .~,
I= I
a = - '"-
(1+1)2 _,
l =l,a = Sms

(c) ll; EXERCISE 7.4
1 (a) N = 30 + Ae...,·"'• dN = - 0 4 Ae-o.◄ t, but Ae...,·" = N - 30,
JOO
dt .
so dN = - 04{N- 30)
90 dt .
(b) 34
80
dJ: = 0.2Ae
70
~
50
-----~-~_, _____ 2 (a) N = 40 + Ae0·",
so ft = 0.2(N - 40)
02
', but Ae0·" = N - 40,
(b) 113.9
40
30
3 ~~ = - k(T - 50), f} = k(T-~ SO)' T ;o 20
20 1= - .l J I d1 = - .l log (T - SO)+ C, T>50
k T - 50 k e
IO - k(t - C) = log, (T - 50), T - 50 = e·•<•-C)•
T = 50 + Ae-,1' where A= e·•C
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 I 1= 0, T = 120: A = 70
As t increases, the velocity approaches 60 km h" 1 from above.
I = 10, T = 70: 70 = 50 + 70e·'""'• k = 1~ log.. 3.5 = 0.125,
T = 50 + 70e-o.u,,
8 (a ) x(t) = 2(1 - e_,), x(t) = 2e· 1 • x(I) = - 2e· 1
x(OJ = o, x (OJ = 2, x(O) = - 2 (a) 1= 20: T = so + 1oe·2·• = ss.7°C
(b) x(I) (b) T = 60: 60 = 50 + 70e...,·""• e-o.1251 = ·h
2 - - - - - · __:.
· ;.· =
· - - 0.1251 = 1n 7,t = 15.6min
4 B
5 (a) 1= 0, T = 1230: RHS = 30 + 1200 x I = 1230 = LHS
dT = - 1200ke·•• = - k(T - 30)
I • dt
1
(b) I = 10, T = 1030: 1030 = 30 + 1200e· ""', k = 1~ ln(t)
1= 20: T = 30 + 1200e-21n(i)
• = 30+1200x (¼)' = 863.3°C
0 1 23451 (c ) 80 = 30 + 12ooe•kr, i' = 24, kt = In 24, t = LO111 24 = 174 min

lnl.2
(c) I = 2(1 - e_,) = 2h54min
e·' = 0.5 6 (a) 1= 0, T = 20: RHS = - 10 + 30x I = 20 = LHS
,! = 2 ~~ = - 30ke.i, = - k(T + 10)
t = In 2 z 0.693
9 (a) correct (b) incorrect (c) incorrect (d) correct (b) I = 5, T = 15: 15 = - 10 + 30e·'', k = ¼ln(t)
10 (a) x = ';-1•1 (b) x = 2t - 121 2
I = 10: T = - 10 + 30e-2ln(! ) = - 10 + 30X (¾)'
11 a = 121+6
12 (a) v = 25 - 10t,x = 25t - St' (b) 31.25m (c ) l = l.25s = 10.i.6 ~ 11°c
13 (a) v = 30 - 10t (b) h = 30t- St2 (c) t = 3,h = 45m (d) 6s 7 (a) 1= 0, T = 180: RHS = 60+ 120 x I = 180 = LHS
14 a = 6t - 2
~~ = - 120ke•kr = - k(T - 60)
EXERCISE 7.3 (b) I = I, T = 120: 120 = 60 + 12oe·\ k = ln2
Logarithm values are approximate.
T = 90: 90 = 60 + 120e-.1', e·•• = ¼
, 1 = ::; = 2min
1 y = se"' 2 B 3 Q = soe•·•• 4 y = 2oe·"
11
5 M = IOe-0·• 6 A = 1000, k = 0.5 7 A = 200, k = 0.4
8 (a) correct (b) incorrect (c) correct (d) correct 8 fr = ! x (o -(- fe·i)) = fe·f
9 P = 1oooooe0·0 ' " 1 o (a) 'lit =0.23N (b) 8 x 10·1 (c) 6
11 k = )600'
lnl 4 24% But e..Jl!. Ri di E( Ri)
L = I - E so dt = L I - £
'
12 (a) 16500 (b) 13.86 min (c) (i) 824/min (ii) 1000/min di = E - R1· or
Hence L di L dt
di + R.1 = E
13 (a) ;,(V0e•k~ = - kV0e•kr = - kV (b) k = ¼log..(f), ~
9 (a) .dll = A(O+ ke·••) = kAe·"
(c ) 0) 0.032V0 m 3 min_, (ii) 0.043V0 m 3 min·' d1
14 (a) 50 (b) 0.1 (c ) 2 years But A - V = Ae"'' so~ = k(A - V)
15 (a) 5000 (b) 2 (c ) IOOOOcoulombspersecond (b) If total volume = B, then at I = 5: V = !
16 (a) N = IOOOe0· ' " (b) 4.62 h, 300/h
17 (a) k = ,;,0 1n('t)z0.004 (b) 173m
.B. = A(I - e•'k) e•Sk = 4A - B e" = 4A
4 ' 4A ' 4A-B'
18 (a) k = ~~ln{f) z -0.02 (b) 35 k =.l ln( 4 A )
5 4A-B
19 m = Me•k•, 6.9 20 (a) 80 (b) (ij 51.25°C (iij 14.8min
21 16000 22 70 days 23 59%

At l = IO: (c) dlt = 9.6 = ..l...
di n: X 16 Sn
V = A( l - e- 101 ) = A( 1- e-2ln(,!~. ))
dy - 41 ( I + 12 )' 21
6 (a) - = - - - x ~ - - - - -
= A( 1- e'•('t;•)' ) = A( 1- ( 4 ~~ B)') = ~ - 1~ x !
dx ( I + 1' )' 2 ( I - 1' ) t' - I
d'y - 2(1 2 + 1) ( 1+ 12 ) ' - (t'+ 1)'

Now B = }~(A(l - e- 1' )) = A
(b) - , = 2 X ( 2) = ,
dx (1' - 1) 2 1- 1 (1' - 1)
so 11= I and V = ..8. _.ll. = 7 B d 3( 1+ 12 )
A 2 16 16 7 (a) ~ = (3 + 31')x 21 ~ 4 - 2(1 + 2)
Increase in volume = 78 - 11= 38
16 4 16' dy 3(t + t' )
fraction filled in next 5 minutes = 1~ (b) dx = I: 2(t + 2) = I
3 + 3r = 21 + 4
(c) lim V = lim( A( l -
t~ ,~-
e_., l) = Alim (1- e_.., ) = A
r~ 3r - 21 - I= 0
{3t + l)(t - 1) = 0
10 (a) dx = k(20 - 2x), li!...=
d1
I
dx k(20 - 2x) ,,
I = - !. I
1= - 1 J I dx = - - 1 log (10 - x) + C
2k 10 - x 2k '
t=- t:x=¼- t =- '91
1= 1: x =l + 4 = 5
t = O x = 0· 0 = - - 1 log IO+ C C = - 1 log 10
' . 2k ' ' 2k ' C li!..._ 3(t' +41- 1)
1= - - 1 loa (IO- x)+ - 1 log 10 - 2kl = loa( 10 - x) (l dx - 4(t + 2)'
2k "' 2k ' ' "' 10 '
di = 3; V = ,I n:It' ' dV
8 r = It' dV dlt = n:It'
IO- x = e_,., x = IO(t - ['k')
10 ' dV = dV x dlt , dlt _ _ 3_
(b) I = 5, x = 2: 2 = 10(1 - e_'..), e_, .. = 0.8, k = ,~ log, 1.25 di dlt d1 d1 - n:li'
x =I O( 1- e..l.J
5 og, l25 )
· lt = n: dlt =..l... ems- '
di n'
-Lios,
5 u s) -.!.iog,us
5
9 dx _ l y _ 6 y _ 3x dy _ dy x dx _ 3x 1-1 sms-•
Wherex = 9: 9 = 10 ( 1- e ,e = ~,
1 dt ' y - x 2' 2 ' dt dx di 2 .
Length of shadow = y - x
e.!.1
5 og, '·" = 10 .!. log 1.25 = log 10 t = 5 log' I0 = 51.6min
But y- x = y .sl..cy - x) = l xdy =!.x i 5 = OSms- 1
•s e r • loge 1.25
3 ' d1 3 d1 3 · ·
*
11 (a) dy = - ke_.., but e-kt = y - 3 so El_ = - k(y - 3)
di di
(b) k = 0.08 (c) y = 3.5: = - 0.08(3.5 - 3) = - 0.04 gfh 6
(d) 1=0, y = 4, limy = lim (3 +e-o.os, ) = 3,
,~- ,~
hence 3 <yS 4
I· X
EXERCISE 7.5 t - - - - -y - - - - - 1
1 C 10 C
2 dy _ - 3 _ -3M 11 -dy - -;===
-x dy -x
- - -;===== X 4
dt- ✓119 - 119 dx - .J4 - x ' ' dt - .J4 - x '
3 V = 1nx2(60 - x): V = 1 <60x2 -X") dy -4 4✓3
x = l : 7t= ✓3 = --3-
1
~~ = (120x - 3x )
2
12 ~ cm/ min 13 12
8
dV _ dV xdx
at- dx dt 14 (a) r = I 0: ~f
= - 1 radians per second
~~ = 2n: 2n =~(120x - 3x2) x ,Z (b) r = 10· dA = - SO em's-•
. di
dx 6n: , ., .J , dy
15 x + J' = 25, y = 25 - x , -d = .J
-x
,
d1 = n: (12ox - 3x' ) X 25 - X 2
- - -6- - dx = I, x = I; at I = 4, x = 4
3(40x - x') d1
---- 2
x(40 - x)
dy dy dx -X -4
- = - X- =,==== Xl =,======= - f ms
d1 dx dt .J
2s - x' ./2s - 16
-I
4 (a) dy = dy X di = 41 X !. = I
dx dt dx 4
5
(b) dy = t, I = X > so dy = X y dx
- - =I
dx 4 dx 4 dt
5 (a) V=l irr'1t: V = n: x(")' x lt = nit' X
3 3 4 48
(b) dlt = 9.6
d1 nit'
16 dV = 9 11:h' x 2=288ncm 3/ min ~-
(b) " - 30°' dV
di
= n 'h dV = nh' tan ' 30° = l.n;h
" n' dh 3
2
'
dt 16
n✓ h = l.nh2 x dh
17 dP = - 4480 x 5 = _5.!.l.
32
g/cm' ' di
dt 32'-'
18 Atx= JOO: 4 = JOO x dx dx =2✓3ms-' Ath = 9: ~~ = ''ff = ¼em s-'
✓7500 di' dt
CHAPTER REVIEW 7
19 V = 3, 11:1I ' , dV dh = n h' , h =I 0
di =4, dV
1 (a) O (b) a= 1•- 2 •'. (c) 1=3 (d) 1= 3, v = ½ms- 1
(a) ~7 = 2 ~n cm/ min (b) A= nh
2
, ~~ = 0.8cm2/min
(•+1' )
2 (a) A = 124 million, k = ½log.. ( ~:) z 0.072
. . s(log, 75 - l<>s, 31)
20 Atx = 24: dy = 480 = 19.2 m/min (b) 273m1lhon (c) 1= 1oS, ss-11>$" = 12.3, 2013
di ✓625 ,
dt = 45✓2km/h
21 (a) At I= J·. dD 3 (a) 1=20min (b) t = 22min
4 B
dt = 50 km/h
(b) At I = I·. dD 5 A = 5000, k = ¼In 2, N = 5000e21"' = 5000e1" 4 = 5000 x 4 = 20000
22 At I= 2: dD = 5 x 96 z 43.l km/h 6 k= I , N,,
40 2
' 2= e•
= N0 e.....,, .!..
, 1= 40 In2 ~ 2s d ays
di ..frn 7 1=0' M = A·k ' lnlll
' = -◄00
23 V = ½nh', ~ii= nh
2
, ~i; = 0.2✓h 9
M = A X e·'a''•'f = Ae's t• ;\- = A(,~)

25
~ 0.768A; 77%
dh = 40n
Ath= 4·· Tt 1 m/ min
8 ';fr = 0.1, V= nr'h, h constant:~~ = 2nrh
dy - 1
24 y = J0, x = 8: dr =l.6 ems dV = dV X dr. dV = 2nrh x O I = ·•"'
di dr di· di · s
d1 -_..i_
25 -_o·16 m/ min
25 Ath= 4·. dh h = JO ' r= 2·. dV dt = 4n cml min
26 0.0732 m/min 9 r -_ h2' V --l.3 "-r' /, -.l. -h' dV - l.-/1' dV -4=
- 12 " ' dh - • " ' di - ,.
27 (a) Area= 60 sin 0
dV dV dh . , 2 dh dh _ I6
d (Area) _ d0 = d (Area) _ 4
dt - dh x di . 11: - • nh x di ' di - h'
d0 - 60 cos 0 ' di 0 .1' di - 6 cos 0
0 -- n . d(Area) - 3cm' s-'

h = 3: ~7 = 1
: cm/h
3 · d1 - . 10 (a) ~f = - k(T - 15), T = 25 + Ae-,1'
(b) Cosine rule: BC = ✓244 - 240cos0 , 1=0, T = JOO:A = 75, T=15 +75e-•'
I= 3, T = 75: 50 = 75e-'\ k = ½inf = 0.135
.E....( BC) = 120sin0
d0 ✓244 - 240cos0 (b) I= 8: T= 25 + 75e-8k,
8
.!!_(BC) = J20sin0 XO.I 1
di ✓244 - 240cos 0 T = 15 + 75e "H)' = 25 + 75 X ( 1)1= 50.4°C
12sin 0 11 T = A - Be_._,,.,_t = 0, T = 3°C. A = 24°C
- ✓244 - 240cos0 3 = 24 - B
6 ✓3 B = 21
0 = n: .!!...(BC) = = 3 ✓3 ems-' T = 24 - 2le-o.o,u
3 d1 ✓244 - 1 20 ..f3i
T = 8°C: 8 = 24 - 2Je-on,u
28 (a) V - .:!.nr' dV - 4nr 2 dV - -4knr2 2 1e_._.., = 16
- ' ' dr - ' di -
dV = dV X dr -4knr' = 4 11:r' x dr dr = - k
e-o.o,tr =~21
di dr di' dt ' dt
- 0.04t = log,( \~ )
(b) 1=0, r = 1cm; I= JO, r = 0.5cm
I= 25 log, ( /; ) ~ 6.8 minutes
'!ft = O.io I = -0.05, r = - 0.05t + C
I = C, r = I - 0.05t 12 8 x = 40t: !; = 40
29 (a) dV - 4n r' - S dV - dV x dr dV - S x dr
y =56t - 16t': t =56 - 321
dr ' di dr di ' dt d1 dy dy d1 8( 7 - 4t) 7 - 41
dx = dt X dx = 40 = 5
(b) ~~ =- 3, r = 24
13 p - JOO. dP _ - JOO
0) r = - 3t + C; t = 0, r= 24; C = 24, r = 24 - 31 --v-;:w - V'
r = 3, I= 7
dP = dP x dV. dP = - JOO x 4
Qi) V = 2304n; r = I 2, 12 = 24 - 3t, I = 4 dt dV Tt· Tt V2
30 (a) V =½nr 2h; r=htana: dJ!.. _ -400
dt - V '
V =½n(htan a )' h 2
dy 2( 1 + I) t' t' + I
= ½n/1 3 tan' a 14 (a) dx = 2 X ( ) -
I 21 2 - 1 t2 - 1
d ' = -41 X
(b) ___L I2 = - 21 3
r 2
dx ' (1' - 1)' 2(1 - 1) (1' - 1)'

15 dV _ 4 :n:,' x dr dr _ 100 _ I I . EXERCISE 8.2
dt - dt' dt - 4:n: X25 - :n: cm mm 1 (a) ; , '••, ': , '.' {b) o, ;, :n:, 2:n: (c) o, 2:n:
16 A = :n:r', ddA = 2:n:r, ddr = ...i.. m/min (d) o' ''6 ' :n: ' ' 6
" ' 2n (e) L6 )ll.6 ) '•6 )lll.
6 (f) o' 4
JL ' "''
- '4 ' ' 2-
r t :n:r #1,
2 C 3 (a) ,.. i l {b) 5.. 7• lll. (c) 1!.. ,. {d) 1!. , . i1!..
17 (a) 15 units/s {b) 3 units/ s J ) J 2'6'6 2'2 2)J)J
4 (a) 68° 12', 108° 26', 248° 12', 288°26'
18 At x= 8: ~~ = 0.1ems-' {b) 90°, 2 16° 52', 323° 8'
19 Atx = b dx = _ .£... 5 A 6 (a) L6 ' 1L,1' '6
' ' '6 'u
• ' '<1' ' 6 {b) o, 2• , 2" , 2tr
2 ' dt al
EXERCISE 8.3
Level is falling at :, m/ min.
20 V = f:n:r', ~r = -4k:n:r2 where k is a constant
1 (a) x = 0.262, 3.403 {b) x = 1, ·: (c) x = 2.203, 5.344
(d) x = 0.916, 4.058 (e) x = 0.2928, 2.849, 3.434, 5.990
dV = 4 :n:,' dV = dV x dr (f) x = 0.3982, 2.716, 3.540, 5.858
dr , dt dr dt 17
2 (a) x = !!.. ''
◄' <I
{b) x = .!!.. l!!. '" •
-4k:n:r' = 4:n:r' x dr dr = - k 12' 12' ) 2 ' 12
dt' dt (C) X = .<!. 5..
7
• i1!.. (d) x = 0.3649, 1.2059, 3.5065, 4.3475
Radius decreases at a constant rate. 6'3 ' 6'3
21 Similar triangles: Y = .!, y = 24 dy = _ 24 (f) x = 0, : , n, s: , 2n

6 x x ' dx x'
dy = 3 dy = dy x dx 3 = _ 24 x dx 3 (a) X = 0, f, 7r, • :
2
, 2:n: (b) x= 1L
6' ' 6' , '2•
dt ' dt dx dt ' x' dt
y=4, x=6: ';f;
= -4.Scms-' (c) X -- O''" •• z3•"
,3,z,3,'lf,3, , 3, 2n
(d) x-O
- ,
1t 1t
6 ' 3 , 2• J ,
1t itr sJC
6, n,
, ,, ,n- 3JT
6, J , 2, 3,
sJC 11n-
6 , 2n
CHAPTERS 4(a) X -- o••
, -;r,2, 4Jz , n (b) X -- O' IT•
• 12•
" 12•
'' U'" • n
EXERCISE 8.1 (C) x -- ozz<U 5Z • 'IC

, 6• T • T • T • T (d) x = ; , :n:
1 (a) ✓2 sin(x+1) (b) 2✓3sin(x + :) Only solutions in the given domain are x = ; , :n:
(c) 13sin (x+ 67° 23') {d) ✓Ssin(x+26°34') 5 (a) X = 0.2940, J.8648, 3.4356, 5.0064
{b) x = 0.9424, 2.1991, 4.0840, 5.3407
2 (a) 2sin(x - 1) {b) ../13sin(x-S6°! 9')
x = 0.3141, 2.8275, 3.4557, 5.9690
(c) .Jssin( x - 26°34') (d) 3✓2 sin( x - ~) (C) X = 0, 7r, 2:n:
3 (a) ✓2cos(x- ; ) {b) 25cos(x - 16° 16') {d) x = 0, :n:, 2:n: or x = 0.9ll 7, 2.2299, 4.0533, 5.3714
(c) 4cos(x - 1) (d) ../13cos( x-33°4!') 6 (a) x = O,~, :n: (b) x =1 ,':
4 (a) ✓2cos( x+~) {b) 2cos(x +1) (c) x = - ;so no solution in the given domain.
7 (a) x = 0.6435 {b) x = 0.3629, 2.1351 (c) x = 0.8751, 3.1937
(c) ./65 cos(x + 7°8') (d) .../34 cos( x+ 30° 58')
5 B
(d) X = !!.. !!.. ,. ,.
,p 2' 4 ' 2
6 (a) (i) 2, ': (i0 - 2, ' ~• (b) (i) ✓2 ,: (i0 -✓ 2 , ••• 8 acos8+ bsin 8 = c
a b . c
(c) (0 4, 1 ~• (i0 -4, ••• (d) (i) 13, 22• 37' (i0 - 13, 202• 37' COS 8 + -;====Sill 8 =-;:====
7 (a) o,; , 2:n: (b) 1 (c) 33°41' (d) ; , :n:
Ja' + b' J
a' + b' a' + b 2 J
{e) I 56° 52', 276° 52' (f) 138°24', 295° 20' (g) 'f
cos(8 - a) = c where<X =tan- 1 (b).
{h) ; , :n: (0 -76°43', 1so 0 21' 0) 95• 16', 1ss0 16'
Ja 2
+b' a
8 If a' + b' < c' then Ja' + b 2
< c and c >J
2
)'
Ja' +b'
✓3 Hence cos ( 8 - a) > I which is not possible as by
I definition - 1 :s cos x s I.
Hence equation has no real roots if a'+ b2 < c2.
0 ' X
2Jt
' 9 The angles are 53° 8', 53° 8', 73° 44'.
_, ' 10 (a) x = 2,3 (b) x= - 1,¼
11 (a) cos38 = cos(28+8)
-2
= cos28cos8 - sin28sin 8
= (2cos2 8 - I) cos8 - 2sin 8cos8 sin 8
(a) L6 > ll.
2 (b) 0 :S x < : , ': < x S 2:n: = 2cos 3 8 - cos8 - 2sin2 8cos 8
9 )' = 2cos 3 8 - cos 8 - 2cos8(1 - cos' 8)
2
= 2cos 3 8 - cos8 - 2cos8+ 2cos3 8
= 4cos 3 8 - 3cos8
I
{b) Let x = cos 8: 2(4x - 3x) = ./3
3
4cos 8 - 3cos8 = Jf
3
0
-n
" 1' X
cos38 = -If
' '
3 8 = 1!.. l!.:!. BJT
-1 6' 6 , 6
8= .!!... l lJr 13R'

)8' 18 ' )8
(a) - n, - ; , :n: (b) - ; :s x s :n:, x = - :n: X = COS 1L
18'
COS Jl,r COS
18 '
JJJf
JS

12 (a) tan (38) = tan (28 + 0) (b) (Q 8=0, ;, 2; , 11:, 1, s: (..II) 8 = 0 , 3• , T
, . • 1C
tan 28 + tan8 (...
111) 8 = 0 , 5, . , z,
• ••
T • 1C (.IV) 8 - 0 , 7" • T'" • T• '" n
" T•
l - tan28tan8
19 (a) 2cos 8cos I/> = cos (8 + I/>)+ cos(8 - 1/))
'"":8 ) + tan8
( 1-ttn Let A =8 + ,t>and B=8 - ,f>
1- ( I-tan
' "'": 8 ) x tan8 A + B= 8, A - B =I/>
2 2
2tan8 + tan8 - tan 3 8 8 8
Hence cos A + cosB = 2cos( A; )cos( A; )
1- tan' 8 - 2 tan' 8
3tan8 - tan' 8 (b)(i'
., x -.!!..
- 6' '"6 ,
1
6• ' '2" ' ' '6"
l - 3tan 2 8 ••) _ It 3JI' _ 0 fl fl 3>'! S K 3>'f 7,r 2
(b) Use this result to show that tan 15° = 2 - .fj_
(
II X- z, z, or x - ' ◄ '2' ◄ 'n, 4 •2• "' 1C
(
jjj) x- It SR' ,r 1t 3Jt 3>'! Sn- 7 1l 9Jt IJ>'f UJI' ISJf
Justify your answer. 4' 4, S' 2' i ' 2 ' 8 ' S' ti ' i ' 8 , i
Let 8 = 15° so 38= 45° and tan 38 = I.
3 CHAPTER REVIEW 8
1 = 3tan8 - tan 8
l - 3tan 82 1 (a) cos8 - ./3 sin(:/ = 2cos( 0 + 1) (b) 2cos(0+ l) = I, 8 = •;
l - 3tan2 8 = 3tan8 - tan 3 8 2 (a) 5 s in (x + 0.927) (b) 0.64 (c) nn+( - 1)" x·;-o.927
tan' 8 + I - 3tan2 8 - 3tan 8 = 0
(tan 8 + ! )(tan' 8 - tan 8 + 1)- 3tan 8 (tan 8 + I) = 0 , , 1-cosf 1- -j; ✓ 2 - 1 (✓2 - 1)'
3 tan•= ! +cost - l+-j; - ✓2 +1 - I
(tan 8 + ! )(tan' 8 - tan 8 + I - 3tan 8) = 0
(tan8 + l )(tan2 8 - 4tan8 + 1) = 0 tan!= ✓ 2 -l
tan8= - l , tan8 = 4 + ✓; 6 - 4 = 4 +;.fj = 2± .fi. 4 cos3 8 = cos(28+ 0)
= cos28cos 8 - s in28sin 8
SinceO < tan 15° < I, then tan 15° =2 - .fi. = 2cos3 8 - cos8 - 2sin2 8cos 8
(c) Use the expansion of tan (45° + 30°) to find the exact value
= 2cos3 8 - cos8 - 2cos 8 + 2cos3 8
of tan 75°. Compare this answer to the other result obtained = 4cos3 8 - 3cos 8
in (b). 3
tan 75° = tan (45° + 30°) Now8cos 8 - 6cos8 + I = 0
4cos3 8 - 3cos8= - ½
tan 45° + tan 30°
I - tan 45° tan 30° Hence cos38 - -t 39 _ \,r, 8 _ <1;, s;
2 ;r,
3
8
; ,
1
; ,
l +f, x =cos 19
1t cosil cos s.T
' 9' 9'
or x =-cosL cos 2 cos ◄Jt
9 , 9,
Jf
9
J - ...l...
Jj (a) sum of roots: cos 2; + cos"; - cos; = 0,
- ✓3 + 1 cos 29Jf + cos.!!.
9
= - cos!:!.=
9
cos.!:.
9
.fi- 1 (b) sum of products of pairs of roots:

-coslLcos 2,r + cos 2·'t cos!.B:. -coslLcos 4·'t - - 2
9 - ◄
(.fi+ 1)' cos Leos
9 9 9 9 9
lJt + cos.!:.cos ◄Jr = 1. + cos ix cosil

9 9 9 9 <1 9 9
3- 1
4 + 2 ✓3 -il+= '· =4cos.£.cos3
9 9 1 1t cosil + =.!!..9
2 • • •
=2 + ✓3 sec 4,f!t + sec 191t = ~ + sec; from product of roots,
4 x-.
Thus the other root from the quadratic in (b) is the exact
value of tan 75°.
se.c ◄; +sec 1: =6 +sec ~
(c) product of roots: (-cos;) cos ';' cos"; = -½
13 (a) 8 = 0°, 126° 52', 360° (b) 8= 77° 38', 344° 16' 21t cos ◄Jf = 1. secL se.c 21t sec.!!.= 8
So cos£.cos
9 9 9 9 . 9 9
(c) 8 = 103• 18', 330° 26' j )
14 (a) x = 0, ; , 211: (b) x = 0.082, 3.627 (c) x = 1.69, 5.88 (d) sec"; + sec '." - se.c; = 6
(sec ◄: +se.c 2,: - sec :)2 = 6 2
15 (a) x = O, 1, ' f , 11: sec2 .!:!. + sec2 21t + sec2 L
(c) x = O, ~, ': , 11:
• • •
+ 2(sec 29-T se.c 49.1t - secltsec
9
2 -T - sec Lsecg) = 36
9 9 9
1
16 (a) 8 = ; , ~;, :: (b) 8= ~, ':; 1 + tan 2 4
•
.1t + 1 + tan 2 ll
•
+ 1 + tan 2 £.
9
(c) 8 = ,;, ': (d) 8=!.!!..

18, ''"
18
c.osA9 -cosAL9 - c.oslL
9 )
+2( = 36
cos llcos .1t cos~
2
17 (a) x = O, ; , 11: (C) X = 1 • • •

tan ; + 2
+ tan ◄; = 33
tan2 29x 2
18 (a) 2sin 8cos I/> = sin (8 + I/>)+ sin (8 - ,f>) 5 8=L 2x 3,r .!:!. g ix
4 ' 3 ' ◄ '3 ' ◄ ' ◄
Let A =8 + ,t>and B = 8 - ,p
A + B= 8, A - B = I/>
2 2

6 (a) cos (2A + B) = cos 2A cos B - sin 2A sin B 4 For S{k + I):
= (2cos2 A - l) cosB - 2sin A cosAsinB LHS = 2 + 5 + 8 + ... + (3k - I) + (3k + 2)
Let A = B = 8 : = k(3k+ I) + 3k + Z
cos38 = 4cos' 8 - 3cos8 2
¼cos38 = cos3 8 - ¾cos(:/ = (k+ l ){3k +4) = RHS
{b) 27:<' - 9x = I can be written as ',,7 x 3 -¾ x = ½or 2
(2!.)3
2
_.lxl:!.
◄
- -b
2 - 8
5 n = I: LHS = a. RHS = ½x 2a =a = LHS. Result is true for n = I
3
so let { = cos(:/ or x = fcos0
S(k) = ~(2a + (k - l )d),S(k + I) = (k;l) [2a + kd]
cos3 8 - ¾cos9 =½ , ¼cos39 =½,cos30 = ½
38 -- ~3 , 53
Jf 7,'f 9 - lL S,'f i ll
S{k + I) = a + (a +d) + (a + 2d) + ... +(a + (n - l)d)+ (a + kd)
,3, - 9,9 , 9
2 It 1 5Jf 2 7,r = ½(2a +(k - l )d) + (a + kd)
Roots are x = 3COS9, 3COS9 , 3COS T
k(2a + kd - d )+ 2(a + kd )
Product o f roots·· 23 cosL 9 x i3 cos ~
7
9 x i3 ,os 91t -
- -'
27
2
cosl!.9 cos s.'f
9
cos 79,'f --1.8
2ak + k' d - kd + 2a + 2kd
1
Now cos = cos~ = ½ so
; - 2
cosl!.9 cos ~cos
9
5
9
Jf cos 1L -
9 -
l.
I
x 1.2 -- .l.
16
k' d + kd + 2a + Zak
7 tan a + tan/3 + tany= a + I 2
tan atan/3 + tanj3tan y+ tan y tan a = c - a kd(k + I)+ 2a (k + I)
tan Cl tan /3 tan y= C - 2
tana+ tan /3+tany - tana tan/3tan y
tan( a +J3 +y ) = - ~ -----'~ --½-- - - ' - - - ' - ~ = (k; l ) [2a + kd] = RHS
1-(tana tan/3 + tanj3 tany + tany tan a )
_ a + l- c _
- 1- (c-a) - 1 6 n = I: LHS = a. RHS = a(, - I) =a = LHS. Result is true for n = I
, - 1
a + J3+r = nn + 1
a(,• - 1) a(l•' - 1)
8 cosSx = cos(~ -x) S{k) =~ - ~. S(k + I) = ~ - ~
r- 1 r- 1
S{k + l) = a + ar + ar'+ ... +a/- ' + al
Sx = n2-'
x 2n - (n2 - x) , 2n + (n
2 - x) , 4n - ( n2- x)
'
(r_•_-_1_,_) + al
= _a..,.
4n+( ~ -x) ,- 1
n 3n Sn 7n 9n _ a(r< - 1)+ark(r - l )
6x = - , 4x = - , 6x = - . 4x = - , 6x = -
2 2 2 2 2 r- 1
x = IE... 3n: Sn 3n: 7 n: ar" - a + ark+I - ar"
12' 8 ' 12 ' 4 ' 8 . - r- 1
x+,• x-y
9 (a) x = A + B,y =A - BsoA = 2 ,B = - 2- a(r••I - I)
= -'----'-- = RHS
(b) sin28 +sin 8 + sin38 = 0 r- 1
sin 28 + 2sin 28 cos 8 = 0 7 For S{k + I):
sin28 ( 1 + 2cos8) = 0 LHS = I + r + ,' + ,3 + ... + /- 1 + /
sin 28 = 0 or cos 8 = - 0.5 1-,·
= -'-c--'-- + i
1- ,
28 = 0, n:, 2n: or8 = 2; , 4;
_ 1- r" + r" - ,1c+ t
I- r
8 -- 0, 2/[ , 32>'f , n
k+ I
- I -r = RHS
1-r
CHAPTER 9 8 11 = I: LHS = 2. RHS = I X; X 3 = 2 = LHS. Result is true
Many of the p roofs below are not complete: in most cases only the for n = I
outline of the p roof of S(k + I) is given. For more complete solutions,
see the Student Worked Solutions book. S{k) = k(k + l )(k + 2l_s(k + I) = (k + l)(k + 2)(k + 3)
3 3
EXERCISE 9.1
S(k + I) = I x 2 + 2 X 3 + 3 x4+ ...+ k(k + I) + (k + l)(k + 2)
1 D
2 For S{k + I): = k(k + l)(k + 2) + (k + l ){k + 2)
LHS = I + 2 + 3 + ... + k + k + I 3
= k(k+l) + k + I _ k(k + l)(k + 2) + 3(k + l)(k + 2)
2 - 3
= (k+l)x(k+2) = RHS = (k+ l )(k + 2)(k + 3) =RHS
2 3
3 For S(k + I):
LHS = I + 2 + 4 + ... +2k• l + 2•
9 11 = !
I: LHS = 3. RHS = I X X 9 = 3 = LHS. Result is true
for11 =I
=zk - I + z• =2 X z•- I
= 2k• ' - 1= RHS S(k) = k(k + 1)(2k + 7), S(k + I) = (k + l )(k + 2)(2k + 9)
6 6
An swers Ch apter 9 407

S(k + I) = I X3 + 2 x 4 + 3 X 5 + ...+ k(k + 2) + (k + l )(k + 3) 15 (a ) For S(k + I):
LHS = 13 + 23 + 3' + . . . + k' + (k + 1) 3
= k( k + l )(1k +7) +(k + l)(k + 3) 2 2 2
6 = k'(k + l ) + (k + l )' = ( k + 1) ( k + 4k +4)
_ k( k + 1)(1k + 7) + 6(k + l )( k + 3) 4 4
6 = (k + l )'(k + 2)' = RHS,limit =.!.
_ ( k + i) [k( 2k +7)+ 6( k + 3)] 4 4
6 (b) In question 2 it was shown that J + 2 + 3 + . . . + n = n (n + I)
_ ( k + l) [ 2k 2 + 7k + 6k + 1s ] 2 _ 11 ' ( n + l) ' _ , , , 2
Hence ( I + 2 + 3 + ... + 11) - ---'- - - ' - - - I + 2 + 3 + ... +
6 2
n 3 as shown in (a).
=( k + 1)( 2k' + 13k + 18] 16 For S(k): (k + I)+ (k + 2) + ... + 2k = k( 3~ + I)
6 For S(k + I):
= ( k + l)(k + 2)( 2k + 9) = RHS LHS = (k + 2)+ . . . + 2k + (2k + 1)+(2k + 2)
6 = (k + I) + (k + 2) + . . . + 2k + {3k + 2)
3 2
10 11 = I : LHS = 4. RHS = I X 2 = 4 = LHS. Result is true for = k (3k+ I) +( 3k + 2) = 3k + 7k + 4 = (k + 1)(3k + 4)
2 2 2 2
n= I
=RHS
3 3 3 17 ForS(k + I):
S(k) = k' (k + 1) , S(k + I) = ( k + 1) (k + 2)
2 2 LHS =I x I! + 2 x 2!+ 3 X 3! + . . . + kxk! + (k + l )X (k + I)!
= (k + 1)!-1 + (k + l )X (k + I)!
S(k + I) = 4 + 104 + 756 + ... + (k 3 + 3k5 ) + [(k + 1)3 + 3(k + 1)5 )
= (k + I)! x [I +(k + I)) - I
= (k + I)! x (k + 2)- l = (k + 2)! - 1 =RHS
= k' (k + I )' +((k + l )'+ 3(k + I)')
2 18 11 = I: LHS = I. RHS = I + 0 = I = LHS. Result is true for n = I
S(k) = I + (k - I) X 2\ S(k + I) = I + k x 2•• 1
_ k 3 ( k + l )3 + 2(k + l )3 + 6( k + l )5
S(k + I) = I X 2° + 2 X 2 1 + 3 X 2 2 + ... + k X 2k-t + (k + I) X 2k
2
= I + (k - I) X 2• + (k + I) x 2•
= ( k + 1)' ( k'+ 2 + 6(k + 1)']
= l +(k -l + k + l)xzk
2 = I + 2k x 2•
_ ( k + 1) 3
[ k' + 6k 2 + 12k + 8] = I + kx2•• 1 = RHS
2 19 11 = I: LHS = I. RHS = I ; 3 = I = LHS. Result is true for n = I
= ( k + l)'(k + 2)' =RHS k ( 4 k' - 1) k(2k - 1)(2k + I)
2 S(k) = --'---"- = ~-~~,
3 3
11 ForS(k + l ):
I I I I I S(k + I) = ( k + 1)(2k + 1)( 2k + 3)
LHS = I X 2 + 2 X3 + 3 X4 + . . . + k(k + I) + (k + l )(k + 2) 3
S(k + I) = I + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2k - 1)2 + (2k + 1)2
2 2 2
=~+ I = k(k + 1) + 1 = k + I = RHS
k + I ( k + l)(k + 2) (k + l )(k + 2) k + 2 k( 2k - 1)(2k + I) ( k )'
= + 2 + 1
12 ForS(k + I): 3
I I I I = ( 2k + 1)(k( 2k - 1)) + 3(2k + I)
LHS = 2 X 3 + 3 X4 + . . . + ( k+ l)(k + 2) + ( k+ 2)(k + 3) 3
_ ~'-'-
k ~ + ~---,'le,.,--~ _ - k("'"k'--'+-"3_,,)-'-
+-" 2~ _ -"
k,c.
+-'-1~ = ( 2k + 1)( 2k2 + Sk + 3)
2( k+2) (k + 2)( k + 3) - 2(k + 2)(k + 3) - 2( k + 3) 3
= RHS = ( k + 1)(2k + 1)( 2k + 3) = RHS
13 ForS(k + I ): 3
I I I I 20 I: LHS = I. RHS = I x I x 2 = I = LHS.
11 =
LHS = J X 3 + 3X S + ... +(2k - 1)(2k + l ) +(2k + l)(2k + 3) Result is true for n = I 2
_ k I _ k(2k + 3)+ 1 _ k + I
- 2k + l + (2k + l )(2k + 3) - (2k + l )(2k+3) - 2k + 3
S(k) = (- it-•k(k + I), S(k + I) = (- l l(k + l)(k + 2)
2 2
= RHS S(k + I) = I 2 - 22 + 3' - 42 + ... + (-1it - 1 k' + (-1it (k + I )2
14 ForS(k + I ): 1
12 22 32 k' =(- 1t- k ( k + I ) +(-1/ (k + I)'
LHS = I X 3 + 3 X5 + S X7 + . . . + (2k - 1)( 2k + l ) 2
2
= (- it-• k ( k + I)+ 2(- ll(k + 1)2
(k + 1)
2
+ ( 2k + 1)(2k + 3)
_ (- ll(k + 1)( - k + 2( k + 1))
2
k(k + I ) (k + l ) 2
= 2(2k + I) + ( 2k + 1)(2k + 3)
= ( - ll(k + l )(k + 2) = RHS
2
_ k(k + 1)(2k + 3) + 2(k + l ) 2
- 2(2k + l )( 2k + 3) 21 11 =I: LHS = 2. RHS = 8 - 6 = 2 = LHS. Result is tru e for n = I
_ (k + l )[k( 2k + 3)+ 2( k + !) ] S(k) = (k' - 2k + 3)x 2•• 1 - 6, S(k + I)
- 2(2k + l )(2k + 3) = ((k + 1) 2 - 2(k + I) + 3) X 2t• 2 - 6
= (k + l )(k + 2)(2k + I) = (k + l )( k + 2) = RHS =(k' + 2) x2•• 2 - 6
2( 2k+l)(2k + 3) 2( 2k+3) S(k + I) = I X 2 + 4 x z' + 9 x 23 + . . . + k 2 X 2k + (k + 1) 2 X 2•• 1

= (k'-2k + 3) x 2t• 1 -6+ (k + 1) 2 x2t• 1 5 S(k)is5• = 3M - 2xll•
= 2' • 1 (k' - 2k + 3 + k' + 2k + I) - 6 For S(k + 1): 5k+ 1 + 2x u •• 1
= 2'• 1 (2k' + 4) - 6 = 5 X 5 k + 22 X ll k = 5(3M - 2 X ll k) + 22 X ll k
= (k' +2) X2k+i_ 6 = RHS =ISM + 12x llk= 3(5M + 4x ll')
22 For S(k + 1): which is divisible by 3 as (SM+ 4 x 11k) is an integer.
I 3 7 2k - I 2k+I - I 6 (a) (k+ l )(k + 2)(k+3)
LHS = 2 +4+8+ ... + 2k + 2k•I (b) S(k) is k(k + l)(k + 2) = 3M
For S(k + 1): (k+ l )(k + 2)(k + 3)
I 2k•I - I I I
= k - l + - + - - - = k - l+ - + l - - = k(k + l)(k+2) + 3(k+ l )(k+2)
2• 2k+I 2k 2k+I
= 3M + 3(k + l )(k + 2) = 3(M + (k + l)(k + 2))
2- 1 I
which is divisible by 3 as (M + (k + l )(k + 2)) is an integer.
= k+ - -
2 k+l
= k+ - k+I
= RHS
2 7 S(k) is 33k = SM - 2h 2
23 I: LHS = 4. RHS = I X 22 = 4 = LHS. Result is true for 11 = I.
11 = For S(k + 1): 3"• 3 + 2t+ 3
S(k) = kx2'• 1,S(k + l) = (k+ l )X2t +z = 27 X 3 3k +2 X 2k• l = 27(SM - 2• • 2 ) + 2 X 2t+ 2
S(k + I) = 2 x2 1 +3 x i + 4 x2' + ... + (k+ I) x 2t+ (k + 2) x 2t• 1 = 135M - 25 X 2k+ z = 5(27M - 5 X 2k+ 2 )
= kx2k• • +(k + 2)x2t• 1 which is divisible by 5 as (27M - 5 x 2k+ 2) is an integer.
= 2•• 1 (2k + 2) 8 11 = 2, Exp = 7 2 - 2 2 = 49 - 4 = 45, which is divisible by 9.
= (k+ l )X2k+i =RHS
IX2X3XS
S(k) is t- 2• = 9M
24 11 = I: LHS = I. RHS = = I = LHS. i.e. i = 9M+2k
30
Result is true for n = I For S(k + 1): Exp = t • 1 - 2k• 1
2
k(k + 1)(2k + IJ (3k + 3k - 1)
= 7 X 7k - 2X 2k
S(k) = 30 • = 7(9M - 2') - 2X2k
= 7 x 9M - 2•(7 + 2)
2
S(k + I) = (k + l)(k + 2)(2k + 3)( 3k + 9k + 5) = 9(7M - 2•) which is divisible by 9.
30 9 11 = I, Exp = 3• - I = 80, which is divisible by 80.
S(k + l) = 1 + 2" + 3'+ ... + k'1 +(k+ l )'
4
S(k) is 3◄> - I = SOM
k(k + 1)(2k + IJ(3k 2
+ 3k - I) • i.e. 34k = SOM + I
= 30 + ~ + I) For S(k + 1): Exp = 34C>• 1>- I
= 3•x 3.,- l
_ k(k + 1)(2k + IJ(3k 2
+ 3k - I)+ 30(k + 1)4 =3•csoM + I) - 1
30 = 8 1 X80M+81 - l
_ (k+ 1)[ k(2k+ 1)(3k2 + 3k - 1) + 30(k + I)' ] = 80(81M + I), which is divisible by 80.
10 11 = I: Exp = 5 + 22 = 27, which is divisible by 3.
30
S(k) is s• + 2 x llk = 3M
_ (k + 1)[(2k'+k)(3k2 +3k - 1) + 30(k+ 1)3 ] i.e. s• = 3M - 2 x ll t
30 ForS(k + l): Exp = st• 1 + 2x u t• 1
4 2 = Sx5k+ 22xll•
_ (k+ 1)[ 6k + 9k' + k' - k+ 30(k' + 3k +3k + I)]
= 5(3M - 2X ll') + 22X lit
30 = ISM + l2x llk
4 2
_ (k + 1)[ 6k + 39k' + 9 1k + 89k + 30] = 3(5M + 4 x 11'), which is divisible by 3.
30 11 11 = I: Exp = 8 - I = 7, which is divisible by 7.
2 S(k)is23 - 1 = 7M
(k + l )(k + 2)(2k + 3J(3k + 9k + 5)
RHS = - - - - - -3~0~ - ' - - - -~ For S(k + 1): Exp = 23 k• 3 - I
= 8 X 2" - I
2
_ (k+ l )(k + 2)(6k' +27k + 37k+ 1s) =8(2" - I ) + 7
30 = 8x7M - 7
4 2
(k + 1J( 6k + 39k' + 9 1k + 89k + 30) = 7(8M - 1), which is divisible by 7.
= = LHS 12 11 = I: Exp = 6 + 10 - 6 = 10, which is divisible by 5.
30
S(k) is 6• + IOk - 6 = SM
EXERCISE 9.2 For S(k + 1): Exp = 6k+ 1 + IO(k + I) - 6
1 C = 6x6k+ IOk + I0 - 6
2 S(k)is5• = 4M - 3 = 6 x 6k + 6x 10k - 6x6 - 50k+40
For S(k + I): s •• • +3 = sxs t+ 3 = 5(4M - 3) + 3 =6 x SM - 5( I Ok - 8)
= 20M - 12 = 4(SM - 3) = 5(6M - !Ok+ 8), which is divisible by 5.
which is divisible by 4 as (SM - 3) is an integer 13 11 = I: Exp = 27 + I = 28, which is divisible by 7.
3 S(k)is3 2• = 8M + I S(k)is3 2t• 1 +2'- 1 = 7M
For S(k + I): 3 2• • 2 - I = 9 X 3 2k - I = 9(8M + I) - I is 32k• 1 = 7M - 2•- 1
= 72M + 8 = 8(9M + I) For S(k + 1): Exp = 31 k• 3 + 2k
which is divisible by 8 as (9M + I) is an integer = 9 X 32k+ 1 + 2X2k-l
4 S(k) is 3k = SM - 2k = 9(7M - 2k- I)+ 2 X 2k-l
For S(k + 2): 3k+ 2 + 2•• 2 = 9 X 3k + 4 X 2k = 63M - 9x2k- l +2x2k-l
= 9(51\1 - 2') + 4 X 2' = 45M - 5 X 2k = 5(9M - 2') = 63M - 7X2k- l
which is divisible by 5 as (9M - 2') is an integer = 7(9M - 2•- 1), wh ich is divisible by 7.

14 (a) (k+ 3)' = (k + 3) (k + 3) 2 = k' + 9k' + 27k+27 3 (a) S( l ) = 1 - 1 + 4 1 = 41 which is prime
(b) Nlust prove that 113 + (n + 1) 3 + (n + 2) 3 is divisible by 3 for all (b) S(2) = 4 - 2 + 4 1 = 43 which is prime
integers n 2: I. (c) S(S) = 25 - 5 + 41 = 6 1 which is prime
S(k) isk3 +(k + 1)3+ (k+2) 3 = 3M (d) S(42) = 4 12 - 4 1 + 41 = 41 2 which has a factor of 41
ForS(k+ 1): (k + 1)3 + (k+2) 3 + (k + 3)3 so is not prime
= (k + 1)3 + (k + 2) 3 + k' + 9k' + 27k + 27 (e) Original statement is false
= 3M + 9k' + 27k+ 27 = 3(M + 3k2 + 9k + 9) 4 (a) S(k) = k' - k is an odd integer.
which is divisible by 3 as (M + 3k' + 9k + 9) is an integer Show that S(k + 1) = (k + 1) 2 - (k + 1) is an odd integer.
15 Prove S(l) is true: (x - 1)3+ x3 = 2x3 - 3x' + 3x - 1 S(k+ l ) = (k + 1) 2 - (k+ l )
= (x' - x+ 1)(2x - l ) = (k + l)(k + 1- 1)
which is divisible by x' - x + l = k(k+ l )
Assume S(k) is true, i.e. (x - 1)k+ 2 = (x' - x + l )M(x) - _x'l• 1 = k'+k
Prove S(k + 1) is true: (x - 1it• 3+ x2>+ 3 = k' - k + 2k
= (x - l)(x - 1l• 2 +x'xx'k• l = odd integer+ even integer
= (x - l)[(x' - x + l )M(x) - xll• l1 + x' x ?·' = odd integer
= (x - l)(x' - x+ l )M(x) - (x - 1) X x'k+ l + x' xx'k• I Result is true for n = k + l if it is true for 11 = k .
= (x - l)(x' - x+ l )M(x) + x'k•'(x' - x + 1) (b) S( l ) = 1 - 1 = 0, which is not odd
= (x' - X + l)((x - l )M(x) + x ll• 1 ) (c) It is never tr ue. \.Yhen n is o ff, odd' - odd = odd - odd =
which is divisible by x' - x + l even . \.Yhen n is even, even' - even = even.
16 S(k) is / - 1 = (x - l)M(x)
For S(k + 1): CHAPTER REVIEW 9
/ • I - 1= / • l - / + / - 1 1 For S(k + 1):
= /(x - l ) + (x - l )M(x) = (x - 1)(/ + M(x)) LHS = 2k(k - 2) + 4(k + 1) - 6
which is divisible by x - l = 2k2 - 2 = RHS
2 S(k) is4,. , = 2 1M - sa- ,
EXERCISE 9.3 For S(k + 1): 4>+ 2 + s'k• 1 = 4 x (21M - 52t - 1) + 25 x 52t - •
1 (a) S(k) = k' + k = (2N - 1), where N is a positive integer = 84M + 2 1 X 52l- l = 2 1(4M + 52k- l)
S(k + 1) = (k + 1) 2 + (k + 1) which is divisible by 2 1 as 4M + s't - , is an integer
= k'+ 3k + 2 3 S(k) is 7k = 3M + 1
= k' + k + 2(k + I) For S(k + 1): 7k• l - 1 = 7(3M + 1) - 1 = 3(7M + 2)
= Odd + Even = Odd, so true when S(k) is true which is divisible by 3 as 7M + 2 is an integer
(b) S( 1) = 1 + 1 = 2, so result is not true. l x2x3x4
2 4 11 = l : LHS = 6. RHS = = 6 = LHS.
(c) No. If n is odd, then n is odd and odd+ odd = even 4
If n is even, then ,? is even and even + even =even Result is true for n = l
S(k) = k(k + l)(k + 2)(k + 3)
(d) The statement should be that n 2 + n is an even integer
4
for n 2: I.
S(k + l ) = (k + l)(k + 2)(k + 3)(k + 4)
S( l ) = 1 + 1 = 2, so result is true for n = l 4
S(k) = k' + k = 2N, where N is a positive integer S(k + 1) = 6 + 24+60 + . . . +k(k+ l )(k + 2) + (k + 1)
S(k + 1) = (k + 1) 2 + (k + 1)
(k + 2)(k+ 3)
= k'+ 3k + 2
= k' + k + 2(k + I) = k(k + l )(k+ 2)(k + 3) + (k + l )(k + 2)(k+ J)
= Even+ Even = Even so, result is true if S(k) is true 4
= (k + l)(k + 2)(k + 3)(k + 4) = RHS
2 (a) S(k) = ~ (6k' - 3k - 1) 4
2 2 2
S(k+ l ) = 1 +4 +7 + . . . +(3k - 2) +(3k + 1)
2 2 3 1 3
5 11 = l : LHS = . RHS = 1 - = = LHS.
4 4 4
= ~ (6k 2 - 3k - 1) + (3k + 1)
2
Result is true for n = l
1 1
= 3k3 - 3k' - k +9k' + 6k + l S(k) = 1 - ) k,S(k+ l ) = 1- ( ) k+I
2 2 (k+l 2 k +2 2
2
= Jk3 + 15k + llk+ l S(k + l ) = l + .!.+ 2.. + ... + k+2 + k+ 3
2 2 4 6 96 k(k+ l )2' (k+ l )(k + 2)2k+l
=l- 1 + k+3
And Exp = k; 1(6(k+ l )2 - 3(k + l) - 1)
(k + 1)2' (k + l)(k + 2)2'•1
1 = l - 2(k + 2) - (k+3)
= k; ( 6k 2 + 12k + 6 - 3k - 3 - 1)
(k + l )(k+ 2)2'• 1
1 2k+4 - k - 3
= k; (6k' + 9k + 2) =1 - --="-'--'--'----"-----i-~
(k + l)(k + 2)2'• 1
= ~ (6k3 + 15k2 + Ilk+ 2) =l- k+ l
2 (k + l)(k + 2)2'•1
= Jk3+ 15k + l l k + l
2 2 = 1 - - -1- - = RHS
which was the expression obtained for S(k + 1) (k + 2)2>+ 1
1
(b) S( 1): LHS = 1, RHS = (6 - 3 - 1) = 1 = LHS so true
2
(c) Hence result is true for all 11 2: 1

6 S(k)iss• = 16M - 12k+ I 7 (a) W =q + £+ £ (b) VZ =a- +b + -c+ d-
_,
(c) WZ = b+ c+d
- - -
For S(k + I): s•• 1 + 12(k + 1) - I
8 B 9 D 10 B
= 5(16M - 12k + I) + 12k + 11
= SOM - 48k + 16 = 16(5M - 3k + I) 11 (a) BC = f - q, DE = ½q- ½q = ½(£ - q)
which is divisible by 16 as SM - 3k + I is an integer
(b) DE = ½BC
7 S(k)is7• = 13M - 6t
For S(k + 2): t •2 + 6k+' (c) The line joining the m idpoints of two sides of a triangle is
= 49(13M - 6') + 36 X 6k parallel to and half the length of the th ird side.
= 637M - 13 x 6• = 13(49M - 61)
(d) BF = ½(£ - q) . FC = ½(£ - q)
which is divisible by 13 as 491\1 - 6k is an integer
8 For S(k + I): (el AF = AB+BF
LHS = k(k + I)!+ ((k + 1) 2 + l)(k+ I)!
= (!+½(f - !'!)
= (k + l)!(k+k2 + 2k+2)
= (k+ l)!(k+2)(k + l ) = (k+ l)(k+2)! = RHS = a+ l c - l a
- 3- 3-
2 l
g prove by .tn d uct1on
· t11at -1 + I + - I + ... + ( J
)( ) = 3 q +,£
4 28 70 3n - 2 3n + I
= n for all integers n 2: I = .!.(2a + c)
311+ I ' - -
11 = I: LHS = .!.. RHS = _ I_ = .!. = LHS. Result is true for n = I
4 I X4 4 12 (a) AC = ~+t! (bl AE = ~+½4 (cl DE = £ - ½4
k k+I (d) Express the vector in terms of AD and AB. DF = ½£ - ½4
S(k) = 3k+ l'S(k + I) = 3k+4
I I I I I (el AF' = AD+ i5F
S(k + I) = 4 + 28 + 70 + ... + (3k - 2)(3k + I)+ (3k + 1)(3k + 4)
= d+lb
- 3 -
- l3 d-
= k + I
3k + I (3k+1)(3k+4) = .lb+.ld
3 - 3 -
_ k(3k +4)+ 1 = 2 (b +d)
- (3k + 1)(3k + 4) '- -
Now AC = b +d
- (3k3k'+ 1)(3k
+4k+ I
+ 4) - 2 -
:. AF = 3 AC
_ (3k+ l )(k+ I)
- (3k+ 1)(3k +4) Hence Flies on AC.
= k+ I =RHS (f) AF : FC = 2 : l
3k +4
EXERCISE 10.2
CHAPTER 10 1 (a) (6, - 18) (b) (I, - 3) (c) (- 2, 6) (d) (0.8, - 2.4)
8
EXERCISE 10.1 2 (a) - 2b =( ) (b) S!! = ( -:so)
- - 10
1 (a) ~ (b) C +b
(c) lb =
' -
(-f) s
(d) - lb
4- =( _2s
5 )
•
-C -b 3 (a) - c = (-6, 3)
'
(b) 2£ = (12,-6)
a (c) - ½£ = (- 2, 1) (d) I.Sf = (9 ,-4.5)

(c)
-
-.:;:-------,
(d)
a- b
-b -c - -a - C
4 (a) - £ = (~) (b) 2£ = ( : )
2 9
(c) _ l e = ( - ) (d) I.Sc = ( )
--a '- I - -4.5
2 (a) ci5 =- a (b) AD = b (c) CA = - a - b (d) DB = a - b 5 (a) q = (S,s ) (b) ~ = (4, - 5) (c) £ = (0,9)
3 (a) AC = q + ~ (bl AD = q + !! + £ (c) i5A = - q - ~- q (d) 4 = (- 13,- 5) (e) ! = (10, 2) (f) [ = (-3,5)
(d) DB = - b - C
6 (a) q = (:) (b) ~ = ( : ) (C) f = ( ~ )
4 (a) CD = - ½q (b) CA = - q - ~ (c) AD = - ½q+~
(d) DB = la - b
'- - (d) 4 =(~) (e) ! = ( ~~) (f) [ = ( ~ )
5 (a) OP = q + ~ (b) 0G = 2q + 2~ (c) OQ = 2q + !! 7 A 8 C
(d) cr = !! + ~ (e) AB = - q + !! (f) i5i = - 3q + 2~
(g) FQ = - q - ~ (h) DE+ ro = - 3q
6 (a) AB = - q + ~ (b) AC = q + ~

9 14 (a) The position vector of the midpoint of AB is (- ½, •; ).
(b) The position vector of the midpoint of AB is ½!!+½~-
(c) The position vectors of the points of trisection of DE

are (1.3 , ll.) . (11
3 and 3 , ll)
3 ·
3 4 X
(d) The position vectors of th e points of trisection of DE
2
3-d + 3!are3
I ' d_ + 3f•
'
(e) TB =Ai5 + 5B
= OB - OA
10 )' =b - a
4
3 AP = m and AB = m +n
AP m
= =
AB m +n
111
I 2 3 4 X AP = AB
m +n
OD
OP = OA + AP
OE 111
-4 =a + (b - a)
- m +n - -
111
= (1- )a +
m b
11 (a) The column vector is ( : ). m +n - m + n-
{b) The column vector is

- 16
(-ll)· = (m +n - m)a + m b
m +n - m + n-
(c) The coordinates of the terminal point are (13, - 2).

= m n+n-a + m m+n b-
(d) The coordinates of the initial point are ( I 9, - 15).
EXERCISE 10.3
(e) ~ Y 1 (a) 2{ + 3L (b) - 31 (c) 2L - 4L (d) - 3{ - 31
e 4
- 3 (el 2r (f) 1 L+ 1 L
2
2 (a) l!!I = ✓,ii (b) l~I = ✓65 (c) 1£1= 25 (d) lt.! I = 5
I
-
e
(e) l!I= 9 (f) 1£1= ./89
-4 - 3 - 2 -1 p 2 3 4 6 7 X
3 (al !! = 12.29L + s.60 L (b) ~ = - l l.85{ + 19.711
-2 -e
(cl f = 1.01t, - 1.01L (d) ,j = - 35.86f - 3.141
~ 4 (a) 7{ - 3j
5 m= - 1, n= - I
(b) - { + 7j (c) 29{ +4 j (d) - 3f - 25j
- (4}- (6)- (JO)

12 (a) AB =
6
BC = _ , AC =
4 2
5
6 (a) a = , b = - 2
3 (b) x = - 17, J' = 7 (c) g = o, Ii = -
(d) p = 2, q = 8 (e) x = - 3, - 2, y = 2
I
3
{bl ITBI = 2 ✓13, lac l = 2 ✓13, ITc: I = 2Ju (f) x = 2 - ✓ 6,2 + ✓6, y = - I , I
7 BA = - 2{ + 31
(c) ITBI' + lac l' = ( ~)' + ( ~)'
8 (a) - 21{ + 35j (b) 7 ✓34
= 104
9 (a) CD = - 3{ - 41 (b) CA = -L + L (c) DB = 5{ + 9L
= ITc: I'
and so MBC is a right- angled triangle.
(d) ITBI = 5 (e) 1a 1= ✓2 (f) IDBI = ✓106
1 O (a) 5 ✓10 (b) x = - 3
(d) The coordinates of Dare (4, - 7).
(e) The coordinates of the point of intersection of the diagonals 11 V =-7 12 D 13 B 14 B
of the square ABCD are (3, - 2).
- - I -
1s (al ~ = .~(sr + 6L) (b) a=.r. (3i - 6;·)
- 15 - _
13 (a) OB = q + £, OX = !! +,£ {b) CX = q - ½f
(c) CY = !!! - ½£
(c) a=Ji} (-2; + 9;·)
- 1b - _ (d) ij = ~ (- f - 121)
(d) OY = OC + CY 16 (al f = ~ (3f - 9L) (b) £ = f (3f - 9i)

= c.., + 2a
3 -
- l.c
3-
, , 11 ~= ~ (- 14f - 9L)
= ~,
3-
+~a
3-
= 1.(a + c) 18 C
-
= JiTo
)3
(- 3i- + 2;·)
-
3 - -
,-
= ,OB 19 C 20 C
Hence, Y lies on OB
(e) OY : YB = 2: I
21 (a) AB = 2i - 3j, CB = 3i + 2j (b) OB = Sf - j, CJ\ = i +5j 9 If q and ~ are parallel and in the same direction, then
q • ~ = l!!ll £1coso = l!!ll ~I
0
(c) ON = 2.2 -; - .!.;·

2_'
OM = 2.;
2-
- .!.;·
2_
If q and ~ are parallel and in the opposite direction, then
(d) CP = - ½i + 4L, BP = - ½i + 21 q . ~ = l!!ll £1cos isoo = - l!!ll ~I
22 {a) A(- 2, 3), B(4, - 5), C(6, - 9) 10 (a) 8=25° {b) 96° (c) 8=67° {d) 8= 153° (e) 34°
(f) 8= 90°
(bl AB = 6f - 8L, BC = 2i - 4L, AC = Si - 121
(c) IABI = io, loc i = 2.rs, IACI = 4 ✓13 11 B 12 B 13 177°
23 (a) x= 3, y = 2 14 (a) AB = 4i + 6L,BC = 6f - 4Land AC = IOi + 21
(b) OM = 3i + 2j, AM = - 3i + 2j, MB = - 3i + 2j
- - - (bl IABI = 2-m, loci = 2-m, IAC I = 2 -Ju,
(c) IAM' I = IMBI = IBM I = ✓13 (c) MBC is a right- angled triangle if AB .L BC and
24 (a) AB = 3i + 21,CB = 2i - 41 L ABC=90°
(b) Consider vector addition to obtain vectors OB and AC. AB • BC = 4X6 + 6 x(-4 )
5B = 5A + AB and AC = AB + Fc': =0
: . LABC=90°
OB = OA + AB
(d) 00 = 4i - 7L (e) BD = 2f - 101
=( 2f - 4 i) + ( 3f + 21) (f) Use dot p roduct to show the diagonals are perpendicular.
= Sf - 2j Let Mand N be the mid points of the diagonals, then show
- that they are the same point.
AC = AB + BC
AC = !Of + 21, and lACI = ✓104 = 2-J26
= AB - CB
BD = 2i - 10 l and lm51= ✓104 = 2-ffe,
= (3i + 21) - (2f - 4i)
= i + 6j
AC • Bi5 = 10 x 2 + 2 x (- 10)
=0
OB = Si - 21, AC = f + 6l :. AC .L BD
let M be the midpoint of AC, then AM = MC = Si + j
(c) OP = ½i - l, AQ = ½f + 3Land 0Q = ½i - L
and so IAM I = IMCI = .Ju, and its position vector will be
Thus, OP = OQ and so P and Qare coincident. Therefore, -OM = -OA + -AM
the diagonals OB and AC bisect each other.
= - 2i - 3L + si + L
(d) OR =2.; - 3;·, ER =1.2-; - s;·
2-
- - = 3f - 21
25 (a) OB = Sf + L, AC = f + SL, OM = 4f - ½L, ON = 3f + iL,
Let N be the midpoint of BD, then BN = ND = f - 5j
,VB = 2i - 1L and so IBN I = INDI = .Ju, and its position vector will be
(b) l5BI = .Ju, and IACI = .Ju, -ON = -OB + -BN
= 2i + 31 + f - SL
26 (a) ~ = ¼(3i - 4L)and f = ¼( -4f + 3L) (b) x = - ½, r = - ½
= 3f - 21
(c) ? = ;' (i - 21) and ~ = ;' (2f + L) (d) v = - f, w = ~ Since OM = ON, the midpoints of AC and BD coincide and
27 (a) p = ¾ (b) ¾i + f j (c) 6i + 8 j (d) q = ;, so the diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
- - 15 (a) Use vector addition to calculate the vectors of the kite's sides.
(f) 14i + 481 (g) ••~(si + l4i) Then compare the magnitudes of those side vectors.
-AB = -OB - -OA
EXERCISE 10.4
1 (a) 45° (b) 45° (c) 135° {d) 165° (e) 90° (f) 90°
= 2i + 41 - (2i + 1)
(g) 120° {h) 180° (Q 150° (J) 30° = 31
2 (a) q • ~ = 23.67 (b) q • £ = - 23.67 (c) q • £ = 23.67
IABI = 3
(d) q • ~ = 56 (e) q • £ = - 56 (f) q • ~ = 0
3 (a) q • ~=21 (b) q • £= 14 {c) !! • ~= - 52 {d) q • ~= - 10 BC = OC - OB
(e) q • ~ = so (f) !! • ~ = o
= 8i +11 - (2i +41)
4 Since!! • ~= 0 vectors q = 3f +7 j and£ = 7i - 3j are
perpendicular. - - =6f + 3j
5 q = +(6i +8L) 6 x=- ~ loc l = .J62+ 3' = ✓45 = 3✓5
2
7 (a) 40 {b) 2.JIO (c) l!!l CD = OD - OC
8 (a) l!!I' (b) I (c) - lq l' = Si + L- (8i + 7L)
= - 3i - 6L
Answers Chapter 10 41 3
lci5I = ✓(-3)' +(- 6)' = +1s = 3..Js EXERCISE 10.5
DA = OA - OD
1 (a) a • i, = 8 (b) a• b=,sJu
- - 5 - - 13
.
= 2 f+ 1 - (st+ L) (c) a • b = O (d) a- • .b
-
'
= - --,--=
V61
- -,r.;
61
= - 3i
(e) a- • b- = - 23
4)
.r.; (f) a•b="
- -
-m
53
l™ l = 3
2 (a) (q • ~)~ = :~(3f+2f) (b) (q •~)~=:,(3i +4l)
ITBI = 3, loc i = 3 ..Js, lci5I = 3 ..Js, l™ I = 3
(c) (q • ~)f = Q (d) (q •~)~=;;(sf+6l)
Adjacent sides AB and DA are equal in length and adjacent
sides BC and CD are equal in length. Thus, ABCD is a kite.
(b) Use vector addition to calculate th e vectors of the kite's (el (q • ~)~ = -.',9(4f + 11) (fl (q • ~)~= ::(- 1r - 21)
diagonals, then calculate the dot product of those diagonals.
3 (a) q - (q • ~)f = - ,',(2r - 31)
AC=AB + BC
=31 + 6{ +3{ (b) q- (q •~)f = i,(76{ - 57 L)
=6f+6j (c) q- (q •~)f = 8{ +41
BD = BC+CD (d) q- (q •~)f = ~ (42{ - 351)
= 6{ + 3 j - 3f - 6 j
- - (el q - (q • ~) f = ;~ ( 1i - 4 L)
= 3f - 31
AC • BJ5 = 6 X 3 + 6 X (- 3) !fl !! - (!! • f) ~ = ;; ( 2 t - 11)
=0 4 (a) b • a = .!§. •- = •"!7
(b) b- • a- = -./17
- - s l,
:. AC .L BD
s (al ('1 • ~)~=!:(4f + 3L) (b •a)a
(bl - - - = .!.(4; - ,·)
Bi5 = r - p, Fc: = q - p and ix = q -
- r-
17 - _
(c)
- - _,
6 B 7 C
(d) Use the distributive law applied to vectors.
Now BC • BC = Inc l' and DC • DC = IDC l' - 8 (a) The scalar projection o f q onto '1 is ";(:i.
(b) The vector projection of q o nto '1 is ;; (5 i + 4 l ).
Since IFc: I = loci, then IFc: I' = locf and so
(c) The scalar projection o f onto q is '~'[i.
BC • BC = DC • DC.
(d) The vector projection of~ onto (l is ~~ (- f + 7 l).
Now, BC · BC= locl' = l~ - r l
9 (a) The scalar projection of q o nto '1 is 1
f.
=(2- e)•(q - e) (b) The vector projection of q onto '1 is% i - % l-
=2•2- 1· e- e•2+e•e (c) The vector projection of q perpendicular to '1 is -½! - ½l ·
=2 • 2 - 2 2 · e+e· e
(d) a=
- ( -72-,· - -72_;·) + ( - -2-
l ,· - -l ;· )
2..,
andOC · OC= jix l' = 12 - r l' .
10 (a) q • '1 is the scalar projection of q o nto '1-
=(q - r) • (q - r) (b) q•'1 is the scalar projection of'1 onto q.
(c) ~ • f is the cosine of the angle between q and '1-
=q• q- 2 q• r+ r • r
11 (al q = lq lcosar+ lq lsina1
NO\\\ ITB I = IAJ51and so le I= k l and e· e= [ • r- Since q is a unit vector l!!I = I.
BC • BC = DC • DC q = IXcosa{ + l xsinaj
q• q- 2q • E+ E• E= q• q- 2q • r + r • r
= cosaf + sin aL
- 2q • p = - 2q • [ since p • p = [ • r
(b) ~ = cos/3i + sin/31 and f = cosf3L - sin/31
:. q• e=q •r (c) q• '1 = cos a cos /3 + sin a sin /3; q• £ = cos a cos /3 - sin a sin f3
(e) Show that the dot product of the diagonals is 0.
Tc • iID = q • (r - e) (d) Now q • '1 = l!! ll '11cos8where 8 is the angle between q and '1-
=q•r - q• e Here 8 = a - /3and l!! I = 1'11= I.
= 0 sinceq • p=q • r Therefore q • '1 = cos( a
- /3)
:. AC and BD are perpendicular Thus, cos( a - /3) = cosa cos f3 + sin a sin /3
Similarly. q • £ = l!!ll£1cosef> where ef>is the angle between q and£·

Here 4> =a+ ,Band l!! I = l~I = I. 5 AC = a + b
Therefore I.J • £ = cos(a + ,8). AM = MC
Thus, cos( a + ,B) = cosacos,B - sin a sin,B = ½(Tc)
=.!.(a + b)
'- -
,
EXERCISE 10.6
BM=BC - MC
=~ - ½(q + ~)
= - ½(!! + ~)
0
-
b IANfl = IMCI = IBM I = ½1!! + £1
A
Let 0A = CB = <.! and OC = AB = ~-
Then OB = OA+AB
a M
= (!+~
and CA = 0A - cc5
=(! - ~ b
B C
OB • CA = (i1+~) • (1.J - ~)
=a• a - a • b+b• a- b• b 6 By Pythagoras' theorem: IXBI' = IAcl' + lcn l'
=a• a - b • b
k l' = l~I' + li1I'
= l!! I' - lql' Nowc = a + b
Now if OB • CA = 0, th en the diagonals OB and CA are
perpendicular. so. k l' = ~• r = (q+!!) • (!! + £)
Thus, OB • CA = l!! I' - 1£1' Is l' = I.J • !! + 2!! • !! + ~ • !!
2
= 0 if 1(.11= 1~1 = It.JI' + 1£1 + 2 1.J • £
Therefore, l™ I = lciil = loc i = IAB I and OABCisa rhombus. :. 2a • b = 0
2 -;----::.,-,;:-- -~ c Soa • b = O
andq .l ~
A
A L-- -.::..E..::::...._ ..._.;B
-a b '-
Since ABCD is a parallelogram, AB = DC = !! and AD = BC = tj.
Let the midpoints of AB, BC, CD and DA be E, F, G and H
respectively. Therefore, AE = EB =DG = GC = ½!! and C a B
- - - - l
AH = HD = BF = FC = 2 ~
7 (a) AC = a + b
EH = EA+AH
DB = a - b
AX = xAC = x(t.J +!!)
EF = EB+BF
DX = yDB = y(q - 1!)
FG=FC+CG -AD = -AX - -DX
= x(!! + £) -y(q - !!)
HG = HD + DG = xq+x£ - yq + y!!
=.!.2 d+ !..a =(x - y)q +(x+ y)£
- 2 -
=~
Now in the quadrilateral EFGH, opposite sides EH = FG
and opposite sides ff = HG. That is opposite sides of the (x - y)q + (x + y)q = Oq + £
parallelogram are equal in length and are parallel. Therefore, x - y =O a
A r::::-----
- - - -~ B
EFGH is a parallelogram. x+y = I
3 D 4 D 2x = I
x -.l
b
- b
-
- ' D C
y =½ -a
(b) AC = a- +b- (d) The sum of the squares of the len~ths of the diagonals of a
2
BD = - a - b parallelogram loal' +IACl = 2ll!!I' +l~I')

The sum of the squares of the length of the sides of a
=- (!! +~) parallelogram:
... IACI =liIDI 2
l™I' +ITBI' +loci' +la l' = 2(l!!l +1~1')
CHAPTER REVIEW 10
1 B 2 D 3 C 4 B
5 A 6 D 7 B 8 C
D
-a C
9 C 2✓5 10 D -4i - 6i 11 B 12 C
8 (a) a +b 13 C 14 A 15 A 16 B
17 !! - ~
A -a F -a B
18 CD = - l.a AC = a+b AD =-'-a +b..,) DB =l.a - b-
-b 3 - ' - ..,)
y
3- 3-
D 19
4
3 -
C
C 2
(b) AC = xAE = x(!! + ~) X

-4 -3 -2 - - 1 I 2 3 4
BC =yBD =y~ -
OB -2
-
OD
-3
AB = AC + CB = 2a B
-4
D
AB = AC - BC = 2a
20 (a) q+~ =i - 61 (b) 3£ - 2q =13f+7L
2{! = X (!! + ~ ) - y~
2{! = xq +x~ - y~ (c) - 2q - 7£ = - 17f +17j
2q +O~ = xq +(x - y)~ 21 (al I!! +£1= ffi (bl 13~ - 2q1= .Jm
x= 2,y= 2
(cl 1-2q - 1£I = 11 ✓2
-BC = 2BD
-
29
22 (a) 4c - 3d = ( (b) 7d - 8c = ( -61)
iID = 1.oc
2 - - - 16) - - 40
23 (a) AB = -2li - 121 (b) IAi3I = 3✓65
9 (a) BX =½(~ - q);TI =½(q +~)
24 (al l!!I = 26 (b) l~I = 3 ✓5
(bl l!!I' +l~I'
25 (a) {! = 10.7li + 11.89 j (b) ~ = -20.35f +12.72j
(cl ITBI' +IACI' =lql' +l~I' 26 (a) a = '} and b = 6 (b) f -- .ll!. g = .!!.
19 and
· 19
= 2(sx • ax+ TI • TI) (c) a = - 1, 10and b = ~

= 2(ITII' +lsxl') 21 (al ~= ~(-9i - 3L) (b) ~ =f (-9i - 3l)
28 (a) a • b = - I (b) a • b = 25
29 a•b=(-3)x 10+5X6 =0, :. al.b
30 (a) a- • b
-
= " 5"
(b) a- • b
-
= -i•Ji
10
0
31 (a) (q •~)~ = ,~(4i + l)
2
(bl 2(l(ll +l~I') (b) q- ({! · ~)f = l;(i - 41)
2
(cl 2(l!!l +l~I') - (134),-
32 (a) AB = BC = (- 14} -AC =
3
(-11)
17
(bl IAi3I = ✓-ws, loci = ✓-ws, IAEI = Jm

(c) ITBI = ✓3 + 14
2 2
=.fios (g) AC =c - a
IBCI = J(- 14) +3 2 2
MN =½(~ - '.!)
=.fw, =.i2 AC
IR I = ✓-(--11-)2_+_17-2 (h) AP = PQ =QC =½AC, hence AC is trisected at P and Q.
= J410
CHAPTER 11
ITBI =IBCI
{d) (- 12,-2) EXERCISE 11.1
(e) (- f ,f) 1 ,r J'x'dx =n[•;]' = "ffz 2 fz 25
3 D
0 0 3
33 (a) e = .fi. {b) f (- 2L + L) (c) 2 ✓5(-21 + L) 4 (a) y=2x - 2 (b) 4n J, (x- l)' dx =':,Z
(d) f = ✓IO (e) {(4f - 3L) (f) q = 'f(4L - 3L) 5 n: J:,(9-x')dx=36n: 6 ;.

2 2
(gl •f (- 7L+4L) 7 (a) n:J ~ (1-x )'dx = 2n:[x - ;'+f]: = '~;
1
34 (a ) The scalar projection of'! in the direction of is --([/' .'1 (b) n: J~(l - y)dy =l
{b) The vector projection of'! in the direction of~ is 1
~ ( 3L+ L) 8
0
J
2
n: (x - 2)' dx = ';z
(c ) The vector projection of q perpendicular to~ is :~ (i - 3l). 9 (a) n: J : (3 - ;)' dx = n:[9x - ' ;' + ;; = 18n J:
{b) 4n: J:(3- y)' dy = 36n:
(d) q = ,~(3{ + 1) + :~( i - 31)
10 n: s:("•,:•' )dx =![144x-3x']: = 48,r
35 (a) AB = AM + MB
=AM - BM
11 (a) 2n J:(
81- 18x + x' )dx = "~oz
2
=a - b {b) n: J: (9- y)dy = •1z

0
0
BC=BM + MC 12 (a) >~. IOx - 30 {b) n:J ~ dy ='~• (c) •~~z
( ' ; 0' )'
=BM + AM 13 ,r J_ :(a'-y')dy =•~z

=a +b 1
14 n:f l' (4-y)dy =•z 2
(b) AB • BC = ('! - 1:!) • (q + ~) 15 (a) incorrect {b) correct (c) correct {d) correct
16 256,T
=lql' -1'11' 3
AB • BC = 0 ·: AB .L BC 17 ,rJ:(4x -4x')dxz l.37

2
.-. l<.! I' -l!d' =0 18 (a) ,r J.:(16- 4x')dx =''1z (b) ; J.'(16- y')dy =~z
li!I' =l~I' 19 (a) J.'(2 - ✓ x)' dx =J~'(4-4✓x+x)dx = 2-¾
li!l=l~I
1m1=l™ I=IMEI (b) V = n J:( 4-4✓x +x)' dx
36 (a) A
o-- - -i\1- - -~ B =ns:(16 - 32✓x+24x - sxt +x' )dx=~•,'
(c) •;','
-a N
20 V=nf:~ = n [ -:,' ] ~ = n:(1- ;\-), ~V =n
0 f C
21 n: - n f~(2x -x' )' dx = ;; 22 (a) ~; (b) ;
(b) OM= q +½~ and ON= T'! +~
2
23 (a) n: J~'(' ;' )' dx = '~• (b) nJ ( 4 - 2 y) dy = '~•
2
(c) MN=f(~ - q) 24 ,,,,

0
25
(d) I
25 V = nfo e_,, dx = .<r~
2r
tl 26 ~(e'
2
- e)
N 27 z (,• -!)
,' 28 J~,
V = n (e'' + 2+e-'' )dx = n:( e' +4- e-')
29 (a) I - i ...' (b) I (c) V = ·; ( I - e-2• ). ·;
0
-
C C
30 n: J,'! dx = 6n:log, 3 31 n s:·::, = n log, 2.25 Wlits'

32 (a) >'
I
(c) y = ✓2cos( ~x) :. cos( ~x) = Jz ⇒ ~x = cos-• ( Jz)⇒
>'2 ) an d x =y.
x = n4 cos-1 ( ✓
0 a X
I 2
area = alna - a + I Limits are 0, I and ✓2.
e' Ydy = ,r(a' - I) z

(b) V =,r J l<>s,•
O V = n J~y' dy+ n J,"(! cos-' ( Jz ))' dy
33 )' V =nln 4
I
V, =n J ,Ji(;cos-'(}i)J dy
0 X
I I 2 (✓
2- 1) 1r'
2 - 4
34 )' V = nln2.25
0.5 ,r ( ✓2 - 1)1r'
V =- + units'
3 4
0 I 2
X 39 (a) A = J:(4x - x' - 2x)dx
35 4n ln3 4 . 2
= J UllltS
36 n(12s+ log.. f)
2
)' (b) V =nJ: {(4x - x')' - (2x) }dx
37 (a)
y= 2(x' - I )
2 32n . ,
=- u111ts
5
(c) y = 4x - x' ⇒ x' - 4x+4 = 4 - y=> (x - 2) 2 = 4 - y=>
x - 2 = ±J4- y => x = 2± J4 - y and since0SxS2 then
2 X
x = 2 - J4 - y-
x = l..
2
V =tr J:{(; )' -( 2- J4 - y )' }dy

Sn . ,
= - uruts
3
40 (a) >'
4
(b) Area = J ~, ( I - x' - 2( x' - I)) dx
. 2
= 4 units 3
(c) y = 2(x' - l) ⇒ x 2 = i + l. - 2SySO 2

y = I - x' => x' = I - y. 0 s y s I
Volume = tr J:x' dy I
Volume = n J:,(i + I )dy +n J~(I-y)dy 0 I 2 3 4 5 X
= 3n units'
2
(b) A = J:(1 +✓xdx)
38 (a) Area = J~( ✓2cos(~x) - x )dx 23 . 2
= - units
3
= S- n units'
=1r { (1+ ✓x}'dx = u ;n
21f 4
(c) V
(b) V = 1r J~( 2cos 2
( ~x) - x' )dx
(d) y = 1+ Fx ⇒ ✓x = y - 1 =>X =(y - 1) 2
= 2(tr3+3) Ulll'ts' For OS y S 2 the new solid is a piece of cylindrical pipe with
volume, V, = n(42 - 12 ) X 2 = 30n

For 2 S y S 3 the volume of the pipe is given by 3
9 y = ½(x -4)2 + ½
2
10 f (x ) = 3.../x'+ I - I
3
V, = n s: x' dy =n J: (y - l)' dy = ~n 11 X = .../t' - 21 +4 + 8 12 r = 1- ~ J- 150
3
181n . 3 1 -2 19 4
Total volume = V 1 + V, = units 13 y = 3 (2x- 1) + , 14 x = 4 -
5 8t+I
41 (a) y
EXERCISE 11.3
x' + / = 1-~- - - -T~
x' + y' = I
I
1 (a) 3 (b) -2✓
5-
3 (c) 2 ( vr.
5 - I) 2 (a) O (b) 44..fi.-
15
16 (c) O
3 B 4 (a) 69½ (b) ¼ (c) 6½ 5 (a)

4
-;..fi. (b) ¼ (c) o
9
6 (a) ~ -
3
(b)
5
f (c) 8f 7 (a) 7# (b) 21t (c) - 51 t
0 I X
a (a) J:1,f = [ -2.ruJ: = 2✓3
(b) J • du =[-2./4 - u ] 4 = --0+ 2✓3 = 2✓3
I ./4- U ~ - I
(c) Integrating .J4 - u means that the negative sign needs to be
taken into account. It is easily missed.
9 ½units' 10 I unit'
{b) y' = I - x' and y' = I - ~' 11 Area = • units. 2
15 o.Sy
V=n J:(1- x' )dx +n f 0'(1- ~, )dx

1 - 0.5 0.5 X
= 2rr units 3
- 0.5
1
42 (a) y = Slog. (x - I)=> ; = log, (x - 1) => x - 1 =e• =>
f1 (u + 3)✓u du = J(,.½ + 311½)du
3 3
12 Area = J: x .Jx - 3dx =
l. 1
X = I + e•
12 4
= [¾u½ +211½ ] ~ = ( -;3 - J) units'
V=n f~x' dy = n J.'(l +ei ) ' dy
1
~ 66.8 units3
,.r, .,/ x I f i• d '
13 Area =
J O X2+4
dx = ): = 2 units
2 4 -..JU
{b) Solve81og. (x - I) = 4 => x - 1 = e05 ⇒ x = I + e05 is the
radius of the outer shell. EXERCISE 11.4
Volume of plastic = Outer Volume of cylinder - Capacity
1 (a) x +½sin 2x+C (b) x - ½sin 2x + C
= n(I + e0·' )' x 4.5 - 66.8 (c) ; - ½sin x + C (d) x + sinx + C
= 32.4 units3 (e) ; - 1~sin6x+C (f) ; + 1~sin 8x + C
EXERCISE 11.2 2 (a) ; (b) ; - ¼ (c) :', (d) ';.fi> (e) 1•

31
f (f) ~
3
2 . 3 5 ·' · 3
1 (a) ¼(x'- JJ'+ c
3
(b) ¼(x + 4)'+ c (c) ¾(x + 1)2 +C
3
3 C 4 L12 UtlltS -··2units
2 (a) ½(21 + 1J• +c (b) 2.../x' - 4 + C (c) ¼(x' +x + 2)6+ c J

6 ~: = ½(l - cos2x1 y = ½ (l - cos2x)dx = ; - ¼sin 2x+C,
3 D 2x - 2' y = •·••
Y = "-2 - .lsin
<1 I
7
4 (a) - 1~(3- 2x) + C (b) ( x, : ~x + ) + C 2
1 · 2
23 5 7 d y
- 2
dy
= l +cos 2 X,ax = X + zSUl X - 7• ,
(c) 11, (x 3 - 3x 2 + I)' +C dx '
+ ,t:'I -i
s Y -- L2 _ ~2 - l.cos2x
◄
5 (a) ¼(x3 +J)' +c (b) - .../1- 12 +C (c) ¼(3x - 5)' + C .IL .IL
2
3 3 8 V = n f .' cos 2xdx = l f _'' ( l +cos4x)dx = ~' units3
6 (a) - f( J- 1 ) 2 + C
2
(b) - ½(a' - x' )' +C
• •
.i
(c) ¾(z' + 1)3 + C 9 V =nf
0
" sin' 3xdx = ~ J (1 - cos6x)dx = i~ (n - 2) units
0
•
12 3
5 3
7 (a) f(y +l)2 - f( y+ l )' + C (b) ...:.!... - I +C 10 (a) sinx = cosx, x = ~
3 I
x - 1 2(x - J)2 . ,
(c) ¼(2x - 1)2 +½(2x - J)' +C (b) V = n J.• sin' xdx + n f ~ cos' xdx
du -- 3x' '3.1J ✓
8 (a) dx u du -- l.x
3
l.u½
3
+ C -- l.(I
9
+ x 3 )½+ C '
d 3 3
= ~{[ x - ½sin 2xJ: +[x + ½sin2xJ j }
3 2
(b) d: = 3x', ½f ~ du = txf(l + u)' + C = ¾( l+x ) + C
= ¼(n ' - 2n ) units3
(c) The integration of ✓u is easier than the integration of ~ -

•4 2
(q) 2 if x > 0, - 2 if x < 0, undefined at x = 0 (r) 0
11 V = .n: J (cos x - sin' x)dx l +x 2 l+x 2
0
• (s) tan x + tan_, x sec' x (t) I

=.n: J: cos2xdx l +x 2 x✓x2 - I
= .n:[ ~ sin2x
•
r 3 y = 2x+ 2 - ~
4 (a) dy = 2 sec' 2x = 2
dx I + tan' 2x
(b) tan ( + ~) is undefined
=1C2 Wlits1
(c) )'
12 (a) y
"2
I
y= tan- 1 (tan2x)
0 I 2 3,r
X
,
.
-- "-4
,-. X
2 2
4
3Z
(b) A = J,;"(sinx+cosx)dx 2
= (- cosx + sinx
3,T
i• = I+ ✓2 units' • 1
(d) J _•, tan- (tan2x)dx
3K 3K •
= area of triangle above x-axis - area of triangle below x-axis
(c) V = J,;" (sinx +cosx)' dx = .n: J,;" (l+sin2x)dx
x 1t x 1t - .!. x 1t x 1t = x - t'
= .!.2 6328 <1 3664
2
= 5i6
7t'
J: = ¼.n:(3.n: + 2)units
3,T
= [ x - ½cos2x 3
5 i =0 : . y is a constant for all x in th e domain.

- l -l
EXERCISE 11.5 VI/herex = O, y =cos O+ cos 0=.n:
3
1 (a) - ½cos x+C (b) ½tan 'x + C (c) - ¼cos''x + C 6 ~; = 0 :. y is a constant for all x in the domain.
3
(d) fsin' x + C (e) - -fcos x + C (f) ½sin' x + C \<\'here x = 0, y = sin- ' 0 + sin- ' 0 = 0
2 (a) ,~ (b) o (c) o.s (d) o.s (e) t (f) ;
7 (a) X 2 + tan -l X
l +x
EXERCISE 11.6
(b) x tan- 'x - ½log, (l + x 2 ) + C (c) ! - ½log..2
1 8.n:, a semicircle of radius 4 2 l.
3 3 : 4 .:lj- 8 (a) all real x except O (b) 0 (c) ; , - ·;
5 ":,.2 6 0 7 ./3 - 1 8 : 9 't 10 ~ (d) y
11 du=sec xdx,
, J ''du
3 u'' =
[-1]'' 37
3u3 3 = 5184 "2 -y=<1an-
>----- I
x+ tan- 1 1 (x)
12 du = sec' x dx, J e" du = e" + C = e""' + C

0 X
13 du=cosx - sinx, J - ~u = - lnlul+ C = - lnlcosx + sin xl+ C
14 (a) dd ( 1 ) = - IX 1, x (- sinx)
X COSX COS X
= 1 x sinx = secx tanx

cosx cosx 9 Max turning point at ( tan- l f ,Jo)
(b) du= secxtan xdx, J d: = lnu + C = !n il +secxl+C
EXERCISE 11 .8
EXERCISE 11.7 1 B
1 B 2 (a) sin_,; + C (b) tan -' ; + C (c) sin-' x + C
-3 2x
2 (a) 1+ Jsx' (b) 2
x - 2x +2
(c)
I +x'' (d) cos-' Ts +C (e) sin_, -f, + C (f) tan-' ; + C
(d) 2tan- x
1
(e) I e' (g) ½tan-' ; + C (h) 1;tan -'-f, + C (i) cos-'-j. + C
(f)
I + x2 2✓x ( l + x) l + eix
0) ½sin- 1 2x+C (k) ½tan-1 3x + C
,
✓16~ x'
e tan - 1:t
(g) 2 (h) e + e" tan- 1 x (I) .l.. tan- 1 ll +C (m) l.<I tan- 1 "- +C
l+x l+x' (i) 12 3 <I
(n) :j;sin -• ./3 x + C (o) ½cos-' 3

: + C (p) ½sin-• ~ + C
0) -6 (k) I (I) -4
✓4 - 9x 2 ✓1 - x 2 sin-l x ✓1 - 4x2 cos-' 2x (q) l. tan_, ..!il
2 2
+C (r) sin_, Tz
• -3 + C (s) l.sin
2
_, .!il
./i
+C
(m) - 1 (n) ~ 3 (a) : (b) ;1 (c) :, (d) 1 (e) 1 (f) ; (g) 1 (h) -!
x✓x' - I (cos-' x) ✓I - x'
1+ ½log.. 2
(o) I
x ✓I - x'
- sin-IX
x
2
(p) sin_, ✓x+ k
2 1- x
(i) :
(o) ~
0) ;;
(p) "f (q) ~
(k)
(r) ~
(1) ~
(s) ~ + l - ~
(m) ; (n) - ~
(t) : - ½log, 2

. _, 5 .l ~~ l
4 y = l + Stn X !!..
J 'sin_, xdx = [xsin_, x+ ../1- x' ]~
y '
6 y= 2sin(:x) 0
= ½sin_, t+ .J¾ - (o+ ,/J)

2
=.et. + .r,, - 1
l2 '
1 x= 2sin(":) 15 s ✓l - x' dx = f ../l - cos' 8 x(-sin0)d0
x' cos' 0
-1 0 1 2 3
X
= s - siri' 8 d0 = f - tan' 0d0
cos'0
- 1
= f C1- sec'0)d0
= 0 - tan 0+C = cos-' x - tan(cos-• x)+C

1t'
7 6
= cos-'x- ✓l - x' +C
8 1t✓
3
3- log 2
, ,T
y
3
X
·------- i 16 - ½(9 - x 2 ) 2 +C
y= tan- tx
0 X CHAPTER REVIEW 11
,T
-- - ------i 1 (a) •; (b) •i• (c) 401t
2 (a) 62 m', 64 m'
{b) Rotating about the y-axis, the subintervals for the trapezia
9 \<\'hen graphed, the area above the x-axis is equal to the area would not be equal and the curve is not the same above and
below the x-axis by symmetry. In general, J~. f(x)dx = 0 for below the axis. Calculating the volume for each region and
every odd function f(x) .
taking the average would give an approximate volume:
10 (a) f' fx = tan-• 4 - tan- ¾
.l. X + l
5
1
V = 7t J:x' dy z 1t[ 'f (122 +8 2 ) + ,-,,s(8 2
+ 42 )
1+ •; • ( 4 2 + 02 ) ] z 2881t for one side.

Both tan_, 4 and tan _, ,3 are val ues between Oand 2' ,
and tan-1 4 > tan -I ,3 , so 0 < tan-l 4 - tan - I ,3 < T,r ·
Further, tan (tan- 1 4 - tan-'¾) = 1
3 2du = Jx, f 2e"du = 2e"+ C = 2e.fx+c
when evaluated using tan(a - /J) expansion.

.-. tan-• 4 - tan-'¾ = ! (i.e. the first quadrant angle)
4 (a) 2 s:( ut - u½ )du = ,~ (b) f ~ (u + 3)✓u du = .If
2
3
{b) f
-2
'j'< = tan- 3 - tan- (-2) = tan- 3+ tan- 2
X +1
1 1 1 1 5 du =3x' dx, ½f e" du = ½Ce' - e)
1
Both tan-• 3 and tan- 1 2 are values between ; and; 6 4- .fi. 7 du = dx f 3 du = l.

12 X , J U2 3
So; < tan- 1 3+ tan- 1 2<1t
Further, tan(tan- 1 3 + tan- 1 2) = - 1 when evaluated using
8 - du = 2xdx, f s
g
_'v;u!! = f s• vd/:u = [ 2✓u Js = 4 ✓2 - 2✓5
tan (a - /J) expansion . g (a) 21t - 3✓3 (b) 41t + 3✓3
.-. tan-' 3 + tan- 1 2 = 3[ (i.e. the scond quadrant angle) 24 48
%2 ,T2
11 4 , 4 12 cos-' x, 1 10 ¼du = xdx, f ¼u¾du = J,(3x'+l)i+c
13 (a) )'
11 (a) ,;!, [ e'' (2sir1x - cosx)] = Se'' sir1x
3 {b) J e2x sinxdx=½J i: {e2x(2sinx - cosx)}dx
2 =½e 2x (2sinx-cosx)+C
y= 1 - cosx
1 12 V = 1t f }sin 2 2xdx = ; [ x - ¼sir14x]! = ~' units3
0 Jr Jr X 13 f" d/: = 2..J21 - 8

16 '\/ U
2
14 (a) LHS = sin6xcos3x + cos6xsin3x + sin 6xcos3x
(b) ; - 1 (c) f-' (x) = cos-' (1 - x), 0 S x S 2, 0 Sy S 1r - cos6xsin 3x = 2sin 6xcos3x
(d) 1
(b) ½f (sin9x +sin3x)dx = - rrcos9x - fcos3x + C
14 (a) Productrule: dd (xsin- 1 x) = l Xsir1- 1 x+xx 1 .J
X 1-X 2 15 4 1t' - 3 ✓31t units3
= sin- 1 x+ x 48 •
../1- x' 16 ½[sec3x),;' = ½(sec 1- secO) = ½
{b) From (a): J sin- 1 xdx+ J x dx = xsir1-• x 17 (a) sin30 = sin 0 (1 - 2sin 2 0) + cos0x 2 sin 0cos0
✓1 - x' = sin 0 - 2sin3 0 + 2sin 0cos2 0
Hence J sin-• xdx = xsin-' x- f ✓l ~x' dx = sin 0 - 2sin3 0 + 2sin 0(1 - 2sin2 0)
= 3sin0 - 4sin3 0
{b) f sin30d0 = - ½cos30+C

18 (a) ✓ -x + cos-' x (b) xcos-' x - ✓1 - x' +C (Q t x' - tlog, (x2 + 1)+C (g) ,~~ + C (h) 2../i"+x + C
1- x'
(i) sin- •x + C 0) -✓I - x' + C {k) *tan-' f, + C
19 (a) I (b) -2 (c) 2
✓1 - x' ✓1 - 4x2 4+x' (I) ¼(tan-' 3x )2 + C
. _,
X e Soln X -2 26 (a) ~
(d) e' sin-• x +- .=e===:
v11- x' (e) ✓ 1- x ' (Q 4 +x '
(b) u = sin- ' x :. du = ✓
dx
I
(g) - 2x + cos-' 2x (h) I 1- x'
✓l - 4x 2 2✓sin-• x ✓l - x' Where x = 0, u = O; where x =-},, u = 1
0) 3
tan-' x(l +x')
20 (a) :, (b) ~ (c) .j;
21 (a) sin-',rz + C (b) f tan-' ; + c (c) ½tan-13{ + C 1 ,, 2 F
1t 2
1r2 ,ci
2 .i
7n 2
(d) ,':r, sin-• ../2x + C (e) sin_, '!' + C =[; u' - ,u' .lo = 24 - 80 = 240
27 (a) At A, cos'x =tan'x
22 (a) >' :. cos'x =sec'x - 1
4 ,
2 cos x = 1- cos-x
cos4 x + cos' x - I = 0
I
:. cos'x = - l ~ ,/5
0
--
Jr
2 -
Jr
2
Jr X
But - I ; .Js is negative
-2 2
:. cos x =
- 1+,/s
2
(b) ~ + ✓3 -2 cosx = ±✓-I ; ,/s

23 (a) RHS = x(l + x' ) + 2 = x3 +x + 2 = LHS But OSxS ~
I + x' I + x' I + x' :. cosx>O
(b) ½x'+ 2tan-'x + C
24 (a) 0 < X < I
:. cosx = ✓- 1 ;.Js
x = cos_, ✓-1 + .Js
)'
Jr
2
(b) 0.5 units'
Jr y=sin- 1 x
2
CHAPTER 12
X
- 3 -2 - 1 O I 2 3 4 EXERCISE 12.1
Jr
1 y = x" : y' = n x"- 1
2
LHS = y' - ; y
(b) (; ,o)
=n xn-l - .!!. x xn
X
n-1 n-1
(c) y = log,(sin- 1x)- log,(cos- 1x) = nx - nx
~ I I
= O= RHS
. - ----.==+---,== 2 (a) (b)
· · dx - sin_, x✓I - x' cos-• x✓I - x' )'
8
Over the d omain O< x < I, every factor in the expression
is positive :. : > 0 for all x in the domain
-8
Hence the function is increasing for all x in the domain.
(d) >'
(c)
(d)J ~
0
~r
2 3 4 X
,
3 (a) y = - 7e_,, + 10 (b) y = e-, + 5 (c) y = _ e_
25 (a) log, (l + x)+ C (b) tan-'x + C (c) ½log, (l + x')+ C e" - l.
2
5e10x ; lx , I
(d) log, x + tx' + C (e) x - tan-•x + C (d) y = 4 ,o, ( )e y=, e - 2- ,
+e

4 {a) A = 2 ⇒ y = ----"'-
-x 1
{b) A = 2 ⇒ y = ----'-- {b) )'
l + 2x x- 2 f I 2 I /
(c) A = ½ ⇒ y =½e-'' +½ (d) a = 3,b=2 ⇒ y = e-'(3x+2)
(e) a = l ,b = 1 ⇒ y = sin2x+cos2x I / I
(f) a = 2l , b = Il ⇒ Y = 2l e-x + 2e
1 Jx
5 (a) The differential equation is first order, second degree,

0 X
dependent variable: y, independent variable: x ·2 •l I 2
(b) The differential equation is first order, first degree,
dependent variable: x, independent variable: I \ \
(c) The differential equation is second order, first degree,
dependent variable: x, independent variable: t
{d) The differential equation is first order, first degree, \ ·2 '
' \ \
dependent variable: y, independent variable: x !
2 Undefined values of are represented as vertical line segments.
6 ''' =ke" • <11, =k'l' .k =- 1' 2 (a) J'
4U dx2
d1 . 412y ' ' \ 3 \ ' -

7 C ,.. = - 2sm2x, - , = -4cos2x
dx \ 2
n n
8 (a) y = e' : y' = nx"-' e'
\ 1 I
LHS = nx"-' e.r" - nx"-' e.r" = 0 = RHS
{b) y=x - x- 1 :y' = 1 +x-'
LHS = x( 1 + x-' )+x - x-'
-2
'
- _,
_, 0 I
I
3 X
1 1 LHS = l -(1 - l +x
x )'
'
=x +x- +x+x- / -2
(l + x)'
= 2x = RHS I
- --- 1
(l + x)'
1
(l+x)'
,,
-3
'
=O=RHS
(b)
t ,., 3
)'
---
(d) y =
e"'
l +e
,, : y' = r
(1+e")
'
erx
'-
..._ "-
t JI 2
t 1
---
1
RHS = r ( 1- e" )( e"' ) RHS = 2xx 2
l +erx l + en: (4 - x') -3 -2 -1 0 I 2 3 X
t ,, ,.,
= 2x = LHS
(4 - x')' .... ..... ..... - 2 ' t ,,
9 (a) m(t) = 4([ 21
- [
31
), ~7 = 4(-2e- 21
+ 3e-") = - 8e-" + 12e- 31
. ........ ...... _3
.... ' t
- 3m+4e-" = - 3x4(e-" - e-")+4e-"
= - 12e-2I + 12e-3/ + 4e-1t = - 8e-1t + 12e-3/ = ,Im
(c)
I I ,,
)'
3 ,, I I
(b) m(O) = 4(e

0
e0) = 0 "' I ,., 2 I
-
-
(c) •:; = 0 when - 8e-" + 12e-" = 0, 4e-31(- 2e' + 3) = 0,

t = In 1.5 = 0.4055 h = 24.3 minutes
,,,, ,,
4( 1- e-' )
{d) m(t) =
e2t
, limm(t) = 0.
,~-
' l
-3
,,
-2
,.,
-1 0
- - 1 - I 2
,.,
3
,,
X
10 {a) P(O) = 10 000, P(t) = 5000(1 + esJ: ,IP

4ft
= lOOOe• I , , -2 ,,,- , I
.!.s P - 1000 = 1000(1 + e½ ) - 1000 = 1oooe½ = JP

•
I I , -3 JI I I
t l
(b) P(t) = 5000(3 - e' ), ';}; = - 1000e5
¼P - 3000 = 1000( 3 - ef ) - 3000 = - l OOOef = ';};

l t
(c) P(t) = S(k + (2000 - k)e'). 1, = (2000 - k)e'
• o'' \1
¼P - 1000 = ¼x5( k+(2000 - k)ef) - k = (2000 - k)ef = f,
•I
-3
,.-
-2 -1 2\ 3\ •
/ ,., - -1 ' " "
{d) Require f, = 0 so k = 2000
,,. - - -2 ..._ ' '
EXERCISE 12.2
,' K - -3
1 (a) - 3.5

(e)
f , ♦ 3
y
I I I
(J) ..._ ... .,,, )'
3 I I I
f f ♦ 2 I I
..._ ... .,,, 2 I I I
I I ♦ 1 .,,," ,., ,., ..._ ... .,,, 1 I I I
-1 0 3 X
..
-3 -2
\
-1
♦ -1
0
..._
1 2
..._
3 X
..._
-3
..._ ...
-2
.,,, - 1 I
1 2
I I
\ \ ♦ -2 .. ..._ ... .,,, - 2 I I I
\ \ ♦ -3
" '
\ \ The gradient at (-1, 0) ..._ ... .,,, - 3 I I I
' cannot be determined.
en ... " y
\
3 (a) (Q I (iQ2 (iii) 5 (iv) JO
' \ \
3 )'
... \ \ \
I I I 3 I I I
" ...'
I
2
1 \ \ \
,/"
..,,,<
,/
I
,/
I 2
,/
I I
,/
I
,/
" ,, > 11«:

ft tr tr tr X
~ ~ .,,6 ~ ~
-1 0 I I I
-3 -2
I -1 ... "
1 2 3 X
"I I I I "I
,
f f
f f ...
\
! = sec
,
-2
I
" ...'
2
(b) x= I + tan 2x = I +
f f -3 I (c) Any point where x = 1or x = - ;
" y
(g) y I I I 3 I I
f f f 3 f f f
f f f 2 f f f
,/" " " ,/ ,/
2
"
,/
,,
-~ - ,..6 -
ft Jr Jr X
f f f I f f f ~ ~
I
• -I t f,
"I I
-2
-3 "I "I
-3 -2 -1 0 I 2 3 X
I I I -I I I I 4 B
5 Refer to graph below for answers to (a), (b) and (c)
..." ..." ..." ..." ..."

" -2 y
(a)
'''' ''''''''''
'''' '''''
-+--3
''''' '''''''''
.............................................
(h)
f ... \
y
3 ... f +
,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,.,,,.,,,.,,,.,,,,,,,,.
---------
/.,.. / / / / / / /
f ... \ 2 ... f f
f ... \ 1 ... f + ,,,,.,,,.,,,,,,,.,,,.,,,,,,,.,.,,.,,,,,
-1 0 3
- ---------
-3
f
-2
... \ -1 ... I 2
f f
X
f ... \ -2 ... f + 6 D 7 A
f ... \ -3 ... f +
8 (a) The three lines below are an example.
y
I I I I / ..-3 I I
(i)
-
)'
f f f 3 f f f I I I I ✓ - -✓ I
I I I I / -2 /. I
I I I I / I I
" " " 2
" " " I
I
I
I
I
I
I 1/ -1
✓- -
-✓
I
I I
I I
\ \ \ 1 \ \ \ /.
-p I - - J, I I
X
-3 - -1 0 1 2 3 X I I -✓ I. I I I
\ \ \ -1 \ \ \ I
I
I
I
I
I
/ -2
- - -✓ 7
I
-✓ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
"f "f " -2
f -3
"f "f "f I I / -3 -✓ I I I I
dy 2
(b) B dx =X

9 C
10 (a) y
(b) ! = tan- 1x+ l
_ _,,, / I I / 3
, _ _,.,/I I
I I I I I I y = J ( tan- 1x +l )dx
I I I I I I
, , - ..... / /2 I I I I I I
\ ',_..,.... / I I I I I
I
= J,! (x + x tan -i x - ½log, ( x' + I)) dx
\\,,-A I I I I I I
\ \ \ ',_ / I I I I I = x +x tan- 1x - ½log, (x' + I ) + c
\ i , o _ J. / f X y(O) = 0: 0 = C, C = O
I
I \ \ \ ', l , _ ,...../I I y = x + x tan -• x - ½log,(x ' + 1)
I I I \ \ ' , _ _..../I
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
I
~2 ''
, - ,,,,. /
' , _ .,,
\
8 (a) y =½(e' +e-') (b) z = ½(e' - e-•)
I I I I \3
I
,,,,,-
\
(c) Shown in (a) and (b)
9 (a) P(t) = I + rt + :.' sin ( ~)
(b) Some possible solutions are shown.
y (b) P(t) = l + I + !sin (';'~0,;;1,;; 12.
- /////3 I I I I I p
, _ _,.,/I I I I I I I 14
I I I I , ,
12 ,
I I I I I ,
I ;, I I I I
,,
10
/ 1/ I I I I ,
8
- J. / f I j
X
, ,
6 ,
,
4
,,
2 ,
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 t
(c) y =- x - I or x + y + I =0. The dashed line is the graph of P(r) = I + t.
(d) Ify = - x - 1, ¼ = - I
y =- x - 1 => - l =x +y 10 (a) I = T: V (T) = 125 OOOarctan ( ~,)
:.1 = x + y, soy = - x - I is a solution of! = x + y. (b) Maximum amount of oil leaked = )~(125000 tan -• ( ','. ))
EXERCISE 12.3 Now lim( tan -• t) = 1

7
,~-
1 (a) y =x' - x+ c (b) j(x) = fx' +c So, lim V(T ) = lim(125000 tan -•( r,'))
T➔- T ➔-
(c) y = sin(2x) + c (d) y = x + ½sin {2x) +
= 125000 x .:!.
(e) z = ½tan- 1(½) + c (f) z =½ log, ( x' + 4) + c ~ I 96 350 litres '
X
(g) x = 8 +c (h) f(x) = x +2e-, +c <300000 litres

1<
2 (a) y =,x - ,1 x 2 + x + I (b) f(x) = ½( l - cosx)' - ¾ The report in th e newspaper is incorrect.
(c) x (tJ = ½(1 + 1)2 + ½

3
(d) V = ½e' + ½
2 11 (a) A=::
(b) dV = 20 sin-1 (.!!....) + 20h
(e) x = l - log, 12 + cos8 I (f} U = X - tan -I X + 5 dh n 10 n J 100 - h'
(g) y =½(t'- 9)'' + I (c) E.!._ = 10 sin-1 (.!!....) + !Oh
dh 1r 10 nJioo - h'
3 (a) y = I + arcsin( ;) (b) ½log, (t' + I) + I (d) I = 1~• sin-1(i~)
J
(c) x = ½(Y + log, ly- 11) (d) z = - 2 ~ + ½(1- 1)2 50
(e) h = 5../3: I = [' minutes
4 B
5 (a) .~ ( xe' ) = I x e' + x x e' = e' + xe' 12 (a) dh = _ 49t _ 39001n mF - 200(t - 200)
di 5 "'F + 40 000
(b) xe' - e' + C (c) y =xtf - e' (b) h(t) = 39001 - 49 t'
(d) y = xtf - 2e' = tf(x - 2) (e) y =e'(x - 2) 10
39 ( ( ) - 200(1 - 200)
6 y = tan- 1x+ I
ffl f
+ 2 mF - 200 I - 200) log, 40 OOO + mF
7 (a) .~ ( x + x tan-I x - ½log, ( x' + I))
- I x 22x
-1 X
= ! + tan x + ,
X +I 2 X +I 30mF 49m/ 40 000
h(tb) = 2 - 400 000 + 780 OOO log, 40 000 + mF

EXERCISE 12.4 I
(g) y = sin x + c
1 (a) y = e-, (b) y = - eix (c) y = - se-ix {d) y = 3eix
3 l x2
2 (a) y = Se-ix+ 3 (b) y = - Se-ix+ 8 (c) y = Se~,, - 3 2 y =, - , e
(d) y = 3 - Se_.,
3 C 3 (a) y =2e(,-¾) {b) y =-½
,
4 (a) V (t) = ( 2 - t )' (b) t = 8 hours
4 (a) y = ½(- so + J42s - ( x - ISO)' ) as y < o.
5 (a) ~ = - kP (b) P = 101.3e-<12 h
(c) h = 9: P = 101.3e-u = 16.7 kPa
{b) y /////,,,.,,,,,. ___
__ _
'
6 q = ECe-•c
/////.,,,,,,.,.,,,
//////,;,,,,.,,, ______
1
///////,;,_, __
7 (a) T = 20 + 80e- ' {b) k = i0 log, (f) z 0.024 - 15 / / / / / / / / ,,,,
1 / /////>'""" - -
(c) T = 25: 25 = 20 + 80e-o.oz« l/////h///;--
8 (a) f = - ky / / / / / / . / / / ,-,-
//Ill
__
/ / / , . , __
- 20
!!l. = - kdt IIII/J//ll///-
r llll /Ill///;
f; = - k dtf IlIII I I / ,.
log, y = - kt + C 155 165 170 175 X
y = e-lr.r+C 5 (a) y = tan_, ( x' + I) (b) R; (- ; . ;)
y = A e-,, wI1ere A = ec 2
S:in ( " )
6
6 P=e
t = O, y = D: D = A
P(milliom )
= De-1, 1
y kT 3
t = T:y = De-
(b) t =O, y = D 2
t = T:y = De-•r
t = 2T:y = De-•r + De- ,ir 1
t = 3T:y= De-•r + De- ,ir + De-,•r
l = (n - l)T: = D + De... r + De-lkT + De-3kT + ... + D/-• 1>•r
o-~-t---!--+-- +-- t(mo11t/1s)
3 6 9 12
y = D(l + e_{T + ['kT + e-3kT + ... + e<-n+l)kTT)
dy - l x (- 1)
. . I
Ge.ometnc senes, a = , r = e .
-kT 7 B - = ---'--'-,- X cosx = y 2 cosx
dx (sin x + C)'
1(1 - e-nkT )
y = DX -kT 8 B -dy = 2e' ' x 2x = 2xy
1- e dx
D( I- e-••T ) _ _L Ir
- -kT
9 (a) P = p0 T0 • r (T0 - r z)
I- e
. [ D( l - e-nkT ) ] D
(c) )', = nJun
➔oo
I
-e -kT = I
- e-kT
D
(d) I = T, y, = -kT
1- e
De-•<T•hl
t = T + h: y = I -kT
-e
De-•<T•hl D
- ~ - ~1=
1- e-•r 2(1- e- r)
2e-k(T+h) = I
Let T = 0 as you wish to measure your time from when there
are no more doses:
2e-k h = I z 4003 m
/ h= 2 10 (a) "' - - 2.!'l:...

41:c - logt )'
kh = log, 2 f'* ;' 11

J
= - 2 xdx
I! - -'*.-' u = log, y : du = ~ dy
EXERCISE 12.5
1 (a) y = A ( x' + 4) (b) y = Ax'

f'* ;" = fudu 1
(c) y = tan( fxt +c) (d) y , o,-,'

= Ae-' - I
= ½(log, lr l)'
(e) y = A Ji +x' ½( log, lr l)' = - x' + c

(b) (log, ly l)' = l - 2x'
,IV = - kJh
(c) Substitutex = I in ( log, ly l)' = l - 2x' 4fr
V(h ) = ½:irlt 2 (3 - lt) = 1(3h 2 - 1t' )

(log.. ly l)' = - 1 which cannot existfory areal number.
11 (a) If y = 5 is a tangent to the curve at P(x, 5) then = 0 at P. ! •~r= 1(6/t - 3h' ) = nlt(2 - 3/t)
5- x
5
= Oso x = S. - kJh = nh(2 - h) x !~
41z,, I
(b) AtP( 5,5): 2 = - ,<Osotheparticularsolutiony = x)
ft dh - k J/i
dx dt = nh(2 - h)
passing through P has a local maximum at P. -k
2
(c) y = - J25 - (x - 5) - n Jh(2 - h)
8
12 (a) p = 7.752 X 10
y1.,1
{b) I = 14:ir - 2:ir (101tf - 3/tt )
15k 15k
(b) V = 60: P = 7-7: ~ JO' z 2.512 x 106 Pa (c) h _ 1 1 _ 187 • 187 _ ,., _ , . (
4' 16 . 16 JSk I Sk
10 _ , )
8 32
187 _ 14Jf 1K 37
13 (a) As T increases then S increases, so S is an increasing J6 - ISk - lSk X 32
function and thus : : > 0 . Thus k > 0.
'is: = 1!!~:k
(b) S = ATk where A = ec and A > 0 since S > 0 and T > 0.
k -- ..!!.
IS
dv gR'
14 (a) dh = - v( R + It)'
(d) t = 14 - 2( ! Oh½ - 3h½)
Jvdv = - gR' J( R dlt+ h)' h=0: I = 14 minutes
v' gR' EXERCISE 12.6

-2 = R + lt +c
1 (a) Maximum monthly sales = JO, Differen ce of current
u'
h = o. V = u : - = gR +c sales = JO- s.
2
c=
u'
- gR
t = r( IO- s), s(O) = O
2 (b) s = 10 - ! Oe-•'
v' = gR' u' (c) s(3) = JO - !Ox(¾)' = 4.88 z 5 truck loads
2 R + lt +2 - gR
=!!.:_ _ gR' + gRh - gR' 2 {a) RHS = (l:P) [ (l + ! - I) + ~]
2 R +h
u'
gRh ( I + l + P- 1)
I
=2 - R +h - (l + P) I(l + P- I)
, , 2gR
V = U -
J + lt. - (1:P)(I(l ~+PP- I) )
h
(b) To escape the planet's gravity th e upwards velocity v must be I

= I(P + i - I) = LHS
non-negative ash ➔ co.
lim
h➔oo
(u' - 2
g~)
1+ h
= u' -2gR ~ 0 when u ~ .J2gR. (b) I -
- l +
I+ p
Pe-(J+P)r r
3 (a) Net rate of change of pollutant (g/day)

The minimum launch velocity is u = .J2gR = rate of inflow (g/day) - rate of outflow (g/day)
15 (a) T = 288 - 0.00649h
(b) ~~ = 0.000189 ~ , : = -0.0352 f.
~7 = 10000 X 2 - 10000 X ,.;'000
= 20000 - ;';.
.,
= 0.000189 -;, X (-0.0352 7·)
Initially pond is unpolluted, so m(O) = 0
_ m(r)
= - 6.65 X 10-6 ~ (b) c(t ) = ,00000
dt(r) I dn~l )
But T = 288 - 0.006 49h di = 200000 X d i
dB - 6.65 x JO_. B2
So dlt = 288 - 0.00649h
! = icx!ooo X ( 20000 - ; )
-980
- .!. _ m
- 10 20X200000
(c) h = 288 - 3990e_ 8_ 1
0.006 49 = 10 - {0 where c(O) = 0
-980
h = 44 400 - 6!5000e--. (d) c(IO) = 2( 1- e-½) = 0.79 g/L
The actual numbers obtained will depend on when you used
your calculator, but should be of a similar magnitude.
-980
(d) B = 357°K, h = 44400 - 6!5000x e " 7 z 4890 m z 5000 m

4 Net rate of change of salt (kg/ min) = rate of inflow (kg/ min) (c) N(4) = l OOOx3' = 9000
- rate of o utflow (kg/ min) N(◄ ) = 9
N{O)
Net rate of change of volume (Umin) = rate of inflow (Umin) Has increased ninefold in four days.
- rate of outflow (Umin)
21ost 10
Q(O) = 1000 X 0.01 = 10kg d t=
( ) 1og,, = 4.192 days ~ 4 days 5 hours
":, = rate of inflow - rate o f o utflow
d[ C] 14
= 10 - S = SUmin 16 (a) dt = - r [ " c] , r = l.2097 X l0 4 years- '

V(O) = lOOO L
d["c]
V(t) = St + 1000
f = rate of inflow - rate of outflow
-~J 1
["c] = J dt
= 0.04 X 10 - V~t) =5 t +c= - ~ log, ([ 14C ] )

- 0
- .4 -
SQ
IOCIO+Sl t =o: c=- ~ log, ([ " cl)
= 0.4 - ,.i., t =- ~ log, (( "c ])+~ log, (( '''c l )
Q(O) =10
5 (a) v(t ) = 0.0003( 1 - e-o.o,s, )

l ([ C])
= - ~ log, [ '''Cl
14
(b) v(t) = 0.0002: t = ':;: ~ 44 minutes

t when
[ "c]
.,=...~~ = .!.
6 (a) Net rate of change of balan ce ($/ year) =
rate o f inflow ($/year) - rate of outflow ($/year)
t [ " cl 2
1
t, = - log, -1 = 5730 years
j; = O.OSx - 300000 2 1.2097 X 10~ 2 1
= O.OS( x- 600000) where x(O) = 5000000 (b) If half the original carbon-14 has radiated away then the tree
(b) x(t) = 1000000(6- e 0.o;') died 5730 years ago.
(c) t = 20: x(20) = 1000000( 6 - e' ) = 3281 718.17

(c) J 1
[ " c] = - r ( " c ]
Since ( 12 C] is a constant then divide the previous equation

Balanceis$3281 718.15
by it.
7 B y = 10 x (0.5)' 8 C
9 D 10 B d( [ '' c ])- [ ''c] ['' c ] _ ['' cl
2~◄
11
kl 2k t
D N =Ae , 3A =Ae ,k = ,log, 3, 4 = e
fl<>s,r3
,t = ,og,, dt [ 12 C] - - r [ 12 C] and [ 12 C] - [ 12 C] when t = 0.
12 C
13 D fi = s:Oo (1000 - P), J(~+ 100~ - P )dP = ~ + C, [ "c] dR . [ " cl

Let R = [ 12 C] so dt = - rR with R = [ 12 C]
P = Ae} A = .!. p = 1000
1000 - p ' 9' I = 1.3 X 10- 12 when t = 0.
1 +9e-5
14 D
~~ = - 1.2097 X 10~1 R with R = 1.3 X 10- 12 when t = 0.
15 (a) ';' ~N (d) ~~ = - rR where r = 1.2097 X 10-<
';' = kN, N(O) = lOOO, k>O
': = - rdt
(b) ~~ = kN log, R = - rt + c
dN = kdt t = 0, R = l.3 x 10- 12 : log,( t.3X l 0- 12 ) = c
N
log, INl = kt + C log, R = - rt + log, ( 1.3 x 10- 12 )

N = Ae'' where A = +ec
N(O) = 1000 : A = 1000 ~-o-- ,~, ) = - rt
log, ( -1.-3-x"'
N = lOOOe'' ----"'Re.__,~ =err
N(2) = 3000 : 3000 = lOOOe" 1.3 X 10- 12
e2 k = 3
-Tl I
ek = ,J3 But e 2 = ½i.e. e-sJ;o, = ½
/' = ( ✓3)' = 3½
I I
so { e-S370, )5370 = (½)SJ7o
!.
N = l000 x 3 2

[ c.. ] _. A(t)
18 (a) p(t) = A(t) + B(t)
(e) R = [ c" ] = 0.9 x JO
'(t) = A'(t)(A(t) + B(t)) - A(t)(A'(t) + B'(t))
p (A(t)+B(t)) 2
I A'(t)A(t) + A'(t)B(t) - A'(t)A(t) - A(t)B'(t)
( l.)S370
2
= 0.U9 X 108 - 2
(A(t)+B(t))
8
,;,. Jog,(½) = log..(~: x 10 ) A'(t)B(t) - A(t)B'(t)
- 2
5370 log, (-/r X 108 ) (A(t)+ B(1))
I= = - 13986Jyears
- 1og, 2 {b) A '(t) = rAA(t), rA> 0 and B'( t) = r,,B(t), r8 > 0
17 (a) ~ = - r( S - I) '(t) = rAA(t)B(t) - r8 A(t)B(t)
p (A(t) + B(t)) 2
dS = - rdt
S- 1 (rA - r.)A(t)B(t)
-
(A(t)+ B(t)) 2
J dS = - r f dt
S- 1
, [ A(t) B(t) ]
log, IS - I l = - rt+C (c) p(t) = (r. - r,) A(t) + B(t)x A(t) + B(t)
IS - f l = e-•l+C A(t) [A(t) + B(t) - A(t) ]
= ( '• - r,) A(I)+ B(t) A(t) + B(t)
S - I = Ae-• 1 where A+ ec
S{O) = l : 1- l= A A(t) [ A(t) ]
= ( '• - r,) A(t)+B(t) I - A(t)+B(t)
S{t) = I+ (I - I)e-"
= (rA - r8 )p(t)(1- p(t))
(b) !: = - r(S - I) . Use the Chain Rule. (d) p(O) = ,~. '• - r8 = hr-•:
1~0
.d1!!..(JS)
4IJ
=..!!..
dS
(- r(S - !)) X dS
dr _,
p elOO
=- r X (- r( S - I)) 1- p
=-
9
2
= r (S - I) I r
9 p = eioo - peioo
OR S(t) = I + ( I - I)e-"
JS -
di -
- r( I - l)e-•' ( 9+ e
1~0 ) p = e';.
J's2 = - r(l - 1)(- re-•') I

dr p(t) = --'
= r'(l - l)e-•' I + 9e ,oo
But S - I = (I - l)e-" p(IO) = I -o t ~0.11

I + 9e ·
So rs = - r'(S - 1) 19 (a) ! ; = ; (3 - L)
,,,2
(c) Jim S = 0.05 so
t ➔-
!: = 0 as S has become a constant. dL dt
=-
3- L 5
lim JS =lJim [- r(0.05 - I)]= 0 dL =f dt
t➔- dt ➔oo
f 3- L 5
Sol = 0.05
(d) S{t) = 0.05 + 0.95e-•' log, 13 - Ll = - ~+C
S(14) = 0.06 : 0.06 = 0.05 + 0.95e-"' - L +c
0.9se-"' = 0.01
I I
3- L = e 5
_L C
3 - L = Ae 5 where A = ±e
r =- 1
~ log,;. = 1
~ log, 95 = 0.3253
L(O) = 0 : A =3
(e) Death rate = - :;; and is a maximum when Sis a ma.ximum I
Death rate = 0.3253(S - 0.05). S(O) = I, which is the largest L(t) = 3 - 3e-,
value o f S so the d eath rate is greatest when t = 0.
Maximum death rate = 0.3253(1 - 0.05) = 0.309 per day
(f) S(I)
00 • c..
• I =--=--=--=--=--_;:-;:-:::-::::-==--
J
0 7 14
t(days)

(b) W(t) = J6L3, ~7 = ~
1 0
W, H(O) = 0 (d) For the maximwn growth rate find when ,2'; = 0
dr-
dl = JOO X 16L'
dH 1
d2w = .1L( 411V )
dtl dt dt
_ ◄X2i
- ~( J - e--02, )' =L(
dW '"')x""'
4
4ft 4ft
= •:: ( 1 - 3e~ur + 3e-o..◄ , - e~.6, ) = d~v(;0W(!O - log, w))x •~;
fdH = 1
: J(J - 3e--0.2r + 3e-o.◄ r - e-o·•• )dt w) + w X ~i )x (;. W(!O-
= ;. ( I x(!O- log, log, w))
H + c= 108
~
(t + l Se~ur - 12.2 e~-◄t + ie~..6t
3
) = ;0 (9 - log, w)x ;0 w(10 - log, w)
= .~0 (9- log, w)(10 - log, w)
H(O) = 0 so c = 108
25
(0 + 15 - .!.2.
23
+ .l.) = 12
°' 5x 655
J'w = Ogives W = e9 or W = e10 mg
zs + l Se ~r - lie~.◄,
H -- .ffi!..(t 2
+ ie-0.61
3
- .ii)
6
d,2
When W = e10 mg, this is the equilibriwn position

(c) C(t) = ~~:~ (mg/kg) as t ➔ oo and 4~~ = 0.
l.!l!!.(t + lSe~ur _ ll.e~.◄ 1 +ie-0.61 _.ii) Hence the Greatest Growth Rate is when W = e9 .
C= 2s 2 J 6
::.!.
16X27(1-e-o2r)' (e) W = e 9
:
9
e =e 10
-•'
20
t + l Se~.2r - lie ~.◄t + ie-0.61 - .ii

_,
- ----~'~ --~
' --~·~ 9 = JO - 9e 20
(d) Hg(mg/kg)
JOO( I - e-•2r )' _,
e 20 -.
- l.
t = 20 1og, 9 ~ 44 days
0.12 (f) ~V(mg)
0.08
20000
0.04
15000
0 10000
5 IO JS 20
Age(years) 5000
20 (a) d;,v = rW log, ( i)
0 20 40 60 80 JOO
d,'; = rW(log, C - log, W) (1)
t(daJ•)
d;; = ,\, W(!O- log, w) (2)
21 (a) ".(, = - kV, V(O) = I OOOOOO, k>O
r -- 1
20 ' log, C = JO, C=e 10
dV =- kdt
V
=e10-•,-1120
(b) W
_, Jd: = - k fdt
dW
dt
= ilW
du
X du
dt
where u = 10 - 9e 20 log, IVI = - kt +C
-I
= ..2...e-io x e'o-9e 20
=L lvl= e-tr.c
20
-_, _, V = Ae-kt where A = ±ec
= -io e10-9t-20 x 9e20 V(O) = 1000000 : A = 1000000
V = JOOOOOOe-•'
Now JO - log, ( e10-•,;; ) = 10 - ( J0 - 9e;;) = 9e;~
V(SJ = 600000: 600000 = 1ooooooe-•k
dt = _I
So dW 20 e 10-•,;~ ( JO- og, ( e10-•,;~ ))
I
And W(O) = e10-• = e so the initial condition is satisfied
W =e 1
o-9 '
20
::.!.
is a solution to equation (2)
e-kl =(e-k)' =[(¾)'.1]' =(¾)' I
(C) dlV - 0 V = JOOOOOO(f)'

di -
,\, tV(!O- log, W) = O (b) dv

dt
= - .!.S logt-3lx V
JO- log, W = O V = 600 000 ·· dvdt = _ .1S logt-3.l. x 600000
W=e
10
mg = 61299 barrels per year.

I dP
(c ) V = 1000 : I 000000(¾)' = 1000 (f) dt = - K(P - a)( P - b), P(O) = P0
(s3)L= 1000
5 I dP
(P - a)(P - b) = - Kdt
t log, 0.001
s = log, 0.6 J (P - a~fP - b) = - K J dt
I = 67.6
b_:a f ( P :b - P : a)dP = - K J dt
It will remain profitable for 67 years 7 months.
I I P- b
22 (a) RHS = p - p _ 588 log, p = - (b - a)Kt + C
-a
_ p - 588 - p P - b = e-<•-•)K1+c
P- a
- p(p - 588)
- 588
_ _ --=..::..::..__ P - b = Ae-(1'-a)K, where A = ±ec
P- a
p(p - 588)
P(O) = P0 : Po - b = A
= I = LHS Po - a
p(1- f..) P - b = PAe-<•-•)Kl - aAe-(l,-a)Kl
(b) dp = rp( 1- L ) P( I - Ae-<•-•)K,) = b - aAe-<•-•>K•

dt 588
dp b - a( Po - b ) e-(l,-a)Kt
, )
P(1- ..L .. = rdt P - a
P = - - ' -0- - ~ - - -
l - ( Po - b ) e-c•-•>K,
Po - a
(g) Req uire
J(~- p - 1588 ) dp = rJ dt P log, 3(1 - 5; 8) - 140 = - I~~~/ (P - a)(P - b), a <b
log, IPl- log, IP- 5881= rt + c P log, 3 -

P' log,3
588
- 140= -
log, 3(,
588
p- - (a +b)P +ab
)
p
log, l-p- --'-- - = rt + c P' log,3 _ P' log, 3 (a + b)P log, 3 ab log, 3
58 8 3
588 + Plog, = - 588 + 588 - 588
p = ert+-t . .
Equatmg coefficients: log, 3 =
(a + b) log 3 _ ab log, 3
' and 140 -
p - 588 588 588
p = Aerr where A = ±e" a + b = 588 [I)
p - 588 ab = 140x588 (2)
21 I log, 3
p(O) = 21 : 21 - 588 = A:. A = - 27
(i) :. b = 588 - a (ii) ... a (588 _ a ) = 140 X 588
log,3
-p 588
p = - er' +- e" a' _ 588 a+ 140X588 = O
27 27
log, 3
p( 27 + e'' ) = 588e''
588e" 588 588+ 588' - 4 X I X 140 X 588
log, 3
p = 27 + e" = 1+27e-' ' a =--'-------~-
2
588
(c) p(3) = 294 : 294 = 588+ (4X49x 3)' - 4x I X 140X4X 49X3
1+27e-3' log, 3
1+27e-3' = 2
- --'------------''----
2
e-3, =_I 588+4x7 49 X 3 , _ 140X3

27 log, 3
- -----'-- 2- - -=-- = 294 ± 14 441 - 420
r = .!. log 27 = log 3 log, 3
3 ' '
(d) p(6 ) = 588 = 588 = 588 = 567 b = 294+14 441- 420
1+27e-61og, 3 1+27X -l l + -1 log, 3
36 27
420
(e) Now take P(O) = 567 at th e start of the repopulation a<bso a = 294 - 14 441 - and
1og, 3
';[; = rate of increase - rate of decrease
b = 294 + 14 441- 420
= P log, 3(1- f..) - 140 where P(0) = 567 log, 3
log, 3
b- a( Po - b ) e-<•-•)Kt
(h) K = , P0 = 567, P(t) = P0 - a
588 I - ( Po - b ) e-(b-a)Kt
Po - a
P(t) = 401.262 - 8J.3902e_,.,.,os,
J - 0.435852e-lS01081

588 y- 1 1 -y
0StS6 Since (0,0) lies on the curve, - 1+ y
1+ 27(½)' y +1
0) P(t ) =
401.262 - 81.3902e- '-' 0 ' 08 ' 1 -y =e''
6 < t S 14
) - 0.435 852e-lSOIOSI 1 +y
p 1 - y = 1e'' + ye''
600
y(e'' + 1) = 2(1- e" )
500
400
- - C _;:--_
_ _ __ 2(1- e' ')
... y = l +e''
300 ...
200
... 7 (a) T(t) = Ae-o·" (b) r = !Olog, 4 = 13.9 years
.
100 8 y = tan(x'+ ;)
. )f!r. ,ou
9 D y = logt- (Slll X , dx = ji.n x
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 I 2
10 C dx
dt
= - 3e-31 = - 3x' d •
d,2
= 9e- 31 = 9x
The breeding program is effective as it still leaves a stable
population. 11 D ! = kl ' = ky. •'; = k'l' = k'y, k' +k - 6 =0
dx 3
CHAPTER REVIEW 12 12 By = J (1 - 3Jx )dx = 2x - 1x2 + C,3 = C.

1 (a) tan 8 = ,~0 (b) ,i, radians per second y = 3 + 2x(1- Jx)
h = 400 tan 8 13 A
2 y =e-' cosx 14 B
dy - 3 f dx, y = Ae-3,,y =e•-3x
-:;;-=
J
i =- e-' cosx +e-' (- sinx) 15 D J ?'
2 1
= - J dx, log, l2 + y l = - x + C
= - e-• (sinx + cosx)
16 B (0, - 1), ! =2 > 0.
dx'y = e-•c·
d' smx +cosx l - e-·ccosx - smx
· l 2
,1 y d(dy ) d(X - ) dy
.,,, = "" "' = "' 1 )' = I - 2 dx = I - 2x + 4 y .
(O, - 1), -d'y2 = - 3 < 0.

= 2e-x sin x
d' ~ +1ddy +1 y =1e-• sinx - 1e-'(sin x +cosx) +1e-• cosx ""

dx X
17 C (; , 1), ! =1 x sin ~ = l. x = O, ;tysin 0 = 0. y = O,
=0 dy O. 0
t1x = smx = .
3 y = x + log, (
4 (a) /'(x) =½ sin2x + 3cosx

2
x + I ). x> - 1
(b) / (x) = 3sinx - ¼cos2x - ¼

18 A J; = J sinxdx, log, ly l = - cosx + C,
y = Ae~x. A = e. y = e l-cou
5 y = ½( I - 3e- 2' )
19 A
6 (a) I - I - 1(y + 2) - 1( y- 2) 20 D J P(2oti o - P) = 10~00 dt J

y - 1 y +1 - (y - 2)(y + 2) p
log, 20000 - P = Zt +C,
_ y + 2- y +2
- (y - 2)(y + 2) p 21 20000
OOOO p = Ae . A = 0.25. P = _
4 2 - I + 4e 2 1
21 C
y' -4
(b) z = y' - 4
22 (a) dh = k(Tw - T.)
dt
(b) h(t) =
Lph
ho'+ 1k(Tw - T. ) t
dy =dx Lp
y2 - 4
23 (a) dR [ pdq ]
dp =q l +q dp
!J( 1
: 2 - y ~ z ) dy = J dx
Revenue 1.s maximum
. w I1en dR
dp = 0
! (log, ly- 21- log, ly + 21) = x + C
l + pdq =O
.!.1og y - Z = x +C q dp
4 ' y +2
f.. dq = - I hence E = - I
y- 1 q dp
log, I-'--- = 4(x + CJ
y+1
(0,0) : log, I= 4C
(b) p= J25 -
q'
q ;;,: 0 and p ;;,: 0 so 25 - q' ;;,: 0
C=O
q' S 25
y - 2 = e"
y +1 0 S q S 5 is the domain of this model.

dq - J2s - q' (b) V(h) =½nh' (3R - h)
(c) dp = q ,:X =½n(6 Rh - 3h')
(d) Selling price is $3.54
,:X =1r(2Rh - h')
24 (a) V = j2(c - CpT) JV = 41V X 41h
dl dh dl
(b) V = ,J2Cp (308 - T) nh(Elt - 2R(C1 + £)) = n(2Rh - h') x ~7
(c) Cp = 1004.6, T = 307 : V = ,J2 x 1004.6(307 - 307) dlt nh(Eh - 2R(a + £))
z 45 ms- 1 dt= nh(2R - h)
dy I
dlt Eh - 2R(C1 + E)
25 (a) dt = - 400 (x - 2), dx = - 1- (y - l)
dt 100
dt= 2R - h
dy dy dt (c) V(h) = fnh' (3R - h)
dx = dt x dx
V=i000000,h=3: J 000000 =fn x9(3R - 3)
- (x - 2) JOO
=~- ~x - - I 000000 = 9nR - 9n
400 y- 1
1000000+9n
_ - (x - 2) R = - - - - - z353 69 m
- 4(y - l ) 9n
27 (a) Use Newton's law of cooling. Surrounding
(b) dy = - (x - 2) temperature = 20°C, T(O) = 37°C
dx 4(y - l)
~; = - r(T - 20) with r > 0 and T(O) = 37
4(y - l )dy = - (x - 2)dx
{b) T dT
f
4 (y - l )dy = - f(x - 2)dx _
20
= - rdt
2y1 - 4y = - -
x'
+ 2x + C
f T ~T20 = - r fdt
2
log, IT - 201= - rt + c
I
(1,3) : J8 - 12= - - +2+C
2 T(O) = 37 : log, I 7 = c
C = -9 T - 20
2 log, = - rt
17
x' + 2x + -9 T - 20 - ,,
2y 2 - 4y = - -
2 2 17 =e
1
4y - By = - x' + 4x+9 T - 20 _ + - ,,
17 - _e
4(y' - 2y + 1)= - (x' - 4x +4)+ 17
T = 20+ 17e-•'
2 2
(x - 2) + 4(y - 1) = 17
Since t(O) = 37, T = 20 + 17e- •'
(_.Jl7!_)' (x - 2) 2 +(-.Jl7 2
2
- ) (y - 1) 2 =I (c) Let 7:20 pm be -r hours after the death. Thus T(-r) = 29 .

29 = 20 + 17e-"
(c) Y e
-T'r
=u9
5
err =!Z.
•
(d) At 8:20 pm, t = -c + I: 27.4 = 20+ 17e-d<+l)
e - r ( r+I)
-- •--------· 7.,1. _
Ji -
er(-r-+Jl = lL
7.4
-3 -T _ 7.4. XQ _ 7.41
e - )7 9 - 9
r = log, ( ,9,) = 0.196

(d) >' (2, (2 + WJ/2)
(f) Find the value of -r : err = l1.
(0, (2 + VJ3)/2) •
r-c -- log<9
lL
(2+ W, l )
log ,,
-r= t' 9
0 (2 + VJ3, 0) X log, ,9,
For maximum predators.y = I, x = 2 + .Jl7 z 6.1, about 610. z 3.249h
For maximum prey, x = 2, y = I + f z 3.062, about 3060.

z 3h!Smin
26 (a) ~: =Qm - EA1 (h) - C1A1 (h) The coroner has predicted the time of death to be 3 h 15 min
before 7:20 pm, that is, at 4:05 pm. The chautfer claimed that
= 0 - Enlt(1R - h) - C1 X2nhR he brought Lady Frogmorton home at 6:00 pm, at which time
= nh (- 2ER +Eh - 2aR) the coroner sa)'S she was dead.
= nh (Eh - 2R(C1 + £))

., CHAPTER 13
28 (a) B = 20 000 - 5000e 50
(b) t = 7.702 years z 7 years 8.42 months
EXERCISE 13.1
(c) Total repayments = $3600 x time taken. 1 (a) 850 m
Total repayments = $3600 x ~ log, 4 = $27 725.89 (b) )aides displacement from O to B, correct to o ne decimal
(d) If S is the balance in the savings account th en it increases at place, is 680.1 m from O in a direction of N72.9° E.
$ ~ per year, d ecrease by $3600 p.a. (c) l.2m s-•
dS . (d) )aides average velocity, in metres p er second, correct to
- = rate Ill - rate out one decimal place, is 0.9 m s- 1 in a direction ofN72.9°E.
dt
35 2 Courtney's displacement for her entire walk is 510.9 m in th e
= - 3600 direction S 40.2°E.
50
3 The displacement of camp B from the base camp is 14543.5 mat
= ; (S - 60000) with S(O) = 40 000
0 an angle o f elevation of 10.5°.
dS 3 4 The magnitude and direction of Kenneth's resultant
S - 60000 = 50 dt disp lacement is 152 m in the direction S 6 1°E.
5 The sp elunkers final displacement from the cave entrance is 40 I
dS 3 J
JS - 60000 = 50 dt m in the direction N66° E.
6 If she swims in a river flowing at 4.5 km h _, and keeps her
log, Is - 600001= ;~ + c direction (with respect to the water) perpendicular to th e
current, the magnitude of her velocity with resp ect to th e
" where A = ±ec
S - 60000 = Ae50 riverbank is 7.S kmh- 1 •
S(O) = 40000 : 40000 - 60000 = A 7 (a) D Head at angle of 60° to the riverbank upstream
(b) D Not possible
A = - 20000
8 The time it takes for the boat to reach th e opposite shore, if th e
.ll river is 50 m wide, is 29.06 seconds .
S = 60 000 - 20000e 50
9 (a) Ifthe velocity of the wind is ! Om s_, north, th e resultant
S = 20000 ( 3 - e!~ ) velocity of the aircraft relative to Rapahela is I 10 ms_, north.
(b) If the head wind has a velocity of !O m s-• south, the resultant
velocity of this aircraft relative to Rapahela is 115 ms_, in the
(e) Finds( ': log, 4) : S = 20000 ( 3 - efiog.., ) direction north.
(c) The resultant velocity of this aircraft relative to Rapahela is
= 20000( 3 - 2½ ) ~ $28251.98 103.1 m s- 1 in the direction N l 4.0°W.
10 The magnitude and direction of Mitchell's resultant velocity, ~
::.!. m s_, is ~ = 0.7 m s_, in th e direction 045 or 45°T.
29 (a) W = 10 - 9e 10
11 (a) (i) OA = 3.99f + 3.0lj
(b) W( 20) = 10 - 9e-2 = 8.78198
(ii) AB =-4.24 L+ 4.241
Volume of solid waste in landfill is 878 198 c ubic metres.
30 (a) P = 1000 - 80oe-•' Oi~ BC =- 3.46i - 2 j
(b) P( 2) = 300 : 300 = 1000 - 800e- 2 k Ov) ci5 = I.Si - 2.06 j
-lk 7 (b) OD = - 2.l l i + 3.191
e =i
k =½ log, f z 0.0668 (c) The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector OD is
t 8
3.88 m at l 45.29°T.
(c) P(t) = 1000 - 800e-, 'og,, 12 At th is time, lvlorgan and Eilish are 71.1 km from the school and
in th e direction 327.3°T.
lim P(t) = 1000
,➔~ 13 72°
1 14 C 80 km h _, in the direction of bus I
31 (a) 1£- = 10 p (I - p)
15 C 786m
1, is greatest when {. (1- p) is greatest. 16 (a) The velocity of the boat relative to th e riverbank is 2.24 m s_,
This is a quadratic function so its greatest value occurs at in a direction of 63.43°.
(b) Freddie will get to the opposite riverbank JOOm downstream
p = -0-+I wl1en p = 2l .
.
,- . 1.e. from p oint A.
Half th e school community. (c) Freddie's final displacement from starting point D is
t 223 .67 mat 63.42°.
(b) p(t) = e10
, - - -_1
-, (d) Rohanne will need to head upstream at 60° an angle of to the
riverbank, it will take her I 15.47 s to cross the river.
4 + e1li 1 + 4e ' 0
17 (a) The second aircraft is 12.4 km to the south.
(c) From (a), most rapid spread when p = 0.5.
(b) The second aircraft is 2.2 km to the east.
.!. = I (c) 74.5 swill have elapsed before th e aircrafts are s ide by s ide.
2 ::.!.
I + 4e 10 18 (a) The package hits th e ground 450.0 m relative to th e point
=L l from where it was dropped.
elO =- (b) T he velocity is 46.1 m s-• in a d irection of 77.5° to th e
4
t = IOlog, 4 = 13.9 z 14 minutes vertical.

EXERCISE 13.2
so· y = 50✓
(f) I -- -"-· 3 X -"-
so - 5 X (..!.)'
so
1 (a) E + f, = 30N, north
y = ✓3x - ;oo'
(b) E + f, = - 16N, west 2 (a) lr(OJ I = 80, a = 30°,
(c) E + F, + f, = 250N, east r(O) = 80cos30°f + 80sin30° j = 40✓3{ + 40 j
(d) B + f, + f, = 56N, south (b) r(t) = 40,/31{ + ( 40t - 51 2 )l - -
2 (a) 200.00 Nat N36.87°W (b) 120.42 Nat S4 J.63°E (c) Time of flight is 8 seconds and range is 320✓3 m.
(c) 151.16N at S55.78°W (d) 357.35N at Nl7.93°E (d) Greatest height when t = 4
3 The resultant force being applied to the container ship is 3941 N Greatest height= 40 X 4 - 5 x 42 = 80 m
in the direction S54°E. (e) X = 40 ✓3t,y = 40t - 5C
4 (a) f = I 50.86N, acting in the direction N4.81°E
t = ,10'.r,•y
3 = 40x 40..,3
' r-- sx( 40'13
'" )'
(b) f = 231.06N, acting in the direction N8 J.82°W
(c) f = 28.J JN, acting in th e direction 97.2°T
(d) f = 564.66N, acting in the direction OJ J.39°T
y=~-::0
3 (a) r(tJ = 101- 1ot l
5 (a) E = J67.73f + 108.93 j, f, = 38.20{ - 216.66j,
B = - 13s.9s1- 63.39-l - !(t) = IO Ii + ( I 25 - St') l
(b) f = 69.99f - 171.121 (b) The object hits th e ground after 5 seconds, 50 m from th e
base of th e building.
6 (a) E = 176.78{ + 176.78j,f, = - 154.87f - 221.17j,
-
f, = 147.92f - 317.211
- (c) Since the object is fired horizontally, its greatest height is its
starting height, 125 m above the ground.
(b) f = J69.83f - 361.60l
4 (a) r(tJ = 7.Sf + (10 - 101)l
7 IE l =l 52.92N, lfi l = 203.22N
r(O) = Q' r(IJ = 7.Srf +( 101 - st' )l
8 (a) IE I= J95.02N;j f, I = 233.83N (b) 10 - 101 = 0,t = ls
(b) IE I= 339.21 N;j f, I = 548.81 N Greatest height= JOX I - 5 x 12 = 5 m
9 IE I= J91.2N;j f, I = 254.0N (c) y = O: 101 - sr' = o
t = 1s. x = !Sm
1 O (a) IE I = 133 76N;j f, I = 157.38N Time of flight is 2 seconds and th e horizontal distance
(b) IE I = 389.06Nd fz l = 379.68N travelled is I 5 metres.
5 D ~(t) = 36i + (15 - gt)j. ~(O) = 36f + !Sj.
11 II I= 85.45 N; lf l = 49.0 J N - -
12 (a) 1¥(0) 1= J36'+ 1s' = 39. tan a = :! = ,', .
6 (a) x = 400m
(b) By symmetry, greatest height is when x = 200.
y = 100 - SO = SO m
7 (a) r(O) = SOcosaf+SOsin al
{b) ~(r) = SOcosa f + (SO sin a - JOtJl
H,---- ! r(O) = 0: r(tJ = SO cos at i + (SO sin at - St' )j
- -- - -
{c) Cl = 36° 52', 60° I 5'
8 (O, O) and (45, 0). (22.5, 11.25)
250N
(a) r(t) = I~(O) icosa{ + (I~(OJIsin a - gt) l
(bl Ir l = 269.63 N; lf l = 101 .01 N
13 C E= 440 N north, f, = 560 N south, f, = 480 N north r(t) = I~(O) lcosa ti+ (I ~(OJIsin at - ½gt' )l
{b) Cl = 45°
14 (a) f = JO 209N
(b) IB I = 3279, IF, I = 2977 l-v(OJ I' = sin 45°cos45°
225
15 (a) E = 1233.72{ + 1637.20j, F, = 1195.03f - 1002.75j,
- -
f, = - 1383.81f - 898.65 j, f, = - 1340.69f + 1388.33 j
lr<OJ I' = 22s x 2
- - lr(OJ I = 1 5 ✓2 ms-'
(b) F = 1162N at 345°T on a bearing is 345.26°T
9 (a) Take th e top of the cliff as the origin.
~(t) = 30cosa i + (30sin a - IOtJj
EXERCISE 13.3
1 (a) r(tJ = SOf+(so-/3 - 101)1 r( t) = 30 cos at i + ( 30 sin at - 5 t') l
{b) Cl = 36° 52'
Greatest height when 50✓3 - IOt = 0, t = 5 ✓3s
10 1~(o) l = V.¥(OJ = Vi,r(OJ = H1,co,DJ
(b) r(tJ = sot f +( so-/3 r - si')l (a) ~(0) = Vi : rUJ = V{ - I Otj
(c) Height = 50 ✓3 t - 51 2
r(O) = H j' r(t) = Vt { + ( H - 5 t') j-
t = 5✓3, Greatest height = 750 - 375 = 375 m -
{b) V = 6ms-'
(d) y = O: s1(10 ✓3 - I) = 0, t = J0✓3s (c) H = 20 m
(e) r = 10 ✓3 : x = 500 ✓3 m

11 r(0) = 20i + l00j (b) (bh), (b + c, h)
(a) tan a= 't i = 5. a = 78° 41' (b,h): Vtcosa = b, Vt sin a - St' = h
(b) r(O) = 20i + 100 j : ~(r) = 20i + (100 - IOt)j t=v b

cos a
.
:VsmaxV b
cos a
- SxV (b)'
cos a
=h
- -
r(OJ = Q: r(r) = 201 L+ (1001 - st' JL
b tan a - Sb' =h
(c) x = 120 m: 20t= 120 v' cos' a
t = 6s
(d) t = 6:y = 600 - Sx 36 = 420m sb' = b tana - h
V' cos' a
12 r(tJ = 361f+(1s1 - s1')L Sb'
v' cos' a = - ---
b tan a - h
[I)
(a) !.'(t) = 36i + (1 5 - IOt)L
l!.'(OJI = 39 ms-' (c, h): Vt cos a= c, Vt sin a - St' = h
(b) a = 22° 37' t =- -
C -=Vsin ax c - sx ( c )' = h
(c) Greatest height = 11.25 m Vcosa Vcosa Vcos a
(d) y = O: 1= 3
x = 36X3 = 108 m
c tana - Sc ' =h
v' cos' a
13 r(t) = l 5tf+(20t - St')j Sc'
- - - = ctan a - h
(a) t = 0: r(O) = 0 L+ 0 j . Projected from the origin (0, 0). v' cos' a
(b) Cl = 53° 8'
(c) Speed of projection is 25 m s- 1
V' cos' a = Sc
ctan a - h
' (2)
(d) Greatest height is 20 m

x = 30 Substitute from ( I) in (2): bta~~ - h - ct~~ - h
Point is (30, 20)
b2 (ctan a - h) = c2 (btan a - h)
14 V = 200 m s- 1, (0, 0), (2000, 0)
b'ctan a - b'h = bc'tan a - c'h
(a) ~(O) = 200cosai + 200 sin at bc((b - c)tan a = (b' - c')h
!_'(I) = 200 cosai + (200sin a - IOt)j bc(b - c)tan a = (b + c)(b - c)h
r(OJ = Q: r(r) = 200cosar i + ( 200si~a t - St' )j (b + c)h
tan a = - - -
(b) Cl = 15°, 75° bc
15 (a) !.'(0) =1 75i=!.'(1) =1 75i - lOL 17 lr(OJ I = 25 ms-', P(24, 7),g = - !Oms-' .
t
r(OJ = 1000 rCtl = 1751 i + ( 1000 - sr' )L (a) >'
P(24, 7)
(b) y = 0: 1000 - St' = 0 I
t =l0 ✓2s
(c) x = 175x 10✓2 = 1750✓2 m = 7 f km

16 r(t) = Vtcosai + (vt sin a - St' )L, (7, 7), (14, 7).
(a) (7, 7): Vtcosa =7, Vtsin a - 5r =7
0 X
7
t =- - .
-, Vsmax --7 - - sx (
-7--)' = 7
Vcosa Vcosa Vcosa (b) tan a = i,
35 Cl = 16° 16'
tana - , , =I
V cos a (c) !.'(OJ = 24 L+ 7 j: !.'(t) = 24 i + (7 - Io r) j
, 35 , = tan a - 1 - -
V cos a r(OJ = Q=rCtJ = 24ti +(71 - st')j
V' cos' a = 35 (I) (d) x = 24: I = I
tan a - 1
(14, 7): Vtcosa = 14, Vtsin a - St' =7 y = 7 - 5 =2
The point is (24, 2)
14 14 14 rO) = 24i + 2j
t= : Vsinax - sx( )' = 7
Vcosa Vcosa Vcosa (e) ri(O) = 24i + 7 j, ~,(O) = Q, q,(r) = - IOj
140 r, (t) = - 101 j
- -
2tan a - -"-=~ = l
V' cos' a
r,(t) = 24i +17 - St')j
140
, , = 2 tan a - l (f) t =l: r,(1) = 24i+2L
V cos a
~= 140
V ' cos, ., (2)
This is the same position vector as that obtained for the first
2tana - l particle after I second. Hence they are in the same place at
35 the same time and thus collide.
Substitute from (I) in (2): - --"1..c
40=--
tan a - l 2 tana - l 18 (a) !_'(0J = lr(O) lcos l 5°i + l~(O) lsin l 5°f:
2 tan a - 1 = 4(tan a - 1)
2 tana = 3 ~(t) = lr(OJ Icos l 5°i + (l ~(O)Isin 15° - 101) j
tana = l.5 r(O) = Q: r(t) = I!_'(OJ Icos 15° t L+ (I~(O) Isin is0 t - St') L

(b) l!.'{OJ I = 40 ms-' 16tana- Ssec2 a = 4
(c) Range is now 160 metres. 16tan a - 5 - Stan'a = 4
19 !.'1 (O) = I SL, (0, 30J Stan2 a - 16tana+9 = 0
(a) !.'1 (tJ=ISi - 10tj CHAPTER REVIEW 13

1 D 190 km h _, in the direction of the car
fi (OJ = 30t fi (1) = 151 L+ ( 30 - 51')1
2 C 500m
{b) !.',(OJ= ISL + 15-./3j
- 3 B fj = 350 N east, f, = 270 N we.st, f, = 440 N east
¥,(tJ= !Si + (15-./3 - 101)1 4 D f; = 389N,F,=157N
r, (O) = Q: r,(1) = 1st L+( 15-./3 t - st' )I 5 (a) The resultant force is 75 N south
(b) The resultant force is 100 ✓2 N, S45°E
(c) The two stones collide at the point ( 10-./3, 23{)
6 IB l = lfi l = 490N
20 1= 2, (50, 0), r(2) = 50£. ~(O) = V cosai + V sin a{ 7 (a) l.7ms- 1 at 61.93° to the riverbank
(b) 64 m downstream from the point 0
(a) !.'(OJ= V cosai + V sin at !_'(1) = V cosaL + (v sin a - IOt )L
(c) The rower's final displacement is 136m from point Oat
r(OJ = Q: r(t) = V cosa1 i + (v sina1 - st')1 61.93° to the riverbank
(b) a = 21° 48' (d) The direction is 61.93° upstream to riverbank and it will take
Jake 74.42s
V=S..fi.9 ms-'
(c) Sm 8 (a) 6 ms- 1
V ms- 1
21 (a) !_'(OJ= 20cosa i + 20sina j:
!_'(tJ = 20cosa L+ ( 20sin a-_ IOt) j
r(OJ = Q: r(t) = 20cosa t L+ ( 20sir;a1 - st')1
(b) a =45°, 71° 34'
a
22 (a) !.'(tJ=30i + (40 - 101)j {b) V = 50 ms- '
4 ms-t
(c) a= 53° 8' (d) Highest point is (120, 80)
23 (a) !.'{OJ=Vcosai + Vsiriaj: (b) tan a = 1.5
!_'(tJ = V cosai + (v sin a·- gt)j a = S6° 19'
(c) !.'(OJ = 4i + 6j: !.'(1) = 4L + (6 - IOt)j
r(OJ = Q: r(t) = V cos a Ii + ( V s~1a 1 - ~ g 1') l -
r(O) = Q: r(t) = 4t L+(61-s1')L
(b) Horizontal component is V cos a= f J°½, {d) I.Sm
(e) Range when I= 1.2s
Vertical component is V sin a = J2gb x = 4.8m
(c) x = Vtcosa = •; J½ ⇒ t =x x¾.fj 9 !_'(0) = 28f + v>. L, Ymox = 4.9m, g = 9.8 ms-'
(a) !_'(0J = 28i + vTt !_'(1) = 28L +(vT-9.81)1
y =V sinat - ½g1' =1Jiib - ½gt'
r(O) = Q: r(t) = 28t i + (vyi - 4.91')L
t = 2x
a
fif., y = 2x
VK a
{if_ x J 2gb _ .!. g( 2x
VK 2 a
fil)'
VK
{b) I= ls
t
(c) 1 = is the time on the way up, 1 = ~ is the time on the
4bx g 4x1 2b way down
= a -2 X 7 Xg I = ~: X = 28 X ~ = 52 m.
4bx 4bx' {d) The fielder has to run (65 - 52) = 13m in~ s
=- -
a a' Speed of fielder = 13X 173 = 7ms- 1
4bx(a - x)
- 10 (a) r(O) = 15l•(30, 26.25J. Ymu = 26.25 m,g= 10 ms-'
a'
Height reached is 4 bx(a - x J m. y (30, 26.25)
a'
24 V= l 6ms- 1,(16,4)
!_'(0) = 16cosai + 16sinaj 20
(a) !_'(OJ= 16cosai + 16sin a j:

-
!_'(tJ = 16cosai + (l6sir1a - gt )1
JO
r(OJ=Q: r(t) = 16cosati +(16sinat-½gt')1
(b) g = 10ms-2,(16,4J
16tcos a = 16 :. t = ,.:a JO 20 30 40 50 60 70
X
I ( 16sin a - St) = 4
t = -~a
'- : -c~a
'- (16sina- -c~a
'- ) = 4

(b) r(t)=v, { + (v),- IOt)I (f) The probability that Philomena stops at exactly four sets of
[(0)= 15j: [(1) = v, tf +(15+v1 t - 5t2 )j lights including the first two is 0.1297.
14 (a) (i) 0.0115 (ii) 0.0576 Oi~ 0.1369 (iv) 0.2054 (v) 0.2182
(c) Speed of projection= 25 ms-• - (b) 0.6296 (c) 0.3704.
a = 36° 52'
15 (a) Ifa ran dom sample of 12 loaves is selected, the probability
11 C B = 230N, f, = 193N
that exactly one loaf cannot be sold at full price is 0.3837.
(b) The probability that exactly three loaves are slightly burnt
CHAPTER14 is 0.0532.
(c ) The probability that all loaves in the random sample are sold
EXERCISE 14.1 at full price is 0.3677.
1 (a) Yes, only two outcomes: correct (CJ or incorrect (I) (d) The probability that the baker would make a profit is 0.9999.
(b) ••c. = 10
c,1 = 210 16 (a) The probability that a maximum of three new songs from the
sample will become popular hits is 0.950.
2 Yes, the outcomes were 'voted for' or 'didn't vote for' the candidate.
(b) The probability that more than four but Jess than six songs
3 (a) Yes, male or female (b) '°Cu = 167 960
from the sample will become popular h its is 0.010.
4 (a) Yes, only o utcomes are heads or tails
(c ) It is most likely that one song will become a popular hit
(b) HHHH, HHHT, HHTH, HTHH, THHH
because it has the h ighest probability, P(X =I) = 0.349
5 (a) Yes, the outcomes are 'a sum of 7' or 'not a sum of 7'.
(d) The probability that exactly one of70 new songs will become
(b) p = ,~ =¼ (c) 6 a popular hit is 0. 167.
(e) 1\~o songs are most likely to become popular hits because
EXERCISE 14.2 P(X =2) = 0.241 has the highest probability value.
1 (a) P(X = 4) = 0.0078 (b) P(X = 6) = 0.0746 17 (a)
(c) P(X = 2) = 0.2965 (d) P(X = 30) = 0.1146
X 0 I 2 3 4 5
2 The probability, correct to four decimal places, of the spinner
landing on a shaded section exactly five times out of IOspins P(X=x) 0.4437 0.3915 0.1382 0.0244 0.0022 7.59x 10-5
is P(X = 5) = 0.1782.
3 (a) The probability that exactly 30 even numbers are rolled is (b) The probability that the boxed set will contain fewer than
P(X = 30) = 0.0419. four faulty DVDs, if you know it contains at least one faulty
(b) The probability that at least one 6 is rolled is DVD, is 0.996.
P(X ~ I) = 0.9999.
4 (a) The probability that exactly 15 bulbs flower is EXERCI SE 14.3
P(X = 15) = 0.0747 1 (a) E(X) = 14, Var(X) = 4.2, a(X) = 2.05
(b) The probability tl1at more than 15 bulbs flower is (b) E(X) = 55, Var(X) = 24.75, a(X) = 4.97
P(X> 15) = 0.0510
5 (a) This s ituation is not suitable for binomial modelling because (c) E(X) = 33½ , Var(X) = II ¼, a (X) = 3f
the number of trials was not determined beforehan d. (d) E(X) = 5, Var(X) = 2.5, a(X) = 1.58
(b) This situation is suitable for binomial modelling. (e) E(X) = 20, Var(X) = 4, a (X) = 2
6 (a) The probability that exactly 25 hearts are drawn is (f) E(X) = 16, Var(X) = 9.6
P(X = 25) = 0.0918. 2 (a) p = ½ (b) p = 0.1 (c) n = 35 (d) " = 25
(b) The probability that exactly 40 cards are clubs is 3 (a) n = 12andp=0.4 soX - B(12, 0.4)
P(X = 40) = 3.6263 X 10-4 •
(b) 11 = 20 and p = 0.1 so X - B(20, 0.1)
(c) The probability that exactly 55 red cards are drawn is (c ) 11 = 30 and p = 0.15 so X - B(30, 0.15)
P(X = 55) = 0.0485.
(d) n = 50 and p = 0.22 so X - B(50, 0.22)
(d) The probability that exactly 60 cards are black is (e) 11 = I 00 and p = 0.65 so X - B( I 00, 0.65)
P(X = 60) = 0.0108. (f) n = 150 and p = 0.275 so X - B(150, 0.275)
7 B 4 B 5 D 6 P(X = 3)=0.42
8 The probability tl1at of eight births, exactly half are girls is 7 If the spinner is spun eight times, the probability of obtaining
P(X = 4) = 0.2157. Jess than the expected num ber of blue outcomes is 0.367.
9 The probability tl1at exactly 35 people out of a random sample 8 C
of 100 will be left-han ded is P(X = 35) = 0.0834. 9 (a) The probability distribution is shown in the table.
10 The probability tl1at exactly 6 tosses out of IOland on heads is
P(X = 6) = 0.146.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
11 B
12 This experiment could not be described as X - B ( 5,¼) because P(X = x) 0.1001 0.2670 0.3115 0.2076 0.0865 0.0231 0.0038 0.0004 0
the probability of success is not constant.
13 (a) The probability that Philomena stops at exactly five sets of (b) E(X) = 2 (c ) a (X) = 1.22
lights is P(X = 5) = 0.3025. 10 (a) The probability that the first two children born are male is 0.25.
(b) The probability that Philomen a stops at fewer than two sets (b) The probability that there are th ree boys and three girls,
of lights is 0.0109. in any order, is 0.3125.
(c) The probability that Philomena stops at more than five sets of (c ) The probability that there are more girls than boys is 0.3438.
lights is 0.1176. (d) The probability that there is at least one boy, but more girls
(d) The probability that Philomen a stops at tl1e first three sets of than boys is 0.328 I.
lights is 0.343. (e) The probability that there are no consecutive births of the
(e) The probability that Philomena stops at the second and s ixth same gender is 0.0313.
sets of lights only is 0.0040.

11 (a) The number of trials is n = 49 with a probability of success of E( P) z pz 0.05
P =2.7 ·
(b) \<\Then both the mean and th e variance are d oubled, the s(fa) =Jj,(in- j,) = 0 05 x ~~oo5 ) = 0.0069 z 0.007
1
probability of success does not change, p = f, but th e number
of d ata collected doubles to n = 98. 5 (a) The conditions are nj, 2: 5 and n(I - j,) 2: 5
(c) The researcher should expect the variance for this set of data For the samp le, n = 1000, j, = 0.55 and 1- j, = 0.45
to be 12.10. np = 1000 X 0.55 = 550
(d) The mean and variance the researcher would expect to
calculate for this set of d ata is E(X) = 48 and Var(X) = 6.86. n( l - p) = 1000 X 0.45 = 450
(e) If the mean is th e same but the number of trials is larger, Both criteria are met. Therefore th e distribution can be
p decreases which, in tur n, produces an increase in the approximated by a norm al distribution.
variance of the sample. (b) For the sample, n= JO, j, = 0.9, 1- j, = 0.1
If th e probability of success is the same but the number of
np = JOX0.9 = 9
trials is larger, this produces an increase in both the mean
and the variance of the sample. n( l - p) = !OXO.l =l
Both criteria are not met. Therefore the distribution cannot
EXERCISE 14.4 be approxim ated by a normal distribution.
1 (a) The population proportion is the proportion of all (c) For the sample n= 50, j, = 0.1, 1- j, = 0.9
Northern Territory email users who have received a fake
email. The sample size is 800.The observation value is
np = 50 X 0.J = 5
42% of800 = 0.42 X 800 = 336. The sample p roportion n ( I - p) = 50 X 0.9 = 45
is 42% = 0.42. Both criteria are met. Therefore th e distribution can be
(b) The population proportion is the proportion of Tasmanian approximated by a norm al distribution.
Holden owners who p refer a medium- to large-sized car. 6 (a) p= 0.7, x = 91. Substitute in j, = ; :
The sample size is 2500. The observation value is 1893. The
sample p roportion is: ;:~ = 0.76 0.7 = !!.
n
n= i.\ = 130
j,(1- j,)
2 Use the formulas E{ fa) z j, and s( P) = (b) j, = 0.15 and x = 300
For the sample, X = 64 and n = 104.
" 0.15 = 300
n
p= ; = 16.:, z 0.6 15 n= ~ = 2000

P)
Therefore, E ( z j, z 0.615 i.e. the expected population (c) j, = 0.83 and x = I 5
proportion of students not knowing what to do after they 0.83 = ~
leave school, is 0.6 15. n = . ~, = 18.07 ... z 18
s(fa) = Jp(ln p) = rfk-x~~~---,-~I,~) = 0.0477 ... z 0.048 7 (a) p= 0.34 and n = 2500. Substitute in j, = ;
0.34 = 2~
i.e. the standard error of th e sample p roportion is 0.048.
= 2500 X 0.34 = 850
X
3 The conditions are np 2: 5 and n ( I - j,) 2: 5. (b) j, = 0.02 and n = JOO
For the sample, n= 334, j, = 0.98 and I - j, = 0.02. 0.02 = l~
Hence: nj, = 334 x 0.98 = 327.32. Therefore, nj, 2: 5. x = JOOX0.02 = 2

n(I - p) = 334 X 0.02 = 6.68. Therefore, n( I - j,) 2: 5. (c) j, = 0.98 and n = 5000
Both conditions are met. Therefore, the distribution can 0.98 = so'oo
be approxim ated by a normal distribution. X = 5000 X 0.98 = 4900
4 (a) Use th e formulas E P (

•)
z p and S P =
A ( ' )
~
{j,(1-n j,) . For the P)
8 Use the formula E ( z j, to estimate th e population
proportion from the sample proportion because th e population
sample x = 507 and n = 1300. proportion is often unknown. Hence the value of the sampling
P = ~tt =
A 507
1300
= 0 .39 error is difficult to calculate because the true value of th e
population proportion is usually unknown.
E(fa) z j, z 0.39 p
9 (a) For the sample, j, = 0.75, I - = 0.25 and n = 900.
s(P) = j,(1 - j,) = , 0.39X( J - 0.39) = 00 135 z OO E( fa) z j, = 0.75
n ~ 1300 . ··· . I
(b) x = 415 and n = 500. s(fa) = p( I - p) = /0.75 X 0.2 5 z 0.014
n \/ 900
p• = ;;
'
sooS = O·834
= dl The conditions for using a normal distribution are nj, 2: 5 and
(fa) z pz 0.83 n( 1- j,)2:5.
s(P) = Jj,(1"- j,) = ✓083X~~~0.83) = 0.0 168 z 0.01 7

np = 900 X 0.75 = 675. Therefore, np 2: 5.
n (I - p) = 900 X 0.25 = 225
(c) x = 50 and n = 1000.
Both conditions are met. Therefore the distribution can be
j, z ; = ,:'oo = 0.05 approximated by a norm al distribution.

15 (a) Satisfied members: xs = ½x J20 = 60 Consider whether the standard error of the new sample is
a higher or a lower value. A higher number of orders from
Indifferent members: x 1 = ½x 120 = 40 returning c ustomers will produce a slightly higher standard
Dissatisfied members: x 0 = ¼x 120 = 20 error, which means that the curve will be slightly wider.
• X 60
s(f>) = ✓0.4200
X 0.6 = 0 0346
.
(b) Satisfied members: Ps = ;;- = 120 = 0.5
Use technology to plot the sampling distribution of j, with
Indifferent members: j,, = ; = ,~ = 0.33(2 d.p.) mean 0.40 and standard de,~ation 0.0346 on the same set
of axes.
Dissatisfied members: p0 = ; = ,;~ = 0. I 7 ( 2 d.p.)
(c) x0 = ¼X240 = 40, Po=;=2~~ = 0.17(2 d.p .)

The point estimate d oes not change because the observation
value is doubled, whereas the proportion of observations
doesn't change.
(d) Calculate the new observation value for the dissatisfied
members. 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
x 0 = ¼x 120 = 24, j,0 = ; = i';~ = 0.20 Sample distribution of j,
The point estimate becomes greater because the proportion
of results is greater, which produces a higher observation CHAPTER REVIEW 14
value. 1 (a) P(X = 3) = !~ (b) P(X = 4) = :.•~
16 (a) The expected value E( P) z j,, where j, = 0.35. 2 (a) p = 0.8 (b) n = 40
3 E(X) = 25
s(f>) = ✓p( I - p) = /0.35 X 0.65 z O 0337 4 (a) 5 points
n ~ 200 · {b) If Yehudi won JO of the first JS points I would be quite
(b) Use technology to plot the sampling distribution of j, with surprised as the number is well above the expected number.
mean 0.35 and standard deviation 0.0337.
5 (a)
y 0 1 2 3
7
,." 7 _,
P(Y= y)
" •• 120
(b) E(Y) = ,~
6 C 7B SB 9C 10 D
11 (a) P(success) = 0.75
0.25 0.35 0.45
(b) (Q X - B(30, 0.75)
Sample distribution of j,
(ii) The expected number of odd numbers which will occur in
(c) (i) Let x be the observation value. The expected th e 30 rolls is E(X) =22.5
value E( fa) z j, where j, = ; . For x = 55, n = 200: (iiQTo roll 28 odd numbers in the 30 rolls would be unusual
p = ;! = 0.275 as it is outside the 95% confidence limit.
(c) (Q The probability of any pair of rolls resulting in two odd
f,)
E ( z 0.275, Calculate the standard error using the num bers is 0.5625.
formula: (ii) The probability distribution of the number of odd
s(f>) = ✓p(l - p) =
numbers in the two rolls
/0.275X0.725 z 00 3 ! 6
n ~ 200 · y 0 1 2
(ii) Use technology to plot the sampling distribution of with p P(Y= y) 0.0625 0.375 0.5625
mean 0.275 and standard deviation 0.0316 on the same
set of axes as previously.
12 (a) 0.367 (b) 0.2 1 (c) 0.393 (d) 0.04
(e) Chance of winning more than two if buying one box per d ay
for seven d ays is 0.148.
Chance of winning more than two if buying one box per d ay
for JOd ays is 0.322. Therefore, Carol is correct, her chances
will increase.
0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
Sample distribution of j,
(d) Consider whether the expected value of the new sample
is a h igher or a lower value. A higher number of orders
from retur ning customers will produce a higher expected
value, which means that the curve will be to the right of the
previous two curves.
(P) z :~ = 0.40

A binomial coefficient
The coefficient of the ter m x" - ' y' in the expansion of
acceleration 11
(x + y ) is called a binomial coefficient. It is written
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time:
2
.. . (t) dv d x dv d (J 2) d d .
x,v , dt' dt2 ,v dx or dx 2 v , Stan ar un1tsms .
-2 as "c, or (;) where r = 0, I, . .. , n and is given by:
n!
amplitude r !(n-r )!
The amplitude of a sine or cosine function is half the
binomial distribution
difference between the greatest and least values of the
The binomial distribution with parameters n and p is
function. The amplitude of y = a sin nx is a.
the discrete probability distribution of the number of
angle of projection successes in a sequence of n independent Bernoulli
The angle, measured from the horizontal, at which a trials, each of which yields success with probability p.
particle is projected.
binomial expansion
arc A binomial expansion describes the algebraic expansion
(1) Par t of the circumference of a circle. of powers of a binomial expression.
(2) Par t of a curve. binomial probability
arrang ements in a circle When the same trial is repeated several times and
The number of ways of ar ranging n different objects there are only two possible outcomes in each trial
in a circle, regarding clockwise and anticlockwise ( often called 'success' and 'failure'), the probability
arrangements as different, is : ' = (n - I )!. As there is of r successes is given by P( X = r ) = (; )q•-rp', where
no start or finish to a circle, one object needs to be fixed 0 < r < n, where p is the probability of a 'success' and
as the 'starting object' for counting purposes. q = I - p is the probability of a 'failure'. This expression
asymptote is the corresponding ter m of the binomial expansion
A line or curve that a function approaches but never of (p + q)".
reaches. binomial random variable
auxiliary angle method A binomial random variable X represents the number
\,Vriting asinx + bcosx in the form rsin (x + a) or of successes in n independent Bernoulli tr ials. In each
rcos(x-a), where r = ✓a2 + b2 and a is in the first Bernoulli trial, the probability of success is p and the
quadrant such that tan a = !- probability of failure is: q = I - p.
binomial theorem
B The sum of two terms raised to the nth power can
be expanded as a series of n ter ms according to the
Bernoulli distribution
following formula:
The Bernoulli distribution is the probability distribution
of a random variable which takes the value I with (a+b)" = "C0a" + "C 1a"-1b+ "C2a"- 2b2 +.. .
'success' probability p, and the value O with 'failure'
probability q = I - p. The Bernoulli distribution is a + +. .+ =I
•c , a"-rbr •c . b"
n
r=O
· c , a"-'b'
special case of the binomial distribution, where n = I.
Bernoulli random variable
A Ber noulli random var iable has two possible values, (l + x )" =(:)+(~)x+(;)x +. .+(:)x'+...
2
namely O representing failure and I representing success.

The parameter associated with such a random variable is
the probability p of obtaining a I.
+(:)x" t(:)x' =
Bernoulli trial
A Ber noulli trial is an exper iment with only two possible
outcomes, labelled 'success' and 'failure'.

C E
column vector notation even function
A vector,~, in two dimensions can be represented in A function is even i ff(-x) = j(x) for all values of x in
column vector notation. For example, the ordered pair the domain. The function is also symmetrical about the
a = (4,5) can be represented in column vector notation y-axis.
as: a = (:).
exponential decay
Exponential decay ( or 'exponential decline') occurs when
a quantity decreases by a constant percentage over time.
combination
A combination is a selection of r distinct objects from exponential gro,vth
n distinct objects, where order is not important. The Exponential growth occurs when a quantity increases by
number of such combinations is denoted by "C or
I r r
(n), a constant percentage over time.
and is given by: n·

r!(n-r)! F
factorial (!)
component form of a vector The product of the first n positive integers
The component form of a vector, !'. , expresses the vector
is called the factorial of n and is denoted by n!.
in terms of unit vectors i, a unit vector in the x-direction,
n! = n(n - 1) (n - 2) (n - 3) x ... X 3 x 2 x 1
and j, a unit vector in they-direction. For example, the
By definition: O! = 1
ordered vector pair !'.' = ( 4, 3) can be represented as:
!'. = 4£ +3j. factorial notation (!)
The notation n! is called 'n factor ial' and means
cubic function or cubic polynomial n x (n - 1)(n - 2) x .. . X 3 X 2 x 1.
A polynomial function f of the third degree, defined by
3 ,
j(x) = ax + bx- + ex + d where a, b, c, dare constants, factor theorem
a '# 0. Every cubic polynomial has at least one linear The factor theorem states that a polynomial P(x) has a
factor of the form (x + a) where a is a real number. factor (x - k), if and only if, P(k) = O; that is, k is a root
of the equation P(x) = 0. The factor theorem links the
D factors and zeros of a polynomial.
decreasing function fundamental counting principle

A function f defined on the interval a < x x 1 then j(x2) < j(x1). In other words, independent event has n possible outcomes, then there
is a total of ,n x n possible outcomes for the two
the cur ve always slopes downwards to the right, so the
function never has a positive gradient. combined events.
degree of a polynomial H
A polynomial P(x) = a. x" + a. - ,x•-• + ... + a 1x + a0 is of
half-life
the nth degree if a. '# 0.
The time taken for half of the atoms in a radioactive
differential equation substance to decay.
A differential equation is any equation containing the
horizontal line test
der ivative of an unknown function.
To check that any hor izontal line that can be drawn will
direction field only cut a curve once.
A direction field (or slope field} is a graphical
representation of the tangent lines to the solutions of a I
first-order differential equation. increasing function
displacement A function f defined on the interval a < x x 1 then j(x2) > j(x 1). In other words,
displacement vector the curve always slopes upwards to the r ight, so the
A displacement vector represents the displacement from function never has a negative gradient.
one point to another. indefinite integral
division algorithm The pr imitive of a function, written Jj(x)dx .
For any polynomial P(x) = (x - a}Q(x) + R, where Q(x)
is a polynomial.
Glossary 443
independent events multiplication principle
Events are independent if the occurrence or non- See fundan1ental counting principle.
occurrence of one event cannot change the probability of
multiplicity of a root
the occur rence of another event, i.e. the events have no
Given a polynomial P(x) , if P(x) = (x- a)' Q(x),
effect on each other.
Q (a)"# 0 and r is a positive integer, then the root
induction (mathematical) x = a has multiplicity r.
A method used to prove that something is true for all
positive integers n (or e.g. for all positive integers n
mutually exclusive events
Two events are mutually exclusive ( or 'disjoint') if
greater than a specified starting value, or for a subset
membership of one event excludes membership of the
such as all positive odd integers n) . First, the proposition
other, so that they cannot occur simultaneously.
is proved tr ue for a starting value of n; next, it is proved
that if the proposition is true for n = k then it is tr ue for
n = k + I; by induction, it is therefore tr ue for all values N
of n greater than the starting value. Newton's la,v of cooling
The cooling rate of a body is proportional to the
initially difference between the temperature of the body
\"/hen time t = 0 (at the beginning).
and the temperature of the surrounding medium:
integrand ~; = - k(T - M), where T is the temperature at any time
An integrand is a function that is to be integrated. t and M is the temperature of the surrounding medium
integration by substitution (a constant). A solution of this differential equation is
Changing the variable in an integral to make it easier T = M + Ae-k', where A is a constant.
to determine the integral, e.g. by substituting a new
variable u = g(x). 0
invers e cosine function odd function
1 A function is odd if j(-x) = -f(x) for all values of x in
y = cos- xis the inverse cosine function; it means 'that
the domain. The function has rotational symmetry about
part of x = cosy for which O< y < n-'.
the origin.
invers e function
Iff(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x theng(x) = f - 1(x) is the inverse one-to-one function
function ofj(x). The graph ofy = J- 1(x) is the reflection of A function for which any vertical line can only cut it
y =j(x) in the line y = x, when the inverse function exists. once and any horizontal line can only cut it once; every
one-to-one function has an inverse function.
invers e sine function
1
y = sin- xis the inverse sine function; it means 'that par t p
of x = sin y for which -1< y < 1'. parameter
invers e tangent function (1) A parameter is a quantity that defines cer tain
y = tan-' xis the inverse tangent function; it means 'that character istics of a function or system. For example,
part of x = tany for which -1< y < 1'. 0 is a parameter in J = X COS 0.
(2) A parameter can be a characteristic value of a
L situation. For example, the time taken for a machine
leading term to produce a certain product.
The term a. x• of a polynomial, where a. "# 0. parametric equations
logistic equation When two related variables (e.g. x and y) are expressed
The logistic equation is the differential equation in terms of a third variable, the 'parameter' (e.g. tor 0),
dn so that x = f(t),y = g(t) or x = f(0),y =g ( 0).
- = kN ( P - N) where k, Pare constants. Thus: if
dt Pascal's triangle
dn
N = Oor N = P, - = 0 An arrangement of numbers that gives the coefficients of
dt the ter ms in the binomial expansion of ( I + x)".
M
mathematical induction
Mathematical induction is a method of mathematical
proof used to prove statements involving the natural
numbers. It is also known as proof by induction or
inductive proof. The principle of induction is an axiom
and so cannot itself be proven.

permutation roots (of an equation)
A permutation is an arrangement of r distinct objects (1) The values of x for which j(x) = 0.
taken from n distinct objects where order is important. (2) The abscissae of the points at which the graph of
The number of such per mutations is denoted by "P, and y = j(x} cuts or touches the x-axis.
is equal to:
" P,. = nn-1
( ) .. .( n-r + I ) = ( n! ) s
n- r ! sample proportion
The sample proportion (j,) is the fraction of samples out
The number of permutations of n objects is n!
of n Bernoulli trials which were successes (x), that is:
point of contact •
p=-
X
A point where two curves touch. n

For large n, j, has an approximately normal distribution.
polynomial
An algebraic expression of the for m scalar
1 A scalar is a quantity with magnitude but no direction.
P(x) = a. x" + a. - ,x"- + ... + a 1x + aO' where n,
n - I, ... are all positive integers and a. , a. _,, ... secant
are the coefficients (for convenience, usually chosen The reciprocal of the cosine function. (Abbreviated 'sec'.)
as integers).
solid of revolution
position vector A three-dimensional solid formed by rotating an area
The position vector of a point P in the plane is the vector under the curve about one of the coordinate axis.
joining the origin to P.
statement
projectile motion An assertion that can be true or false, but not both.
The motion of a particle when it is projected in any
direction and subject only to gravitational acceleration,
i.e. ignoring any air resistance.
T
tformulae
Expressions for sinA, cosA and tanA in terms oft
Q where t = tan 1-
quadratic function or quadratic polynomial
A polynomial function f of the second degree, defined trajectory
2 The path followed by a particle.
by j(x) = ax + bx+ c, where a, b, care constants, a '# 0.
A quadratic polynomial with no real zeros cannot be trifecta
factor ised into linear factors of the form (x + a) where a In horse racing, when the first three horses are picked in
is a real number. the cor rect order.
quartic function or quartic polynomial
A polynomial function f of the fourth degree, defined V
4 3 2 velocity
by j(x) = ax + bx + ex + dx + e, where a, b, c, d, e are
constants, a'# 0. A quartic polynomial with no real zeros The rate of change of displacement with respect to time:
cannot be factor ised into linear factors of the form x(t), v(t) or : , standard units ms-'.
(x + a) where a is a real number.
vertical line test
quinella To check that any vertical line that can be drawn will
In horse racing, when the first two horses are picked only cut a curve once.
correctly (in any order). If a vertical line cannot pass through a curve more than
once, then the curve represents a function.
R
range on the horizontal plane
The hor izontal distance between a particle's point of
z
zero factorial
projection and the point where the particle meets the By definition, O! = I.
horizontal plane through the point of projection.
zeros (of a function)
remainder theorem The values of x for which a function j(x} = 0.
The remainder theorem states if a polynomial P(x) is
divided by (x - k), the remainder is equal to P(k).
rest
When a par ticle is 'at rest; its velocity is zero.
Glossary 445

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A catalogue record for this

A IJ VANC I. lJ I .'<TI 'J,,l!J'. T

Features of the third edition Student book/Reader+ V

CHAPTER 1 Further work with functions 1 ME-F1.2

1.4 Circular and simultaneous inequalities .......... . ...... . .........9

CHAPTER 2 Polynomials 13 ME-F2.1, 2.2

2.2 Division of polynomials and the remainder theorem . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.3 The factor theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.5 Multiple roots of a polynomial equation ... . . . ..... ... . ...... 24

CHAPTER 3 Graphing functions 34 ME-F1 .1, 1.4

3.4 Graphing polynomials by adding ordinates ... ..... . ......... 58

3.6 Parametric form of a function or relation . ... ..... . ........ . 66

CHAPTER 5 Inverse functions 94 ME-F1.3/T1

CHAPTER 6 Permutations and combinations 112 ME-A1

7.2 Velocity and acceleration as rates of change ........ . ........ 151

7 .3 Exponential growth and decay . . ..... . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . ... 155

7 .5 Related rates of change ... . . . ........ . . . ........ . ........ 167

CHAPTER 8 Trigonometric equations 176 ME-T3

8.2 Solving quadratic trigonometric equations ................. 180

CHAPTER 9 Proof by mathematical induction 186 ME-P1

9.2 Proving divisibility by induction ...... . . . ........ . ........ 190

CHAPTER 11 Applications of calculus 230 ME-C2/C3

CHAPTER 12 Differential equations 264 ME-C3.2

12.4 Solving differential equations of the form i = g(y) ... . .. . . . 282

12.5 Solving differential equations of the form i = f (x)g(y)

13.2 Problems involving forces . .. . ........ . .......... . ........ 314

CHAPTER 14 The binomial distribution 335 ME-S1

14.2 Binomial distribution ........................ . .. . .. 336

Summary .................................................. 357

Mathematics Extension 1 course outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

x New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12

Chapter 1 Further work with functions 1

The graph sho,vs that the solution is x < 0 or x > 4.

Find ,vhere the graph is on or above the x-axis. The solution is

2 New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12

EXERCISE 1.1 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

1 x(x- 1) <0 2 x 2 -2x-15<0 2

9 22x - 5 (2x) + 4 < 0 11 l-x<2x + l<x + 4

1.2 RATIONAL FUNCTION INEQUALITIES (x IN DENOMINATOR)

Method l (algebraic method requiring consideration of all possible cases)

Method 2 (algebraic n1ethod avoiding the need to consider different cases)

Chapter 1 Further work with functions 3

(as sho\vn in Exa1nple 1).

at x =2 and horizontal asyn1ptote at the x -axis. 0

4 New Senior Mathematics Extension 1 for Years 11 & 12

EXERCISE 1.2 RATIONAL FUNCTION INEQUALITIES (x IN DENOMINATOR)

Student C: x- 1 > 2 Student D: 4(x - 1) < (x - 1)2 noting that x ;c 1

Chapter 1 Further work with functions 5

For questions 2 to 11 , solve the following inequalities.

4 4x-3 < 3 2 >-1

10 2x-4 > x+2 y

1.3 INEQUALITIES INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE AND SQUARE ROOTS

• At A, y = 2 - x and y = ; intersect. Solving these: x = j

Thus the solution is: j<x<4