Chapter 3.

Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

HANOI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND CRYSTALLOGRPHY

SCHOOL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

MSE 1012 LearningObjectives

1. Describe the difference in atomic/molecular structure
INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING between crystalline and non-crystalline materials.
2. Specify the crystal lattices, unit cells of different
materials.
NGUYEN VAN DUC
3. Specify the Miller indices, the Miller – Bravais indices
[email protected]
for a point, crystallographic direction and plane that has
Text books: Dep. of Materials, Heat & Surface Treatment
been drawn within a unit cell.
1) William D. Callister, Jr; Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering; 4. Crystal structure of metals
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; New York; 2001.
5. Crystal structure of ceramics
2) R. E. Smallman; Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering;
Butterworth-Heinemann; Sixth Edition; 1999.
6. Determine the crystal structures using X-ray diffraction.
3) Robert W. CAHN and Peter HAASEN; Physical Metallurgy; Elsevier Science
B.V. ; Fourth edition; Volume 1 & 2; 1996. 1 2

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Why Study Crystal Structures and Crystallography ? Why Study Crystal Structures and Crystallography ?
1. The properties of some materials are directly related to their crystal structures
All of these specimens are of the same
2. Significant property differences exist between crystalline and non-crystalline material, aluminum oxide Al2O3 but they
materials having the same composition have different optical properties. Why?
Single crystal (sapphia ) is
Diamond transparent

Polycrystal is composed of
numerous and very small
single crystals which makes
Fullerene this material optically
C60 translucent

Polycrystal containing 5%
porosity is opaque

Graphite

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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

Crystalline and Non-Crystalline materials Crystalline and Non-Crystalline materials

When attempting to classify a Crystalline materials...

+ atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
material it is useful to decide + typical of:
whether it is: - metals
• crystalline (conventional metals - many ceramics
- some polymers
and alloys); + Crystal has “long order” and “ short order”
• non-crystalline (glasses)
• or a mixture of these two types of Non-crystalline materials...
+ atoms have no periodic packing
structure. + occurs for:
- complex structures
The critical distinction between the - rapid cooling ( since little time is
allowed for the ordering process )
crystalline and non-crystalline "Amorphous solid" = Noncrystalline ( Glass
states of matter can be made by metals)
applying the concept of ordering. + Non-Crystal has “ short order”, but not
“long order” likes liquid

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Crystal Structure of Metals and Ceramics

Crystal Structure of Metals and Ceramics Ceramics

Metals CaTiO3 – Calcium Titanate

Crystal Structure of FCC: Au ( Gold ); Ag ( Silver );
Cu (Copper ); Ni ( Nickel ), Al (Aluminium); Fe (
Gamma Iron )
Many more slip systems then HCP, FCC and BCC
are typically more ductile then HCP.

K3C60 is an interesting material because of its

superconducting properties (Tc = 20 K) and metal
fullerides are the subject of much current research.
Crystal Structure of HCP : Mg ( Magnesium ),
Sodium Chloride ( NaCl)
Ti ( Titanium); Zn (Zinc ), Co ( Cobalt )
Structure observed as Cubes
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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
We can rationalize the geometry of the crystal
structure shown above by adding space lattice,
with line intersections at atom centers.
two-dimensional frame

b) Atomic arrangement
a) Crystal

c) Crystal Lattice:
- Atoms as hard sphere; A SPACE LATTICE is an infinite, periodic array of points, in which each
- Drawn lines that point has identical surroundings to all others.
intersections at atom
centers A CRYSTAL STRUCTURE is a periodic arrangement of atoms in the crystal that
can be described by a LATTICE + BASIS ATOMS
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Crystal Structures and Crystallography

THE UNIT CELL
❑ The Unit cells for most crystal structures
are parallelepipeds or prisms having three THE UNIT CELL
Unit Cell: The basic structural unit of a crystal sets of parallel faces;
structure. Its geometry and atomic positions define the
crystal structure.
❑ A unit cell is chosen to represent the
A unit cell is the smallest component (parallelepiped) symmetry of the crystal structure, wherein
of the crystal that reproduces the whole crystal when all the atom positions in the crystal may
stacked together with purely translational repetition.
be generated by translations of the unit
cell integral distances along each of its
edges.
Lattice parameters ❑ Convenience usually dictates that
axial lengths : a, b, c parallelepiped corners coincide with
interaxial angles : , , 
In general: a≠b≠c
centers of the hard sphere atoms.
❑ Furthermore, more than a single unit cell
a, b,≠ c ≠ 
may be chosen for a particular crystal
unit vectors:
structure; however, we generally use the
11
unit cell having the highest level of 12
geometrical symmetry.
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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

UNIT CELL TYPES

7 Crystal Systems and 14 Bravais Lattices
❑Primitive (P) unit cells contain only a single lattice point.
On the basis of lattice parameters there are found crystals having seven ❑Internal (I) unit cell contains an atom in the body center.
different possible combinations of a, b, and c, and angles , , and , each of ❑Face (F) unit cell contains atoms in the all faces of the
which represents a distinct crystal system.
planes composing the cell.
These seven crystal systems are : cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, ❑Centered (C) unit cell contains atoms centered on the
orthorhombic, rhombohedral, monoclinic, and triclinic. sides of the unit cell.

Primitive Face-
Centered

Body- Side-
Centered Centered

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7 Crystal Systems and 14 Bravais Lattices Crystallographic Indices of Points, Directions and Planes
• All periodic unit cells may be described via these 3 vectors and angles, if and
only if
+ Vectors a, b, and c as unit vectors of a 3D coordinate system.
Combining 7 Crystal + Coordinate system is Right-Handed!
Classes => Crystallographic Coordinate System
(cubic, tetragonal,
• We can define points, directions and planes with a “triplet” of numbers in
orthorhombic,
units of a, b, and c unit cell vectors, calling “ Miller Index”
hexagonal,
monoclinic, triclinic, MILLER INDEX OF POINTS
trigonal) To define a point within a unit cell….

with 4 unit cell types Express the

(P, I, F, C) symmetry coordinates uvw as
fractions of unit cell
allows for only 14 vectors a, b, and c
types of 3-D lattice.
INDEX: [[uvw]]
14 BRAVAIS LATTICES [[000]], [[100]], [[111]]
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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

Crystallographic Indices of Points, Directions and Planes Crystallographic Indices of Points, Directions and Planes

Example 1
MILLER INDEX OF DIRECTIONS (a) What is crystallographic direction along x, y, z ?

(b) What is the lattice point given by point P?

Note: crystallographic directions that are (c) What is crystallographic direction for the origin to
parallel to each other, are equivalent. P?

Procedure: Example 2
1. Any line (or vector direction) is specified by 2 points. (a) What lattice direction does the lattice point 264
• The first point is, typically, at the origin (000). correspond?
2. Determine length of vector projection in each of 3 axes in
units (or fractions) of a, b, and c. (b) The lattice direction [132] from the origin.
X (a), Y(b), Z(c)
1 1 0 Note: For cubic crystals, the directions are all
3. Multiply or divide by a common factor to reduce the
equivalent by symmetry : [1 0 0], [ 1 0 0], [0 1 0], [0 1 0],
lengths to the smallest integer values, u v w.
[0 0 1], [0 0 1 ], are belong to “ Family” of
4. Enclose in square brackets: [u v w]: [110] direction.
5. Designate negative numbers by a bar 0 crystallographic directions, e.g. <1 0 0>
• Pronounced “bar 1”, “bar 1”, “zero” direction. ( Angled brackets denote a family of directions )
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Crystallographic Indices of Points, Directions and Planes Crystallographic Indices of Points, Directions and Planes

MILLER INDEX OF PLANES MILLER INDEX OF PLANES

Note: crystallographic planes that are parallel to each other, are

equivalent. PROCEDURE
The Miller indices (hkl) usually refer to the plane that is nearest to 1. Determine intersections between plane and
the origin without passing through it. ( You must always shift the axes ( Plane intersects axes at:
origin or move the plane parallel from the origin ) a axis at r= 2
b axis at s= 4/3
c axis at t= 1/2 )
2. Take the reciprocal of r, s, and t.
Here: 1/r = 1/2 , 1/s = 3/4 , and 1/r = 2
3. Find the least common multiple that converts
all reciprocals to integers.
With LCM = 4, h = 4/r = 2 , k= 4/s = 3 ,
and l= 4/r = 8
4. Enclose the new triple (h,k,l) in parentheses:
(238)
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5. This notation is called the Miller Index. 20

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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

Crystallographic Indices of Points, Directions and Planes Crystallographic Indices of Points, Directions and Planes
MILLER INDEX OF PLANES
MILLER INDEX OF PLANES
❑ A ‘‘family’’ of planes contains all those
Self-Assessment Example planes that are crystallographically
equivalent that is, having the same
a)What is the designation of the top face of the unit cell in
Miller Index notation? atomic packing;
b) Compare different crystallographic planes ❑ A family is designated by indices that
are enclosed in braces e.g., {100}.
❑ For example, in cubic crystals the
(111), (-1-1-1), (11-1), (-1-11), (1-11),
(-11-1), (-111), and (1-1-1) planes all
belong to the {111} family.
❑ Also, in the cubic system only, planes
having the same indices, irrespective
of order and sign, are equivalent. For
example, both (123) and (312) belong
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to the {123} family.

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Crystallographic Indices in HCP Crystals Crystallographic Indices in HCP Crystals

What is 4-index notation for vector D?

1. To emphasize that they are equal, a • Projection of the vector D in units of [a1
and b is changed to a1 and a2. a2 c] gives u’=1, v’=1, and w’=1.
2. The unit cell is outlined in blue.
3. A fourth axis is introduced (a3) to • Using Eq.:
show symmetry.
• Symmetry about c axis makes a3
equivalent to a1 and a2.
• Vector addition gives a3 = –( a1 +
a2).
4. This 4-coordinate system is used:
[a1 a2 –( a1 + a2) c]

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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

Crystallographic Indices in HCP Crystals Crystallographic Indices in HCP Crystals

Find Miller- Bravais Indices for HCP: Find Miller-Bravais Indices for HCP:
1. Find the intercepts, r and s, of the plane with
any two of the basal plane axes (a1, a2, or What is the Miller Index of the pink plane?
a3), as well as the intercept, t, with the c
axes.
1. The plane’s intercept a1, a3 and c at
2. Get reciprocals 1/r, 1/s, and 1/t.
r=1, s=1 and t= ∞, respectively.
3. Convert reciprocals to smallest integers in
2. The reciprocals are 1/r = 1, 1/s = 1,
same ratios.
and 1/t = 0.
4. Get h, k, i , l via relation i = - (h+k), where h
3. They are already smallest integers.
is associated with a1, k with a2, i with a2,
4. We can write (h k i l) = (1 ? 1 0).
and l with c.
5. Using i = - (h+k) relation, k=–2.
5. Enclose 4-indices in parenthesis: (h k i l)
6. Miller Index is (12 11)
6. Find Miller Indices for HCP:

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THE FACE-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
+ Crystal system: Cubic
• The atomic Atomic Radii and Crystal Structures for 16 Metals
bonding in this + Lattice parameters:
group of materials Lengths a=b=c; Angles ==
Atomic Atomic
Crystal Crystal
is metallic. Metal Radius Metal Radius
Structure Structure + Atoms located at each of the
(nm) (nm)
• Three relatively corners and in the centers of the all
Aluminum FCC 0.1431 Molybdenum BCC 0.1363 cube faces
simple crystal
Cadmium HCP 0.1490 Nickel FCC 0.1246
structures are found
for most of the Chromium BCC 0.1249 Platinum FCC 0.1387

common metals: Cobalt HCP 0.1253 Silver FCC 0.1445

+ face-centered Copper FCC 0.1278 Tantalum BCC 0.1430

cubic ( FCC ) Gold FCC 0.1442 Titanium (γ) HCP 0.1445

+ body-centered Iron () BCC 0.1241 Tungsten BCC 0.1371

For the face-centered cubic crystal
cubic ( BCC ) structure: (a) a hard sphere unit cell
Lead FCC 0.1750 Zinc HCP 0.1332 representation, (b) a reduced-sphere
+ hexagonal close-
unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of
packed ( HCP )
many atoms.
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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

THE FACE-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE THE FACE-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Coordination Number of a Given Atom:

Number of nearest-neighbor atoms
1. Coordination Number of a
Given Atom ( CN )?
2. How many atoms per cell? BCC: CN = 8
3. What is volume per cell?
4. What is the atomic packing
factor (APF)?
5. What is the closed-packed
direction?
6. What are (linear) densities of
less close-packed directions? Atomic configuration in
7. What is the closed-packed Face-Centered-Cubic
plane? Arrangement FCC: CN = ?
8. What are planar densities of Simple cubic: CN = 6
every plane?

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THE FACE-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE CLOSE-PACKED DIRECTIONS AND PLANES

NUMBER ATOMS OF THE UNIT CELL, NA=??
Geometry along close-
packed direction give
Counting Atoms in 3D Cells
relation between a and R.
Atoms in different positions are
shared by differing numbers of Close-packed directions
unit cells. belong to <110> family
• Corner atom shared by 8 cells
=> 1/8 atom per cell.
• Edge atom shared by 4 cells
=> 1/4 atom per cell. Unit cell contains:
• Face atom shared by 2 cells 6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
=> 1/2 atom per cell. = 4 atoms/unit cell
• Body unique to 1 cell => 1
atom per cell.
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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

CLOSE-PACKED DIRECTIONS AND PLANES CLOSE-PACKED DIRECTIONS AND PLANES

Planar Packing Density ( PPD ) in FCC

PLANE
(110)

• Count atoms within the plane: 2 atoms

The PPD • Find Area of Plane: 8√2 R2
on (1 0 0)
a plane of an
Close-packed planes of FCC are belong to {111} family FCC
crystal,
PPD= ??
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ATOMIC PACKING FRACTION FOR FCC THE BODY-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

vol. of atomic spheres in unit cell

APF = Face-Centered-Cubic
total unit cell vol. Arrangement

How many spheres (i.e. atoms)? 4/cell

What is volume/atom? 4πR3/3 The BCC crystal structure, (a) a hard sphere unit cell representation, (b) a reduced-
What is cube volume/cell? a3 sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of many atoms.

How is “R” related to “a”?

+ Crystal system: Cubic
+ Lattice parameters:
a=b=c
==
+ Atoms located at each of the corners
and in the body center of the unit cell

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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

THE BODY-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE THE BODY-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

The close-packed plans

are belong to {110}
2 atoms/unit cell family.
Coordination number = 8
PPD110 = ???

Atomic packing of plane (110)

Again, geometry along close-packed direction ATOMIC PACKING FRACTION FOR BCC, APF=?
give relation between a and R.
Close-packed directions are belong to <111>
family

37 38
MSE 3016: Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering, [email protected]

37 38

THE HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED CRYSTAL STRUCTURE THE HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Unit cell showing the full symmetry of

the HCP arrangement is hexagonal
• Hexagonal: a = b, c = 1.633a and
angles α = β = 90°, γ = 120°
• 2 atoms in the smallest cell: (0, 0, 0)
and (2/3, 1/3, 1/2). Atomic packing of plane (0001)

• Close-packing direction: along a1, a2 and a3, and

Coordination Number: 12 belong to : <1120> family
Unit cell contains:
12 x 1/6 + 2 x 1/2 + 3 x 1 = 6 atoms/unit cell • a= 2R
• Close-packing plane : (0001); PPD=???
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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

THEORETICAL DENSITY, ρ Characteristics of Selected Elements at 200C

Example: Copper (Cu)

Data from Table inside front cover of Callister (see next slide):
• crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell
• atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
• atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10 cm)-7

Result: theoretical ρCu = 8.89 g/cm3

Compare to actual: ρ Cu = 8.94 g/cm3
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CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF CERAMICS ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES OF CERAMICS

• The crystal structures as being composed of electrically
• Ceramics are composed of at
charged ions instead of atoms. The metallic ions, or
least two elements, and often
cations, are positively charged, because they have given
more, their crystal structures are
up their valence electrons to the nonmetallic ions, or
generally more complex than
anions.
those for metals.
• The atomic bonding in these • Two characteristics of the component ions in crystalline
materials ranges from purely ionic ceramic materials influence the crystal structure:
to totally covalent; many ceramics - the magnitude of the electrical charge on each of the ions,
exhibit a combination of these - and the relative sizes of the cations and anions.
two bonding types, the degree of
ionic character being dependent • To the first characteristic, the crystal must be electrically
on the electro-negativities of the neutral; all the cation positive charges must be balanced
atoms. by an equal number of anion negative charges.
• The second criterion involves the sizes or ionic radii of the
43 cations and anions, rC and rA, respectively. 44

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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES OF CERAMICS ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES OF CERAMICS

• ChargeNeutrality: • Because the metallic elements give up electrons when
+ Net charge in structure ionized, cations are ordinarily smaller than anions, and,
should be zero. consequently, the ratio rC/rA is less than unity.
• Each cation prefers to have as many nearest-neighbor
+ General form: anions as possible. The anions also desire a maximum
number of cation nearest neighbors.
• Stable ceramic crystal structures form when those anions
surrounding a cation are all in contact with that cation, as
• Stable structures: illustrated in Figure 12.1. The coordination number (i.e.,
number of anion nearest neighbors for a cation) is related to
the cation–anion radius ratio.
• For a specific coordination number, there is a critical or
minimum rC/rA ratio for which this cation–anion contact is
established (Figure 12.1), which ratio may be determined
45 from pure geometrical considerations. 46

45 46

Coordination Numbers and Geometries Coordination Numbers and Geometries

Coordination Numbers and Geometries for Various
Cation – Anion Radius Ratios rC/rA

number Coord. number

Minium cation-anion ratio for 3-atom coordination is 0.155

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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

Coordination Numbers and Geometries Coordination Numbers and Geometries

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AX-TYPE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES AX-TYPE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

• Some of the common ceramic materials are those

in which there are equal numbers of cations and
anions. These are often referred to as AX
compounds, where A denotes the cation and X the
anion.
• There are several different crystal structures for AX
compounds; each is normally named after a
Crystal structure of sodium Unit cell for the cesium
common material that assumes the particular chloride (NaCl), or rock salt. chloride (CsCl) crystal
structure. + the CN is 6 structure;
• Some of the common ceramic materials that form + and the cation–anion + the CN is 8
with this crystal structure are NaCl, MgO, MnS, LiF, radius ratio is between 0.414 + and the cation–anion radius
and FeO. and 0.732. ratio is between 0.732 - 1.0
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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

AX-TYPE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES AmXp-TYPE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

• If the charges on the cations and

anions are not the same, a compound
can exist with the chemical formula
AmXp.
• An example would be AX2 , for which
a common crystal structure is found in
fluorite (CaF2).
• The ionic radii ratio rC/rA for CaF2 is
about 0.8 which gives a coordination
number of 8.
Unit cell for the ZnS crystal structure; • Calcium ions are positioned at the
+ the CN is 4 centers of cubes, with fluorine
+ the cation–anion radius ratio is between 0.225 – 0.414
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AmBnXp-TYPE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES DENSITY COMPUTATIONS—CERAMICS

The theoretical density of a crystalline ceramic material is
determined similarly to metals using a Equation, as follows:

CaTiO3 BaTiO3
• It is also possible for ceramic compounds to have more than
one type of cation; for two types of cations, their chemical
formula may be designated as AmBnXp. Example: compute the theoretical density for NaCl. How
• Barium titanate (BaTiO3), having both Ba2 and Ti4 cations. does this compare with its measured density?
This material has a perovskite crystal structure Ans. 2,14 g/cm3 and 2,16 g/cm3
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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

Crystal Structure Analysis by X-Ray Diffraction

DENSITY COMPUTATIONS—CERAMICS

Diffraction Experiment Diffraction Pattern

How can 2θ scans ( Diffraction Pattern) help us determine crystal

structure type and distances between Miller Indexed planes
(I.e. structural parameters)?
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Diffraction by Planes of Atoms Diffraction by Planes of Atoms

Light gets scattered off atoms…But since d (atomic spacing) is on
the order of angstroms, you need x-ray diffraction (wavelength ~ d). h, k, l are the Miller
Indices of the planes of
atoms that scatter!
So they determine the
important planes of
atoms, or symmetry.

To have constructive interference (I.e., waves ADD): Distances between Miller Indexed planes
For cubic crystals: For hexagonal crystals:

Vulf-Bragg equation: nλ = 2dhklsinθ

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Chapter 3. Crystal Structure 12/7/2022

Diffraction by Planes of Atoms SUMMARY

1. Atoms in crystalline solids are positioned in an orderly and repeated pattern that
is in contrast to the random and disordered atomic distribution found in
noncrystalline or amorphous materials.
2. Atoms may be represented as solid spheres, and, for crystalline solids, crystal
structure is just the spatial arrangement of these spheres. The various crystal
structures are specified in terms of parallelepiped unit cells.
3. Crystallographic planes and directions are specified in terms of an indexing
scheme. The basis for the determination of each index is a coordinate axis
system defined by the unit cell for the particular crystal structure. For hexagonal
unit cells, a four-index scheme for both directions and planes is found to be more
convenient.
4. For a given crystal structure, planes having identical atomic packing yet different
Miller indices belong to the same family.
h + k + l was even and gave the labels on 5. X-ray diffractometry is used for crystal structure and interplanar spacing
graph above, so crystal is BCC. determinations. A beam of x-rays directed on a crystalline material may
experience diffraction as a result of its interaction with a series of parallel atomic
planes according to Bragg’s law. Interplanar spacing is a function of the Miller
indices and lattice parameter(s) as well as the crystal structure.

61 62
MSE 3016: Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering, [email protected]

61 62

HOME WORK #2 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Due on Tuesday, week 5. 1. What is the difference between atomic structure and crystal structure?
2. What is the difference between a crystal structure and a crystal system?
Chaper 3: 3. Here are unit cells for two hypothetical metals:
(William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction (a) What are the indices for the directions indicated by the two vectors in sketch (a)?
8th Edition) (b) What are the indices for the two planes drawn in sketch (b)?
4. For tetragonal crystals, cite the indices of directions and planes that are
3.3; 3.5; 3.8; 3.12; 3.27; 3.29; 3.39; 3.41; 3.54; 3.55 equivalent to each of the following:[101]; [110]; [010]; (120), (2-10), (122)

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QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

5. (a) Convert the [100] and [111] directions into the four-index Miller–Bravais
schemefor hexagonal unit cells.
(b) Make the same conversion for the (010) and (101) planes.
6. Figure 1 shows the first four peaks of the x-ray diffraction pattern for copper, which
has an FCC crystal structure; monochromatic x-radiation having a wavelength of
0.1542 nm was used.
(a) Index (i.e., give h, k, and l indices for) each of these peaks.
(b) Determine the interplanar spacing for each of the peaks.

Fig. 1. Diffraction pattern for

polycrystal Cu

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