BPCG-174

PSYCHOLOGY AND MEDIA

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan Prof. SuhasShetgovekar Dr. Monika Misra
Former Emeritus Professor Professor of Psychology Sr. Assistant Professor of
Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi. Psychology
IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Prof. Purnima Singh Prof. Swati Patra

Professor Professor of Psychology
School of Humanities & Social SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Sciences, IIT, New Delhi
Prof. Anuradha Sovani, Dr. Smita Gupta
Professor, SNDT University, Sr. Assistant Professor of
Mumbai. Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Monika Misra
Discipline of Psychology
School of Social Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi

CONTENTEDITOR
Dr. Monika Misra
Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block Unit Writer

BLOCK I AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY AND MEDIA
Unit 1 Media and Social Media Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Department of
Applied Psychology, Vivekanand College,
University of Delhi
Unit 2 Media and Psychology Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Department of
Applied Psychology, Vivekanand College,
University of Delhi
BLOCK 2 VIRTUAL WORLD AND HUMAN INTERACTION
Unit 3 Parasocial Relationships and Vrushali Pathak, Research Scholar,
Gaming Behaviour Department of Psychology, Jamia Millia
Islamia New Delhi and Dr. Shivantika
Sharad, Department of Applied Psychology,
Vivekanand College, University of Delhi
Unit 4 Issues in Media Psychology Dr. Vanita Sondhi, Department of Applied
Psychology, Vivekanand College,
University of Delhi
BOCK 3 PERSUASION AND INFLUENCE OF MEDIA
Unit 5 Positive Influence of Media Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Department of
Applied Psychology, Vivekanand College,
University of Delhi
Unit 6 Negative Influence of Media Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Department of
Applied Psychology, Vivekanand College,
University of Delhi
Unit 7 Media and Advertising Dr. Shivantika Sharad, Department of
Applied Psychology, Vivekanand College,
University of Delhi
BLOCK 4 MEDIA REPRESENTATION AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
Unit 8 Stereotyping in Behaviour: Gender, Dr. Vanita Sondhi, Department of Applied
Politics, and Ethnicity Psychology, Vivekanand College,
University of Delhi
Unit 9 Media Representation of Crime Dr Navin Kumar, Department of Psychology,
Ambedkar College, University of Delhi and
Dr. Anisha Juneja, Department of
Psychology, Aryabhatta College, University
of Delhi
Unit 10 Media and Human Development Drishti Kashyap and Vrushali Pathak,
Research Scholars, Department of
Psychology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi.
BLOCK 5 EDUCATION AND MEDIA
Unit 11 Media Influence in Education Vrushali Pathak and Drishti Kashyap,
Research Scholars, Department of
Psychology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi.

CONTENT, FORMAT, LANGUAGE

Dr. Monika Misra
Sr. Assistant Professor of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Cover Design: Ms. Irene Khosla, Research Scholar, Discipline of Psychology,

SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Secretarial Assistance
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MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi

October, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN:
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 Course Contents
Page No.
BLOCK I AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY AND 13
MEDIA
Unit 1 Media and Social Media 15
Unit 2 Media and Psychology 36
BLOCK 2 VIRTUAL WORLD AND HUMAN INTERACTION 61
Unit 3 Parasocial Relationships and Gaming Behaviour 63
Unit 4 Issues in Media Psychology 84
BOCK 3 PERSUASION AND INFLUENCE OF MEDIA 103
Unit 5 Positive Influence of Media 105
Unit 6 Negative Influence of Media 133
Unit 7 Media and Advertising 158
BLOCK 4 MEDIA REPRESENTATION AND SOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR 183
Unit 8 Stereotyping in Behaviour: Gender, Politics, and Ethnicity 185
Unit 9 Media Representation of Crime 208
Unit 10 Media and Human Development 229
BLOCK 5 EDUCATION AND MEDIA 253
Unit 11 Media Influence in Education 255
PSYCHOLOGY AND MEDIA: HOW TO PROCEED IN
THE COURSE?

The course on Psychology and Media (BPCG 174) is one of the Generic
courses offered in the Undergraduate Programme of IGNOU. The course is
of 06 Credits. The course is divided into five blocks. Each of these blocks
represents a specific theme which is discussed in one to three units. The units
are arranged in a logical sequence so as to cover the main aspects of each
theme. Each unit contains a brief introduction in the beginning and a list of
references and suggested reading, as well as, additional online resources in
the end. The list of online resources has been mentioned for additional
information on various topics. You are advised to read Course Introduction
carefully, in order to know about the rationale and content of the course you
have offered to read.
You have in your hands, all the five blocks and eleven units of this course.
Before proceeding to read the units, you are advised to go through
instructions about how to read the course material. Given below is the
explanation of the organization and sequencing of the unit. We will tell you
what is contained in various sections of a unit, and you should go about
completing different tasks involved while reading the course material.
Organization and Sequencing of a Unit
The unit starts with,
1.0 Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Section (Theme of the section)
1.2.1 Subsection of 1
……………….
Check your progress
1.3 Section (Theme of the section)
1.3.1 Subsection of 2
……………….
Check your progress
The numbering and length of each section and subsections may vary from
one unit to the other unit, depending upon the depth of information in each
unit. The last three sections in each unit with the following headings are also
numbered. They are as follows,
 Review Questions
 References & Further Reading
 Additional Online Resources
Asthe scheme suggests, each unit is divided into sections for easy reading
and better comprehension. Each section is indicated by BOLD CAPITALS
and each sub-section by a relatively smaller but bold typeface. Divisions
within the sub-sections are in relatively smaller bold typeface so as to make
it easy for you to understand.
Let us now discuss the pedagogical features of a unit as given in the self-
learning material.
We begin each unit with the section Learning Objectives. It tells you briefly
what we expect from you once you complete working on the unit. In the
section Introduction, we specify, the relationship of the present unit to the
previous unit (if any), theme of the present unit, and the order of presentation
of all the sections in the unit from Introduction to Summary. The section of
each unit under the heading Summary, encapsulates the whole unit for the
purpose of ready reference and recapitulation.
Sometimes certain topics may deal with abstract ideas and related concepts,
as well as some case studies. Thus, it becomes necessary to explain these
related concepts in a separate enclosure, which is called Box, in our units.
This is added information which is necessary to comprehend the main text.
These boxes may include (i) explanatory notes regarding concepts, (ii)
information about main works of scientists/psychologists who have
contributed to a particular topic, (iii) certain case-studies that are related to
the concepts being discussed, (iv) reflective exercises, etc.
There are several illustrations in each unit in the form of pictures, figures,
diagrams and images. The main purpose of these illustrations is to make the
study comprehensive and interesting. We have given self-check exercises
under the caption Check Your Progress in between or at the end of main
sections. To answer the Check Your Progress questions, you should, (i) write
your answers using the space given below each question; (b) label the
diagrams in the space provided (if asked). You will be tempted to have a
glance of the main text as soon as you come across an exercise. But we do
hope that you will resist this temptation and turn to the main text only after
completing the answers. You should read each unit and note the important
points in the margin provided in the course material. This will help in your
study. It will also help you to answer the self-check exercises and the
assignment questions, as well as help in revising your course before
appearing for your Term End Examination.
Each unit has Keywords at the end of the unit, to explain the basic ideas,
technical terms and difficult words. We have given a list of References &
Suggested Reading at the end of each unit. This is a list of books and articles
used by the course writers to prepare the units. This reflects that your course
material is based on a wide spectrum of literature available on a particular
theme, related to your course. This also informs you of the wide literature
available in the particular area of study. If interested in widening your
knowledge, you may look for the mentioned references. Each reference
mentions the name of the author, year of publication, title of the book/article,
name of publisher and place of publication.Suggested readings help you to
increase your level of understanding of a particular theme in each unit,
though it is not a compulsory reading.
In each Unit, we have given a list of Additional Online Resources on
various topics. Apart from the text material, if you are interested in learning
 more about the topic, then you may access the website as mentioned, for a
particular topic.
Besides Check Your Progress, we have given Review Questions after
Keywords section in each unit. You may practice these questions which will
help you in answering assignments and Term End Examination Question
Paper, though the pattern and style of questions asked may be different.
Some Units have been selected for the audio and videoprogrammes to
supplement the printed material. This will help you to understand the units
with greater clarity. Apart from this, you may also access IGNOU’s FM radio
channel, Gyanvani (105.6 FM) which is available across many cities in India,
for regular programmes, related to themes on Psychology. You can listen to
the live discussions by faculty and experts on the topic of the day and interact
with them through telephone, email, and through chat mode. You may also
watch Gyandarshan TV channel (free to air educational channel), for
programmes related to topics on Psychology. The schedule of Gyanvani and
Gyandarshan is displayed on www.ignou.ac.in. The radio and TV channels
may also be accessed on Gyandhara, webcast facility for Gyanvani and
Gyandarshan, provided by the University.
There are a set of assignments for the whole course uploaded on
www.ignou.ac.in>downloads>assignments> BA CBCS New> Generic
Courses. You need to check the course code and title of the course carefully,
before downloading the assignment. These are Tutor Marked Assignments,
which are to be submitted to the respective Study Centre after completion.
These assignments will be evaluated by academic counsellor from your Study
Centre. Ensure that you complete all your assignments because the grades
that you get in each of these assignments are included in the final evaluation
of your degree (30%). Before answering the assignments, read all the units
carefully. While working on the assignments, kindly ensure the following
points,
1) Clearly write your enrollment number
2) Answer them in your handwriting and in your own words
3) Write clearly and neatly so that it is easy to read your answers
4) Leave margins on one side of your answer-sheets so that evaluator may
write his/ her comments on your performance
5) You will submit the assignments at your Study Centre on or before the
date mentioned as per the admission cycle. Kindly check the dates from
www.ignou.ac.in or your Regional Centre website.
After reading and understanding the course material, as well as referring to
the audio and video programmes, you will be writing the Term End
Examination (TEE) for the course. TEE carries 70% weightage in the
evaluation scheme. Consider the following points while answering for TEE.
1) Questions should be replied in one’s own words and should focused.
2) Answer questions keeping in mind the word limit.
The syllabus of course material BPCG 174 is designed by an Expert
Committee (see page 2 of this course) and prepared by Course Preparation
Team which comprises the author(s) of units, content editor(s), language
editor, and the course coordinator. The expert committee selected the themes
and sub-themes of the blocks and units, keeping in view the prescribed
syllabi of UGC (CBCS model). The authors of units have provided their
expertise in elaborating them in the form of the main text of each unit. The
content editor has carefully examined the course contents and has made an
attempt to make the material clear and comprehendible.
For any query or feedback related to the course, you may contact the Course
Coordinator at,
Dr. Monika Misra
Room No.31, Block-F,
School of Social Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
E: [email protected]
[email protected]
P: 011-29572781
COURSE INTRODUCTION: PSYCHOLOGY AND
MEDIA
Can we imagine a life without media? A simple question to which the answer
might be difficult. Not denying the fact that the print media has its own
significant place aided by technology.However, in an era of innovation and
advancement, electronic media has overtaken and most us are completely
immersed in it. Media has certainly impacted the social behaviour of humans
in both the positive and negative ways. The effect on self-representation, self-
image, and its contribution in health and education is well accepted. Media
Psychology emerged as a branch of Psychology when American
Psychological Association formed Division 46 Media Psychology in 1986.
Taking into account the new technologies in media and their role in
enhancing the quality of life and well-being, the Division was renamed as
Society for Media Psychology and Technology.
What is media and social media? How does media influence behaviour?
What are the research methods in studying media psychology? Are there any
existing stereotypes in media representation? The course is an attempt to
explore the uncanny relationship between psychology and media.These
questions and other related ones will be addressed in the course Psychology
and Media.
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
There are five blocks and eleven units that have been thematicallyarranged.
The theme of Block 1 is An introduction to Psychology and Media. There
are two Units that focus on this theme.Unit 1 Media and Social Media
presents an overview of media and social media. Media history, functions
and significance of media are discussed. It will familiarize you to the concept
of social media and the influence of media to human cognition and
behaviour. Finally, it explains the theories explaining media influence. Unit 2
Media and Psychology will enable you to understand the relationship
between media and psychology. The research methods employed in studying
media psychology will be explained along with the ethical concerns in the
area of media psychology research.
Block 2has two Units that looks into the Virtual World and Human
Interactions. Unit 3 deals with ParasocialBehaviour and Gaming
Behaviour. The Unit focuses on the characteristics, changing landscapes, and
the related factors to celebrity and parasocial relationships. The effects of
parasocial relationships and the unique relationship between fans and media,
popularly known as media fandom is also highlighted. The extreme form of
parasocial relationship, that is celebrity worshipping is also described.
Unit 4 specifically talks about Issues in Media Psychology. It examines
social construction of reality and media as an agent of socialization. Main
theories related to media regulation of human behaviour will be discussed.
Block 3 constitutes of three Units that give an account of Persuasion and
Influence of Media. Unit 5 covers the Positive Impact of Media. It enables
you to develop an understanding on media’s role in health communication
and health education. It explains the role of media in stigmatizing or
destigmatizing human behaviour. Specific case studies of media campaigns
related to health awareness are discussed. Unit 6 explains the Negative
Impact of Media.Media violence, and media’s role in harbouring body
image issues and eating disorders is highlighted in the Unit. Misuse of
internet has raised issues like internet disorder and gaming addiction, which
will be addressed in this section. Unit 7 will focus on Media and
Advertising. With the new media setting in, the landscape of advertising has
changed immensely. The Unit will talk about the changing scenario of
advertising in the contemporary times. Finally, the Unit will describe the
steps for designing an effective advertising campaignand this will be
demonstrated with the help of a case study.
Next, the theme of Block 4 is Media Representation and Social Behaviour.
Unit 8 gives an account of Stereotyping in Behaviour: Gender, Politics,
and Ethnicity. The Unittalksabout stereotyping in behaviourwith reference
to gender, older adults, ethnicity, mental illness and politics in media
representation. Unit 9focuses on Relationship between Crime and Media.It
will help you analyse how crime in media is socially constructed. It will
delve into the reasons of increasing crime-based content in media. The
emergent problem of cybercrime will also be discussed. Finally, the theories
related to media violence and strategies to reduce violence caused by media
are explained. Unit 10discusses Media and Human Development. It
emphasizes on the positive and negative influence of media on human
development. It will highlight the problems accruing from the negative
influence as well as the positive side of media influence like sense of
belongingness. Finally, psychosocial approaches will be discussed to combat
negative effect of media on well-being.
The theme of Block 5is Media and Education.Unit 11Media and its
influence in Education will focus on the aspects like the role of media in the
development of education and the usage of traditional methods and the new
media as teaching aid. It will present an overview of the initiatives in
Online/Virtual learning in the Indian education system like SWAYAM,
NMEICT, ARPIT, to name a few. Learning through mobile applications like
ePathshala, IGNOU student App and SWAYAM App are also highlighted.
Thus, in the times of disruption of the teaching-learning process, the Unit
urges to refocus techniques and media in terms of effectiveness.
Specific Case Studies, both from India and other countries, have been
highlighted in the content by the unit writers at suitable places. The content
thus, will help you in framing ideas and views ofa domain which is part of
the repertoire of one’s daily functioning and that strongly influenceshuman
behaviour.
 BLOCK I
AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
AND MEDIA
 Introduction to
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA AND Media and Social

SOCIAL MEDIA* Media

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Definition and Concept of Media
1.1.1 Media History: How it all came to be?

1.1.2 Functions and Significance of Media

1.2 Types of Media
1.3 Definition and Concept of Social Media
1.4 Influence of Media on Human Cognition and Behaviour
1.5 The Origins of Study in Media and its Influence on Human Cognition
and Behaviours
1.6 Theories Explaining Media Influence on Human Cognition and
Behaviour
1.7 Media and Social Media Influence on Human Cognition and Behaviour
1.8 Summary
1.9 Keywords
1.10 Review Questions
1.11 References and Suggested Reading
1.12 Additional Online Resources

Learning Objectives

After reading this unit, you will be able to:

 define the concept of media,
 trace the emergence and the concept of social media,
 delineate new forms of electronic media and technology, and
 gauge the influence of media on human cognition and behaviour

1.0 INTRODUCTION
For many of us, the first thing that comes to our mind while thinking about
media might include a mental image of television news channels. While that
is technically correct, in reality, media is not just confined to television. It is,
in simplest terms, defined as the means through which a large audience can
be reached. This includes books, magazines, radio, newspapers, and the
internet, along with television. In today‟s world, however, the most dominant

*
Dr Shivantika Sharad, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College,
University of Delhi 15
An Introduction to form of media is the internet. It has grown tremendously in a matter of years,
Psychology and
Media and its reach continues to ascent, along with people‟s dependency towards it.

A major reason behind the rise in this dependency can be traced back to the
origins of social media. These are internet platforms, through which
individuals share information, interact and collaborate with each other. Since
the birth of the internet in the year 1990, internet users have increased to 4.1
billion (as on December 2018)1. Around 49% of the whole world engages in
sharing and consuming information through the internet and India is not far
behind. The COVID-19 pandemic saw a surge in internet users. As of 2021,
45% of Indian population uses the internet (Simon Kemp, Datareportal,
2021). Such an exposure influences individual‟s behaviours and cognition.
Media effect on human cognition and behaviour is not a recent concept, but
at the same time is not ancient as well. The field started developing as the
popularity of television increased during the 1950s. Researchers began
studying the impact of television on children. It all eventually led to a new
division in the American Psychological Association separately for Media
Psychology, in the year 1987. Media psychologists focus on media and its
effect on humans. In this unit we will be understanding the meaning and
concept of media and social media in detail, its increase and evolution to its
various forms, and finally, we will be going through theories and researches
that shed light on how it all impacts the human behaviour and cognition.

1.1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF MEDIA

According to the Oxford dictionary, media is defined as “the main means of
mass communication (broadcasting, publishing, and the internet) regarded
collectively.” The term “media” is the plural form of “medium”, which is
defined as the means through which something can be shared. But can you
imagine how it all must have begun? Let us go through the past to gain some
better understanding.

It is a known fact that humans have a desire to share knowledge in which

they staunchly believe. We all do our bits of sharing our wisdom with the
people around us. Some gain followers in doing so, while others might not.
However, when a person has power and wants to share something in which
s/he religiously believes, they find means to communicate it with all. From
erecting statues and forts, to publishing books and paintings, the evidence of
this desire can be found throughout history.

Box 1.1: The Beginning of Media

In 2nd century CE, an epicurean Greek named Diogenes, from the city
Oinoanda, ensured that the philosophy of Epicurus was carved onto the
portico walls. The inscription was about 25,000 words and included
Epicurus’s teachings on physics, epistemology, and ethics in which
Diogenes believed. His idea was to erect this in a public square so the
16
 people living in the city and those who visited would start understanding Introduction to
Media and Social
the importance of his philosophy and as a result, will begin following it. Media

In this way, the wall became the means through which he spread certain
information to the masses.

A form of ancient media, would not you agree?

1.1.1 Media History: How it all came to be?

Media continued to evolve over the decades, and with the invention of paper,
things started speeding up. The copies were still handwritten and thus, the
reach was still limited. As time passed, 1500 years after the invention of
paper, Johannes Gutenberg invented the first printing press. Mass
production was no longer the biggest issue at hand. Nonetheless, was this
medium successful at reaching a substantially larger audience? To a limit,
yes. By 17th century CE, newspapers had started coming into the picture.
However, not all people were literate; hence, the reach remained limited to
those who were. By the early 1800s, newspapers were eventually holding
huge readership. Furthermore, the development of railways helped paved the
way for a wider reach, and thus, this growth took an unprecedented pace for
that period.

Then came pictures into the frame, literally. The arrival of photography
changed the face of media. The new technologies, that is, by 1900s was able
to integrate newspapers and pictures together. Nevertheless, the fastest way
people shared information with each other was through telegrams, the highest
speed of the same was 55 Km/Hr. This changed in 1876, with the arrival of
telephonic technology. Now people could share information instantly with
one another. This rapid development of various media technologies
continued, and soon radios came into existence. Communication through the
medium of radio, with the absence of wires, was now a possibility.
Television soon came into existence; the widespread of the same began from
the year 1950s. The development of television continued along with its reach
around the globe.

Then during the 1960s, came what would change the world forever: the
internet. It started in a lab inside the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
as two computers were able to transmit information to each other. The
refinement of this technology continued and in 1990, World Wide Web came
into action. Within 3 years around 600 websites were up and running. Think
about it, within just three years, human beings had begun sharing information
at such a large scale. It cannot be compared to the present day, considering
how people are always surrounded by technology and how much easier it has
gotten. This became a revolutionary change and to see how it grew, shows
just how much people had to share. In 1998, Google was invented which
changed the way people surfed the internet. This could be considered the first
jolt in how people engaged with this technology. The second came with the
introduction to social media.
17
An Introduction to 1.1.2 Functions and Significance of Media
Psychology and
Media
Now that our awareness about the history of media is in place, there is no
denying that media has played a vital role in people‟s lives. It made several
things possible, made communication easier, more knowledge could be
spread, and geographical boundaries would no longer stop one to know about
each other‟s world. Media and mass communication that is possible because
of it thus, has certain functions it plays. According to Robert K. Merton, an
American sociologist, functions of mass communication can be of two types,
they can either be manifest or latent. The former can be noticed more,
whereas the latter is not easy to see the effects of, considering that they might
be unintended. Harold Lass well (1948) and Charles Wright (1960) divided
the functions of mass media into the following parts:

 Surveillance of the environment: It is the function of the media to spread

awareness and knowledge of what is happening around us. It shares
information on issues that the world/country/region might be facing,
provides different sides of stories to eventually help reduce the confusion
that people might be going through. Furthermore, announcements and
information in the interest of the general public is raised through he means
of media.

Example: When a natural disaster is about to strike, news channels, radio,

internet, they all broadcast what might happen and how people can take
precautions. Facebook, a major social media platform, developed a feature
after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami that would help people
share that they were safe2.

 The Correlation Function: Initially, that is, before the presence of

internet and social media, media channels that existed were the only ones
that selected what news or information was broadcasted and how
journalists and experts interpreted the same. This media functions sheds
light on how certain news is selected over others to be broadcasted and
how that can influence people in general.

Example: Hitler used media as a means to spread his propaganda in the

World War II influence the mass public2.

 Cultural Transmission and Influencing Societal Norms: While the first

two functions focus on how the information is shared and perceived, this
function discusses how media plays a role in reiterating cultural and
societal values. As norms evolve, so does media and portrayal of certain
information.

Example: Children‟s cartoon programmes usually show main characters

with values that the society considers as good and valuable. Disney‟s
recent movies such as Frozen have started portraying a different
perspective of love. It is not centred around romantic love, but gives
higher value to love for family3.
18
 Education and Entertainment: This function was added later on by Introduction to
Media and Social
Wright. This function entails is how media educates and entertains people Media
by letting them be a part of something they normally could not experience
or by providing other means of entertainment.

Example: People sitting in the comforts of their homes can watch a major
event live, related to sports, entertainment, etc.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Differentiate between media and social media.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) List some of the main functions of mass media.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

1.2 TYPES OF MEDIA

By definition anything that is used as a means of communication is media.
Broadly, media can be classified in three categories, first Print Media which
includes newspapers, and magazines. Second type is Electronic Media which
includes television, radio, and films. Third type of media is New Age Media
that includes mobile phones, computers, and internet.

1) Print Media: Newspapers, magazines, booklets and brochures, house

magazines, periodicals or newsletters, direct mailers, handbills or flyers,
billboards, press releases, and books are all part of print media.

2) Electronic media/broadcast media (TV/Radio/Films):As the category

highlights, any and all types of media that use electronics or
electromechanical audience to access the content, fall under the category
of electronic media and technology. In the simplest terms, if your source
of media works because of electricity, it will fall under this category.
There are three basic types of electronic media: radio, internet, and
television.

 Radio: Radio service stemmed from the discovery of electromagnetic

waves that had the capacity to transmit music, speech, pictures, etc.,
literally through the thin air. Following is the image of an article,
published shortly after the phonograph – a device that was able to
record sound and play it back for the first time – was presented to the
public. Now imagine their excitement when the radio came out!

19
An Introduction to
Psychology and
Media

Figure 1.1 Article published after the phonograph was introduced.

Source: Image Provided by Library of Congress, Washington, DC4

Information could now be transmitted faster. It slowly began being used in

ships, airplanes, emergency services, and eventually it became a normal part
of people‟s lives. Around 600 stations were active in the US by 1922. People
would wait in lines to receive their orders and 60% Americans got access to
radio between the years 1923 to 1930.

Figure 1.2 Poster announcing radio broadcast in 1920

Source: Front Page Announcement on August 31, 1920 in Detroit News5

20
 Television: Television was designed by a 21 year old inventor, Philo Introduction to
Media and Social
Taylor Farnsworth, an individual who himself lived without electricity Media
for a while during his childhood. It was demonstrated first in San
Francisco on Sept. 7, 1927. Although, television soon started spreading
worldwide, it was in the 1959 that it found its way to India, and since
then, it has been apart and parcel of our lives.

Box 1.2 Fun Fact

The first image Farnsworth demonstrated

on the screen was a straight line. He
famously displayed a dollar sign next,
after an investor had asked him “When are
we going to see some dollars in this
thing?"

According to the USA Today and Nielson Media Research, the average
American house has 2.86 television sets and 2.5 people6. In other words,
there are more television sets per house than the number of people living in
them. In India, more than half of the population owns a television, with
options for more than 800 different channels. A human being‟s need for
personal touch was somewhere satiated with this invention. The reach was
increasing with each day, and television became a mammoth success until the
internet came around, which would change and affect all the other media.
Furthermore, it became an opportunity for far more options to emerge.

If we bring India into the perspective, before the present 800 channels
running, the programmes were run by Doordarshan. It started in 1959, but
only in 1965 regular daily transmission started. The telecast would take place
twice a day and would cover topics such as agriculture, health, and family
planning. Entertainment in the form of music, drama, folk was also included.
The first major series to be produced were, Humlog, Buniyaad, Ramayana
and Mahabharata during 1980s, which had a lasting impact on the audience.
By late 1980s, a greater number of people in India started owning television
sets. In the year 1991, when new policies came into action, private and
foreign broadcasters found their way in Indian television.

 Films: Did you know films were actually invented by accident? But we
will get to that a bit later on in this section, let us first understand what
we mean by “film”. According to Craig Benzine, an American video
producer, videographer, and vlogger: “It is a universal language that lets
us tell stories about our collective hopes and fears, to make sense of the
world around us and the people around us.7”How films began was by
placing one picture after another and running them fast enough so as to
create an illusion of them in motion. There were a few continuous
innovations. However, the first projection of a movie, so that many could
watch at the same time, was made possible by French inventors, The 21
An Introduction to Lumiere Brothers. These videos included actions of daily lives, such as
Psychology and
Media train coming to its station, two children fighting, etc. Rumour has it, that
the first time the Lumiere brothers screened the clip of the train coming
to the station, people ran out screaming. That was because they thought
the train would come out of the wall and crush them. As intriguing as it
would be, there is a high chance that this story has been highly
exaggerated. However, it is safe to say that this was an instant success.
More and more people wanted to experience motion picture. Today,
movies are a billion-dollar industry that does not just entertain but
pushes us to think of unimaginable things. It often inspires us to do
something positive in this world, and to make something of ourselves. It
is, at the same time, also been known to influence violence and other
non-welcoming and frowned upon behaviours.

When it comes to India, it should come as no surprise the mammoth

sized role movies play in the lives of Indians. So much so, that many of
the movie stars are broadly worshiped. Furthermore, the public is
welcoming of them as leaders of political parties as well. India‟s
diversity is one of the reasons why the industry is so vast and it shows no
sign of slowing down.

3) Internet/Digital Media: Internet is most commonly defined as a means

through which people are able to stay in touch with each other, through
which one can shop, and even buy food. However, it is clearly much
more than this. It is a comparatively new discovery but also one that has
grown exponentially. It continues to invent concepts at a speed that not
all human beings are able to grasp as quickly. It could be traced back to
1962 when a scientist, JCR Licklider, proposed the idea of a network of
computers being able to communicate with each other. In 1969, the first
message was sent across from one computer to another using the
ARPANET (The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), which
was the government‟s computer network at the time. The message sent
was the word „Login‟, but only the first two letters were delivered. After
this, inventions continued, but it was during the 1990s things started to
take pace. In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web.

World Wide Web was different because it was not just confined to a data
sharing space for numbered scientists. It allowed anyone in the globe
with an internet connection to access entire network of information that
was available. There was a time when you could not access your internet
and phone, through which your internet modem was connected, at the
same time. If not for the World Wide Web, people would not be able to
access information in seconds, they would not be able to stay connected
to people who were not in close proximity. In simple words, the world
became a smaller place, a much smaller place.

22
 Introduction to
Media and Social
Media

Figure 1.3 How the first ever Website looked like

Source: Business Insider8

With technology taking the front seat, quite literally, considering there exist
automatic cars now, it is clear that internet has become a huge part of
everyone‟s lives. It is something to which almost all individuals are
connected for various reasons. If not for personal reasons, then for work
related ones, but internet today has become a necessity.

When we look at the pivotal role that media plays, there are innumerable
advantages that come with this facility, but at the same time we have the dark
side of the same as well. There is no doubt that media‟s place is quite
irreplaceable, considering the important function it plays in everyone‟s lives.
If not for media, the world would still be unaware of each other‟s cultures,
their similarities. We would be less connected with each other. However, it
isn‟t just about staying connected, because of media, emergency situations
have been tackled in a much more efficient manner, people are able to help
and reach out to other human beings more. The most prominent example
could be how people all over the world are coming together to fight for
climate change. This is possible primarily because of media and its outreach.

Nevertheless, this is only one side of the coin. While some use media as a
means to connect, share, and spread positivity, there are some who use it for
malevolent purposes. Media has been known to be used a means of
propaganda, manipulation, and fake news. Unfortunately, all these things are
also on the rise in today‟s time. Thus, in the end, the discussion reaches to the
question: How much can media influence human psychology and their
actions?

23
An Introduction to According to the theory of Technological Determinism, which studies the
Psychology and
Media link between technology and its influence on humans, proposes that
technology defines the nature and state of a society. It changes the way
people behave or think at the given time. For instance, with the technological
advancement that brought computers into existence, the age of information
was born. All in all, this theory and many scholars believe technology to be a
fundamental reason, if not the sole reason, for how people behave in general.
We shall address the positive and negative impact of media on general public
in more detail in the coming units.
Check Your Progress 2
1) What are the different types of media?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
2) What do you mean by technological determinism?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

1.3 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF SOCIAL

MEDIA
Before beginning with understanding social media from an academic
perspective, let us answer the following question:

Box 1.3 Reflect!

Have you ever actively used social media? If yes, then what was your
reason for using the same? If no, then what was your reason for not
using the same?

When you experience extreme happiness, what do you do? Do you jump in
excitement? Probably, yes. Nevertheless, as soon as you celebrate it with
yourself, you want to share the news with your friends and family, so your
happiness increases.

What happened with the emergence of social media was that individuals were
given a platform where they could share these feelings with not just their
loved ones, but with the world at large. This is probably why about 3.48
billion people out of the 7.67 billion in the world were active members of
social media, data as per the Global Digital 2019 Report9. How did this all
happen? To understand this let us now move on and comprehend the
definition and concept of social media in a systematic manner.
24
 Introduction to
Box 1.4 Exercise Media and Social
Media
Can you match the following Social Media Sites to the years in which they came out?

Sixth Sense 2002

MySpace 2010
Facebook 1997
LinkedIn 2006
Twitter 2003
Instagram 2004

Figure 1.4 Different Definitions of Social Media

Figure 1.4 provides the various definitions of social media by several of the
well known dictionaries. They all may have used different terminologies, but
after reading it a few times, you will realise they are all conceptually saying
the same thing. Social Media is an online platform that helps individuals to
share content.

Social Media initially became a possibility because of the internet, but its
presence soon became a major reason why people wanted to surf the internet.
The first social media to surface was known as “Six Degrees”, which was
launched in the year 1997. It allowed people to create their own profile and
also add others into theirs. A few years later, in 2002 emerged „Friendster‟,
which allowed the users to upload images, videos, and even comment on
their personal network‟s profiles. Sounds similar to Facebook, doesn‟t it?
There were various sites that began (for example, Orkut) before the ultimate
social media website, Facebook, emerged. Once it came into the market,
things changed on a huge scale.
25
An Introduction to Facebook began as a social media site that was available to Harvard students
Psychology and
Media but soon gained popularity, and by 2006 it could be used by anyone above
the age of 13. Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, the other popular social
media apps began in the years 2006, 2010, 2011 respectively. More and more
people joined in and even more applications and websites that encouraged
people to share, started coming up.

Social Media is not just limited to these social networking sites. It also
includes blogs, forums, business networks, photo-sharing platforms, social
gaming, microblogs, and chat apps. It is a part of the internet that is growing
in an unprecedented speed. It is not just used for individual pleasure, but is a
tool in which businesses highly invest as well.

In 2017, 71% of the internet using population were using social network, and
this number is only rising. While it has some great advantages, there are cons
to this aspect as well. Our purpose here is to understand to what extent does
this influence affect an individual‟s thinking and behaviour patterns? How
has it progressed throughout history, what are the positives and negatives,
and what can be expected in the future? Let us begin by understanding how
and when the study of media‟s influence on human cognition and behaviour
began.

1.4 INFLUENCE OF MEDIA ON HUMAN

COGNITION AND BEHAVIOUR
As we see from the above discussion on technological determinism, media in
its variety of forms has huge impact on human behaviour. Philosophically,
media is a mediation of reality and our perception of reality is significantly
shaped by media. The classic research on social learning by social
psychologist Bandura on Bobo dolls is a case in point. Multitude of research
have established that viewing of aggressive acts on television has profound
influence on aggressive behaviour and emotional lives of the children.

Media is also an instrument of culture and influence. Haven‟t you heard your
elders say how the present generation of youth is coming under the influence
of Western culture, due to the sudden influx of new media technologies?

Now let us discuss how media impacts the way we think and solve problems,
the way we perceive the world. How often do you research the data you read
on social media? When you pick up a newspaper, or open a television
channel, do you believe everything without counter questioning it? The
answer to these questions would depend on how much you trust the source of
the information. However, in today‟s world when the amount of information
floating around is extreme, can you say, with certainty, that you do not get
influenced by the media? What if certain false information is being put out in
the public domain continuously? Would you be able to avoid believing in it
or would you fall for the phenomenon, psychologists call “the illusion of
26 truth”.This is defined as a phenomenon where a lie is continuously repeated,
until people start considering it true. This is a technique often used by Introduction to
Media and Social
advertisers, politicians, TV episodes, and even in news to influence human Media
psychology. The role of media in creating panic and anxiety amongst the
masses was widely seen during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nonetheless, we
also cannot deny how social media helped people out of their boredom, social
isolation and facilitated social connection during the exceptional
circumstances of lockdown.

Many positive effects of media on human cognition and behaviour also exist.
Suffice it to say that there has been an increase in awareness about
environmental issues, mental health issues, politics, education, LGBTQIA+
communities, economic and poverty related issues, etc., due to the reach of
media as well. More and more people are willing to talk about and share their
experiences, negative or positive, on different platforms to raise awareness
about different causes. As a result, they are helping others lead a more
comfortable life. Without any doubt, media plays an important role in each
individual‟s life. It is from where we find out information about anything and
everything. It is available to all, with barely any terms and conditions.

1.5 THE ORIGINS OF STUDY IN MEDIA AND

ITS INFLUENCE ON HUMAN COGNITION
AND BEHAVIOUR
As media and technology advanced, the thought that individuals would
believe anything and everything coming out of media also started growing.
This eventually led to the Direct Effects Model, also known as the
Hypodermic Needle Theory or Magic Bullet Theory, of media studies.
This model, which was prevalent during the 1920s and 1930s, stated that
people accept everything that was presented to them through the media.
According to this model “uniformly controlled by their biologically based
'instincts' and that they react more or less uniformly to whatever 'stimuli'
came along”. Thus, the model was based on assumptions of how human
beings generally behave and therefore lacked data to support it. It was later
disproved when research in this area concluded people‟s reactions were
determined by different aspects and thus, the model‟s hypothesis could not be
generalised. One major way that this helped in media studies was by making
people realise the importance of empirical research.The cognitive approach to
media research gained impetus and studied how media affected the thought
processes, particularly memory and comprehension.

Movies and Conduct: A Payne Fund Study is considered as the first

comprehensive study done on media and its effect on American youth. It was
conducted during the years 1929-1932 and was led by Herbert Blumer, with
the following objectives:

 What sort of ideas do children get from the movies?

 How deeply are they affected emotionally? 27
An Introduction to  How many children go to the movies, and how often?
Psychology and
Media  Do the movies inspire criminal and delinquent tendencies?
 Do they affect children's sleep or nerves?

Studies showed effects of cinema on information acquisition, attitude change,

emotion stimulation, health, and behaviour of children. The study caused
panic among the public, even though, from a theoretical point of view, it was
met with various criticisms. Albeit, the initial studies stated that media had a
large role to play in influencing the public‟s behaviours and cognitions, there
was not enough data to understand the gravity of this situation. The scope of
media‟s influence, still remained an enigma, until the researches in this area
improved and with it, the knowledge of its effect.

1.6 THEORIES EXPLAINING MEDIA

INFLUENCE HUMAN COGNITION AND
BEHAVIOUR
Between the years 1941 to 1945, during the World War II, the psychologist
Carl Iver Hovland was working with the US military and overseeing
researchers whose aim was to monitor the attitude change in the troops with
war the movie called “Why We Fight”. Its success would be defined as
“imparting information, [..] changing opinions in the direction of the
interpretations presented, and [..] increasing men’s motivation to serve”.
Eventually, the research studied the resistance to attitude change and how can
persuasion work in an effective manner.

According to Hovland, there are three factors of persuasion: the

communicator, the communication, and the audience. The basic question that
is being answered is, „Who says what to whom with what effect?‟All these
factors play an important role in creating an influence. Researches further
shed light on the how there were various factors along with the media that
play a role in influencing. These are demographic attributes, social
psychological factors, and different media use behaviours. Thus, media
influence is correlated with other factors, and not just based on one.

During this time, Paul Felix Lazarsfeld (1944), Bernard Berelson,

and Hazel Gaudet (1949) came up with Two-Step Flow of Communication
Model, which explores how media affects the general population through
interpersonal influence of opinion leaders.

28
 Introduction to
Media and Social
Media

Figure 1.5 Two-Step Flow of Communication Model

This model shares how interpersonal interaction has more influence on

people. The research for this model was conducted on the American voters‟
decisions during the 1940s presidential elections. This theory shifted the
paradigm and concluded that there are two steps to the behavioural and
cognitive influence. The active members, or the „opinion leaders‟ are active
members of the media. They are the ones who indulge in media information
and then further spread their knowledge to those who interact less with the
media. Through this, Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet stated that
information transmitted through word of mouth plays a more important role
in the communication process than just media. Before this theory came out, it
was almost strongly believed that media had a vast influence on the audience.
This theory put a question to this thought process. Think about it, why do
businesses have famous people as brand ambassadors? The idea is for people
to associate their product with a certain admired personality, which
eventually helps the business to sell its products.

Another theory, known as the Selective Exposure Theory, brought a

different factor into picture that affects the ability to be influenced.
According to this theory, otherwise known as „confirmation bias‟,
individuals tend to incline themselves towards information that supports their
pre-existing beliefs, whereas they ignore information that contradicts those
beliefs. For instance, if you believe Hogwarts is real (Hogwarts school of
witcheraft and wizardry from Harry orter series of fantasy novels written by
british author J.k. Rowling), you will only listen to individuals who claim the
same theory and thus, your opinions will become even stronger.

These early theories clearly show that media played a major role in
influencing human psychology, but they mainly examined short-term effects.

As the reach and popularity of the media grew, this thought process shifted
its focus on the long-term effects that may be caused. In McQuail's Mass
29
An Introduction to Communication Theory, "the way media select, process and shape content
Psychology and
Media for their own purposes can have a strong influence on how it is received and
interpreted and thus on longer-term consequences". Denis McQuail (2002)13
explains the media effects by dividing it into four phases:

Figure 1.6 Media effects in four phases (McQuails’s Mass Communication Theory)

These were theories and researches majorly before the internet came into
action. Things changed in an unparalleled manner after the internet came and
subsequently with the arrival of social media. Considering the usage of media
increased in an amount never before seen, its effects on human cognition and
behaviour also evolved. Let us move to the next section in this unit to
understand Internet‟s effect more closely.

1.7 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MEDIA AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON HUMAN COGNITION AND
BEHAVIOUR
About 4.1 billion people are active users of the internet as on December
2018, 4 Million blog posts are published each day, and a staggering 5 Billion
Google searches are made during a single day11. If one thing is clear, it is that
internet has become a necessity. The smallest of the doubts are clarified by
taking help of the same. The doubts people search about range from one‟s
studies, to physical/mental health, to relationship, to friendship, to work.
Moreover, the list does not have an end. Have you ever noticed what you
were looking for in Amazon, starts showing up in your Facebook feed?

That is because many of the algorithms in social media are set in a way that
will lead to confirmation bias, wherein individuals tend to focus more on
what matches their beliefs and purposely ignore others. The algorithms show
people the content they engage with and prefer, thereby making their views
on those matters stronger. When it comes to the psychological influences,
30
some focus on the positives, whereas others on the negatives. But one thing is Introduction to
Media and Social
clear that more research needs to be done to study the impact of internet use Media
and screen time on cognitive functioning of children, adolescents and youth.
Neuroplastic impacts (impact of internet media on brain) have been
ascertained. The exposure leads to acquisition of new skills, which could also
bring about neural changes. Simple interactions with the internet through
smartphone bring about neurocognitive modifications due to neural changes
in cortical regions of brain associated with sensory and motor processing of
the hand and thumb (Gindrat et. al, 2015). Following are the viewpoints of
various researches on how internet is affecting the human cognition and
behaviour:

 Researchers at the University of California, Santa Cruz and University of

Illinois, Urbana Champaign did a study where they found that people
who rely on internet for solving something are more likely to choose the
option more often. They are more likely to not take any moment to use
their own memory to do the task. According to the lead author Dr
Benjamin Storm commented, "Memory is changing. Our research shows
that as we use the Internet to support and extend our memory, we
become more reliant on it. Whereas before we might have tried to recall
something on our own, now we don't bother. As more information
becomes available via smartphones and other devices, we become
progressively more reliant on it in our daily lives.12"

 Implicit cognitive process of upward social comparison is also impacted

by the socially constructed social media, where everyone puts forth a
successful and happy image of theirs for others to see. This could lead to
poor self-concept, negative body image and diminished self-esteem in
some.

 Studies point out the effect of watching television or videos in infants

with language delays. In later years, educational television has a positive
impact on cognitive development. Entertainment television and computer
games, on the other hand, may have a negative impact, especially while
children are learning to read. Certain computer games may enhance
specific cognitive skills provided the game allows for exercising those
skills. Overall, screen media have both beneficial and adverse effects on
cognitive development depending on children‟s age and the type of
content consumed (Anderson, Subrahmanyam et.al 2017).

 In research published by the University‟s International Centre for Media

& the Public Agenda (ICMPA) and the Salzburg Academy on Media &
Global Change, which was conducted in 12 campuses and 10 countries
concluded that “most students… failed to go the full 24 hours without
media”. They admitted themselves that they could not voluntarily keep
themselves away from media. The University of Maryland described
how students admitted to having cravings, anxiety attacks, and even
depression when forced to keep away from using media. 31
An Introduction to  After research done by certain German scientists, it was found that
Psychology and
Media people who are constantly exposed to viewing other people‟s images
might feel increased amount of envy, jealousy, frustration or even anger.
This term has been named as „Facebook Depression”. It concludes how
there is a positive correlation between Facebook use and low sense of
being.

 According to the paper published by the researchers at University of

Oxford in England, risk of suicide and self-harming behaviour in
adolescents is linked with the time they spend online. Dr. Paul
Montgomery, one of the researchers and professor of psychosocial
intervention states "We are talking about vulnerable young people who
are going online specifically to find out more about harming themselves
or because they are considering suicide already. The question is whether
the online content triggers a response so that they self-harm or take their
own lives and we have found that there is a link."

The research focussing on internet and its effect is relatively new; and one
cannot just eliminate the possibility of it being a major influencer for the
generations that are coming up. While a lot has been focussed on the negative
side when it comes to internet affecting human cognition and behaviour, not
all impact is bad impact. According to research done in 2008, usage of search
engines can actually boost older adults‟ brains functions. Dr Gary Small
(2008), professor of neuroscience and human behaviour at UCLA states
"Internet searching engages complicated brain activity, which may help
exercise and improve brain function." Thus, it may be concluded that there
are both positive and negative influences of the use of social media.
Check Your Progress 3
1) List one positive and one negative impact of media on cognition.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
2) Explain Two-Step Flow of Communication model.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

1.8 SUMMARY
Let us review what we have learnt in this unit.

 Each form of media brought the revolutionary changes to the people, and
how everyone was fascinated by the smallest of the technological
32
 changes. Media evolved over the decades from the invention of paper to Introduction to
Media and Social
the internet in the recent times. Media psychology focuses on the media Media
and its effects on humans. American Psychological Association
established a new division of Media Psychology in the year 1987.

 According to Laswell and Wright, some of the important functions of

media are surveillance of the event, the correlation function, cultural
transmission and influencing societal norms, and education and
entertainment.

 There are different types of media, like print media, electronic

media/broadcast media (TV/radio/films), and internet/digital media.

 Social media is an online platform that helps the individual to share the
content through blogs, photo-sharing platforms, social gaming,
microblogs, business networks, and chat apps.

 Theory of technological determinism posits that technology defines the

nature and state of a society and studies the links between technology
and its influence on the humans.

 Media has an immense effect on human cognition and behaviour and

many theories have been put forward exploring various aspects.
According to hypodermic needle theory, people accept everything that is
presented to them. The two-step flow of communication media explores
how media effects the general population through interpersonal influence
of opinion leaders.

 McQuails‟s theory on communication asserts long-term impact of media.

The effects are divided into four phases: all powerful phase; theory of
powerful media put to test; powerful media rediscovered; and finally
negotiated media influence.

 Hovland posited three factors of persuasion: the communicator, the

communication and the audience.

 Research in media affecting the human cognition and behaviour have

given conclusive results on both the positive and negative influences.

1.9 KEYWORDS
Confirmation bias Individual tends to incline themselves towards
information that supports their pre-existing beliefs, whereas they ignore
information that contradicts those beliefs

Media Plural form of “medium”, which is defined as the means through

which something can be shared.

Social Media An online platform that helps individuals to share content.

33
An Introduction to Technological Determinism Studies the link between technology and its
Psychology and
Media influence on human beings. It proposes that technology defines the nature
and state of a society.

1.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Why do you think media is important and relevant?
2) Is social media making us less social? Comment.
3) How can the media influence human cognition and behaviour?
4) How has the advent of smart phones changed life in general?

1.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

1) https://hostingfacts.com/internet-facts-stats/(4.1 Billion People
population)

2) https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/how-people-turn-to-social-media-
during-0natural-disasters-49587(Faebook Safety Feature and Hitler using
media for propagandas

3) https://aeon.co/essays/how-disney-took-to-subverting-its-own-romantic-
ideals(Disney changing idea of love)

4) https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1878-04-19/ed-
1/seq-1/ (Edison first phonograph article)

5) https://www.wikiwand.com/en/WWJ_(AM) (Detroit News, Front page

Announcement)

6) https://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2009/more-than-half-the-
homes-in-us-have-three-or-more-tvs.html (No. of television sets more
than people in the US)

7) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vsnB4iBb78o&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtN
-Bd-H_TGq72CN50Fpv_JX&index=2 (Craig‟s Definition of Film)

8) https://www.businessinsider.com/flashback-this-is-what-the-first-
website-ever-looked-like-2011-6?IR=T (Business Insider, First
Webpage)

9) https://wearesocial.com/blog/2019/01/digital-2019-global-internet-use-
accelerates (Active Social Media Users, Global Digital 2019 reports)

10) https://searchengineland.com/google-now-handles-2-999-trillion-
searches-per-year-250247 (Number of Google Searches per day)

11) https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160816085029.htm
(Memory is changing.. quote)

34
12) Gindrat A‐D, Chytiris M, Balerna M, Rouiller, E.M.& Ghosh, Introduction to
Media and Social
A. (2015). Use‐dependent cortical processing from fingertips in Media
touchscreen phone users. Current Biology. 25, 109‐16.

13) McQuail, Denis (ed.) (2002), McQuail's reader in mass communication

theory. Sage: London.

14) Kemp, S. (2021). Digital 2021: India. Retrieved from

https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-india on 30th June 2021

15) Lasswell, H. (1948). The structure and function of communication in

society. In L. Bryson (Ed.), The communication of ideas. New York:
Harper &Brothers.

16) Wright, C. R.(1960). Functional analysis and mass communication.

Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 605-620

17) Anderson, D.R., Subrahmanyam, K. on behalf of the Cognitive Impacts

of Digital Media Workgroup. (2017). Digital Screen Media and
Cognitive Development, Pediatrics, 140 (Supplement 2), S57-S61.

1.12 ADDITIONAL ONLINE RESOURCES

 2018-new_media_society-seesaw.pdf (harvard.edu)
 The Psychology of Social Media | King University Online
 6 Ways Social Media Affects Our Mental Health (forbes.com)

35
An Introduction to
Psychology and UNIT 2 MEDIA AND PSYCHOLOGY*
Media

Structure

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Relationship Between Media and Psychology
2.2 Role of a Media Psychologist
2.3 Introduction to Research Methods in Media Psychology
2.3.1 Why Research in Media Psychology Is Complex

2.3.2 Different Research Methods Used

2.4 Ethical Issues in Media Psychology Research

2.5 Summary
2.6 Keywords
2.7 Review Questions
2.8 References and Further Reading
2.9 Additional Online Resources

Learning Objectives

After reading this unit, you will be able to:

 explain the correlation between media and psychology,

 identify the functions of a media psychologist,
 summarize the research methods used in media psychology, and
 elucidate the ethical issues in media psychology research.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
By now, you are well acquainted with the concept of media and social media,
and how it is considered as a benefactor to influence the human psychology.
We read in the last unit, that American Psychological Association (APA)
recognised media psychology in 1987. Although, it is a separate study, it
includes such as media studies, communication science, sociology, political
psychology, and certain other topics under psychology as well. This could be
one of the underlying reasons behind media psychology being recognised
later than it should have been ideal. It was not until researchers concluded
through various research, that a distinct category was developed specifically
for this.

However, considering the various commonalities with other fields, the APA
changed its name during the 1990s from Division of Media Psychology to the

*
Dr Shivantika Sharad, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College,
36 University of Delhi.
Division of Media Psychology and Communications Technology. The Media and
Psychology
distinction may seem miniscule; however, from an academic standpoint, it
makes concepts clearer. It takes into account the importance of technology in
shaping newer forms of media and thereby, it‟s impact on human
psychology. We discussed this briefly in the previous unit under
Technological Determinism, on how technology shapes society. According to
Marshall McLuhan, a media scholar, “media” can never clearly be defined
for it is constantly changing; he defined media as an “extension of
ourselves”. What he meant was that media itself did not possess any ability to
influence, that is, it has no meaning in itself. Rather, it is the individual who
perceives the information as per their ability and then uses that information to
shape the world around them. Some might agree, and many might also
disagree with him. However, all will acknowledge to the fact that media and
psychology do share a relationship. If you observe, you will notice how
advertisements, movies, politics, etc., use the understanding of human
psychology to influence or move them. Similarly, psychology aims to
understand to what level this impact is possible. Thus, research under this
topic becomes crucial in understanding the scope of media‟s effect on human
psychology. Furthermore, it can generate awareness among people and make
them more conscious of what they are consuming.

Thus, leading to a more educated and aware public that will less likely be
manipulated. In this unit, we will begin by understanding the complicated
relationship that media and psychology share, and will then consequently
move on to decode the different types of research under media psychology,
their success, and the ethical issues they face.

2.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND

PSYCHOLOGY

Box 2.1 Reflect!

Before going any further, answer the following:

1) On an average, how much time do you spend on media? Can you give it
up for a whole day?

2) How much time on social media are you doing something productive
(that is, something that is adding value to your life/knowledge/wisdom)?

3) Do you get the urge to reduce your media usage? If yes, then why?

Have you ever wondered why you always want to visit your social media
pages; or why is it so hard for you to leave such platforms for good? Is it
because you do not want to miss the updates from people you have
befriended or followed? Not entirely. The sole purpose is not to stay
connected with people you know. It has become much more than that.
37
An Introduction to Similarly, how often do you switch from one media to another? From TV to
Psychology and
Media your surfing internet on phone or on your laptop, these are all constantly
providing you with information that can get overwhelming. It has become a
platform for businesses to sell, has given individuals the chance to become
„influencers‟, for people to find entertainment, and many more reasons.

Media is not just something that people around the world use for
entertainment purposes. It is the source of information about the world, it
keeps one updated on the news, it is a means for people to find work, and for
many such essential features, without which many of our comforts will be
taken away. Furthermore, newer forms of media have given a voice to the
general public, which has had positive as well as negative effects.

The interaction between media and human beings is high, and so is the
relationship between human beings and psychology. In a way, what is pivotal
in the relationship between media and psychology is their connection with
humans (Figure 2.1). In the last unit, we established how media plays a role
in our lives, now let us move on to understand the relationship that these two
share together.

Figure 2.1 Media psychology as the interaction of human behaviour with media and
technology

Media Psychology Purview

As is evident, media psychology is the interface between media and

technology, with human beings, their responses and behaviour. There is a
reciprocal relationship between the two. As a sub-discipline in psychology,
media psychology uses the theories, conceptual frameworks and research
methods of psychology to examine the impact of mass media on individuals,
groups, societies and cultures.
38
 Media and
What media psychology is What media psychology is not Psychology
concerned with? concerned with?
Social and psychological aspects of Face-to-face, oral-aural
communications between people communication
(groups or organizations) that are
mediated by some technology
Impact of media on human behaviour Science and technology behind
(Socio-psychomedia effect) devices for mediated
communications as such.
Understanding the physical, cognitive Dynamics of speech and language
and emotional aspects of brain-media development
interface

Figure 2.2: A whole system model of Media Psychology (Rutledge, 2010)

According to Rutledge (2010) media psychology takes into consideration the

whole system, which is a continual loop consisting of technological
developments (i-pads and tablets), production of content (books, news,
music), perception and consumption of that content (listening to music of
choice or availability of news 24X7) and response of the consumer (internet
addiction). Each of these components coexist, interact and coevolve with
each other.

Box 2.2 How social media became a tool for Arab Spring?

The „Arab Spring‟ is a term used to define pro-democracy protests and

rebellious actions the public took against their government. It started back in
2010 in Tunisia (Africa), when one street vendor named Sidi Bouazizi, set
himself on fire when an official confiscated his vegetable cart and went on to
humiliate him in public. The poor vendor‟s „mistake‟ was that he refused to
pay bribes to the police. He set himself on fire and the whole country felt the
jitters of pain, from which emerged a revolution that the Bouazizi incident
39
An Introduction to sparked. This was labelled Jasmine revolution.
Psychology and
Media
The public was already aware of the rampant corruption, nepotism, election
manipulation, and oppression. However, it seems, in retrospect, people were
just waiting for an event that would surpass their limit of tolerance. The self-
immolation of Bouazizi stirred the public, who then was in an armed
revolution against their oppressors. The death of the vendor took place on
17th December, 2010, and on 14th January, 2011, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali
(the then President of Tunisia against whose oppressive regimes people were
protesting) fled the country in fear.

Aden (Yemen) Protestors in 2011 in support of Mohamed Bouazizi

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Protest_Aden_Arab_Spring_2011.jpg
Now, the important question: How did social media help stir the protests?

It was the pictures and videos of Bouazizi‟s incident through social media
that ignited fire in the hearts of all individuals who then came to the streets to
fight for the ongoing oppression. The government tried to hinder the
spreading of the same, however, it eventually reached media and showed it to
the people who did not have access to the internet. International journalists
were reached through social media.

Inspired by Tunisia, similar protests started in other countries including

Egypt, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain and Libya. In Egypt too, the revolution, which
was organized mainly through the social media, was successful in removing
the then President Hosni Mubarak.

Conclusion

Social media evidently and undoubtedly played a pivotal role in the uprising
of the revolution to overthrow a government that was not for the people. It
gave people a platform to organise and come together to work towards a
common cause, which was for the good of everyone.
40
The above case study helps us understand how media can influence or rouse Media and
Psychology
a large majority of people into taking an action that otherwise might not have
been possible. The fact of the matter, however, is that this could be used for
the good of the public on one hand, and on the other can negatively impact
the society. As on today, there is a rising concern over the spreading of fake
news, due to which people have even lost their lives. Geysha Gonzalez
(2018), associate director for the Eurasia centre at the Atlantic Council, stated
that the challenge of fake news is old and has been around as long as humans
have been on Earth to spread rumours and gossip. With the arrival of new
platforms, false information spread gets viral. In India, for example, use of
false information via messaging app led to some mob lynching incidents in
which innocent people lost their lives.
There are many such examples that will further add support to the argument
that media influences human psychology in many different ways. The
relationship between media and psychology can thus, be described as an
uneasy one, as David Giles (2003) states. This is because of Psychology‟s
caution on studying media in more detail, as media is not generally given a
token of academic study. In other words, it is neither given much importance
nor the respect and attention it deserves. While there have been researches
and studies that did study the effect of media and human psychology (recall
the Payne Fund studies that we discussed in Unit 1), they were motivated
more by a problem driven approach rather than curiosity to understand how
media in general might influence behaviour.
With the rising dependence and exposure to media, the importance of media
psychology is increasing by the day. We are constantly surrounded by media
through television, internet, our mobile phones and many other technologies.
Media is consumed by people of all ages, especially the young and it is going
to stay. Its impact on cultures cannot be undermined. Media provides people
with a lot of positives and to discard it is not the solution. However, it is
imperative to understand how these work together. Media Psychology helps
individuals in understanding to what level it can influence or affect them.
Once this knowledge is developed, the negative impacts of media can also be
controlled. Research in media psychology is not an easy task. The extremely
fast pace of technology change makes it difficult for researchers to cope with
in a very effective way, considering it takes time to do experiments and see
the effects of the hypothesis. However, it is still equally as important to work
towards understanding this subject better and its impact on humans. Hence
media research and media psychologists become important, which we will be
discussing ahead.

2.2 ROLE OF A MEDIA PSYCHOLOGIST

Box 2.3 Reflect!

Which of the following do you think is NOT a function of a media

psychologist?
 Helping people understand their relationship with media and how it
can affect them 41
An Introduction to  Telling people how they should interact with different media platforms
Psychology and
Media  Educating People about the positive and negative impact of media

Division 46 of American Psychological Association states media

psychologists can be communicators, researchers, mental health providers,
consultants, educators or developers. If we look at what media psychologists‟
study, we can understand in what they will contribute academically. Media
psychologists study the effects of media upon the individual and society, and
find out how psychology can be applied to enhance media design and
understand media consumption. Issues of ethics, accessibility of media,
diversity of audiences, and constructive uses of media also come under the
purview of media psychologists.

Media Psychology, as discussed previously, is a study that has been given

recognition comparatively recently. Furthermore, it is developing at a fast
pace, which makes it harder to understand what falls under the bracket of
Media Psychology. Many of the researches and theories that lead for people
to see the importance of Media Psychology was undertaken by individuals
from different fields of psychology, sociology, communication studies, etc.
This is where the role of media psychologist comes to play. In a world that is
so dependent on media, we need media psychologists to study the intricacies
and make the people at large understand what come with this dependence.
According to Pamela Rutledge (2010), a media psychologist has the
following roles to perform:

1) Helping people adapt to the fast pace of technological advancement

2) Increasing the accountability of authors and journalists to professional
standards
3) Explicating how correlation between media use and behaviour is not
equivalent to media causing that behaviour.
4) Demonstrating individual, cultural and contextual differences in the
experiences of different media technologies.
5) Assessment and evaluation of technology, interfaces, usability and
content.
6) Integrating technology into education, media literacy education.

In 1998, Dr. Lilli Friedland and Bernard J. Luskin, co-chaired the APA‟s
Division 46 (Media Psychology) and after researching media and technology
and surveying wide range of experts gave the following areas where media
psychology‟s role is crucial (Lusk in, 2012).

1) Disseminating expertise on media through writings and appearance in

media shows.
2) Consulting and coaching media workforce
3) Research on identifying ways to improve all forms of media
42
4) Making new media technologies increasingly effective and user friendly Media and
Psychology
5) Applying new media technology to the practice of clinical psychology, to
education and training (distance learning, virtual classrooms)
6) Developing media standards for ethical conduct
7) Media and commercial fields like advertising, entertainment
8) Studying the sociological, behavioural and psychological effects of
media
9) Developing innovative media materials for physically and
developmentally challenged groups and other marginalized population.
10) Working with deviant or criminal populations

Media psychologists, thus, have to not just make people more aware, but help
make ensure that governments, bigger organisations are aware of the scope of
their influence in the public. They work as consultants and experts in helping
advertisers, influencers, and anyone who has a strong media presence be
more effective. It is true to a certain limit that media‟s influence on
individuals is high, but research has usually been more focussed on all the
negative impacts of the same. The media, in itself, is not the problem that the
world needs to cure. Rather, it is the field that needs to be understood better.
Media psychologists do exactly this, and then share their knowledge and
expertise to share with people how they can interact with media.

For instance, in today‟s time, there is awareness about the fake news and
propagandas that are continuously being run of several media channels.
However, since the awareness on this phenomenon is growing, people are
more cautious and thorough in their research before believing in some news.
That is, woke and educated individuals would focus their attention on reading
more deeply about an issue before deeming it to be the truth. However, this is
not the case with the large majority. There are still various cases where a
situation has gotten out of hand due to such false claims that spread over the
internet/ and or media channels, and this is precisely why media
psychologists‟ need is going to grow with time.

Check Your Progress 1

Answer true or false:

1. Media psychology is interested in understanding the dynamics of inter-

personal and face-to-face communication.

2. Media and mass media are one and the same thing.

3. Media psychology research helps us understand the social-psychological

effect of media use.

4. Social media cannot help in creating mass movements.

43
An Introduction to 5. Media psychology is an old field and came into existence many centuries
Psychology and
Media ago.

6. Media psychology is a part Division 56 of American Psychological

Association.

7. Media psychologists are only interested in developing theories.

8. Developing innovative media material is not the role of media

psychologists.

9. Correlation between media use and behaviour is equivalent to media

causing that behaviour

10. Distance learning and virtual classrooms are not the subject matter of
media psychology.

2.3 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

IN MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY
In the last unit, we discussed how research began, as there was widespread of
media technologies such as the radio and television. However, most of the
researchers focussed on the negative effects that media was bringing along
with it. The reason behind this could be due the fact that it was happening
during a period that led up to the Second World War. There was a ubiquitous
belief that media could be used as a medium for political unrest and can
influence the public negatively.

Figure 2.3 George

Orwell’s novel’s
antagonist “Big
Brother”, portrayed
as someone who
always kept an eye
on what everyone
was up to

Source:
https://freesvg.org/big
-brother-nineteen-
eighty-four

Even certain authors were cautious of how media could interfere with an
individual‟s life. In 1949, a novel published by George Orwell “1984”
showed “telescreens”, which were television like tools, that the government
or the people in power used to control and oppress the public. The “Big
44 Brother” is symbolic of mass surveillance and information censorship that
takes place in modern culture, where media use by public is scrutinized and Media and
Psychology
media content censored by those in power.

There is no denying that media does in its way have an impact on the human
behaviour and cognition. There is enough research to prove this, however,
one thing all will agree to is the fact that media is not the only factor that
plays a role in influencing the human mind. Studies and research, not just
from media psychology, but also other theoretical subjects share factors of
nature and nurture that play a pivotal role. Thus, the amount of media
influence on the human psychology has always been under scrutiny. This is
precisely what makes the research under media psychology so complex as
well. Let us understand the reasons behind its complications in more detail.

2.3.1 Why research in media psychology is complex?

Box 2.4 Reflect!

Can you choose the reason or reasons behind the complexities of Media
Psychology Research?

 Human behaviour and cognition is not influenced by only a single factor

 Proving one hypothesis correct may not mean other underlying reasons
play no role in influencing the human psychology
 Human psychology is continuously evolving, hence, the results might be
changing as well
 Media technology is changing at a fast pace, which makes research on
media harder to keep up
 All of the above

The answer to the question above is certainly „all of the above‟. When we
look at the research in Media Psychology, we notice the type of questions
scholars initially asked, and how these progressed and became more specific
with time. For instance, if we look at the studies focussing on aggression in
media and its effect on people, it began with questions such as “Does
observing aggression in films and other videos increase aggressive
behaviour of the observer?” (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963) and eventually
the intricacies were being focussed upon more with questions such as “What
are the cognitive and affective mechanisms through which violent media exert
their influence on aggression?” (Anderson et al., 2003), “How strong is the
effect of media violence and how long term is it?” (Anderson & Bushman,
2001; Anderson et al., 2010).

The reason could be to understand more deeply, about when media‟s role has
more to do with the human behaviour change than any other factors. The
focus, as we discussed earlier, of media psychology research is to gain better
knowledge of how these two interact together. It strives to look for reasons
on firstly, how much of an effect can it have on people, and secondly, how
45
An Introduction to can people work towards communicating with media better so as to not get
Psychology and
Media blindly affected by it. As mentioned above, researching about human
psychology does not yield results in either black or white, it operates within a
grey area. Let us understand the complexities that are specific to media
research, as has been explored by Prot and Anderson, 2013.

Multiple
Interpretations

Figure 2.4 Showing the challenges of media research (Prot and Anderson, 2013)

1) Testing/Retesting/Revising: To prove that learning can take place

through conditioning, Ivan Pavlov did a series of experiments on animals
to prove its effectiveness. Within the quantitative paradigm, it is the
series of continuous investigations and tests of hypotheses that
researches engage in, which eventually become theories. These theories
might raise a few other questions that researchers then study and the
cycle thereby continues. Science is established through the process of
replication of empirical studies, which are verified and modified with
time. Media research has also been characterized by such a cycle (see
Figure 2.5) Media exposure and violence can be a good example of this
continuous process of testing-revising-retesting cycle. These are based
on more than a century‟s psychological research on learning, emotion,
cognition, and behaviour.

Translating the psychological concepts into measurable terms is also a

challenge faced by media researchers. For instance, classifying video
games into violent and non-violent, would require specifications in
observable/measurable terms.

46
 Media and
Psychology

Figure 2.5 Cycle of research in Media Psychology, from the predominant quantitative
approach that is followed mostly by media researchers

2) Probabilistic Causality: Studies in Media Psychology have usually

studied causal relationships between certain things. Theories such as
Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura 1973) suggest causal relationships
among variables. However, as scholars have later argued, it creates
confusion among the general public. Causality between two things does
not mean things are only going to happen due the fact that they are
related. It is more to do with the positive/negative correlation that is
spoken for between two variables. Anderson strongly suggests that
scientific causality is probabilistic, and not “necessary and sufficient.”
When we state that variable X causes outcome Y, it only means that
variable X causes an increase in the likelihood of outcome Y.

Thus, when it comes to research that shows a certain negative or positive

influence that media has on human cognition behaviour, it cannot be
inferred that no other factors play a role. What it implies more is that
media can play a pivotal role in increasing the likelihood of certain
behaviours. There is a fine difference, but this difference is important to
take into consideration.

3) Alternative Explanations: Human psychology can clearly not be

segmented into a few different categorisations. There is much more to it
than that. Human are complex, and when it comes to studying how they
interact with media, a lot more focus has to be on the intricacies.
Moreover, when we are looking theoretically to explain, or put a claim 47
An Introduction to out there that is going to be generic in nature, a lot has to go on behind
Psychology and
Media the scenes before any such results can be proven acceptable. In other
words, there are distinct number of explanations for certain behaviours
and researching and studying the plausible effects becomes important.

Research provides reasons behind certain hypothesis that are more

accurate than the others. For instance, cigarette smoking increases the
chances of suffering from lung cancer. However, there are cases of
people who do not smoke, yet end up suffering from lung cancer. This
analogy is similar in the case of media psychology research as well. The
reason to study alternative claims and theories is to see and remove the
possibility of the involvement of less accurate assertions from a study.
Doing so strengthens the remaining explanations, which leads to better
clarity of the relationship between two variables, in this case, between
human beings and media.

4) Multiple Interpretation: The complexities are increased because of

people‟s ability to interpret or perceive certain theories in their own
specific ways. When theories are interpreted in a customised fashion, the
empirical research that is followed might not be ideal for that particular
theory. Findings in such cases may prove to be as ineffective. In other
words, the hypothesis that a researcher derived from a theory may prove
to ineffective in the results. Sometimes, when the results do not offer
weight to the theory, there is a chance of that theory having a weak
foundation. However, it is equally as possible for the methodology to be
used incorrectly in the empirical research. Such an action can have a
severe effect eventually.

For instance, one of the media violence studies published by Williams

and Skoric (2005) had results which showed that media had little to no
influence on people behaving violently. This study has often been used
by various video game brands and gamers to promote the idea that media
does not have a huge impact on human psychology, particularly
aggression. However, what they fail to mention is that the study
conducted is considered one of the poorest methodologically conducted
media violence studies. Thus, when a hypothesis or a theory is tested and
researched using different methodologies and each method yields similar
results, is when a theory should be trusted and promoted. Believing just
on one study or research is not enough when it comes to media
psychology.

Moreover, when technologies in today‟s age are evolving so quickly, the

need for continuous research for better understanding of media psychology
has never been higher. The above pointers were shared to further invoke the
importance of credible research that is needed in media psychology. While
the complexities cannot be removed, they can be better understood. When
these are better understood, fewer mistakes will take place since precautions
48 to curb the complexities can be taken before hand. However, we still are left
to understand the different types of research that Media Psychologists use to Media and
Psychology
study the subject. Let us move on to unravel the different types of research
methods in media psychology.

2.3.2 Different Research Methods Used

We have read about many researchers and quite a lot of researches that
explain the level of impact media has on human psychology. However, we
are yet to unravel the different types of research methods used in media
psychology. Media psychology research can be divided into two broad
domains – quantitative and qualitative research.

 Quantitative research: Simply put, quantitative research deals with

numbers, uses statistical procedures or other means of quantification. It is
mostly concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theories, and
makes use of tests and scales for assessing variables.

 Qualitative research: In its broadest sense, qualitative research is the one

that relies on and produces descriptive data in the form of people‟s own
written or spoken words and observable behaviour. It is concerned with
understanding the process and experiences of a phenomenon in depth and
helps in building theories.

Historically speaking, quantitative measures under media psychology

research have been more prevalent than qualitative research. One of the
reasons, as mentioned previously, could be because quantitative methods
gave more factual findings. At a time when psychology was trying to prove
itself as a serious science, people had to be made realised of its importance.
Considering science was more interested in numbers, quantitative empirical
research thus, became an integral part.

Though, studies under media psychology are inclined more towards

quantitative methods rather than qualitative, it does not indicate that
qualitative studies are not as effective. As time passed by, and the relevance
of psychology became more prominent, qualitative research gained increased
attention. Methods such as in-depth interviews and ethnographic approaches
are the principal techniques that fall under qualitative research methods. Let
us study the different types of media psychology research methods used over
time.

1) Experimentation: Experimentation is a way of research where

credibility of a hypothesis is tested in a controlled environment. In media
psychology research, experiments are being conducted for more than half
a century. These were primarily influenced by behavioural perspective in
psychology. Such experiments were usually conducted in an artificial
setting for a reason. To prove the credibility of the hypothesis, it was
also ideal to prove that other factors did not come into play.

49
An Introduction to As know that there could be alternative theories and explanations for
Psychology and
Media certain behavioural responses, and to remove the possibility of this, the
experiments were conducted in an artificial setting. In experimentation,
defining cause and effect relationship between two variables becomes the
main subject of interest. For instance, in media psychology, the
relationship between the two is explored. It studies how one affects
and/or influences the other. Following are the different types of
experimental designs:

 Classical Experimental Design: This is when a pre-test and post-test

is given to an experimental and a controlled group so as to understand
the effect of a stimulus.

 Pre-Experimental Design: This method is similar to the above one,

only control groups are not present, which can be due to different
reasons. Circumstances might not always give way for a control group
to be a part of the experiment, and thus, a researcher may have to
settle for this design.

 Quasi-Experimental and Special Design: These are similar to a

normal experiment except that they lack one element – random
assignment.

 Factorial Design: Such design method helps the experimenter to

study more than one independent variable and its effect on the
experimental group.

 Repeated Measures Design: This is the type of design in which

various independent variables are studied on the same group on a
repeated basis.

2) Surveys: Based on the objectives and methodology chosen, survey is a

form of research when information is collected from a pre-determined
group on a particular topic of study. It is an effective way to collect data
from large number of people, and requires planning and skill in
50
 administration. There are various types of surveys, and following are the Media and
Psychology
ways that helps researchers decide which to go for:

 What is the purpose behind this survey?

 What mode of administration (among telephone, interview, etc) will
be most suitable?
 What will be the time span of the research?

Based on the answers to the above questions, researcher can decide the
type of survey that is most suitable. The different types of survey method
based on design are: cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies,
correlational studies. However, survey methods are not just limited to
these. With technological advancement surveys can also be conducted
over telephones, SMS (text messaging), e-mail, and now even through
google documents. Depending on the type of study, researcher may pick
up the most effective way of collecting the desired information.

3) Observation: As the name highlights, observational methods are those

when the researcher takes part in the research to collect the relevant
information. The observational research can be divided into three
categories: (a) if the researcher actively participates or not; (b) if
observations are structured or unstructured; (c) If observed behaviour
takes place in a natural or artificial setting.

For instance, a researcher may choose to involve themselves to live in a

household to observe the media effects. However, the real purpose of
research is never revealed to the participants, so as to keep the
behaviours as authentic as possible. In a non-participant observation
method, the researcher observes but is hidden. In other words, those
being observed are unaware of their actions being watched.

The structure constructed for research is another factor to be taken note

of during observational research. The following diagram will help you
understand structured and unstructured research better.

Observational methods are quite effective for they can capture how
individuals actually react or behave in a natural setting. The subtle
51
An Introduction to intentions behind their behaviours can be recorded, and a better
Psychology and
Media understanding can be generated out of such researches.

4) Media Text Analysis: One type of media text analysis is content

analysis. It is the most recent form of research, i.e., when compared with
other research methods. In media psychology, a good example under this
is the study of gender portrayals in television advertisements or in the
daily soap operas. The content can be audio-visual or textual/written
material. Considering researchers analyse a lot of content, the criteria of
analysis can be set prior to their gathering the information or it can be
emerge while the analysis is in progress. It means the dimensions on
which the content would be analysed could be pre-determined or it could
be emergent. In quantitative content analysis, the criteria are
predetermined and frequency of its occurrence is mostly calculated.
While in qualitative content analysis, researchers go with a certain and
clear idea of study, but what they will find can only be definite once they
go through the relevant content.

Other type of media text analysis is discourse analysis. Discourse in

media refers to interactions occurring through a broadcast platform
(spoken or written) between a source of the discourse and mostly a non-
present reader, listener or viewer. It is a constructed/manufactured
interaction which is public. Primarily a qualitative method, it is gaining
popularity both in psychology and media psychology in recent times.
There are two categories that fall under this. The first is primarily
concerned with the type of language used, it intricately works out the
linguistic features of the text. The second pays more attention to the way
social power abuse, and inequality are portrayed in texts to understand
the political and social context better. The approach takes a critical
stance towards appraising the media messages, and is called critical
discourse analysis (CDA). It has, however, been criticized for its
subjectivity and informal procedure.

5) Interviews and Focus group discussions: Interviews can be structured

or semi-structured/unstructured. When interviews are highly structured
and follow strictly a questionnaire (known as interview schedule) that
asks all respondents the same questions in the same order to allow for
statistical analysis, it is a quantitative interview.

However, most interviews are qualitative, as in they attempt to

understand the phenomenon under study from the participant‟s
(interviewee‟s) point of view, to understand their meanings and
experiences. These are conversations that are unstructured or have low
degree of structure (to give some direction to the interview) and the
participant's responses are open-ended. Questions are not pre-determined
and unfold as the interview progresses, based on the responses of the
interviewee. However, the researcher might have some pointers/themes
52
 (known as interview guide) to help them stay focused on the topic of Media and
Psychology
research.

The purpose of focus group discussions (FGD) is to obtain collective

views on a certain topic from people who have certain experiences in
that topic. For example, a media psychologist can invite all video gamers
to come together and share the impact of gaming on their day-today
behavior. Focus groups enable a researcher to elicit opinions, attitudes
and beliefs held by the members of a group.

Check Your Progress 2

1) What is critical discourse analysis?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

2) Mention two qualitative and quantitative methods each that are used in
media psychology research.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

3) What are the different types of observational researches?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

4) Why is media psychology research important?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

2.4 ETHICAL ISSUES IN MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY

RESEARCH

Box 2. 5 Reflect!

A, B, C and D are 4 friends who are having a conversation together. B asks

the rest of them if they like Harry Potter, A and C replied in the positive.
Now, B got curious and asked if A and C liked superhero movies as well.
They both said yes. By just this conversation, B declares that whoever likes 53
An Introduction to Harry Potter will also like superhero movies.
Psychology and
Media
Do you think there is a mistake in B‟s saying so? Why?

Every research that has grown to be a huge success has been so because their
thorough following of the ethical rules of researching. It is important to have
a structure and to follow the same while conducting research.If not adhered to
the ethical standard of conduct, the credibility of researches decreases and the
results cannot be completely trusted. This is especially so in disciplines like
Media Psychology that deals with human beings. Some of the central ethical
concerns in media research are as follows:

Informed consent: Participation in any research is voluntary. Media

psychology researchers cannot force anyone to participate in their study.
Prior consent from the participants regarding their willingness to provide data
and information should be taken. Before participating in research, the
participants are informed about the nature of research, if there are any risks
associated, that their participation is voluntary and they are free to withdraw
at any point in time.

Anonymity and Confidentiality: It is a challenge for media researchers to

keep participant anonymous and de-identify their participation in the highly
networked and searchable “data” universe, particularly when data has been
collected online. Utmost care has to be taken to minimize harm to the
participants while doing research on sensitive topics by maintaining their
confidentiality, so that in future no stigmatization or bullying of the
participants happens.

Privacy: Everyone has the right to lead a private life and control the access
of information about them. However, in this highly networked society,
maintaining privacy is also a challenge. Media psychology researchers can
assure their participants of privacy through anonymity and confidentiality, as
well as being extra careful while asking sensitive personal questions. Privacy
issue becomes paramount when researchers make use of video recordings of
their participants, which is quite common in media psychology research.

Reporting of research findings and publication ethics: Ethical decisions

also govern how research findings are to be interpreted and communicated to
scientific community and the society at large. After proper data analysis,
results should be reported accurately and objectively in an unbiased manner.
Acknowledgement of all those who contributed in the research is required.
The report should be free from plagiarism or any kind of fudging in the data
collected.

Research is not just meant to be published in journals, which have scientific

value. Findings from media psychology research also need to be
communicated to the public as it would be beneficial for them. For instance,
parents need to know how gaming impacts the development of their child.
54
Likewise, studies on impact of media can help people become more Media and
Psychology
responsible media consumers.

Considering there are enough complexities in studying human behaviour and

cognition as is, it becomes even more important that proper ethical concerns
are being taken care of. However, that is not always the case. Let us
understand few of the methodological pitfalls in the field of media
psychology.

1) Conducting studies in a “Theoretical Vacuum” and disregarding

established theories: There are researchers ignoring credible and valid
researches such as observational learning, imitation, priming etc. when
they proclaim that media violence does not influence human aggression
which is a clear exaggeration. Media Psychology Research is a separate
field of psychology, but it is still connected to psychology in general.
Thus, theories that have been proven time and again cannot be left aside
while research on a media effect is being conducted. This can lead to
confusion and various false claims that general public may believe to be
true without reading much about it.

2) Using inadequate sample size and excluding minorities: A good

sample size is of crucial importance in media psychology else, the results
will come out as unstable and inconsistent. Usually, the effects found in
media psychology tend to be small, it is imperative that there is a large
sample size in order to see if the media effect is present or not. The
reason behind the effect size being small is because human behaviour is
complex and is not entirely dependent on just one factor such as media.
However, this can be tackled by combining studies, yet adequate sample
size is still necessary.

Apart from small sample size, another very alarming issue is that of
excluding minorities in the targeted sample. Media research at large
under represents certain groups like North-east Indians or transgender
persons in their targeted sample. This could be owing to stereotypical
perceptions and prejudice against these groups. Sensitivity to diversity
and adequate representation of all such groups in the sample is necessary
for a media researcher. Their research findings shape public perception
in a significant way.

3) Using experimental manipulation: Manipulating certain independent

variable in order to achieve a certain result is clearly not acting in the
interest of the field. For example, if a researcher is studying the effect of
violent video games on children, they might choose to study it on two
groups. One group being exposed to the violent video game, while the
others will engage in video games that do not include violence. In some
studies, however, what the researcher did was the intensity of violence in
both video games differed but there were signs of violence in both the
video games. What this does is that it might show that both set of
55
An Introduction to children acted violently and thereby, denoting there was little media
Psychology and
Media effect. However, that is not the complete truth.

 Researchers are trusted upon doing a study in order to understand a

concept better. When experimental manipulations come into play,
the essence of the research takes a backseat which hampers the
credibility of the research. Such research can take a rather bad turn.
If you will recall, we studied how certain video companies used the
research that showed video games do not encourage violent
behaviours as an example, even though the research was deemed an
untrusted source for its poor methodology.

4) Using poor and inappropriate measures: Use of distinct methods in

media research can yield different results. Thus, it becomes important
that researchers use the correct and more valid measures in their study. A
way to reduce this issue from occurring is to use multiple methods,
diverse sources of information and different research paradigms.

2.5 SUMMARY
Let us review what we have learnt in this unit.

 Media psychology deals with the interaction between human beings with
media and media technology. It is concerned with the content of the
media, the technology-human interface, and its impact.

 The role of media psychologists is manifold, which includes research,

development of ethical standards, consultancy to media producers,
educating people regarding the impact of media, integrating media in other
fields like counselling, education etc.

 Researches in media psychology deal with complex issues of

measurement, operational definitions of variables, plausible explanations
and interpretations of occurrences, replication of studies etc. This owes to
the complexity and density of factors that impact media and human
behaviour interaction.

 Research in media psychology can be quantitative and qualitative. The

research methods used are experimentation, survey, observation, media
text analysis, interview and focus group discussion.

 Ethical considerations of diversity and inclusion in sample, confidentiality

and privacy, reporting of findings is paramount while conducting research.

2.6 KEYWORDS
Discourse Analysis A qualitative approach to the study and analysis of the
uses of language (spoken or written)

56
Focus Group Discussion A qualitative data collection method to obtain Media and
Psychology
collective views on a certain topic from people who have certain experiences
in that topic

Informed Consent Prior consent from the participants regarding their

willingness to provide data and information

Media Psychology A sub-discipline in psychology, media psychology uses

the theories, conceptual frameworks and research methods of psychology to
examine the impact of mass media on individuals, groups, societies and
cultures

Media Text Analysis Analysis of media content either audio/visual; textual/

written material that can be analysed in a predetermined way or in an
emergent manner

Survey A form of research when information is collected from a pre-

determined group on a particular topic of research

2.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) How do you define media psychology?
2) Social media has led to mass movements. Justify your answer.
3) List any 5 roles of media psychologists in contemporary times.
4) What makes research in media psychology a challenging enterprise?
5) What are the ethical considerations while doing research in media
psychology?
6) How can content analysis be used as a research method in media
psychology?
7) Why are experiments an integral method of media psychology?

2.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson,
J., Linz, D., Malamuth, N., &Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of
mediaviolence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 81–
110.

Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on

aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological
arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific
literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353–359.

Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J.,
Sakamoto, A., Rothstein, H. R., & Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game
effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and
Western countries. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 151–173. 57
An Introduction to Bailey, K., 1994, Methods of Social Research, Fourth Edition, New York:
Psychology and
Media The Free Press.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated

aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66(1),
3-11. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048687

Dill, K.E. (2014).The Oxford Handbook of Media Psychology (Ed.). Oxford

University Press: New York

Giles, D. (2003). Media Psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum: New Jersey

Gonzalez, G. (2018). False information led to mob lynching in India: US

expert. Business Standard dated September 12, 2018. Retrieved from
https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/false-information-led-to-
mob-lynching-in-india-us-expert-118091201478_1.html

Rutledge, P. (2010). What is media psychology? And why you should care?
Media Psychology Research Centre. Retrieved from
http://mprcenter.org/what-we-do/what-is-media-psychology/

Luskin, B.J. (2012). Defining and describing media psychology. Psychology

Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-
media-psychology-effect/201211/defining-and-describing-media-psychology

Luskin, B. J. & Friedland., L. (1998). Division 46 Taskforce Study of New

Career Opportunities in the Emerging Field of Media Psychology (46, Trans.)
(1 ed., Vol. 1). Los Angeles: American Psychological Association

Prot, S. & Anderson, C.A. (2013). Research Methods, design and statistics in
Media Psychology. In K.E. Dill (Ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Media
Psychology. Oxford University Press: New York

Williams, D., &Skoric, M. (2005). Internet fantasy violence: A test of

aggression in an online game. Communication Monographs, 72, 217–233.

2.9 ADDITIONAL ONLINE RESOURCES

 American Psychological Association: Society for Media Psychology and
technology (Division 46) Society for Media Psychology and Technology
(Division 46) (apadivisions.org)
 Media Psychology https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLGgZ9YKp4M
 MediaPsychologist Rutledge lecture https: //www. youtube. Com /watch
? v=GVEK2mIk9EM

Answers to Check Your Progress 1

True and False

1) False
58
2) False, anything that is a medium of communication (like telephone) is Media and
Psychology
media, however mass media deals with communications that reach large
number of people at the same time.
3) True
4) False (Arab spring)
5) False, Media psychology is a relatively new field
6) False, Media psychology is a part Division 46 of American
Psychological Association.
7) False, Media psychologists are equally interested in application-based
research
8) False
9) False, Correlation does not imply causation.
10) False

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An Introduction to
Psychology and
Media

60