Program : B.

E
Subject Name: Geo Technical Engineering
Subject Code: CE-8002
Semester: 8th
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UNIT II
Deep Foundation
Pile foundation, Types of piles, estimation of individual and group capacity of piles in
cohesion less and cohesive soils. Static and dynamic formulae. Pile load test, Settlement of
pile group, Negative skin friction, under- reamed piles and their design. Piles under tension,
inclined and lateral load Caissons. Well foundation. Equilibrium of wells. Analysis for stability
tilts and shifts, remedial measures.

PILE FOUNDATIONS
Pile foundation is required when the soil bearing capacity is not sufficient for the structure to
withstand. This is due to the soil condition or the order of bottom layers, type of loads on
foundations, conditions at site and operational conditions.
Many factors prevent the selection of surface foundation as a suitable foundation such as the
nature of soil and intensity of loads, we use the piles when the soil have low bearing capacity
or in building in water like bridges and dams
A pile foundation consists of two components: Pile cap and single or group of piles. Piles
transfer the loads from structures to the hard strata, rocks or soil with high bearing capacity.
These are long and slender members whose length can be more than 15m.
Piles can be made from concrete, wood or steel depending on the requirements. These piles
are then driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps. Pile foundations
are classified based on material of pile construction, type of soil, and load transmitting
characteristic of piles.
The use of pile foundations as load carrying and load transferring systems has been for many
years. Timber piles were used in early days, driven in to the ground by hand or holes were
dug and filled with sand and stones. The use of steel pile started since 19th century and
concrete piles since 20th century.
With the change in technology and industrial revolution, many advance systems have been
developed for pile driving from the invention of steam and diesel pile driving machines.
The use of pile foundations is increasing day by day due to non-availability of land for
construction. Heavy multi-storied building are being constructed, and load from these
structures cannot be directly transferred to ground due to low bearing capacity issue and
stability issues of building during lateral load application. So, demand for use of pile
foundations are increasing day by day. Due to this demand for piles, there have been many
improvements in piles and pile driving technology and systems. Today there are many
advanced techniques of pile installation.

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Figure 01: Pile Foundation

Function of Pile Foundation:

As other types of foundations, the purpose of pile foundations is:
o To transmit the buildings loads to the foundations and the ground soil layers whether
these loads vertical or inclined.
o To install loose cohesion less soil through displacement and vibration.
o To control the settlements; which can be accompanied by surface foundations.
o To increase the factor of safety for heavy loads buildings.
The selection of type of pile foundation is based on site investigation report. Site
investigation report suggests the need of pile foundation, type of pile foundation to be used,
and depth of pile foundation to be provided. The cost analysis of various options for use of
pile foundation should be carried out before selection of pile foundation types.
Unless the ground condition is rocks, for heavy construction and multi-storied buildings, the
bearing capacity of soil at shallow depth may not be satisfactory for the loads on the
foundation. In such cases, pile foundation has to be provided. The number of piles in a pile
groups required is calculate from the pile capacity of single pile and the loads on the
foundation. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water, such as jetties
or bridge piers.
There are two types of pile foundations, each of which works in its own way.
End Bearing Piles
In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong soil or
rock. The load of the building is transferred through the pile onto the strong layer. In a sense,
this pile acts like a column. The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the surface
which is the intersection of a weak and strong layer. The load therefore bypasses the weak
layer and is safely transferred to the strong layer.
Friction Piles
Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to the
soil across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of the pile,
which is cylindrical in shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil.
To visualize how this works, imagine you are pushing a solid metal rod of say 4mm diameter

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into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you have pushed it in, it is strong enough to support
some load. The greater the embedment depth in the ice cream, the more load it can support.
This is very similar to how a friction pile works. In a friction pile, the amount of load a pile can
support is directly proportionate to its length.

Figure 02:End Bearing and friction piles.

MATERIALS USED IN MAKING OF PILES:
Piles can be made of wood, concrete, or steel. In traditional construction, wooden piles were
used to support buildings in areas with weak soil. Wood piles are still used to make jetties.
For this one needs trees with exceptionally straight trunks. The pile length is limited to the
length of a single tree, about 20m, since one cannot join together two tree trunks. The entire
city of Venice in Italy is famous for being built on wooden piles over the sea water.

Figure 03: Cross sections of various pile foundations

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Concrete piles are precast, that is, made at ground level, and then driven into the ground by
hammering - more on that later. Steel H-piles can also be driven into the ground. These can
take very heavy loads, and save time during construction, as the pile casting process is
eliminated. No protective coating is given to the steel, as during driving, this would be
scraped away by the soil. In areas with corrosive soil, concrete piles should be used.

As pile foundations carry a lot of load, they must be designed very carefully. A good engineer
will study the soil the piles are placed in to ensure that the soil is not overloaded beyond its
bearing capacity. Every pile has a zone of influence on the soil around it. Care must be taken
to space the piles far enough apart so that loads are distributed evenly over the entire bulb of
soil that carries them, and not concentrated into a few areas.

Figure 04: The load pattern of the piles on the soil surrounding them. (Zone of influence)
Engineers will usually group a few piles together, and top them with a pile cap. A pile cap is a
very thick cap of concrete that extends over a small group of piles, and serves as a base on
which a column can be constructed. The load of this column is then distributed to all the piles
in the group. Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is
influenced by the spacing between the piles.
Piles are driven generally in groups in regular pattern to support the structural loads. The
structural load is applied to the pile cap that distributes the load to individual piles. If piles
are spaced sufficient distance apart, then the capacity of pile group is the sum of the
individual capacities of piles. However, if the spacing between piles is too close, the zones of
stress around the pile will overlap and the ultimate load of the group is less than the sum of
the individual pile capacities specially in the case of friction piles, where the efficiency of pile
group is much less.
Group action of piles is evaluated by considering the piles to fail as a unit around the
perimeter of the group. Both end bearing and friction piles are considered in evaluating the
group capacity. End bearing pile is evaluated by considering the area enclosed by the
perimeter of piles as the area of footing located at a depth corresponding to the elevation of

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pile tips. The friction component of pile support is evaluated by considering the friction that
can be mobilized around the perimeter of the pile group over the length of the piles as shown
in figure below:

Figure 05: Pile Group capacity

Pile group capacity, Q = q0 X B2 + 4 X B X L X f (Square)
Where, Q = ultimate capacity of pile group
q0 = ultimate bearing pressure of footing of area B2 (B = size of pile group)
L = Length of pile
f = shear resistance
Efficiency of Pile Group:
The efficiency of pile group depends on the following factors:
1. Spacing of piles
2. Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and
3. Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)
The reduction in total bearing value of group of piles is more in case of friction piles,
particularly in clayey soils. No reduction in grouping occurs in end bearing piles. The pile
groups which are resisting the load by combined action of friction and end bearing, only the
load carrying capacity of friction is reduced. The efficiency of the pile group can be
calculated by using the following formula:

Thus, the pile group efficiency is equal to the ratio of the average load per pile in the group at
which the failure occurs to the ultimate load of a comparable single pile.
Efficiency of a pile group can also be obtained by using Converse – Lebarre formula:

Where m = number of rows

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n = number of piles in a row

in degrees
d = diameter of pile end
s = spacing of piles.
Generally center to center spacing between piles in a group is kept between 2.5 d and 3.5d
where d is the diameter of the pile.
1. Determination of the ultimate load bearing capacity of the group Q u(g)
2. Deter i atio of settle e t of the group s g
It is well known that the ultimate load of the group is generally different from the sum of the
ultimate loads of individual piles Qu(s).
Ef = Qu (g)/nQu(s) ×100% ——— (1)
Where, Ef = Group efficiency ratio
Qu(g) = Ultimate bearing capacity of the pile group
Qu(s) = Ultimate bearing capacity of single pile
The group efficiency depends on the type of soil, method of installation, spacing, load per pile
and numbers of pile in the group.
There is o a epta le effi ie for ula • for group bearing capacity. There are few
formulas such as FLED rule, Converse Labare Formula that are sometimes used by engineers.
These formulas are empirical and give efficiency less than unity. But when piles are installed
in sands efficiency factor can be greater than unity as shown by Vesic. There is not much
experimental evidence to determine the group efficiency for piles embedded in clay soils.
There are many pile group efficiency equations. These equations are to be used cautiously. In
many cases, they are no better than a good guess. The Converse Labare Formula is one of the
most widely used formulae and is expressed as:
Eg = 1 – θ[{(n – 1)m + (m – 1)n}/90mn] ———- (2)
Where, m = number of rows in a group
n = number of piles in a rows
θ = tan-1(d/s)
d = diameter of the piles
s = spacing of the piles
As per Tomlinson, when spacing of piles in a group is twice the pile diameter, the efficiency is
about 0.7. When it is increased to 8 diameters, the efficiency reaches to unity. Thus we can
write,
Qu (g) = η [nQu(s)] ———- (3)
Where, η is the efficiency of the group and n is the number of piles in the group.
Following are general methods available to establish load capacity:
1. Static Analysis
2. Dynamic Analysis
3. Load Testing
4. Correlation with field tests (SPT, CPT etc.)
Dynamic formulae are used for driven piles. Static formulae are used both for bored and
driven piles. Load testing is the most reliable method to determine the load capacity of the

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pile in the field.

They should be performed on all piling projects. However, they are considerably more
expensive than the other methods used to determine pile capacity, and economic
considerations sometimes preclude their use on projects.
Field tests like SPT, CPT are also used to correlate to load carrying capacity particularly for
cohesion less soils.
Driven Piles:
Dynamic Pile Formulas:
Piles are usually forced into the ground by a pile driver or pile hammer. In medieval times
piles were driven by men manually swinging hammer, which consists of a weight raised by
ropes or cables and allowed to drop freely striking the top of the pile. After the drop hammer
came the single acting hammer, double acting hammer, differential acting hammer, diesel
pile hammer, and vibratory driver. Dynamic pile formulas are widely used to determine the
static capacity of the driven pile. These formulas are derived starting with the relation.
Energy Input = Energy Used + Energy Lost
The Energy used equals the driving resistance (Pu) x the pile movement (s). Energy lost is due
to friction, heat, hammer rebound, vibration and elastic compression of the pile, the pacing
assembly, and the soil.
Energy News Record (ENR) Formula:
This formula takes into account the energy lost due to temporary compression (C) resulting
from elastic compression of the piles. Thus,
Energy Input = Energy Used + Energy Lost
Wr x h = Pu x s + Pu x C
Pu = Wr h / (s + C)
Where Wr = weight of the ram, h = height of fall of the ram, s = penetration of pile per
hammer blow, Pu = average resistance of soil to penetration.
C = 25mm (1 inch) for drop hammer, and
C = 2.5 mm (0.1 inch) for steam hammer (single acting/double acting)
Pa = Pu/SF Where Pa = allowable load on pile and SF = Factor of safety = 6
For single/double acting hammer, the term (Wr x h) can be replaced by ɳhE where ɳh =
hammer efficiency (see accompanying table) and E = rated energy of hammer.

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Figure 06: Pile driving

Piles are first cast at ground level and then hammered or driven into the ground using a pile
driver. This is a machine that holds the pile perfectly vertical, and then hammers it into the
ground blow by blow. Each blow is is struck by lifting a heavy weight and dropping it on the
top of the pile - the pile is temporarily covered with a steel cap to prevent it from
disintegrating. The pile driver thus performs two functions - first, it acts as a crane, and lifts
the pile from a horizontal position on the ground and rotates it into the correct vertical
position, and second, it hammers the pile down into the ground. Piles should be hammered
into the ground till refusal, at which point they cannot be driven any further into the soil.
Special Piles
Pile driving is very noisy and causes massive vibrations through the soil. For this reason, it is
sometimes difficult to use them in sensitive locations. For example, if an operational hospital
or science lab is to be extended, driving piles would cause unwanted disturbance. Their use is
also restricted in residential areas in many countries. The vibrations could also cause
structural damage to older buildings that are close by. In such situations it is possible to use
micro pilingorhelical piling, neither of which rely on hammering.
Micro piles or minipiles are small piles that are constructed in the following way:
Step 1: a hole a little larger than the pile diameter and the full length of the pile is dug into
the ground using an apparatus like a soil boring machine.
Step 2: a precast concrete pile is lowered or pushed into the hole.
Step 3: a concrete grout is poured into the gap between the pile and the earth.

Helical piles are steel tubes that have helical (spiral) blades attached to them. These can be

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drilled into the ground, meaning that the pile acts as a giant drill bit, and is rotated and
pushed into the ground from above, much like a screw drills into wood. Once the steel pile is
driven into the ground, a pile cap is poured on top of the pile to prepare it for the
construction above.

Load tests on piles

Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles. Two types of
tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz. vertical, horizontal (lateral)
pull out, are performed on piles.

Initial Tests on piles:

This test is performed to confirm the design load calculations and to provide guidelines for
setting up the limits of acceptance for routine tests. It also gives an idea of the suitability of
the piling system. Initial Test on piles are to be carried out at one or more locations
depending on the number of piles required.

Load applied for the initial (cyclic) load test is 2.5 times the safe carrying capacity of the pile.
Loadi g for I itial Tests is o du ted as per Appe di A Clause 6.3of I“-2911 Part IV.

Routine Tests on piles:

Selection of piles for the Routine Test is done based on number of piles required subject to
maximum of ½% of total number of piles required. The number of tests may be increased to
2% depending on the nature / type of structure. The test load applied is 1½ times the safe
carrying capacity of the pile. The Maintained load method as described in Clause 6.2 of IS-
2911 (Part IV) – 1985 shall be followed for loading for the Routine Tests.

This test will be performed for the following purposes:

a) To ensure the safe load capacity of piles
b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial Test.

The tests shall be performed at the cut-off level only. A detailed report for the test result is
prepared.
Vertical Load Tests on Piles
This test will be carried out as stipulated in IS-2911 (Part IV) 1995.

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Figure 07:Vertical load test on piles

Pile Head – The pile head shall be chipped off till sound concrete is met wherever applicable.
The reinforcement shall be cut and head levelled with Plaster of Paris. A bearing plate with a
hole shall be placed on the head for the jack to rest.
Reaction- Kentledge shall be suitably designed to get the desired reaction on the piles.
Anchor piles (if required) shall be placed at a center to center distance of 3 times the pile
diameter subject to a minimum distance of 2 M.
Settlement- 2 dial gauges for a single pile and 4 dial gauges for a group of piles with 0.01 mm
sensitivity shall be used. They shall be positioned at equal distance around the piles on datum
bars resting on immovable supports at a distance of 3D (min. of 1.5 m) where D is the
diameter of pile or circumscribing circle for non-circular piles.
Application of load- It shall be applied as specified depending on the type of test (routine /
initial). Each load shall be maintained till the rate of displacement of the pile top is either 0.1
mm in the first 30 minutes or 0.2 mm in the first one hour or 2 hours whichever occurs first.
The next increment in the load shall be applied on achieving the aforesaid criterion.
The test load shall be maintained for 24 hours.
Initial Tests– The safe load on a single pile shall be the least of the following:
(i) 2/3rd of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 12 mm unless
otherwise required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of structure in which case,
the safe load should be corresponding to the stated total displacement permissible.
(ii) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement equals 10% of the pile diameter in
case of uniform diameter piles or 7.5% of the bulb diameter in case of under reamed piles.
Routine Tests – Acceptance
The maximum settlement at test load should not exceed 12 mm.
Lateral Load Tests on Piles:

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Figure 08: Horizontal load test on piles

The jack should be placed horizontally, between two piles. The load on the jack shall be the
same on both the piles. The load will be applied in increments of 20% of the estimated safe
load and at the cut off level. The load will be increased after the rate of displacement is
nearer to 0.1 mm per 30 minutes. If the cut-off level is approachable, one dial gauge exactly
at the cut-off level shall measure the displacement. In case the cut-off level is not
approachable, 2 dial gauges 30 cm apart vertically, shall be set up and the lateral
displacement of the cut-off level calculated by similar triangles.
The safe load on the pile shall be the least of the following:
a) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement increases to 12 mm.
b) Final load at which the total displacement corresponds to 5 mm.
Pull out Tests on Piles:
A suitable set up shall be designed to provide an uplift force to the piles. The load increments
and the consequent displacements shall be as per the case of a vertical load test.

Figure 09: Pull-out test on piles

The safe load shall be the least of the following:
a) 2/3rd of the load at which the total displacement is 12 mm or the load corresponding to a
specified permissible lift.
b) Half of the load at which the load displacement curve shows a clear break.
Static Load Test Methods
Static load tests were performed during the test phase of each contract to verify the design
assumptions and load-carrying capacity of the piles. Telltale rods installed at various depths
within the piles were used to evaluate the load transfer behavior of the piles with regard to

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the surrounding soil and bearing stratum. Static loads were applied and maintained using a
hydraulic jack and were measured with a load cell. A typical load test arrangement is shown
in figure 21. Reaction to the jack load is provided by a steel frame that is attached to an array
of steel H-piles located at least 3 m away from the test pile. Pile head deflections were
measured relative to a fixed reference beam using dial gauges. Telltale measurements were
made in reference to the pile head or the reference beam using dial gauges. Pile head and
telltale deflection data were recorded for each loading increment.

Figure 10: Typical static load test arrangementshowing instrumentation.

The loading procedures for short-duration load test are given below:
a. Apply 25 percent of the allowable design load every one-half hour up to the greater of
the following: [two alternatives are described; the most general is 200 percent of the
design load]. Longer time increments may be used, but each time increment should be
the same. At 100 percent of the design load, unload to zero and hold for one-half
hour; then reload to 100 percent and continue 25 percent incremental loads. At 150
percent, unload to zero and hold for one-half hour; then reload to 150 percent and
continue 25 percent incremental loads. In no case shall the load be changed if the rate
of settlement is not decreasing with time.
b. At the maximum applied load, maintain the load for a minimum of one hour and until
the settlement (measured at the lowest point of the pile at which measurements are
made) over a one-hour period is not greater than 0.254 mm (0.01 inch).
c. Remove 25 percent of the load every 15 minutes until zero loads is reached. Longer
time increments may be used, but each shall be the same.
d. Measure rebound at zero loads for a minimum of one hour.
e. After 200 percent of the load has been applied and removed, and the test has shown
that the pile has additional capacity, i.e., it has not reached ultimate capacity,
continue testing as follows. Reload the test pile to the 200 percent design load level in
increments of 50 percent of the allowable design load, allowing 20 minutes between
increments. Then increase the load in increments of 10 percent until either the pile or
the frame reach their allowable structural capacity, or the pile can no longer support

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the added load. If failure at maximum load does not occur, hold load for one hour. At
maximum achieved load, remove the load in four equal decrements, allowing 15
minutes between decrements.
The capacity of the test piles was selected as the greater capacity defined by two failure
criteria. The first criteria establishes the allowable design capacity as "50 percent of the
applied test load which results in a net settlement of the top of the pile of up to 1.3 cm, after
rebound, for a minimum of one hour at zero load." The second criterion uses Davisson's
criteria as described below.
The Davisson offset limit load criterion was used on the project to define the ultimate
capacity, or failure, of the test piles.(52) The ultimate load is interpreted as the point at which
the displacement of the pile head meets a limit that is offset to the elastic compression line of
the pile. For piles less than 61 cm in diameter, the limit is defined by the following linear
relationship:
Sf = Se + (0.38 + 0.008D)
Where,
Sf= Movement of pile top (cm).
D = Pile diameter or width (cm).
Se = Elastic compression of total pile length (cm).
The elastic compression in this case refers to the pile deflection that would occur if 100
percent of the applied load was transferred to the toe of the pile (i.e., zero shaft friction), and
is given by the following equation:
Se = (QL)/(AE)
Where,
Q = Applied load.
L = Total length of pile.
A = Cross-sectional area of the pile.
E = Modulus of elasticity of the pile.
The average load in the pile at the midpoint between two telltale locations was estimated
from the elastic shortening of the pile using the following equation:
Qavg = [AE (D1 – D2 ]/ ΔL
Where,
A = Area of pile.
E = Modulus of elasticity of the pile.
D1 = Deflection at upper telltale location.
D2 = Deflection at lower telltale location.
L = Distance between the upper and lower telltale locations.
Both equations 2 and 3 require the modulus of elasticity of the pile. The specifications require
that the elastic modulus be determined via compression tests performed on representative
concrete samples.
NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION ON PILES AND PILE GROUP
When a fill or load is placed on compressible soil deposit, consolidation of the compressible
material takes place. When the piles are driven through compressible soils before
consolidation is complete or the site has newly placed fill or will be placed in future, the
compressible soil will downward relative to the pile. The downward movement of soil

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develops skin friction between the pile and the surrounding soil and it is termed as negative
skin friction. Negative skin friction can be developed from lowering on water level in
compressible soils such as clay, peat, mud and soft soil and also due to increase in stress by
some means (e.g. filling).

Figure 11: Negative skin Friction

The net ultimate load carrying capacity of the pile is given by the equation
Qu = Qu - Qnsf
Qnsf = negative skin friction
Qu = et ulti ate load
Where it is anticipated that negative skin friction would impose undesirable, large downward
drag on a pile, it can be eliminated by providing a protective sleeve or a coating for the
section which is surrounded by the settling soil.
To compute negative skin friction on group of piles, the minimum value from the following
equations should be used.
(i) The negative skin friction as the sum of individual piles
Qn = nFn
Where n – number of piles in a group
Fn– negative skin friction on each pile
Fn = S x p x L (for cohesive soils)
Fn = 0.5 L2 p K0 γ f for gra ular soils
(Where c – cohesion, – reduction factor)
Where p – perimeter of the pile
L – Depth of fill
K0 = (1 – “i φ = earth pressure oeffi ie t
= unit weight of fill
f – Coeffi ie t of fri tio = ta φ
φ = a gle of fri tio etwee pile a d soil
(ii) The block skin resistance:
When the piles are placed close to each other, the negative skin friction resistance may act
effectively on the block perimeter of the pile group.

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Qn = “ L p + γ L A
S – Shear resistance of soil
L – Depth of fill
p – Perimeter of pile group
– Unit weight of soil
A – Area of pile group enclosed in perimeter p.
Under Reamed Pile
Under reamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases of size as much as 6 m in
diameter. The form is that of an inverted cone and can only be formed in stable soils. In such
conditions they allow very high load bearing capacities.
The diameter of the pile stem (D) varies from 20 to 50 cm. The diameter of the under-ream
bulbs (Du) is normally 2.5 times the diameter of the pile stem. It may however, vary from 2 to
3 times (D) under special circumstances. In case of double or multi-under-reamed piles, the
center to center vertical spacing between two bulbs may vary from 1 ¼ to 1 ½ times the
under-reamed diameter (Du). The length of under-reamed piles varies from 3 to 8 meter and
their center to center spacing should normally be not less than 2 times the under-reamed
diameter.
Under reamed piles are the most safe and economical foundation in Black cotton soil. Under
reamed piles are bored cast in situ concrete piles having bulb shaped enlargement near base.
A Pile having one bulb is called single under reamed pile. In its closed position, the under
reamer fits inside the straight section of a pile shaft, and can be expanded at the base of the
pile to produce the enlarged base.

The cost advantages of under-reamed piles are due to the reduced pile shaft diameter,
resulting in less concrete needed to replace the excavated material.

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Figure 12: Under reamed piles with two under reams.

Well Foundation
Well foundations have their origin in India & have been used for hundreds of years for
providing deep foundation to important buildings and bridges. Well foundations were freely
used during the Moghal Period for bridges across the major rivers. Moghal monuments
including TajMahal are built on well foundations. Well foundations provide a solid & massive
structure. This foundation has maximum sectional modulus for a given cross-sectional area.
Wells can resist large horizontal forces & vertical loads even when the unsupported length is
large in scourable river beds. A well foundation is monolithic and relatively rigid in its
structural behavior.

Basic Elements of a Well Foundation

A well foundation is a type of foundation which is generally built in parts at the surface and
sunk to its final position, where it forms the permanent foundation. Figure 13 shows a typical
section of a circular well foundation.

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Figure 13: Section of Well Foundation

1. Well-cap
It is a RCC slab laid at the top of the well steining to transmit the loads and moments from the
pier to the well or wells below. Shape of well cap is same as that of well with a possible
overhand of 150 mm all-around to accommodate lengthy piers. It is designed as a two-way
slab with partial fixedity at supports. The top of the well cap is usually kept at the bed level in
case of rivers with seasonal flow or at about the low water level in case of perennial rivers.
Thickness of well cap is usually between 1500 mm to 2000 mm.
2. Steining
It is the main body of the well which transfers load to the base of the foundation. Steining is
normally of reinforced concrete. Minimum grade of concrete used in steining is M20 with
cement content not less than 310 kg/m 3. To facilitate well sinking an off-set of 75 mm to 100
mm is provided in well steining at its junction with the well curb. The thickness of well
steining should not be less than 500 mm nor less than that given below.
t = KD*(L1/2)
Where,
t = minimum thickness of concrete steining, m,
D = external diameter of circular well or dumb bell shaped well or smaller plan dimension of
twin D well, m,
L = depth of well in m below L.W.L. or top of well cap whichever is greater,
K = a constant depending on the nature of subsoil and steining material (taken as 0.30 for
circular well and 0.039 for twin – D well for concrete steining in sandy strata and 10% more
than the corresponding value in the case of clayey soil).
3. Well curb
It is the wedge shaped RCC ring beam located at the lower portion of the well steining
provided to facilitate sinking. Well curb carries cutting edge for the well and is made up of
reinforced concrete using controlled concrete of grade M25. The cutting edge usually consists

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of a mild steel equal angle of side 150 mm. In case blasting in anticipated, the outer face of
the well curb should be protected with 6 mm thick steel plate and the inner face should have
10 mm thick plate up to the top of the curb and 6 mm plate further up to a height of 3 m
above the top of the curb.
4. Bottom plug
After the well is sunk to the required depth, the base of the well is plugged with concrete.
This is called the bottom plug. It acts like an inverted dome supported by the steining on all
the sides and transmits the load to the subsoil and acts as a raft against soil pressure from
below. Minimum grade of concrete used in bottom plug is M15. Thickness of bottom plug
should not be less than the half of dredge-hole diameter nor less than the value calculated
using following formula.

Where,
W = total bearing pressure at the base of well,
fc = flexural strength of concrete in bottom plug, , and,
ϑ = Poisso s ratio for o rete, 0.18 to 0.20.
5. Top plug
The top plug is an unreinforced concrete plug, generally provided with a thickness of about
600 mm beneath the well cap to transmit the loads from the pier to the steining. Minimum
grade of concrete used in top plug is M15.
The space inside the well between the bottom of the top plug and the top of bottom plug is
usually filled with clean sand, so that the stability of the well against overturning is increased.
While this practice is good in case of wells resting on sand or rock, the desirability of sand
filling for wells resting on clayey strata is doubtful, as this increases the load on the
foundation and may lead to greater settlement. In the latter case, the sand filling is done only
for the part of well up to scour level, and remaining portion is left free.
6. Intermediate plug
As discussed above, for wells resting on clayey strata, it is not preferable to fill the space
inside the well completely with sand. In such cases, sand filling is not done or sand is filled up
to the scour level. A concrete plug covering the filling is usually provided, known as
intermediate plug. Usually, thickness of intermediate plug is taken as 500 mm.
Sinking of the Well
Laying of Curbs – In dry ground excavate up to 50 cm in river bed and place the cutting edge
at the required position. If the curb is to be laid under water and depth of water is greater
than 5 m, prepare Sand Island and lay the curb. If depth of water exceeds 5 m built curb in dry
ground and float it to the site. A typical sand island is shown in Figure 14 below.

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Figure 14: Typical Sand Island.

Construction of Well Steining – The steining should be built in short height of 1.5 m initially
and 3 m after a 6 m grip length is achieved. The verticality should be maintained. The aim of
the well sinking is to sink the well vertically and at the correct position. The following
precautions are to be taken as far as possible.
Precautions – The following precautions should be taken during well sinking.
 Outer surface should be regular and smooth.
 Radius of the curb should be 2 to 4 cm larger than the radius of the steining.
 Cutting edge should be of uniform thickness and sharpness.
 Dredging should be done uniformly on all sides.
Sinking Operation – The following operation is carried out while sinking the caisson.
 Excavate material under the inside of well curb mechanically or manually
 Allow the well to remain vertical.
 Up to a depth of 1 m, excavation underwater can be made manually. When the depth
of water exceeds 1 m excavate by Jhams or grabs.
 When well goes on sinking skin friction increases and weight of well decreased due to
buoyancy.
 When the well does not sink, sunk by applying kentledge. If this operation is not
sufficient jet outside the well or grease the outside. A typical loading on steining by
kentledge is shown in Figure 15.
 Go on adding sections of steining (2 to 5 m in length) up to the required founding
strata.

Figure 15: Loading Steining by kentledge.

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Problem of Sinking – Generally the following problems are encountered while sinking a well.
Tilt and Shift- Adopt the following measures if tilt exceeds 1/60. Dredge at the higher side.
Not effective at greater depths. This is shown in Figure 16 and 17 below.

Figure 16: Dredging the well. Figure 17: Dredging the well.
Make a hole on steining on higher side, hole is made near the ground level and excavation is
carried out by diving. If possible dewater and excavate on the higher side. This is shown in
Figure 18 below.
Construct eccentric welded framed bracket and load the platform thus made with 400 to 600
tons load. This is shown in Figure 18 below.

Figure 18: Eccentric loading.

Jett on the high side of well. Excavate under cutting edge by dewatering or by divers.
Insert wooden slippers or hooks under the cutting edge. This is shown in Figures 19 and

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20below.

Figure 19: Provision of wooden sleepers. Figure 20: Hooking the well.
Pull the well. This is shown in figure 21 below. Strut the well. This is shown in figure 22
below.

Figure 21: Pulling the well. Figure 22: Strutting the well.
Push the well. This is shown in figure 23 below.

Figure 21: Pushing the well.

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